he countries of the Arab Gulf, including Yemen, offer no real opportunities to their citizens for political partici-pation. Instead, they enforce a sort of ‘social contract’: let

the monarchs have as much power as they want, and in return, they will provide for the peoples’ needs. Unfortunately, women are com-pletely left out of this equation. The coalition of forces responsible for this unspoken contract are conservative tribal elders, religious figures who espouse non-egalitarian interpretations of Islam, and ruling

monarchs. Representatives from civil so-ciety, marginalized sectors, and the inter-national community should work together to develop a new ‘civil and social con-tract,’ one that promotes democracy, good governance, and respect for the rights of women and minorities.

—Rahma Hugaira, July 9, 2007

“T

”

Redesigning the “Social Contract”: Toward Political Empowerment of Women

in the Arab Peninsula

Rahma HugairaReagan-Fascell Democracy Fellow

National Endowment for DemocracyJuly 9, 2007

Please note that the views expressed in this presentation represent the opinions and analysis of the Please note that the views expressed in this presentation represent the opinions and analysis of the speaker and do not necessarily reflect those of the National Endowment of Democracy.speaker and do not necessarily reflect those of the National Endowment of Democracy.

Overview

Introduction

Social and political background of Arabian peninsula

Historical development of women’s political participation

The “Social Contract” in the Arabian peninsula

Obstacles to women’s political participation

Recommendations

Introduction

Arabian peninsula: Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, the UAE and Yemen

All except Yemen joined to Gulf Corporate Council (GCC) on May 25, 1981

Population of Arab Gulf States: 33.5 million Population of Yemen: 21 million

Distinguishing Characteristics Geography: (isolation) surrounded by three seas Religion: the birthplace of Islam Economy: wealthy oil-dependent states, except Yemen Tribal culture: tribal loyalty is dominant Political System: monarchies, except Yemen Paternal Social System: services without taxation

Regimes In Power

States: Provide free public services for citizens Ban political parties Citizens can’t change their governments Judiciary is not independent

Monarchs: Have unlimited political power Can dissolve the elected parliaments Hold legislative and executive powers Limited wave of political reforms

Political Progress Has Been Recent

Country Date of Establishment or

Independence

First Constitution

First Election

Women’s Suffrage

Saudi Arabia Sept. 23, 1932 1992 2005 –

Qatar Sept. 3, 1971 1972 1999 1999

Kuwait June 19, 1961 1962-1963 1963 2005

Bahrain December 16, 1971 1973 2001 2002

UAE December 2, 1971 1971 2006 2006

Oman 1932 1996(The “Basic Law” was

promulgated)

2003 2003

Yemen 1962 (became a republic)

1993 in unified Yemen

1967

Source: Table composed of data from United Nation Development Programme

Political Participation of Women

Women Voters are IncreasingPercentage of Women Voters

18%

0%

22%

51%

38%

0%

42% 42% 42%

52%

45%

57%

13%12%

46%51% 52%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

Yemen

:Par

liam

ent

Yemen

: Pre

sident

ial

Yemen

: Munic

ipal

Saudi

Arabia

: Mun

icipal

UAE: Cons

ultativ

e

Bahra

in: P

arlia

men

tary

Bahra

in: M

unici

pal

Oman

: Parlia

men

tary

Qatar

: Mun

icipal

Kuwait:

Parlia

mentar

y

First Election

Most Recent Election

Women Candidates are Decreasing Percentage of Women Candidates for Public Office

14.3%

4.5%

0.0%

8.5%

11.2%

0.5%

1.3%

0.0% 0.0%

3.0%

10.1%

2.9%

0.7% 0.0%

0.8%2.5%

2.9%

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

14%

16%

First election

Most Recent Election

Stages of Women’s Participation in Public Life

Independent economy

Participationin

decision-making

Education •Kuwait: 31%•Bahrain: 21% •Yemen: 28% •Oman: 17%•Saudi: 16% •UAE: 15% •Qatar: 61%*

*women’s participation in governmental positions from 1991–97

Women in the Workforce in 2000:

Women’s Political Participation Today

State Cabinet Parliament Consultative Council

Municipal Councils

Saudi Arabia 0 - 0 0

Kuwait 2 0 - 2

Bahrain 2 1 10 1

Oman 4 - 2 + 8 in state council

0

Qatar 1 - - 1

United Arab Emirates

2 - - 9

Yemen 2 1 3 33 of 6000

Source: Data drawn from the United Nations Development Programme

Why is there a Lack of Development?

Low percentage of female representation Changes in democratic institutions are slow and

weak The spread of traditional loyalties People have become more religious

Coalition of Forces: The Social Contract in the Gulf States Linked to each other as a coalition of forces Created tribal and religious autocrats They share common characteristics:

Promote patriarchy Fanaticism of sect and tribe Promote the same stereotyping of

women (housekeeper) Men hold all the important, influential

positions Wahabism

Implementing Wahabism’s directives by force

Representing Islam as a religion of blind worship, rather than a religion of humanitarian principles

Religion

CultureRegime

Obstacle I:The Absence of Good Governance

The “social contract” of ruling families in the Gulf: The contract is between tribal men and ruling family Imposed as strict political order for life Represents tribal, sect, & familial interests first Encourages religious fanaticism and uses tribes to keep

societies closed Makes political loyalty a religious obligation Controls the media Absence of fair contract that protects all rights The ‘rule of law’ is suppressed by the ‘rule of the ruler’

Regime

The “social contract” of the citizens: Fanatic loyalty to religion and tribe, more than to the

rule of law Commitment to autocrats more than to institutions The followers of other sects and weak tribes are

marginalized This paves the way for Islamic groups to build up

support Yet, there is a growing desire to implement reforms

domestically

Obstacle I: The Absence of Good Governance

Regime

Obstacle II: Prevalence of Unfair and Non-egalitarian

Interpretations of Islam All the religious scholars and speakers are

men Examples of stereotyping of women:

“Woman have inferior minds and religiosity”

“No successful nation lets a woman rule” “Women are shameful”

Religion

According to Saudi law women are prohibited from: Working in some fields, for example: engineering Driving a car Traveling alone, unless she has a mahram (relative)

with her or a letter from a mahram Being alone: she must stay with a man; can be her

husband Being compromised: she cannot stay with men who

are not mahrems Being indecent: she must cover her face and hair Using internet cafes

Religion

Obstacle II: Women under Wahabi Dominance

Propagating discrimination of women around the world

Culture

Obstacle III: Tribal Culture & Male-dominance

Tribal culture promotes male interests: All tribal leaders are men Monarchies boost the role of tribes Paternal grip of men in families Almost all lawmakers are men Most decision-making meetings are held

during exclusively male sessions (i.e., dewanias in Kuwait )

School curriculums: promote the stereotyping of women

Media: promotes negative role of women

Culture

Promotes negative attitudes toward women Legitimizes violence against women Societies, including women themselves, look down

on women Women are seen as a cause for corruption of

morals Women are easy to undermine through slander or

the spreading of rumors Women are believed to be unqualified to lead

Obstacle III: Culture Stereotyping Women

Redesigning the “Social Contract”:

Toward Political Empowerment of Women in the Arab Gulf

CultureUnfair

Interpretations

AutocratsWomen

Liberals

International Community

• Work on grassroots• Carry out political and social reforms • Enforce the rule of law • Link feminists with liberals and

marginalized sectors • Unite the agenda • Increase pressure on rulers

Break through this coalition:

Recommendations in the Field of Religion:

Women Should be Muftias

Monitor speeches made in mosques concerning women’s rights

Set up dialogues for scholars on women’s role in society

Run long-term awareness programs for scholars on the role of women

Create lobbying groups of women and men to counteract extreme fatwas

Support and publicize scholars’ moderate fatwas on women’s issues

Religion

Actions for Civil Society and the International Community:

Religion

Officially enable women to be a part of interpretation (ijtehad)

Issue official fatwas that reflect the significance of women’s participation

Develop the role of official media in promoting women’s rights

Recommendations in the Field of Religion:Minimize the Spread of Religious Educational Institutions Against

Human Rights

Actions for Arab Governments:

Culture

Actions for Civil Society and the International Community:

Set up long-term awareness programs through mosques & media concerning the importance of women in society

Produce media materials that tell the stories of successful women

Move NGO activities from hotels and conference rooms to the field, where women live

Adopt plans to decrease violence against women

Recommendations for Culture:Move Activities from Hotels to the Field

Culture

Include women’s rights and gender equality in educational curriculums

Reconstruct the social rules inside the family, based on new constructions of gender

Adopt programmatic mechanisms to enforce international agreements

Issue protective laws for women against violence, threats and harassment

Act seriously to minimize educational and cultural illiteracy among women

Recommendations for Culture:Remove Discriminatory Material from the Classroom

Actions for Governments:

Regime

Mobilize women in political parties to exert pressure to give women equal chances to be candidates

Give women a percentage of seats in decision-making institutions (quota system)

Set up new electoral procedures that ensure equal opportunities and financing for women candidates

Enable legislation and international actions to ensure women’s rights in economic and political sectors

Recommendations for Regimes: Reserve a Percentage of Seats for Women

Political Actions for Governments:

Political Action for Civil Society

Adopt programmatic mechanisms to enforce international agreements, instead of only working on awareness activities

Move NGO activities from hotels and conferences rooms to the field, where most women are located

Coordinate between interested institutions and NGOs to create a single, accumulative achievement, instead of wasting efforts

Put pressure on parties to give women equal opportunities to run for office

Redesigning the “Social Contract”:

Toward Political Empowerment of Women in the Arab Gulf

CultureUnfair

Interpretations

Regimes

Women

Liberals

International Community