生態學 (Ecology)

鄭先祐 (Ayo)靜宜大學 生態學系

2005

Ayo 台南站： http://mail.nutn.edu.tw/~hycheng/

Email add: Japalura@hotmail.com

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Manuel C. Molles Jr. (2005) Ecology: Concepts a

nd Applications. 3rd ed. McGraw Hill.

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About the Author Manuel C. Molles Jr. Professor of Biology at the university of New M

exico (since 1975) Ph.D. (Dept. Ecology and Evolutionary Biology

of the University of Arizona) He has taught and conducted ecological resea

rch in Latin American, the Caribbean, and Europe.

Originally trained as a marine ecologist and fisheries biologist.

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研究主題 His research has covered a wide range of

ecological levels, including behavioral ecology, population biology, community ecology, ecosystem ecology, biogeography of stream insects and the influence of a large-scale climate system (El Nino) on the dynamics of southwestern river and riparian ecosystems.

His current research concerns the effects of flooding and exotic vegetation on the structure and dynamics of the Rio Grande riparian ecosystems.

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教學、研究與服務 Dr. Molles has attempted to combine research,

teaching, and service, involving undergraduate as well as graduate students in his ongoing projects.

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Table of Contents Chapter 1 Introduction: What is Ecology?

Section I Natural History ( 自然史 ) Section II Individuals ( 個體 ) Section III Population Ecology ( 族群生態學 ) Section IV Interactions ( 互動 ) Section V Communities and Ecosystems ( 社群

與生態體系 ) Section VI Large-scale Ecology ( 大尺度生態學 )

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Section I Natural History ( 自然史 ) Chapter 2 Life on Land Chapter 3 Life in Water

Section II Individuals ( 個體 ) Chapter 4 Temperature Relations Chapter 5 Water Relations Chapter 6 Energy and Nutrient Relations Chapter 7 Social Relations

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Section III Population Ecology ( 族群生態學 ) Chapter 8 Population Genetics and Natural Selection Chapter 9 Population Distribution and Abundance Chapter 10 Population Dynamics Chapter 11 Population Growth Chapter 12 Life Histories

Section IV Interactions ( 互動 ) Chapter 13 Competition Chapter 14 Exploitation: Predation, Herbivory, Parasitism, an

d Disease Chapter 15 Mutualism

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Section V Communities and Ecosystems ( 社群與生態體系 ) Chapter 16 Species Abundance and Diversity Chapter 17 Species Interactions and Community Structure Chapter 18 Primary Production and Energy Flow Chapter 19 Nutrient Cycling and Retention Chapter 20 Succession and Stability

Section VI Large-scale Ecology ( 大尺度生態學 ) Chapter 21 Landscape Ecology Chapter 22 Geographic Ecology Chapter 23 Global Ecology

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Preface The accelerating pace of ecological

discovery makes staying current with the field very difficult.

However, with careful organization and modern tolls, such as the Internet, they come close.

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Unique Approach 1991, Paul Risser challenged ecology instructors to foc

us their attention on the major concepts of the field. If we subdivide a large and dynamic subject, such as e

cology, too finely, we cannot cover it in one or two academic terms.

This book attempts to address Risser’s challenge. Each chapter is organized around two or four major

concepts, presenting the student with a manageable and memorable synthesis of the subject.

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基本先修課程 Basic chemistry Mathematics General biology (physiology, biological

diversity, and evolution)

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Features designed with the student in mind Introduction Concepts Concept discussions Application & Tools Investigating the Evidence (Boxes) Illustrations Summary End-of-Chapter material

Review questions Suggested readings On the Net

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End-of-Book Materials: Appendixes

Abbreviations used in this text List of Chapter Concepts Statistical Tables

Glossary References

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Useful supplements Digital content Manger (DCM)CD-Rom: Instructor’s testing and Resource CD-Rom: Transparencies Online Learning Center (OLC)

http://www.mhhe.com/ecology Ecology essential study partner CD-Rom:

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Packaging opportunities Exploring Environmental science with GIS General Ecology Lab Manual, 8th edition Field and Lab methods for General Ecology, 4th

edition Conservation Biology workbook Annual Edition: Environment Taking slides: Clashing views on controversial

environmental issues Sources: Notable selections in environmental

studies, 2nd edition. Student Atlas of Environmental Issues You can make a difference: be environmentally

responsible.

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Chap. 1 Introduction: What is Ecology? Overview of Ecology

The Ecology of Forest birds: using field studies to test theory

The Ecology bumblebees: contribution of field and laboratory studies

Forest nutrient budgets: inventories and large-scale experiments

Vegetation changes: information from pollen records and modeling

The Nature and scope of Ecology On the Net

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Overview of Ecology Ecology: Study of relationships between

organisms and the environment. Simple definition does not convey the extreme

breadth of this discipline. Ecosystem: Includes all organisms living in

an area, and the physical environment with which these organisms interact. Biosphere: Highest level of ecological

organization.

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What is Ecology? Ecology 的字首是來自希臘的 oikos ，意指“ h

ouse” ，也就是我們周遭的環境。 1870 年德國動物學者 Ernst Haeckel 的定義：

the study of the natural environment and of the relations of organisms to one another and to their surroundings.

Ecology is the science by which we study how organisms interact in and with the natural world.

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This text, The Economy of Nature, presents the basic principles of the scientific discipline of ecology.

These principles have been defined through more than a century of observation, experimentation, and theoretical exploration of natural systems.

Ecological principles offer guidelines for the preservation of biodiversity and management of the environment for sustained use.

Robert E. Ricklefs and Gary L. Miller (2000) Ecology. 4th ed.

W. H. Freeman and Company.

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生態學是整合性的科學 生態經濟學、復原生態學 (+ 工程學 ) 、保育生

態學 (+ 野生動物的經營管理 ) 、生物多樣性的研究 (+ 分類學 ) 、生態毒理學 (+ 化學 ) 、地景( 景觀 ) 生態學 (+ 地理學 ) 、溼地生態學 (+ 水文學 ) 、農業生態學、環境倫理學 (+ 哲學 ) 。

生態學是一門整合科學，它有強大潛力作為科學與社會之間的橋樑。

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Ecology is an interdisciplinary science.

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Four broad areas

Behavioral ecology ( 行為生態學 ) Population ecology ( 族群生態學 ) Community ecology ( 群區生態學 ) Ecosystems ecology ( 生態體系生態學 )

Ecology is to environmental Science as physics is to engineering.

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Galaxies

Solar system

Earth

Ecosystems

Communities

Populations

Organisms

Organs

Tissues

Cells

Molecules

Atoms

Scale

Ecosystem

ecology

Community ecology

Population ecologyBehavioral ecologyCELL

BIOLOGY

ECOLOGY

PHYSIOLOGY

BIOCHEMISTRY

Fig.1.3 The organizational levels of ecology

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生命世界的組成架構生命世界的組成架構Emergent 特質(transcending processes)

簡單 複雜

分 胞 細 組 器 系 個 族 群 生 生物 子 器 胞 織 官 統 體 群 落 態系 界

生態學生理學

行為學

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Ecology of Forest Birds MacArthur studied ecology of five

species of warblers in spruce forests in N.A. Theory predicted two species with

identical ecological requirements could not coexist indefinitely.

Studies found warblers coexisted by feeding in different zones of the same tree.

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Warbler Feeding Zones

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Ecology of BumblebeesBumblebees live in many cool

regions.Heinrich estimated energy budget

of individuals foraging on different flowers and under different temperatures.

Energy Gain / Loss Energy Intake - Energy Expenditure.

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Ecology of BumblebeesField and Laboratory Results

Amount of energy expended during flight was independent of air temperature.

Bees elevated temperature of thorax to stay warm in cool climates.

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Ecology of Bumblebees

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Forest Nutrient BudgetsDue to heavy rainfall, many

rainforest soils are nutrient-poor.Nutrient stores in rainforest

canopies are associated with epiphytes.

Epiphyte mats contain significant quantities of nutrients.

Trees send roots up to epiphyte mats to access nutrients.

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Forest Nutrient Budgets Likens and Bormann estimated 90% of nutrien

ts in a New Hampshire forest were locked up in soil organic matter. Approximately 9.5 % was tied up in vegetation. Streamflow output amounted to < 1%.

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Vegetation Change: Pollen Records Many environmental changes occur over

large spatial or temporal scales. Davis monitored plant pollen deposited in

lake sediments in the Appalachian Mtns. Documented large temporal changes to nearby

plant communities.

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Vegetation Change: Pollen Records Milne modeled transitions between

ecosystems (ecotones) as phase transitions. Searched for edges between critical

densities of vegetation along ecotones. Suggested areas of gradual change within a

landscape are most likely to contain biological responses to environmental changes.

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Vegetation History from Pollen Sediments

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Nature and Scope of Ecology Ecology: Study of relationships between

organisms and the environment. Wide variety of approaches.

Large temporal and spatial scales. Field Lab Observational Manipulative

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The Scientific method—Questions and Hypotheses Scientist ask and attempt to find answers to

questions about the natural world. Questions are the guiding lights of the scientific

process. A hypothesis is a possible answer to a question. The next step is to determine its validity by

testing predictions that follow from the hypothesis.

Three fundamental ways to test hypotheses are through observation, experiments and modeling.

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What is the ``scientific method''?1. Observe some aspect of the universe. 2. Invent a tentative description, called a

hypothesis, that is consistent with what you have observed.

3. Use the hypothesis to make predictions. 4. Test those predictions by experiments or further

observations and modify the hypothesis in the light of your results.

5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until there are no discrepancies between theory and experiment and/or observation.

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When consistency is obtained the hypothesis becomes a theory and provides a coherent set of propositions which explain a class of phenomena.

A theory is then a framework within which observations are explained and predictions are made.

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Fig. 1 Graphic summary of the scientific method.

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Experimental Problems Logistic problems lead to low replication Which leads to a Type I error; declaring that a

hypothesis is false when in fact it is true. ( 否定 null 假說，但事實上是「 null 假說是成立的」 )

Low replications lead to greater standard error (SE) values.

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two types of error in measurement

type I error—the conclusion that there is an effect when in fact there is none, ( 否定 null 假說，但事實是「假說是成立的」 )

type II error—when an impact exists but is not detected. ( 接受 null 假說，但事實是「假說是錯誤的」 )

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two types of error

自然現象的研究，盡量的下降 type I error 。 盡量避免否定 null 假說。 如此可以避免研究方向的錯誤。

然而，對於自然資源 ( 災害 ) 的研究，則需要選擇下降 type 2 error 譬如：漁業資源的耗減

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Review Overview of Ecology Ecology of Forest Birds Ecology of Bumblebees Forest Nutrient Budgets Vegetation Change: Pollen Records Nature and Scope of Ecology

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On the net http://www.mhhe.com/ecology

http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072439696/student_view0/chapter1/web_links.html

Careers in Science http://www.mhhe.com/links/pages/General_Biology/Careers_in_Science/

Scientific method http://www.mhhe.com/links/pages/General_Biology/Scientific_Method/

Ayo 靜宜站： http://www1.pu.edu.tw/~hycheng

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Careers in Biology Biology Careers for the Next Century

http://www.mhhe.com/cgi-bin/links/jump.cgi?ID=56 Careers in Biology.

http://www.emporia.edu/biosci/carebiol.htm#jobs Environmental Jobs and Careers

http://www.ejobs.org/ Sources for Information on Careers in Biology, Con

servation, & Oceanography – http://www.mhhe.com/cgi-bin/links/jump.cgi?ID=51

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Scientific Method Introduction to the Scientific method

http://teacher.nsrl.rochester.edu/phy_labs/AppendixE/AppendixE.html