© T. M. Whitmore

TODAY

•Questions from last time?

•Origins of Agriculture continuedAfricaAmericas

•Movement of agriculture and domesticates

© T. M. Whitmore

Africa (VI on the map)

• Agricultural origins: after 9000 BP (more likely 5000-6000

BP)regions & crops uncertain (Ethiopia &

Sahael), general diffusion west

© T. M. Whitmore

African Domesticates• Cereals: African rice, several millets,

sorghum, tef• Pulses: cowpea, groundnuts (similar to but

not peanuts)• Roots & tubers: African (true) yam• Oil crops: oil palm, castor bean• Fruits & nuts: baobab, watermelon, other

melons• Vegetables & spices: okra• Stimulants: coffee• Animals: Common ass & guinea fowl

History of Horticulture © 2002 Jules Janick, Purdue University

© T. M. Whitmore

The Americas•Mega-fauna become extinct around

9000 BP => increased use of wild plants later to become cultivated staples

•First domestications in the Americas about 10,000 BP

•Very different cultivation technology vs European/SW Asia traditionsNo animals or plowsDigging sticksIndividual planting vs Old World

broadcast sowing

© T. M. Whitmore

American Agricultural origin areas

•North America (minor)

•South Central Mexico and highland C America (Mesoamerica)

•South America

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North America•Roots & tubers: Jerusalem artichoke

•Oilcrops: Sunflower

•Fruits: strawberry, grape (concord types), cranberry, pecan

•Stimulant: tobacco

•Remarkably short list!

© T. M. Whitmore

Mesoamerica & South America

•Possible cross “fertilization” of domesticates between regionsBut some particular to one or the

other

•Long and important list

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Major American plant domesticates I

• Maize (Zea mays)• Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) (SA)• Sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas)• Manioc (yuca, cassava) (Manihot esculenta

and M. Dulcis) (SA)• Beans (Phaseolus spp.) (lima, pinto, kidney,

etc.)• Squashes (Cucurbita spp) Summer squashes

(zucchini, pattypan and yellow crookneck); Winter squashes (butternut, Hubbard, buttercup, acorn, spaghetti squash/vegetable spaghetti and pumpkin)

• Chilies (Capsicum spp.) “peppers”• Avocado (Persea americana)• Tomato (Solanum lycopersicon)

© T. M. Whitmore

Major Amerindian plant domesticates II

•Pineapple (Ananas comosus) and hundreds of other fruits

•Chocolate (Theobroma cacao) (literally food of the gods)

•Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia)

•Cotton (Gossypium spp.) – all major industrial cottons from New World

•Peanuts (Arachis hypogaea)

•And hundreds more

© T. M. Whitmore

Potato (Solanum tuberosum)• A perennial plant of the Solanaceae, or

nightshade, family• Originated in Peru:

Peruvians cultivate around 200 different kinds of potatoes.

• Domesticated at least by 4000 bp but likely far earlier in Peru

• Fourth largest yielding crop plant, behind wheat, rice, and maize (most important non-grain)

• Five billion pounds of potatoes are made into fries every year!

• Grows in a wide variety of eco-zones • Tolerates high altitudes, poor and even acidic

soils, short growing seasons• Only wheat is more important in temperate zone

ag

© T. M. Whitmore

Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas)

• Often we call these tubers “yams” but they are NOT true yams

• Domestication in Peru about 8-10,000 BP• Propagated by stem or root cuttings• 3-4 x the yield of rice or other grains per ha• Drought and poor soil resistant• 98% of world sweet potato production

occurred in developing countriesChina alone made up 84% of the harvest

• North Carolina is largest producer of sweet potatoes in the US.

• Up to 20 tons per acre• Sweet potatoes are rich in dietary fiber,

vitamin A, vitamin C, and vitamin B6

© T. M. Whitmore

Manioc/cassava (Manihot esculenta and M. Dulcis)

• Domestication in NE SA about 4-5000 BP• Perennial woody shrub requires little or no

fertilization yet will maintain a steady production• Status of a cultigen with no wild forms• Roots can be stored in the ground for 24 + months• Drought resistant (and can tolerate wet locations)• Tolerates acid (i.e., poor) soils better than most

any other food plant• Very pest resistant (due to alkaloids) • It is the principal source of nutrition for about 500

million people• 3rd most important food in 3rd world• In the US mostly as tapioca (but rise of Hispanics

and Hispanic food culture => more available raw in groceries

© T. M. Whitmore

Major Amerindian Animal domesticates

• Turkey (Meleagris spp.)• Dog – food and companion (Canis lupus

familiaris)• Bee - only source of sweetness (Apoidea

spp)• Cochineal (Dactylopius coccus)• Llama (Lama pacos) • Alpaca (Lama Glama)• Guinea pig (Cavia porcellus) (cuy)

• Short list isn’t it!

© T. M. Whitmore

Movement of plants- pre-1500•Diffusion and deliberate introduction

– role for commerce, colonialism, & conquest

•Modifications in landscapes (and plants) to suit new locations

•Post antiquity to about 1500 ADAfter the fall of Rome; movement

slowedRole of the Arabs/Islamic empiresPost 200 AD (Han dynasty) China

imported wheat, barley, peas…

© T. M. Whitmore

Movement of plants post-1500• Movement greatly accelerated; beginnings

of “globalization” of agriculture

• Europe in 1500 (had crops only from SW Asia or SE Asia) – by 1800 had complete list

• Issues in movement: e.g., Potatoes

Hard to grow (day length sensitive) => breeding new varieties

Cultural bias (nightshade, Bible issues) Huge impacts (pop growth)

© T. M. Whitmore

Movement of plants III•Africa south of the Sahara (role of

slave trade)Maize in 1500s via Spain & Portugal

Out produces indigenous crops => became mainstay of many African diets

Manioc: likely as slave food

Peanuts: expanded in 19th C export schemes

Sweet potatoes

© T. M. Whitmore

Movement of plants IV• South & SE Asia and China

Few changes in basic food crops since 1500s (rice still dominates)

India: maize, chilies, tomatoes, peanuts, sweet potatoes (all by Portuguese in 1500s)

Coffee: 19th C introduction by Dutch (Java!)

Brazilian rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) Brazil => Kew gardens (UK) =>

Singapore => plantations in MalaysiaOil palm from Africa to SE Asia => huge

plantations

© T. M. Whitmore

The Columbian Exchange

• To Americas – Columbus attempts to move SW Asian (European) crop system (and some SE Asian crops) to Caribbean in 1493

Main grains fail (wheat, rye, oats, barley): too warm & damp => diseases

Summer rain patterns (inverse of Mediterranean)

Wheat only successful in highland Mexico after irrigation and winter growth (works well in temperate Argentina)

Citrus successful in Caribbean Bananas by 1516

© T. M. Whitmore

Columbian Exchange II• Special role for sugar and slave trade

Portuguese grew sugar in islands off W Africa – and used slaves (Columbus’ wife owned some and he knew all about it – he brought sugar to Hispaniola in 1493)

Cortes’ 1st Mexican estates were sugar plantations

Portuguese introduced sugar/slave system to Brazil after failure of other ventures in early 1500s

Spread to Caribbean by 1700s (great profit => other colonizers wanted to get in)

© T. M. Whitmore

Columbian Exchange III• Cotton:

Mexican cotton (Glossypium hirsutium) moved to USA south (basis of antebellum economy)

Glossypium barbadense (a Caribbean variety) introduced to “sea islands” of SE USA and on to Egypt (became “Egyptian cotton”)

• N America (maize, beans, squash pre-Columbian)Spanish: => citrus & other Med crops to FL &

CAEnglish colonies: S American tobacco for exportPotatoes introduced from England (!)Rice (and African expertise) to SE USA from

AfricaLate arrivals: durum & hard winter wheats from

Russia & later soy beans from China

© T. M. Whitmore

Movement of major animals I•Cattle (Bos spp)

Domesticated in SW Asia 7000-6000 BP

Independently domesticated or diffused to Mediterranean & N Africa then to Europe & W Africa earlyTexas longhorn and Spanish criollo

© T. M. Whitmore

Movement of major animals II•Development of short-horned

variants by 5000 BP (N Europe)Most modern US cattle from this

line•Zebu cattle (Bos indicus) from South

Asia “Brahma” Many US cattle varieties crosses

using Brama and European varieties (e.g., “Beefmaster”

•Water Buffalo (Bubalus spp.)

© T. M. Whitmore

Movement of major animals III•Sheep & goats

Domesticated earlier than cattle in C and SW Asia

Early diffused E and WMerino sheep (wool) developed in

NW Africa => Spain by Roman times (or by Moors)To Americas by 1600

English sheep (wool & meat)

© T. M. Whitmore

Movement of major animals IV•Pigs (Sus spp)

Independently domesticated in Europe, Russia, China (SE Asia?)

A forest animal => little penetration to dryer landsSpanish oak-fed hams

Food taboos preclude its acceptance in Muslim and Jewish areas

China has 9/10 of world's pigs

History of Horticulture © 2002 Jules Janick, Purdue University

Oca (S American potato-like tuber)

quinoa Yuca, cassava, manioc

Dried manioc for sale in a market in Cameroon© Brian Smithson

Nopal & tunas

maguey

amaranth chilies

Cacao treevanilla

Ancient Maya fresco depicting cocoa

Cacao pods

Cacao pods & beans

Beef master(Brahma bulls & Herford cows

History of Horticulture © 2002 Jules Janick, Purdue University