Оглавление · 2013-06-25 · Следует изучить правила чтения...
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Оглавление
Предисловие. Программа курса 4
Рекомендуемая литература 6
Методические указания 7
Первый год обучения
Грамматический материал 12
Первый семестр контрольно-тренировочные упражнения 13
Контрольная работа №1(Вариант №1-Вариант№5) 22
Тексты для дополнительного чтения 29
Зооинженерный факультет 29
Факультет агротехнологий и декоративного растениеводства 39
Строительный факультет 49
Энергетический факультет 60
Институт инженерных систем, сервиса и энергетики 71
Второй год обучения
Грамматический материал 83
Второй семестр контрольно-тренировочные упражнения 84
Контрольная работа №2 (Вариант №1-Вариант№5) 91
Тексты для дополнительного чтения 97
Зооинженерный факультет 97
Факультет агротехнологий и декоративного растениеводства 106
Строительный факультет 115
Энергетический факультет 126
Институт инженерных систем, сервиса и энергетики 136
Список использованной литературы 148
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Предисловие
Иностранный язык - один из немногих предметов, изучение которого
обязательно во всех вузах. Владение иностранным языком необходимо
специалисту любого профиля, так как способствует поиску, извлечению и
широкому практическому использованию информации из разных источников,
обеспечивает возможность контактов с зарубежными коллегами. Процесс
изучения иностранного языка чрезвычайно развивает мыслительные
способности, тренирует память, расширяет кругозор.
Курс заочного обучения английскому языку предполагает выработку
следующих навыков и умений:
Чтение литературы по специальности на английском языке с целью
извлечения необходимой информации
Перевод текстов по специальности с английского языка на русский
В соответствии с действующими учебными планами на курс заочного
обучения английскому языку отводится 50-60 часов аудиторных занятий
(установочных, контрольно-закрепительных, итоговых) и около 300 часов
самостоятельной работы. Количество учебных часов может быть несколько
уменьшено или увеличено в зависимости от специальности.
Программа предполагает преемственность вузовского курса обучения по
отношению к школьному, при этом учтена возможность возобновить изучение
английского языка после значительного перерыва, вызвавшего утрату
большинства навыков и умений.
ПРОГРАММА КУРСА
Фонетика
Фонетический строй английского языка. Система гласных. Система
согласных. Основные правила чтения букв и буквосочетаний. Ударение.
Членение речевого потока. Ритмическая группа. Синтагма. Основные
интонационные типы.
Лексика
Морфологическая структура слова. Словообразовательные модели.
Префиксальное и суффиксальное словообразование. Роль суффиксов в
распознавании частей речи. Интернациональные префиксы и суффиксы.
Переход слов из одной части речи в другую. «Ложные друзья» переводчика.
Понятие фразеологического оборота. Идиома. Синонимы, антонимы.
Сокращения. К концу обучения лексический минимум должен составить
примерно 2000 единиц. В этот минимум не входят слова и выражения,
усвоенные в средней школе (не менее 350 единиц).
Грамматика
Морфология
Артикль. Определенный, неопределенный. Опущение артикля.
Имя существительное. Грамматические категории числа и падежа имен
существительных. Род существительных.
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Имя прилагательное. Степени сравнения прилагательных. Место
прилагательного в предложении.
Имя числительное. Количественные и порядковые числительные.
Хронологические даты. Дробные числительные.
Местоимение. Личные, указательные, притяжательные, относительные,
вопросительные, неопределенные, возвратные местоимения. Местоимение it.
Глагол. Грамматические категории глагола. Вспомогательные глаголы.
Действительный и страдательный залоги. Отрицательная и вопросительная
формы. Система видо-временных форм глагола (Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect,
Perfect Continuous). Сравнительная характеристика форм настоящего,
прошедшего и будущего времени. Модальные глаголы. Повелительное
наклонение. Сослагательное наклонение. Неличные формы глагола:
инфинитив, причастие, герундий.
Наречие. Образование наречий. Степени сравнения наречий.
Предлог. Функции и значения предлогов. Сложные предлоги.
Многозначность предлогов.
Союз. Простые, производные и составные союзы.
Синтаксис
Типы предложений. Простое предложение. Главные и второстепенные
члены предложения. Прямой и обратный (инверсия) порядок слов. Виды
вопросительных предложений. Сказуемое простое и составное. Место
второстепенных членов предложения. Сложное предложение.
Сложносочиненное и сложноподчиненное предложение. Виды придаточных
предложений. Прямая речь, косвенная речь. Согласование временю
Инфинитивные конструкции. Причастные обороты.
УЧЕБНЫЕ ТЕКСТЫ. ТЕКСТЫ ДЛЯ ДОПОЛНИТЕЛЬНОГО ЧТЕНИЯ
При изучении английского языка студент использует следующие виды
учебной литературы:
Тексты контрольных работ
Учебные тексты
Тексты для дополнительного чтения
Цель контрольной работы – помочь студенту в самостоятельном
изучении английского языка и проверить, насколько хорошо он усвоил
пройденный учебный материал. Требования к выполнению и оформлению
контрольных работ приведены ниже.
Чтение учебных текстов поможет студенту выработать навыки,
необходимые для успешного овладения языком, закрепить соответствующие
грамматические правила, приобрести необходимый запас слов. Объем
прочитанных текстов должен составлять не меньше 7 000 и 8000 печатных
знаков***
на первом и втором курсе, соответственно, т. е. около 15 000 печатных
знаков за полный курс обучения. Тексты для чтения включены в методические
указания. Первый курс: адаптированные тексты страноведческого характера и
по специальности. Второй курс: адаптированные тексты страноведческого
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характера, неадаптированные или частично адаптированные тексты по
специальности.
***
Подсчет количества печатных знаков: число печатных знаков (считая
знаки препинания) в полной строке умножается на количество строк.
Обычно на странице бывает 1800-2000 печатных знаков.
Итоговый контроль
В соответствии с учебным планом в конце 1-2 семестров студент сдает
дифференцированный зачет.
Для получения зачета или допуска к зачету студент должен:
1) В срок сдать контрольные работы (на первом курсе №1, на втором курсе
№2), при необходимости исправить ошибки или выполнить всю работу
заново для получения оценки «зачтено».
2) Сдать норму чтения и перевода (тексты контрольных работ, тексты для
дополнительного чтения).
Содержание билета на экзамене по английскому языку:
1. Изучающее чтение и передача содержания в виде полного письменного
перевода незнакомого текста по специальности объемом до 1000
печатных знаков за один академический час (со словарем)
2. Ознакомительное чтение незнакомого текста объемом до 1200 печатных
знаков и изложение его содержания на русском или английском языке.
Время на подготовку 15 минут.
3. Просмотровое чтение и перевод на русский язык одного из текстов для
обязательного дополнительного чтения (без словаря). Время на
подготовку 5 минут.
Рекомендуемая литература:
Учебники и учебные пособия:
1.Английский язык. Методические указания к контрольным заданиям для
студентов агробиологических и агроинженерных направлений заочной формы
обучения. СПбГАУ. СПб., 2010
2. Бжиская Ю. В.. Английский для строительных специальностей. Ростов-на-
Дону, 2007
3..Бугрова А. С., Вихрова Е. И. Английский для биологических специальностей.
М., 2009
4. Голицынский Ю. Б. Грамматика. Сборник упражнений. СПб, 2009
5. Качалова К. Н., Израилевич Е.Е. Практическая грамматика английского
языка. М., 2005
6. Комарова Е. Н. Английский для направлений «зооинженерия» и
«ветеринария». Москва, 2009
7. Крылова И. П., Крылова Е. В. Практическая грамматика английского языка.
Учебное пособие. М., 1997
8. Новицкая Т. М. Практическая грамматика английского языка. Москва, 2004
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9. Орловская И. В., Самсонова А. И., Скубриева. Учебник английского языка
для технических университетов и вузов. М., 2006
10. Полякова Т. Ю. Английский для инженеров. М., 2008
Словари:
Англо-русский словарь под ред. В. К. Мюллера. М, 2008
Отраслевые словари:
Англо-русский автотракторный словарь. М, 1954
Англо-русский биологический словарь. М.1976
Англо-русский словарь по животноводству. М, 1972
Англо-русский словарь по землепользованию. М., 2007
Англо-русский сельскохозяйственный словарь. М, 1983
Англо-русский словарь по сельскохозяйственной технике. М., 1965
Англо-русский почвенно-агрохимический словарь. М. 1967
Англо-русский словарь по физиологии высших растений. М.,1972
Англо-русский электротехнический словарь. М., 1951
Электронные словари:
MULTITRAN
LINGUA
МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ УКАЗАНИЯ
Произношение и чтение
Правильное произношение-гарантия понимания не только устной, но и
письменной речи, так как чтение и письмо происходят под контролем слуха и
сопровождаются проговариванием на уровне внутренней речи. Неправильное
чтение приводит к его неправильному запоминанию и не узнаванию.
Основные сложности овладения английским произношением
обусловлены следующими причинами:
Несовпадением языковых систем русского и английского языков.
Следует изучить фонетическую систему английского языка, научиться
правильно и четко произносить звуки.
Отсутствием автоматизации фонетических навыков. Следует регулярно
выполнять фонетические упражнения, прослушивать звукозаписи и
передачи с английской речью, смотреть фильмы и телепередачи на
английском языке.
Частым несовпадением звучания и написания. Следует изучить правила
чтения букв и буквосочетаний, регулярно повторять их.
Несовпадение интонационных систем английского и русского языков
Следует изучить правила слогоотделения, членения речевого потока на
ритмические группы и синтагмы, усвоить основные интонационные модели.
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Лексика
За полный курс обучения студент должен выучить и активно
использовать около 2000 новых лексических единиц, т. е. по 1000 слов на
каждом курсе. Потенциальный запас лексики может быть увеличен за счет
усвоения системы английского словообразования, запоминания значений
словообразовательных элементов (суффиксов, префиксов) , что позволит
выводить значения производных слов, изучение интернациональной лексики.
Работая над переводом текста или упражнения, следует выписывать в
тетрадь-словарик встречающиеся незнакомые слова в их исходной (словарно)
форме: глаголы- в неопределенной форме, существительные в форме
единственного числа, прилагательные- в форме положительной степени. Найдя
слово в словаре, внимательно прочитайте всю словарную статью. Помните, что
словарь чаще всего дает не однозначный перевод слова с одного языка на
другой, а предлагает несколько , иногда много, значений. Правильный перевод
возможен только с учетом общего смысла, контекста.
Заучивать следует в первую очередь наиболее часто встречающиеся
слова. Их надо сразу выделять в тетради-словарике и работать над ними:
повторять, писать под диктовку, составлять с ними словосочетания и
предложения, стараться в дальнейшем находить в тексте их однокоренные
слова, определять их синонимы, антонимы и т. д. Нельзя забывать, что только
постоянная работа над лексикой поможет выучить и активно использовать
нужное количество слов.
Грамматика
Грамматика обеспечивает связь слов в предложении и позволяет понять
смысл текста. В каждой контрольной работе указаны грамматические темы,
подлежащие изучению.
Пользуясь учебниками, пособиями, справочниками, таблицами, изучите
данный раздел, выполните несколько упражнений, чтобы закрепить
пройденное. В дальнейшем, читая тексты или слушая английскую речь,
старайтесь распознавать выученную грамматическую форму. Особое и
постоянное внимание следует уделять глагольным формам. Работайте над
каждым глаголом: определите его видо-временную форму, проспрягайте в уже
изученных временах, образуйте вопросительную и отрицательную формы
Ни один грамматический раздел не должен оставаться неусвоенным. В
случае необходимости следует обращаться за консультацией (письменной или
устной) к преподавателю.
Работа над текстом
В зависимости от цели, которую ставит перед собой читающий, и от
скорости чтения выделяют:
-изучающее
-селективное (быстрое) чтение, включающее ознакомительное, просмотровое и
поисковое.
Изучающее чтение предполагает полное и адекватное понимание всей
информации текста.
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Ознакомительное чтение предусматривает быстрое прочтение всего
текста с полным пониманием основной информации текста.
Просмотровое чтение позволяет выяснить, о чем идет речь в тексте. Это
вид чтения используется, когда необходимо определить, насколько важна или
интересна для читающего информация, содержащаяся в тексте.
Поисковое чтение дает возможность находить в тексте те элементы
информации, о которых заранее известно, что они имеются в тексте.
Курс заочного обучения английскому языку предусматривает освоение
всех видов чтения, при некотором доминировании изучающего.
Изучающее чтение предполагает полный письменный или устный
перевод текста с использованием словаря.
При письменном переводе текста рекомендуется следующая
последовательность действий:
1. Прочитать весь текст и постараться понять, о чем идет речь. Это поможет
выбрать нужный эквивалент незнакомого слова при пользовании
словарем. Прочитать первое предложение, обращая внимание на знаки
препинания, знакомые слова. Союзы, артикли, и постараться определить,
простое это предложение или сложное. Каждое простое предложение в
составе сложного следует переводить отдельно.
2. Найти сказуемое и подлежащее, ориентируясь на порядок слов и
формальные признаки
3. Перевести двучлен «подлежащее-сказуемое». Перевод этого двучлена и
составит ядро перевода всей фразы.
4. Перевести слова, относящиеся к подлежащему (группу подлежащего).
5. Перевести группу сказуемого.
6. Перевести то, что осталось за рамками групп подлежащего и сказуемого.
7. Перевести все предложение целиком.
8. Отредактировать перевод, т. е., проверит насколько четко и ясно передана
мысль автора, соответствует ли ее изложение нормам русского языка.
Не следует выписывать незнакомые слова сразу из всего текста и
переводить их изолированно. Этот способ не оправдывает себя: во–
первых, о значении некоторых слов можно догадаться, переведя
предыдущую часть текста. Во-вторых, придется выписывать либо все
значения многозначного слова, либо первое попавшееся, которое может
и не подойти для данного предложения, и тогда нужно будет снова
обращаться к словарю, отыскивая другое, подходящее значение слова.
При устном переводе текста последовательность действий остается
практически той же. Следует только более тщательно переводить новые
слова, что поможет при сдаче текста преподавателю.
Все виды селективного (быстрого) чтения предполагают охват
общего содержания текста без использования словаря. Следует
постараться уловить смысл прочитанного, опираясь на знакомые слова.
Контроль понимания может осуществляться разными способами; студент
должен изложить своими словами на русском или английском языке
содержание всего текста или его части; составить план пересказа;
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озаглавить абзацы или другие структурные единицы текста; ответить на
вопросы или выбрать правильный ответ из нескольких предложенных
вариантов и т. д.
Дополнительное чтение
Дополнительное чтение литературы на английском языке
способствует расширению словарного запаса, повторению и закреплению
пройденного грамматического материала, совершенствованию техники
чтения, автоматизации навыка работы со словарем. При работе над
дополнительными текстами следует все незнакомые слова и выражения
выписывать в отдельную тетрадь-словарь в исходной (словарной) форме.
Для удобства пользования рекомендуется указывать номер
страницы, с которой выписаны слова. Можно даже пронумеровать абзацы
и отмечать те слова, которые студент отбирает при выучивании.
При сдаче дополнительного чтения студент должен:
1) Уметь правильно читать любой отрывок из текста;
2) предъявить преподавателю для контроля тетрадь-словарь с
выписанными и переведенными незнакомыми словами из
прочитанного текста;
3) адекватно перевести на русский язык любой отрывок из прочитанного
текста, пользуясь тетрадью-словарем. Полный письменный перевод
текста делать не рекомендуется. При ответе преподавателю
пользоваться письменным переводом запрещается;
4) знать новые слова, отобранные и выученные в процессе подготовки
дополнительного чтения;
5) уметь объяснить любое фонетическое, лексическое, грамматическое
явление текста в объеме, предусмотренном программой для данного
курса.
Контрольные задания.
На первом курсе студенты выполняют контрольное задание №1, а на
втором курсе задание №2. Выбор варианта контрольной работы осуществляется
в соответствии с последней цифрой номера студенческого билета; 1 вариант
выполняется студентами с номерами шифра, оканчивающегося на 1, 6; 2
вариант выполняется студентами с номерами шифра, оканчивающегося на 2, 7;
3 вариант выполняется студентами с номерами шифра, оканчивающегося на 3,
8; 4 вариант выполняется студентами с номерами шифра, оканчивающегося на
4, 9; 5 вариант выполняется студентами с номерами шифра, оканчивающегося
на 5, 0;
Выполненные контрольные работы присылаются или сдаются в деканат
заочного отделения в установленные сроки. Контрольная работа должна быть
зарегистрирована. Работы, не имеющие входящего номера, на рецензию не
принимаются.
При оформлении контрольных заданий придерживайтесь следующих
указаний:
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Выполняйте каждую контрольную работу в отдельной тетради. На
обложке напишите свою фамилию, имя, отчество, адрес.
Работа должна быть выполнена аккуратно, четко , разборчиво, без
сокращений. Для замечаний, объяснений, указаний рецензента оставляйте
в тетради широкие поля.
Выполняйте работы в той последовательности, в которой они даны в
настоящем пособии. Присылайте на проверку только одну работу.
Обязательно указывайте номер упражнения и переписывайте задание.
Модель выполнения можно не переписывать.
При выполнении работы лист следует разделить пополам и слева писать
предложения по-английски, а справа их перевод.
Если контрольная работа выполнена неясно, небрежно, не полностью или
не в соответствии с указаниями, она возвращается студенту без проверки.
Исправления контрольной работы на основе рецензии.
Проверенная преподавателем контрольная работа возвращается студенту
с рецензией и оценкой «зачтено» или «не зачтено». Студент должен
ознакомиться с рецензией, с исправлениями, замечаниями, указаниями на полях
работы, проанализировать их.
Если работа зачтена, но в ней допущен ряд ошибок, то их надо исправить.
Руководствуясь указаниями рецензента, повторите соответствующий
грамматический материал, проверьте значение неверно переведенных слов по
словарю и т. д. Обязательно уясните сущность каждой допущенной ошибки.
Все предложения, в которых были ошибки, перепишите в конце контрольной
работы в исправленном виде. Контрольная работа с исправлением ошибок
предъявляется преподавателю на зачѐтно-экзаменационной сессии.
Если работа не зачтена, ее следует переделать целиком или частично, в
зависимости от указаний преподавателя, и вновь выслать на проверку вместе с
не зачтенной работой.
Контрольные работы являются учебными документами, которые
необходимо сохранять и предъявлять на зачетах и экзаменах. При сдаче зачета
или экзамена преподаватель может провести опрос и по контрольной работе.
Занятия по английскому языку во время сессии.
На занятиях по английскому языку студент должен иметь:
Англо-русский словарь
Прорецензированную контрольную работу
Переведенные учебные тексты, тексты по дополнительному чтению и
тетрадь-словарь с выписанными и переведенными словами к ним
Тетради с дополнительными упражнениями по грамматике
Используемые учебники и пособия
Данные методические указания
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I СЕМЕСТР
ГРАММАТИЧЕСКИЙ МАТЕРИАЛ
1. Особенности произнесения гласных звуков английского языка.
Изменения значения слова в зависимости от долготы и краткости гласного.
Особенности произнесения согласных звуков английского языка.
2. Простое распространенное предложение; прямой порядок слов
повествовательного предложения в утвердительных и отрицательных формах;
обратный порядок слов вопросительного предложения.
3. Спряжение глаголов to be, to have в Present, Past и Future Indefinite.
4. Оборот there is (are).
5. Времена группы Indefinite в действительном залоге.
6. Множественное число имен существительных. Выражение падежных
отношений в английском языке с помощью предлогов, окончания ’s и порядка
слов.
7. Повелительное наклонение и его отрицательная форма.
8. Степени сравнения имен прилагательных и наречий.
9. Местоимения: личные, притяжательные, вопросительные, указательные,
относительные.
10. Времена группы Continuous в действительном залоге.
11. Словообразование – основные суффиксы и префиксы. Использование
слов, одинаковых по форме, но представляющих собой различные части речи.
Артикли и предлоги как показатели имени существительного и его падежных
отношений. Вспомогательные глаголы как средство образования временных
форм.
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Первый семестр
КОНТРОЛЬНО-ТРЕНИРОВОЧНЫЕ УПРАЖНЕНИЯ (1)
1. В каждой колонке подчеркните слова, в которых гласная буква
произносится так же, как и выделенная гласная в первом слове:
apple
candy
that
lay
flash
ran
wait
sad
face
fish
him
it
light
is
thing
pink
trick
fine
box
drop
stop
pole
shop
on
snow
top
rode
egg
seen
bed
get
well
wheel
let
tree
tent
cup
trunch
just
use
uncle
fruit
lunch
sun
such
2. Образуйте множественное число существительных с помощью суффикса
-s (-es):
atom, set, group, work, climate, trade, name, art, play, star, year, idea, sorrow, ray,
culture, nature, doctor, sculpture, teacher, counter, conductor, leaf, life, shelf, knife,
wife.
3. Напишите следующие существительные во множественном числе.
Укажите, в каких случаях суффикс множественного числа произносится
как [s], [z], [iz]:
Образец: map – maps[s] atom – atoms[z] cage – сages [iz]
student, party, chair, ring, glass, face, leaf, fat, time, way, university, language, wing,
salt, energy, design, book, problem, dictionary, class, change, subject, speech, rule.
4. Перепишите следующие предложения, вставляя данные в скобках
существительные в единственном или множественном числе:
1) Ann’s father told some funny circus .... The funniest ... was about a giant clown.
(story, stories)
2) Many ... live in an apartment house. Tom’s ... lives on the fourth floor. (family,
families)
3) Do you know the name of your ... ? The travellers will see many .... (country,
countries)
4) Ben’s dog has five brown ... . One little ... has a flat nose. (puppy, puppies)
5) Small ... laugh and play. Jack’s ... has a nice toy. (baby, babies)
5. Замените существительные с предлогом of существительными в
притяжательном падеже:
a meeting of students, the flat of my mother-in-law, the rays of the sun, a distance of
two miles, the joys of life, the house of his parents, the theatres of Moscow, the
children of my sister Mary, the rights of the women, the name of my friend.
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6. Переведите следующие словосочетания па английский язык, употребляя
притяжательный падеж:
письмо моего друга, рассказы этого писателя, библиотека института, дочь моей
младшей сестры, младшая дочь моей сестры, стены этого старого дома, старые
стены этого дома.
7. Образуйте степени сравнения следующих прилагательных и наречий с
помощью суффиксов -er, -est:
short, cold, wide, early, big, near, late, fast, small, old, nice, young, large, kind, long,
quick, easy.
8. Образуйте степени сравнения следующих прилагательных и наречий с
помощью слов more, (the) most:
interesting, carefully, comfortable, progressive, efficient, clearly, beautiful, difficult,
beautifully, regularly, prominent, brightly, especially, wonderful, realistic,
remarkable, special, dependent, attentively, important.
9. Употребите прилагательные и наречия, данные в скобках, в нужной
степени сравнения:
1) My brother is much ... than myself. (young)
2) The opera theatre is one of ... buildings in the city. (beautiful)
3) The sound grew ... and ... . (faint)
4) The party was not so ... as I had expected. (funny)
5) I have no one ... than you. (near)
6) What is the ... news? (late)
7) Yesterday I came home ... than usual. (late)
8) Ann sings far ... than Nina. (well)
9) I like this picture ... of all. (well)
10. Заполните пропуски притяжательными местоимениями,
соответствующими личным местоимениям, данным в скобках:
1) (Не) ... composition is very interesting.
2) (We) ... son goes to school.
3) (You) ... sister is young.
4) (They) ... knowledge of the subject is very poor.
5) (He) ... name is John.
6) (I) ... family lives in Kiev.
7) (She) ... friends often visit her.
11. Употребите нужную форму личных местоимений:
1) I often see (they, them) in the bus.
2) She lives near (we, us).
3) (We, us) always walk to school together.
4) He teaches (we, us) English.
5) She sits near (I, me) during the lesson.
15
6) I always speak to (he, him) in English.
7) What is the matter with (he, him) today?
8) He explains the lesson to (we, us) each morning,
9) There are some letters here for you and (I, me).
10) I know (she, her) and her sister very well.
12. Употребите нужную форму притяжательных местоимений:
1) Would you like to see some of (her, hers) poems?
2) (Their, theirs) knowledge of the subject is not much superior to (our, ours).
3) You take care of (your, yours) things and I’ll take care of (my, mine).
4) All (our, ours) clothes were dirty, and (my, mine) especially so.
5) (Their, theirs) boat was faster than (our, ours).
6) I’m afraid they will take (your, yours) words against (her, hers).
7) (Their, theirs) home is pretty but (our, ours) is prettier.
13. Заполните пропуски указательными местоимениями this, that, these,
those:
1) All ... is very interesting. 2) ... exercises are very easy. 3) ... will do. 4) ... chair is
very comfortable. 5) ... is my English book. 6) Try one of ... . 7) ... are the TV sets of
the latest type. 8) ... office at the end of the hall is the administration office. 9) ...
books are over there on the table.
14. Заполните пропуски глаголом to be, употребляя соответствующую
форму настоящего времени:
1) Не ... a good student. 2) They ... old friends. 3) I ... a teacher. 4) John ... absent
from class today. 5) The weather ... good today. 6) The sky ... clear. 7) We ... both
students. 8) Mr. Smith ... sick today. 9) She and I ... cousins.
15. Напишите следующие предложения в вопросительной и отрицательной
формах:
1) They are in Europe now. 2) She is a clever girl. 3) It is cold today. 4) He is in his
office. 5) They are members of the country club. 6) Both sisters are tall. 7) John is
angry with you. 8) She is a good tennis player. 9) The stamps are in my desk. 10) She
is a good teacher. 11) I am her cousin.
16. Заполните пропуски глаголом to have, употребляя соответствующую
форму настоящего времени:
1) She ... one sister and two brothers. 2) We ... a large library at school. 3) They ... a
new car. 4) She ... green eyes. 5) Helen ... a headache. 6) The secretary ... a new
typewriter. 7) Mr. Smith’s office ... three large windows. 8) We ... many friends in
Moscow. 9) Both brothers ... red hair. 10) Harry’s dog ... a long tail. 11) He and I ...
many things in common.
16
17. Употребите оборот there is (are) в следующих предложениях.
Переведите их на русский язык:
1) ... a new moon tonight. 2) ... someone at the door. 3) ... a lot of students absent
today. 4) ... three lamps in the room. 5) ... two large windows in the room. 6) But ...
only one door. 7) ... a lot of English classes in our school. 8) ... nobody in the room
now. 9) ... no one at home. 10) ... twelve months in a year. 11) ... a letter for you on
the table. 12) ... several beautiful parks in this city.
18. Напишите следующие предложения в вопросительной и отрицательной
формах:
Образец: There is a flag on the top of the building.
Is there a flag on the top of the building?
There isn’t a flag on the top of the building.
1) There is a big parade today. 2) There are two lamps in the room. 3) There are ten
new words in the lesson. 4) There are enough chairs for everyone. 5) There is a good
restaurant near here. 6) There is a comfortable chair in each room.7) There are many
pictures on the walls of our room. 8) There are more than ten sentences in each exer-
cise.
19. Употребите глаголы, данные в скобках, в форме Present Indefinite:
1) We (read) the newspaper in class every day.
2) He always (prepare) his homework carefully.
3) We always (play) tennis on Saturdays.
4) She (speak) several foreign languages.
5) The children (play) in the park every afternoon.
6) Helen (work) very hard.
7) They (take) a lot of trips together.
8) We always (travel) by car.
9) I (eat) lunch in the cafeteria every day.
20. Напишите следующие предложения в вопросительной и отрицательной
формах:
Образец: John goes there twice a week.
Does John go there twice a week?
John doesn’t go there twice a week.
1) He knows French perfectly. 2) I understand everything he says. 3) She makes
mistakes in spelling. 4) They enjoy their English lessons. 5) They live in Kiev. 6) We
use our books in class. 7) The plane leaves at ten o’clock. 8) She always comes to
class late. 9) I always take the same bus to work.
21. Образуйте повелительное наклонение и его отрицательную форму.
Переведите предложения на русский язык:
Образец: (Tell) her about it.
Tell her about it. – Скажи ей об этом.
Don’t tell her about it. – He говори ей об этом.
17
1) (Give) this to John. 2) (Open) the door. 3) (Close) the door. 4) (Telephone) him in
the morning. 5) (Let) him talk with her. 6) (Turn) off the light. 7) (Leave) your hat on
the chair. 8) (Lend) me a pencil. 9) (Help) him with his homework.
22. Заполните пропуски глаголом to be, употребляя соответствующую
форму прошедшего времени:
1) Ann ... absent from school yesterday.
2) The exercises in the last lesson ... difficult.
3) She ... in the same class as Nick last year.
4) We ... tired after our long walk.
5) The weather yesterday ... very warm.
6) There ... a lot of students absent from class yesterday.
7) I ... hungry after so many exercises.
8) I ... busy all day yesterday.
9) We ... good friends for many years.
23. Напишите следующие предложения в вопросительной и отрицательной
формах:
1) We were pleased to receive your letter.
2) The door of the office was open.
3) The wind last night was very strong.
4) He and his brother were sick two days ago.
5) There were few passengers in the compartment.
6) There was a very interesting lecture last Monday.
7) There were two examinations last spring.
8) There was a large picture in her room.
24. Употребите глаголы, данные в скобках, в форме Past Indefinite:
1) We (work) in our garden all day yesterday.
2) I (listen) to the radio until twelve o’clock last night.
3) He always (want) to learn English.
4) Ann and I (talk) over the telephone yesterday.
5) They (live) in France for many years.
6) The meeting (last) about two hours.
7) I (wait) almost two hours for Helen yesterday.
8) She (study) in our class last semester.
9) We (watch) television until eleven o’clock last night.
25. Напишите следующие предложения в вопросительной и отрицательной
формах:
Образец: Не prepared his lesson well.
Did he prepare his lesson well?
He didn’t prepare his lesson well.
1) They stayed in Moscow all summer. 2) She planned her work well. 3) The crowd
waited a long time to see the famous actor. 4) He worked in that Institute for many
18
years. 5) We arrived home late. 6) He entered this class in April. 7) Ann passed all
her examinations. 8) The meeting lasted a long time. 9) They travelled there by train.
10) She decided to write a letter to her parents at home.
26. Образуйте Past Indefinite и Participle II от следующих глаголов.
Проверьте себя по таблице неправильных глаголов:
to build, to think, to go, to see, to give, to meet, to write, to read, to know, to take, to
teach, to feel, to have, to come, to begin, to find, to get, to say, to tell, to put, to leave,
to do, to sing, to lose, to stand.
27. Употребите глаголы, данные в скобках, в форме Past Indefinite.
Переведите предложения на русский язык:
1) I (forget) to bring my notebook to class yesterday.
2) The telephone (ring) twice but no one answered it.
3) George (think) about his troubles continuously.
4) Last year Professor Johnes (teach) us both English and mathematics.
5) I (lose) my English book yesterday but (find) it later.
6) The Petrovs (take) their two children to the South with them.
7) He (tell) the whole story to us.
8) The meeting (begin) at ten o’clock yesterday.
9) They (go) to the park after the lesson.
28. Напишите следующие предложения в вопросительной форме,
употребляя данные в скобках вопросительные слова:
Образец: Не arrived at ten o’clock. (What time) What time did he arrive?
1) They sat in the first row. (In which row)
2) The performance lasted two hours. (How long)
3) He went to Leningrad to see some friends. (Why)
4) She put the mail on my desk. (Where)
5) He walked to school with Mary. (Whom with)
6) They spoke to us in French. (In what language)
7) He arrived home very late. (When)
29. Напишите следующие предложения в вопросительной форме,
употребляя вопросительные слова who, what:
Образец: My friend likes music very much. Who likes music very much?
1) She wants to visit Moscow.
2) Speech is a kind of vibration.
3) Painting is an ancient art.
4) He collects the paintings of old masters.
5) Every substance is a kind of matter.
6) Metals are the best conductors of heat.
7) The Romans made portraits in stone.
8) Poor lighting makes a piece of sculpture look uninteresting.
9) We know little about early painters.
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30. Заполните пропуски глаголом to be, употребляя соответствующую
форму будущего времени:
1) She ... our new teacher.
2) These exercises ... very difficult for you.
3) They ... glad to see their old friends.
4) There ... many examinations next term.
5) There ... a new club in our town next year.
6) We ... very tired after the long walk.
7) I ... happy to be here again.
8) We ... interested in his progress.
31. Употребите глаголы, данные в скобках, в форме Future Indefinite:
1) Helen (find) the book which you need.
2) They (see) us tomorrow.
3) I (finish) the work in April.
4) The shops (close) at noon today.
5) We (arrive) at three o’clock.
6) She (tell) you all about it.
7) We (spend) two months in the South.
8) The plant (die) because of lack of sunshine.
9) The meeting (begin) at eight o’clock. 10) The film (last) an hour.
32. Напишите следующие предложения в вопросительной и отрицательной
формах:
Образец: They will arrive at three o’clock.
Will they arrive at three o’clock?
They won’t arrive at three o’clock.
1) They will return in October.
2) These exercises will be easy for you.
3) He will be able to meet us later.
4) Our drama society will present a new play this year.
5) The lesson will be over at twelve o’clock.
6) There will be three new students in the class.
7) She will leave a message on the table for him.
8) They will write to us on Wednesday.
9) We shall take the children to the park.
33. Употребите глаголы, данные в скобках, в форме Present Continuous:
Образцы: 1) Look! It (begin) to rain.
Look! It is beginning to rain.
2) They (wait) for us on the corner now.
They are waiting for us on the corner now.
1) I see that you (wear) your new suit today.
2) Listen! Someone (knock) at the door.
20
3) The bus (stop) for us now.
4) Please, be quiet! The baby (sleep).
5) The leaves (begin) to fall from the trees.
6) John (have) lunch in the cafeteria now.
7) Listen! I think the telephone (ring).
8) Ann seems to be very busy. I guess she (prepare) her English lesson.
34. Напишите следующие предложения в вопросительной и отрицательной
формах:
Образец: They are working.
Are they working?
They aren’t working.
1) You are doing that exercise correctly.
2) He is looking for the book which he lost.
3) All the birds are flying south.
4) The sky is getting very dark.
5) They are laughing at what you said.
6) They are travelling in Europe at present.
7) Helen is taking dancing lessons at the country club.
8) Mr. Evans is writing a series of articles on the economic situation.
9) Ann is doing well in her studies at present.
35. Употребите глаголы, данные в скобках, в форме Past Continuous:
Образцы: 1) They (eat) dinner when we came.
They were eating dinner when we came.
2) It (rain) when I left home.
It was raining when I left home.
1) When you telephoned, I (have) dinner.
2) The baby (sleep) soundly when I went to wake him.
3) She (talk) with Mr. Smith when I saw her in the hall.
4) The accident happened while they (travel) in the South.
5) When I got up this morning, the sun (shine) brightly.
6) At seven o’clock, when you telephoned, I (read) the newspaper.
7) Mary (play) the piano when I arrived.
8) Helen fell just as she (get) off the bus.
9) The wind (blow) hard when I came to work this morning.
36. Употребите глаголы, данные в скобках, в форме Future Continuous:
Образец: At ten o’clock tomorrow morning she (have) her music lesson.
At ten o’clock tomorrow morning she will be having her music lesson.
1) I (wait) on the corner for you at the usual time tomorrow morning.
2) It probably (rain) when you get back.
3) If you come before six, I (work) in my garden.
4) At this time tomorrow afternoon I (take) my final English examination.
5) If we go there now, they (have) dinner. But if we go later, they (watch) television.
21
6) At this time next year he (study) at the university.
37. Заполните пропуски относительными местоимениями who, whom,
which. Переведите предложения на русский язык:
1) The film ... we saw last night was not good.
2) She is the girl ... I saw at the party yesterday.
3) This is the kind of exercise ... I like best.
4) Was it Helen ... said that?
5) The book ... I read last night was very interesting.
6) Is this the book ... you lost?
7) The teacher with ... I studied English last year no longer teaches in our school.
38. Заполните пропуски соответствующими артиклями. Переведите
предложения на русский язык:
1) ... man whom Mr. Smith telephoned this morning is here now. 2) ... book which I
am reading now belongs to John. 3) There is ... pencil on the desk. 4) She is ... good
teacher. 5) Is this ... book which you need? 6) I want to buy ... new briefcase. 7) ...
good book is always a pleasure for me. 8) It is ... good idea. 9) ... picture painted by
the student is beautiful.
39. Заполните пропуски соответствующими предлогами: of, about, down,
for, in, with, to, at. Переведите предложения на русский язык:
1) Не thanked me ... my interest ... the matter. 2) This book belongs ... our teacher. 3)
We all went ... a walk ... the park. 4) Nick usually sits ... this desk. 5) I make many
mistakes ... spelling. 6) The man walked quickly across the room and sat … . 7) She
spends a lot ... time ... her English. 8) We read ... the accident ... the newspaper this
morning. 9) They told me ... their trip ... the North.
40. Образуйте существительные от следующих глаголов с помощью
суффиксов -ег, -or, -ment, -ation, -ion. Переведите существительные на
русский язык:
Образцы: 1) to teach – учить; teacher – учитель
2) to inform – информировать; information – информация
to introduce, to work, to develop, to collect, to visit, to write, to contribute, to
educate, to wait, to settle, to approach, to complete, to create, to build.
41. Образуйте прилагательные от следующих существительных с
помощью суффиксов -able, -ible, -al, -ic, -ful. Переведите прилагательные на
русский язык:
respect, nation, pay, wonder, care, skill, advice, comfort.
42. Образуйте наречия от следующих прилагательных с помощью
суффикса -lу. Переведите наречия на русский язык:
bad, quick, correct, sudden, loud, easy, free, especial, careful, secret.
22
КОНТРОЛЬНАЯ РАБОТА №1
1. Прочитайте текст и письменно ответьте по-английски на вопросы,
следующие за текстом.
2. Выпишите существительные в единственном числе и поставьте их во
множественном числе.
3. Выпишите из текста предложенные конструкции с предлогом of и
переведите их на русский язык.
4. Выпишите из текста прилагательные и наречия, переведите их на русский
язык и образуйте степени сравнения.
5. Найдите в тексте и переведите на русский язык предложения, в которых
употреблены местоимения. Укажите, к какой группе они относятся
(личные, указательные, вопросительные, относительные).
6. Выпишите из текста все неправильные глаголы, запишите их основные
формы и переведите их на русский язык.
7. Выпишите из текста 5 предложений в Present Indefinite и переведите их
на русский язык. Напишите эти предложения в вопросительной и
отрицательной формах. Преобразуйте эти же предложения в Past и Future
Indefinite и переведите их на русский язык. Напишите их в
вопросительной и отрицательной формах.
8. Переведите письменно отрывок текста контрольной работы №1 на
русский язык. При переводе пользуйтесь англо-русским словарем.
23
Вариант №1
THE LAND OF WHITE NIGHTS
Saint-Petersburg was founded on 16 May, 1703. Several generations of
talented Russian and foreign architects were engaged in the planning and con-
struction of Petersburg’s centre. The Peter and Paul Fortress was built to
protect the Neva banks from Swedish invasion. Later D.Trezzini, the famous
Swiss architect, reconstructed the fortress. It became a prison. Now it is a
museum. D.Trezzini erected the Peter and Paul Cathedral here, which is a
masterpiece of architecture. Russian tsars were buried in it. Petersburg is one of
the world's most beautiful cities.
The Summer Garden, the Winter Palace, the Hermitage, the monument
to Peter I, the Russian Museum are the city's remarkable architectural sights.
Soon after Petersburg appeared, it turned into the main center of Russian sci-
ence and culture. Outstanding scholars like M.V. Lomonosov, D.I. Mendeleyev, I.P.
Pavlov and many others engaged themselves in activities of the Academy of Sciences
and the University. A.S. Pushkin, M.Y. Lermontov, N.A. Nekrasov glorified the city
in many of their works.
There are many memorial places in the city that relate to life and creative work
of the great Russian writers N.V. Gogol, T.M. Dostoevsky, the composers M.I.
Glinka, P.I. Chaikovskiy, M.P. Musorgskiy. N.A. Rimskiy - Korsakov, the painters
K.P. Bryullov, I.Y. Repin, I.N. Kramskoy, V.I. Surikov, etc.
St. Petersburg today is a centre of science and culture, well-developed
industries including shipbuilding, a large international port on the Baltic Sea.
St. Petersburg is famous for its suburbs. Petrodvorets (Peterhof), Pushkin
(Tsarskoe Selo), Pavlovsk, Lomonosov are museums of history and art. Russian and
foreign tourists visit St-Petersburg suburbs to see outstanding pieces of Russian art.
Magnificent architectural ensembles, sculptures, a unique water-duct system
for numerous fountains, fine examples of park-landscape art make one solemnly
proud of the generations of Russian people who have managed to create, in rotten
swamp, such great masterpieces of human genius.
Anyone who visits St-Petersburg will always be tempted to come back.
Questions: 1. When was the town of St. Petersburg founded?
2. St. Petersburg is one of the world's most beautiful cities, isn't it?
3. What is St. Petersburg famous for?
4. Is St. Petersburg a centre of science and culture?
Вариант №2
THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
The Russian Federation is the largest country in the world. It occupies
about one-seventh of the earth's surface. It covers the eastern part of Europe
and the northern part of Asia. Its total area is about 17 million square
kilometres. The country is washed by 12 seas of 3 oceans: the Pacific, the Arctic
and the Atlantic. Russia borders on many countries.
24
So great variety of scenery and vegetation can be found here. We have
steppes in the south, plains and forests in the midland, tundra and taiga in the
north, highlands and deserts in the east.
There are two great plains in Russia: the Great Russian Plain and the
West Siberian Lowland. There are several mountain chains on the territory of
the country: the Urals, the Caucasus, the Altai and others. There are over two million rivers in Russia. Europe's biggest river, the Volga,
flows into the Caspian Sea. The main Siberian rivers — the Ob, the Yenisei and the
Lena.
Russia is rich in beautiful lakes. The world's deepest lake (1,600 metres) is
Lake Baikal
Russia has one-sixth of the world's forests. They are concentrated in the
European north of the country, in Siberia and in the Far East.
On the vast territory of the country there are various types of climate, from
arctic in the north to subtropical in the south. In the middle of the country the climate
is temperate and continental.
Russia is very rich in oil, coal, iron, natural gas, copper, nickel and other
mineral resources.
According to the Constitution, which was adopted by national referendum on
12 December 1991, Russia is a federation. The President is the head of state and the
Prime Minister is the head of government. The Russian Federation is fundamentally
structured as a representative democracy.
The federal government is composed of three branches:
Legislative: The Federal Assembly is made up of the State Duma and the
Federation Council , It adopts federal law, declares war, approves treaties, and
has power of impeachment, by which it can remove the President.
Executive: The president is the commander-in-chief of the military, can veto
legislative bills before they become law, and appoints the Cabinet and other
officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies.
Judiciary: The Constitutional Court, Supreme Court, Supreme Court of
Arbitration and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the
Federation Council on the recommendation of the president, interpret laws and
can overturn laws they deem unconstitutional.
The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term Ministries of the
government are composed of the premier and his deputies, ministers, and selected
other individuals; all are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the
Prime Minister . The national legislature is the Federal Assembly, which consists of
two chambers; the 450-member State Duma and the 176-member Federation Council.
Leading political parties in Russia include United Russia, the Communist Party, the
Liberal Democratic Party of Russia, and Fair Russia.
Notes: to occupy – занимать
surface – поверхность
total area – общая площадь
25
to wash – омывать
to border – граничить с
variety – разнообразие, множество
scenery – пейзаж, ландшафт
vast territory – обширная территория
head of state – глава государства
Questions:
1. Where is the Russian Federation situated?
2. What is the total area of the country?
3. What mineral resources is the Russian Federation rich in?
4. What is the climate like in Russia?
5. When was Moscow founded?
Вариант №3
THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE OF GREAT BRITAIN
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (the UK) is the
official name of the state which is situated in the British Isles. It consists of four
countries which are England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Their capitals
are London, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast.
The UK is also washed by the Atlantic Ocean in the north and the North Sea in
the east.
More than 56 million people live in Britain. Many of them live in big
industrial cities like London, Manchester and Liverpool, for example, are big
industrial cities in the centre of England. But foreigners are often surprised by the fact
that much of land in Britain is open country. There are many lonely hills, quiet rivers,
deep lakes and just farmlands especially in the south of the country.
The f lag of the United Kingdom is known as the Union Jack. It is made up of
three crosses: the cross of St. George (the patron saint1 of England), the cross of St.
Andrew (the patron saint of Scotland) and the cross of St. Patrick (the patron saint of
Ireland).
It is rather difficult to understand the British way of ruling the country. In
Britain the Queen is the Head of State, but in fact she doesn't rule the country as she
has no power. The Queen is a symbol of the country history and its traditions. She is
very rich. She travels about the United Kingdom meets different people and visits
schools, hospitals and other special places. So do all the members of the Royal
family: the Queen's husband, her son Prince Charles the Queen daughter Princess
Anna, and Princess Margaret.
The real power in the country belongs to the British Parliament and to the
British Government. The British Parliament has two 'houses': the House of
Lords and the House of Commons. The House of Lords doesn't have much
power but it is very important as it can offer and change laws, it can delay laws
too. The House of Commons makes laws about the policy of the country, taxes
and many other things.
26
The members of the House of Lords are not elected. These members are
permanent. They are often aristocrats, peopled the church, lawyers and former
politicians.
The members of the House of Commons are elected. The British people
elect 650 members of the House of Commons every five years.
Notes: the patron saint - святой покровитель
His Majesty - Его Величество
the House of Lords — палата лордов
the House of Commons — палата общин
taxes - налоги
Questions:
1. Where is the UK situated?
2. What languages are spoken in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern
Ireland?
3. What is the Union Jack? What do you know about it?
4. Who is the Head of State in Britain?
5. What do you know about the Royal family?
Вариант №4
The United States of America
The United States of America is the fourth largest country in the world
after Russia, Canada and China. It occupies the central part of the North
American continent.
The United States of America is a federal republic, consisting of 50 states.
The country is washed by 3 oceans: the Arctic, the Atlantic and the
Pacific. The country has many lakes. There are also many rivers on the US
territory. The longest of them are the Mississippi, the Missouri , the Columbia,
the Rio Grande and some other. On the US territory there are mountains and
lowlands.
The climate conditions are rather different. The country is rich in natural
and mineral resources: oil, gas, iron ore, coal and various metals.
The USA is a highly developed industrial and agricultural country. The
main industrial branches are aircraft, rocket, automobile, electronics, radio
engineering.
Americans are made up from nearly all nations and races. The country
population is over 250 million. The national symbol of the USA is its national flag
―Stars and Stripes‖, having 50 white stars and 13 white and red stripes on its field,
symbolizing the number of the original states.
The United States of America is federal state, headed by the President.
According to the US Constitution the powers of the Government are divided in to 3
branches: Legislative, Executive and Judicial.
The Legislative power belongs to the Congress, consisting of the Senate and
the House of Representatives. The Senate represents the states while the House of the
Representatives – the population. The Executive power belongs to the President and
27
his Administration (Vice-President and Cabinet of Ministers). The Judicial power
belongs to the Supreme Court and the system of Federal, State and District courts.
There are several political parties in the USA, the largest of them are the Republican
(symbolized by a donkey) and the Democratic (symbolized by an elephant).
Notes: branch- ветвь власти
Legislative ['leʤɪslətɪv] - законодательная
Executive [ɪg'zekjutɪv] - исполнительная
Judicial [ʤuː'dɪʃ(ə)l]- судебная
House of Representatives- палата представителей
Questions:
1. How many states does the USA include?
2. What oceans is the USA washed by?
3. What are the main industrial branches?
4. How many branches of power are there in the USA according to the US
Constitution?
5. What political parties are there in the USA?
Вариант №5
NEW YORK New York is a city where all the languages of the world are spoken and where
people live on the ground, travel under the ground and work in the sky.
New York makes a great impression on all visitors because of its many high
buildings, its theatres, museums and hotels, its beautiful bridges, and its expensive
shops with their fabulous (баснословный) prices. The first permanent white settlers
(поселенцы) came to New York from Holland in 1626. These Dutch settlers bought all of
Manhattan Island (остров) from the Indians for the equivalent of twenty-five dollars, while
today some of this land costs a million dollars an acre. This island is the heart of the city.
It is on Manhattan Island where most of the skyscrapers are located. This island is
connected by six long bridges, as well as by tunnels and ferries (паром), with the other four
districts that constitute New York City.
New York is the largest city in the United States. Today there are more people living
in the New York City than in Australia, Peru or Sweden.
For transportation New York depends (зависеть) mainly on buses, the subway, taxis
and ferries. The buses are slow because of the crowded streets, whereas the subway train can
go as fast as railroad trains, sometimes stopping only at the most important stations. We may
go all day by the subway for the same rare, if we only change trains but do not go out of the
stations.
New York moves vertically as well as horizontally, taking its people by elevator
to their offices on the fortieth, sixtieth, and eightieth floor.
New York is the richest and the poorest, the most modem and the most old-
fashioned (старомодный) of cities, with expensive hotels and cheap boarding houses,
the home of symphonies and popular jazz clubs, cathedrals (собор) and night clubs; the
home of the famous Metropolitan Opera and the Metropolitan Museum of Art; the
28
home of most of the largest publishing houses (издательство) of the United States and
the biggest newspapers. On the Fifth Avenue there are many expensive stores of
international fame, but around the comer one may find little shops where imitation
diamonds and cheap souvenirs are sold.
Questions:
1. What kind of city is New York?
2. When and where did the first white settlers come from?
3. Where are the most skyscrapers located?
4. What does New York transportation depend on?
5. How does New York move?
6. What are there on the Fifth Avenue?
29
Тексты для дополнительного чтения по направлениям
Зооинженерный факультет
ВАРИАНТ №1
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Agriculture provides people with food, feed and other useful products. All
over the world farmers cultivate valuable plants and raise productive domesticated
animals. There are two main branches in modern agriculture: crop production (or
crop farming) and animal husbandry (or animal farming).
Nowadays, in many countries people are still relying on meat, milk and eggs
as main sources of food. Both breeders and farmers have already bred and are still
breeding highly productive agricultural animals. Animal farming is a process in
which a farmer breeds, raises and cares for livestock either for commerce or private
use.
The word "livestock" refers to domesticated animals such as beef and dairy
cattle, sheep, goats, swine (hogs), horses, donkeys and mules, buffalo, oxen, rabbits
or "exotic" animals, for example, camels, emus, ostriches, or any animal which a
farmer keeps and uses either for food or pleasure. Sometimes animal scientists
include in this term also poultry, such as chickens, ducks, geese and turkeys, but they
include neither honey bees nor fish within the term "livestock". However, poultry
farming and beekeeping are important branches of agriculture as well as
aquaculture1.
There are over a hundred large land mammals in the world but man has
domesticated only few types into livestock. There are two main requirements for
domestication of mammals: 1) the availability2
of feed which a farmer can easily
control and provide; 2) a rapid rate of reproduction3. As cattle, sheep and horses are
herbivorous mammals, farmers try to keep these domestic animals on pastures.
However, farmers often grow either cereals or other agricultural crops as additional
feed for their animals. Such ruminant animals as cattle, sheep and goats are important
for people because they convert large quantities of grasses or other types of feeds, as
well as non-protein nitrogen into meat, milk and wool. Poultry also convert feed
efficiently into protein.
Historically, livestock and poultry have provided the following benefits to
humanity4: meat, eggs, dairy products, raw materials, fertiliser, labour,
management5 of land.
1) Meat and eggs. In many countries livestock replaced wild game6
as the main
source of animal protein because only livestock convert various food sources into
human food. Poultry provide people with white meat as well as with eggs.
2) Dairy products. People process milk of cows, sheep, goats into a variety of
valuable dairy products such as yoghurt, cheese, butter, ice cream, kefir, and
koumiss.
30
3) Raw materials. Livestock produce useful raw materials, for example, horses and
cows provide leather, poultry produce feather and down7, sheep and goats provide
wool for textile industry.
4) Fertiliser. Livestock leave behind manure which farmers spread on fields and this
increases yields of crops many times. Historically, plant and animal farming have
been closely linked.
5) Labour. In modern agriculture neither cattle nor horses are the main source of
mechanical energy. However, in some poor countries people are still using livestock
as draft cattle.
6) Management of land. Sometimes farmers use the grazing of livestock as a way to
control weeds8.
When a farmer is planning to rear livestock, he usually chooses the most
suitable type for the local conditions. Both climate and type of land, as well as local
traditions influence a farmer's choice.
Notes: 1 aquaculture – аквакультура
2 availability – наличие (доступность)
3 a rate of reproduction – зд. скорость воспроизводства
4 the following benefits to humanity – следующие выгоды для
человечества 5 management – зд. возделывание
6 wild game – дикие животные
7 feather, down – перо, пух
8 a way to control weeds – способ борьбы с сорняками
ANIMAL SCIENTISTS
Animal scientists help farmers to develop and improve agricultural industry.
Different animal sciences are important for specialists who work in the field of
animal farming such as: animal physiology, nutrition, breeding and genetics, ecology
and ethology, livestock and poultry management.
Students of animal science are interested in processes how agricultural
animals convert feeds into food and other useful things which people need. They
conduct research in different fields of animal husbandry1 and try to improve
production, yield and growth of various animals. Thus, they mainly specialise in
such disciplines as nutrition, genetics and breeding, or reproductive physiology2.
There are special courses to train veterinary scientists who study diseases of farm
animals, methods of vaccination and animal treatment.
Graduates3 of the faculty of animal husbandry work in veterinary and human
pharmaceutical industries, in industries which provide farms with livestock and feeds
as well as in educational institutes. They can work both for private research firms and
federal or state experimental stations.
An animal breeder is one of the oldest world professions. Historically, there
are certain sub-professions within the field of animal husbandry. They have specific
names according to the animal for which a person cares, for example, a cattle breeder
31
(or a cattleman), a pig breeder (a hogman), a sheep breeder (a sheepman), a horse
breeder (a horseman), a poultry breeder (a poultryman), a beekeeper or an apiarist, a
dog breeder or a cynologist.
Today, managers of commercial farms organize the work of many different
specialists who raise thousands of various animals. Farms and ranches employ
breeders, veterinary surgeons (or vets), feeders and milkmen who help to care for the
animals. Nowadays farmers use modern techniques and achievements of different
natural sciences because this helps to improve the ability of animals to convert feed
into meat, milk, or fibre more efficiently and improve the quality of the final
products. Notes: 1
animal husbandry – животноводство 2
reproductive physiology – репродуктивная физиология 3graduates – выпускники
ВАРИАНТ №2
ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY
The word "physiology" originated from the Greek language and it consists of
two parts: physis which means "nature" and logos which is "word". In general,
physiology is the study of mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of living
organisms1. Physiology has traditionally been divided into plant physiology, animal
physiology and human physiology but the physiology principles are universal, even
if a particular organism is being studied.
Animal physiology is the study of animal functions that is the study of "how
animals work". The rapid development of animal physiology as a distinct discipline
began in the 19th century and was stimulated by the requirements of animal
husbandry and veterinary science. Animal physiology is subdivided into the four
main parts, such as general physiology, special physiology, comparative physiology2
and age physiology3. General physiology deals with the analysis of such universal
and important processes as blood circulation4, metabolism, respirations
5 etc. Special
physiology applies general physiological principles in order to investigate
characteristics of a particular animal species. Comparative physiology concentrates
on similarities and differences of physiological functions of various living
organisms. The problems of how physiological functions change with animal age are
of special interest to age physiology.
The main approach in animal physiology is to study the evolutionary origins
of the physiological mechanisms in order to understand the significance of these
mechanisms for modern-day animals6. Modern physiology which is based on
chemical, physical and anatomical methods investigates biological organisation of
the animal body at different levels, that is, cells, tissues, organs.
One of the parts of special physiology is devoted to farm animal physiology.
The aim of this science is not only to study physiological functions of the farm
animal body, but to control them in order to increase the production of eggs,
offspring, milk, meat and wool. The problem of how to maintain good health of farm
32
animals throughout a long lifetime of high production is of great importance to farm
specialists as well.
Farm animal physiology is closely related to veterinary science as it is
necessary to know physiological standards and the physiological reactions which
take place in the body of a healthy animal in order to cure sick animals7 and prevent
different animal diseases. The problems of sterility and nutritional disorders8 are
studied by physiologists as well as by veterinary surgeons.
Animal requirements in nutrients and energy depend on their physiological
features, so feeding rations are calculated on the basis of physiological data. The
feeding systems for rearing young animals are being developed on physiological
parameters as well. Physiological characteristics such as age and weight are
considered by the scientists when animals are fed with vitamins, antibiotics,
microelements or hormones.
Farmers should take into account some important physiological features of
animals in different situations, for instance, when a farmer is going to use artificial
insemination9 or train sport horses or dogs. Physiological parameters of farm animals
are of special value to engineers who design different farm mechanisms, such as
milking or feeding machines.
Other major branches of scientific study that have grown out of physiology
research include biochemistry, biophysics, biomechanics, pharmacology, cytology as
well as genetics which are known as the biological bases for rational animal
husbandry. Notes: 1 living organism – живой организм
2 comparative physiology – сравнительная физиология
3 age physiology – возрастная физиология
4 blood circulation – кровообращение
5 respiration – дыхание
6 modern-day animals – современные животные
7 to cure sick animals – лечить больных животных
8 nutritional disorder – проблема, вызванная недостаточным питанием
9 artificial insemination – искусственное осеменение
ANIMAL BREEDING
The aim of farm animals breeding is to improve qualities which are
considered desirable by humans. Long before the scientific principles to the selection
of superior animals were developed and the planning of mating combinations was
introduced in practice, all species of farm animals were subjected to selective
breeding to some extent. At present, in order to modify livestock and poultry and
control propagation of domestic animals, breeding procedures involve the application
of several basic sciences, mainly reproductive physiology1, genetics and statistics.
Animals are bred for utility, sport, pleasure, and research. The purposes of
animal breeding vary with regard to species, local conditions, and time. For instance,
early in history horses were bred mainly for riding and as draft animals; and
nowadays, to a large extent, horses are being bred for sport (racing and hunting). As
33
to poultry, in the past chickens bred for the combined production of eggs and meat,
but nowadays most European countries farmers mainly specialise in such breeds and
crosses which produce either eggs or meat.
At present, farmers are using special breeding programmes in order to
maintain herds and flocks of higher genetic merit. These programmes include such
steps as: 1) the estimation of the breeding value of animals; 2) thorough selection of
animals for breeding; 3) the application of one of the mating systems.
The problem how to estimate the breeding value of animals has been
researched thoroughly by scientists for different kinds of animals. On the one hand, it
is necessary to select animals for breeding on the basis of objective measurements of
traits that are decisive for the production. On the other hand, it is often impossible to
judge animals' productivity only on the basis of their appearance, so farmers started
systematic recordings of such individual animal characteristics as milk yields,
growth rate and muscle development for bulls etc. Progeny testing and performance
testing have been introduced to judge young males (bulls, rams, and boars) that will
be used for breeding. Actual measurement of an individual animal's performance is a
rather recent innovation in animal breeding and it has established the foundation of
breeding programmes.
Nowadays it is known that the breeding value of an animal depends on the
genes which it passes on to its offspring, so genetics has become the basis of animal
selection and breeding. It has been found that some traits (coat colour, blood type
etc.) are inherited in accordance with the laws of heredity, while other traits (wool
yield, egg production etc.) are subjected to variations and are greatly influenced by
the environmental factors.
Selection is based on the breeding value of animals and can be carried out in
different ways such as mass selection2, pedigree selection
3, family selection
4, and
progeny selection. There are certain advantages and disadvantages of these systems,
thus selection is usually made in a number of steps. With regard to dairy, bulls
selection on the basis of pedigree is made soon after birth; a second selection is made
later and based on growth rate during the first year of life and fertility in the first
series of inseminations; and, finally, a third selection depends on the results of
progeny tests, when offspring are old enough and may be judged.
Animal breeders apply different mating systems such as inbreeding5,
outbreeding6, linebreeding
7, crossbreeding
8 as well. The purpose of any method of
breeding is to exclude undesirable traits and combine the most essential
characteristics in a new animal breed. Along with various breeding methods, the
introduction of such techniques as artificial insemination, transplantation of embryo
from donor females of high merit has become of great use in breeding all species of
farm animals.
To sum up, scientists apply the same basic principles of breeding to any
animal species, though the practical approach to the problem may differ to a certain
extent and it depends on the rate of animal reproduction, selection method, mating
system, as well as on some genetic and environmental factors. Notes: 1 reproductive physiology — репродуктивная физиология
34
2 mass selection — массовый отбор
3 pedigree selection — отбор по родословной
4 family selection — семейственный отбор
5 inbreeding — межродственное скрещивание
6 outbreeding — аутбридинг (неродственное спаривание)
7 linebreeding —разведение в пределах одной линии
8 crossbreeding — кроссбридинг, метизация (скрещивание особей разных пород или
разновидностей)
ВАРИАНТ №3
ANIMAL NUTRITION
Since animal nutrition research began to develop rapidly during the 1930s,
many discoveries about animal metabolism and nutrient requirements have been
made. Nutrition is interpreted as the study of organic process by which an organism
assimilates1 and uses food and liquids
2 for normal functioning. Adequate nutrition for
any living organism is necessary for the following reasons: 1) in order to provide
adequate energy levels; 2) to maintain proper body structures and processes, for
instance, muscle function, immune protection, bone density3 and strength; 3) to
ensure the repair and development of all organism's systems, thus to maintain
balance between health and disease. In the case of farm animals, proper nutrition is
affected by various factors, such as animal species and breed, animal age, body shape
and size and other physiological characteristics. The lack of or deficiency in any
nutrient may cause animal weakness and even illness.
A nutrient is any element or compound which is necessary for an organism's
metabolism, growth, development or other functions. It is essential to provide farm
animals with adequate amounts of nutrients which they get from various feeds. In
general, animals require the same nutrients as humans. There are six basic nutrients
which are important animals' health and they are classified into the two main groups:
substances that provide energy; 2) substances that support metabolism, former group
includes carbohydrates, proteins and fats, the latter comprises minerals (for instance,
phosphorus, calcium), vitamins and water.
It has been found that any particular substance can play more than role in the
body. For example, most animals get energy from carbohydrates and fats, which are
oxidised in the body. However, protein supplies energy if other sources are
inadequate or if it is supplied in great excess above the requirements of the body.
Moreover, proteins provide the building blocks (amino acids) for enzymes and other
proteins within the body. Thus, for most living organisms nutrients provide not only
the energy necessary for certain vital processes but also the various materials from
which all structural and functional components can be made up.
On the one hand, there are so-called non-essential nutrients which are
synthesised by the cell if they are unavailable to the living organism with the food or
feed. On the other hand, there are essential nutrients which cannot be manufactured
within the cell in the body. Consequently, it is important to supply farm animals with
feeds which contain certain essential amino acids as well as essential fatty acids.
35
The problem of proper feed supply is of great importance to animal
husbandry. Thus, various animal feeds are grown or developed for livestock and
poultry, selected and prepared in order to provide highly nutritional diets that both
maintain the health of the animals and increase the quality of such farm products as
meat, milk, or eggs.
Scientists have studied the usefulness of different feeds as sources of
essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals, as well as lipids and carbohydrates.
They also have suggested the proper balance of available nutrients in the animal diet
and as a result different nutrient supplements and feed-processing technologies4 have
been developed. Since the 1950s, antibiotics and other growth stimulants have been
added to feeding rations in order to increase the rate of growth and reduce death loss
of farm animals. Antibiotics help to overcome5 the growth-depressing effects of an
inadequate and poor-quality diet or of imperfect management practices6, but their
effectiveness differs among animal species.
The achievements of animal physiology and special studies of life processes
in farm animals have ensured the development of the optimal diet for each animal.
Many of the feeds have appeared as the result of research, experimentation, and
chemical analyses which were conducted by animal scientists. However, the problem
of adequate animal nutrition is still the subject of current studies for farm scientists.
Human nutrition has been improved as a result of animal nutrition investigations. Notes: 1 to assimilate – зд. поглощать, усваивать
2 liquid – жидкость
3 bone density – плотность кости
4 feed-processing technologies – технологии по переработке корма
5 to overcome – преодолеть
6 management practices – способы содержания животных
ВАРИАНТ №4
ANIMAL ECOLOGY
The word ecology originates from the Greek language and means "the study
of the place to live". In general, ecology as a branch of biology deals with the
relationships between living organisms and their environment. Animal ecology
began to develop rapidly as an applied area of ecology only in the middle of the 20th
century. Animal ecology concerns the study of population dynamics1, distribution,
behaviour, and the interrelations of animals and their environment. In the beginning,
animal ecology developed separately from plant physiology. However, animals
depend upon plants for food and shelter, so it is impossible to understand animal
ecology without plant ecology. This is particularly true in such applied areas of
ecology as farm animal ecology as well as ecology of wildlife2. Modern ecology
considers interrelationship of both plant and animal communities as a whole biotic
unit3.
Ecology is mainly based on the ecosystem concept which is applied to units
of various sizes such as a pond, a field, a pasture, a forest or a large ecoregion. When
an ecologist is going to analyse any ecosystem, he will study the living organisms
which inhabit this specific area, the physical environment, and all interrelations in
36
this particular unit of space. The term "environment" includes both physical
surroundings and biotic communities. The former means a large variety of local
abiotic (nonliving) factors like temperature, sunlight, minerals, soil, and water.
Different plants and other organisms that share the organism habitat are known as
biotic communities. In farm animal ecology, the emphasis is put on farm animal
relationships to human society and the whole economy within a particular ecosystem.
For example, before a large commercial hog breeding farm is built, ecologists will
study such problems as the pollution of the soil and water resources by the animal
wastes4, the influence of grazing on the ecology of the nearest pastures etc. Thus, a
farm will not be built until the problems of water recycling and utilisation of animal
wastes are considered and solved.
Within the ecosystem, species are connected and they depend upon one
another in the food chain, and exchange energy and matter between themselves and
with their environment. The concepts of the food chain and ecological niche were
described in the theses by Charles Sutherland Elton (1900-1991), a British biologist
and naturalist. The following food chain "the grass (or other plants) → the herbivore
(cattle, sheep) → the man" is of great interest to farm animal ecology.
Human interference in the development of ecosystems is widely spread.
Farming is the deliberate maintenance of such an ecosystem which is highly
productive but relatively unstable. Consequently, the proper management of
ecosystems for optimal food production as well as thorough study and analysis of
various natural cycles (such as a water cycle or a nitrogen cycle) are of great
importance to ecologists.
Farmers have widely adopted intensive systems of crop and animal
production which provide bases for reliable food production. However, there are
some advantages and disadvantages of intensive farming. On the one hand, if farmers
apply modern cultivation practices and fertilisation in order to increase the soil
fertility, yields of forage crops will be higher and farm animals will be provided with
enough amounts of feed. Farmers widely use intensive methods for producing animal
products which include confinement of poultry in small cages, swine in small pens,
and sheep and cattle in small lots5. Thus, the study of the relationships between farm
animals and their surroundings such as temperature, air and light conditions is of
special importance to ecologists. It has been found that proper lighting management
may increase both poultry and livestock production, so lightening is controlled on
any type of farm now. Furthermore, it has been shown that confinement leads to
savings in labour, feed, and other production costs6. Besides, when animals are kept
in individual pens, it will be easier to ensure proper disease control. So, the
introduction of new methods of intensive farming has enabled farmers to satisfy the
needs of population in animal food product.
On the other hand, in the long run7, such intensive systems of farming may
cause serious ecological problems and even ecological crises. It has been shown that
cultivation and fertilisation result in a disbalance of nutrients, an increase in
pollutants, in pesticides accumulation in the soil, or an increase in susceptibility to
plant diseases. Moreover, confinement of farm animals has come under attack8 as
37
cruel9 to the animals, and protective legislation
10 of animal right has been
advocated11
.
Nevertheless, livestock and poultry farmers claim that if the animals are
under any stressful conditions, they will show sharp decreases in productivity, but
milk yields and egg production are maintained at high levels on commercial farms.
Since the 1970s, the behavioural adaptation of animals to their surroundings and the
effects of environmental stress on the immune status of livestock and poultry have
been studied thoroughly by ecologists.
At present, ecology is a multi-disciplinary science which involves plant and
animal biology, physiology, genetics, behaviour, meteorology, geology, sociology
etc. It is often difficult to draw a sharp line between ecology and any of these
sciences. The knowledge of ecology provides the necessary basis for proper
management and conservation of natural resources as well as for maintenance of
essential ecological processes and ecosystems.
Ecology is widely studied as one of the most important aspects of biology as
it has become clear that such problems as the increase in population, food scarcity,
environmental pollution, and some sociological and political problems are to a great
degree ecological. Notes: 1 population dynamics – математическая генетика
2 wildlife – живая природа
3 biotic unit – зд. биотическая единица
4 animal wastes – отходы животноводства
5 cage; pen; lot – клетка; бокс (секция); участок
6 production costs – производственные издержки
7 in the long run – в конце концов
8 to come under attack – зд. подвергать критике
9 cruel – жестокий
10 protective legislation – зд. закон о защите
11 to advocate – поддерживать, пропагандировать
ВАРИАНТ №5
VETERINARY SCIENCE
Veterinary Science is also called veterinary medicine and includes the
prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of the diseases of domestic animals and the
management of other animal disorders. The field also deals with those diseases that
are intercommunicable1 between animals and humans.
Persons who serve as doctors to animals have existed since early times, and
veterinary practice was already established as a specialty as early as 2000 BC in
Babylonia and Egypt and the ancient Greeks had "horse-doctors". The first
veterinary schools in Europe were established in the mid-18th century and since that
time veterinary science has rapidly developed alongside with2modern medicine.
Animal health is to ensure the efficient production of wholesome animal
products. Farm animals are susceptible to various infectious diseases and may suffer
from viruses and harmful bacteria, so animals should be examined by veterinary
surgeons regularly in order to notice disease symptoms in time and take the
38
necessary preventive and control measures. Such common animal diseases as
mastitis, brucellosis, swine fever, erysipelas, anthrax, and leptospirosis can quickly
spread and cause major losses among stock animals, so they must be controlled or
prevented by veterinary surgeons.
Vaccination and immunisation, sanitary measures, and the severe
segregation, or quarantine, of sick animals should be used by farmers and veterinary
surgeons to prevent the spread of infectious diseases such as anthrax, bovine
tuberculosis, brucellosis, canine distemper, and rabies. Sanitary control of animal
housing and proper pasture management are to eliminate any carriers of animal
infectious diseases which can be easily transmitted by water and soil.
The governmental officials must be informed about the outbreak of a
notifiable disease in order to prevent the disease spread. If an animal has contact the
infectious disease and cannot be cured, it will have to be slaughtered.
Veterinary surgeons also treat parasitical infections, unsanitary conditions
which may cause lower fertility in livestock, and nutritional disorders, and they often
have to set broken limbs3 and neuter
4 domestic pets. Besides, veterinary scientists
investigate the chronic infectious diseases associated with high morbidity rates5 and
various metabolic disorders. The development of vaccine to control Marek's disease
in chickens is an example of the economic effect of animal-disease research that was
conducted by veterinary scientists.
A veterinary surgeon's training must include the study of the basic preclinical
disciplines of anatomy, histology, physiology, pharmacology, microbiology as well
as bacteriology, virology, parasitology, and pathology. The clinical subjects of study
may be divided into internal medicine, preventive medicine, surgery and clinical
practice.
Internal medicine includes the diagnosis and treatment of diseases as they
affect animals. Preventive medicine should consider the aspects of disease prevention
and control, especially such diseases that can be transmitted between animals and
humans or diseases that may influence human health. Generally, several preventive
techniques are available for the use in the prevention of disease in an animal
population such as quarantine, immunisation, environmental control, various
methods of disease control and eradication, early diagnosis of a disease. It has been
proved that animal diseases may be prevented to a great extent by ensuring proper
hygienic and sanitary conditions on a farm, which include the maintenance of safe
water supplies, air sanitation, pest control, the improvement of animal housing etc.
Surgery includes wound treatment6, fracture repair
7, the excision
8 of body parts, and
the use of such techniques as radiology, anesthesiology, obstetrics9, treatment of
lameness10
etc. In most veterinary schools, clinical practice enables students,
especially future veterinary surgeons, to observe and assist with actual cases of
disease or other conditions which require attention. In both medical and surgical
treatment, the same techniques are to be used as in medical practice on humans.
In most countries of the world, professional veterinary surgeons must
complete a special educational programme. According to this programme students
are to study for four or six years at the university and only after such a course of
study the degree of doctor of veterinary medicine is to be awarded. Moreover, in
39
many countries veterinary surgeons must obtain a licence to start their practice from
some duly constituted authority11
. Veterinary surgeons may specialize either in the
care of small animals such as pets and work in banian hospitals, while others may
treat mainly livestock. A few veterinary surgeons may be employed by zoos or
circuses to examine and take care of wild animals.
Notes: 1 intercommunicable – зд. передаваемый
2 alongside with – наряду с
3 to set broken limbs – зд. лечить сломанные конечности
4 to neuter – кастрировать
5 morbidity rate – показатель заболеваемости
6 wound treatment – обработка ран
7 fracture repair – лечение переломов
8 excision – удаление
9 obstetrics – акушерство
10 lameness – хромота
11 duly constituted authority – должным образом уполномоченные законом власти
Факультет агротехнологий и декоративного растениеводства
ВАРИАНТ №1
AGRICULTURE
Agriculture is the production of food and goods1 through farming. Agriculture
was the key development that led to the rise of human civilization, with the
husbandry of domesticated animals2 and plants (i.e. crops) creating food surpluses
that enabled the development of more densely populated3 societies. The study of
agriculture is known as agricultural science.
Agriculture encompasses a wide variety of specialties and techniques,
including ways to expand the lands suitable for plant raising, by digging water-
channels and other forms of irrigation. Cultivation of crops on arable land4 and the
pastoral herding of livestock on rangeland remain at the foundation of agriculture. In
the past century there has been increasing concern to identify and quantify various
forms of agriculture. In the developed world the range usually extends between
sustainable agriculture (e.g. organic agriculture) and intensive farming (e.g. industrial
agriculture).
Modern agronomy, plant breeding, pesticides and fertilizers, and
technological improvements have sharply increased yields from cultivation, and at
the same time have caused widespread ecological damage and negative human health
effects. Selective breeding5 and modern practices in animal husbandry such as
intensive pig farming6 (and similar practices applied to the chicken) have similarly
increased the output of meat, but have raised concerns about animal cruelty and the
health effects of the antibiotics, growth hormones, and other chemicals commonly
used in industrial meat production.
40
The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods,
fibers, fuels, and raw materials. In the 2000s, plants have been used to grow biofuels,
biopharmaceuticals, bioplastics7, and pharmaceuticals. Specific foods include cereals,
vegetables, fruits, and meat. Fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Raw
materials include lumber and bamboo. Other useful materials are produced by plants,
such as resins. Biofuels include methane from biomass, ethanol, and biodiesel. Cut
flowers, nursery plants, tropical fish and birds for the pet trade are some of the
ornamental products.
In 2007, about one third of the world's workers were employed in agriculture.
The services sector has overtaken agriculture as the economic sector employing the
most people worldwide. Despite the size of its workforce, agricultural production
accounts for less than five percent of the gross world product8
(an aggregate of all
gross domestic products9).
Notes: 1goods - товары
2domesticated animals - домашние животные
3densely populated - густо населенный
4arable land - пахотные угодья
5selective breeding - разведение селекционных пород скота
6intensive pig farming - интенсивное свиноводство
7biofuel, biopharmaceuticals, bioplastics - биотопливо, биофармацевтические препараты,
биопластик 8
gross world product - мировой валовый продукт 9
gross domestic product - внутренний валовый продукт
AGRICULTURE SAFETY AND HEALTH
Agriculture ranks among the most hazardous1 industries. Farmers are at high
risk for fatal and nonfatal injuries2, work-related lung diseases
3, hearing loss, skin
diseases, and certain cancers associated with chemical use and prolonged sun
exposure4. Farming is one of the few industries in which the families (who often
share the work and live on the premises5) are also at risk for injuries, illness, and
death. In an average year, 516 workers die doing farm work in the U.S. (1992-2005).
Of these deaths, 101 are caused by tractor overturns. Every day, about 243
agricultural workers suffer lost-work-time injuries, and about 5% of these result in
permanent impairment6.
Agriculture is the most dangerous industry for young workers,
accounting for 42% of all work-related fatalities of young workers in the U.S.
between 1992 and 2000. Unlike other industries, half the young victims in agriculture
were under age 15.For young agricultural workers aged 15–17, the risk of fatal injury
is four times the risk for young workers in other workplaces. Agricultural work
exposes young workers to safety hazards such as machinery, confined spaces, work at
elevations, and work around livestock7.
An estimated 1.26 million children and adolescents under 20 years of
age resided on farms in 2004, with about 699,000 of these youth performing work on
the farms. In addition to the youth who live on farms, an additional 337,000 children
and adolescents were hired to work8 on U.S. farms in 2004. On average, 103 children
41
are killed9 annually on farms (1990-1996). Approximately 40 percent of these deaths
were work-related. In 2004, an estimated 27,600 children and adolescents were
injured on farms; 8,100 of these injuries were due to farm work. Notes: 1hazardous-опасный, серьезный
2injuries- повреждения
3lung diseases-заболевания легких
4prolonged sun exposure-продолжительное пребывание на солнце
5premises-дома с прилегающими пристройками и участком
6impairment-повреждение
7livestock-домашний скот
8adolescents were hired to work-подростки были приняты на работу
9children are killed-дети погибают
ВАРИАНТ №2
MODERN ERA: BRITISH AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION AND GREEN
REVOLUTION
After 1492, a global exchange of previously local crops and livestock breeds1
occurred. Key crops involved in this exchange included the tomato, maize, potato,
manioc, cocoa bean and tobacco going from the New World to the Old, and several
varieties of wheat, spices2, coffee, and sugar cane going from the Old World to the
New. The most important animal exportation from the Old World to the New were
those of the horse and dog.
The potato became an important staple crop in northern Europe. Since being
introduced by Portuguese in the 16th century, maize and manioc have replaced
traditional African crops as the continent's most important staple food crops.
By the early 1800s, agricultural techniques, implements, seed stocks and
cultivated plants3 had so improved that yield per land unit was many times that seen
in the Middle Ages. With the rapid rise of mechanization in the late 19th and 20th
centuries, particularly in the form of the tractor. These advances have led to
efficiencies enabling certain modern farms in the United States, Argentina, Israel,
Germany, and a few other nations to output volumes of high-quality produce per land
unit. In the past century agriculture has been characterized by productivity, the
substitution of labor for synthetic fertilizers and pesticides4.
The cereals, rice, corn, and wheat provide 60% of human food supply.
Between 1700 and 1980, "the total area of cultivated land worldwide increased
466%" and yields increased dramatically, particularly because of selectively-bred
high-yielding varieties5, fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation, and machinery. For
example, irrigation increased corn yields in eastern Colorado by 400 to 500% from
1940 to 1997.
Intensive agriculture has become associated with decreased soil quality in
India and Asia. The monocultures typically used in intensive agriculture increase the
number of pests, which are controlled through pesticides. Integrated pest
management (IPM)6, which has been promoted for decades and has had some notable
success. Although the "Green Revolution" significantly increased rice yields in Asia,
yield increases have not occurred in the past 15–20 years. The genetic "yield
42
potential" has increased for wheat, but the yield potential for rice has not increased
since 1966. It takes a decade or two for herbicide-resistant weeds7 to emerge, and
insects become resistant to insecticides within about a decade. Crop rotation helps to
prevent resistances.
Agricultural exploration expeditions, since the late nineteenth century, have
been mounted to find new species and new agricultural practices in different areas of
the world. Two early examples of expeditions include Frank N. Meyer's fruit- and
nut-collecting trip to China and Japan from 1916-1918 and the Dorsett-Morse
Oriental Agricultural Exploration Expedition to China, Japan, and Korea from 1929-
1931 to collect soybean germplasm8 to support the rise in soybean agriculture in the
United States.
In 2005, the agricultural output9 of China was the largest in the world,
accounting for almost one-sixth of world share, followed by the EU, India and the
USA. Six countries - the US, Canada, France, Australia, Argentina and Thailand -
supply 90% of grain exports. The United States controls almost half of world grain
exports. Water deficits, which are already spurring heavy grain imports in numerous
middle-sized countries, including Algeria, Iran, Egypt, and Mexico, may soon do the
same in larger countries, such as China or India. Notes: 1 livestock breeds - породы с/х животных
2 spices - пряности
3 cultivated plants-возделываемые растения
4 synthetic fertilizers and pesticides- синтетические минеральные удобрения и
пестициды 5 selectively-bred high- yielding varieties-селекционные высоко плодородные сорта
6 integrated pest management-комплексный контроль за насекомыми -вредителями
7 herbicide-resistant weeds- сорняки, устойчивые к действию гербицидов
8 soybean germplasm- протоплазма соевых бобов
9 agricultural output- выпуск с/х продукции
CROP PRODUCTION1 SYSTEMS
Cropping systems vary among farms depending on the available resources,
geography and climate of the farm, government policy, economic, social and political
pressures, the philosophy and culture of the farmer. Shifting cultivation2 (or slash and
burn) is a system in which forests are burnt, releasing nutrients to support cultivation
of annual and then perennial crops3 for a period of several years. Then the plot is left
fallow to regrow forest, and the farmer moves to a new plot, returning after many
more years (10-20). This period is shortened if population density4 grows. Annual
cultivation is the next phase of intensity in which there is no fallow period. This
requires even greater nutrient and pest control inputs.
Further industrialization lead to the use of monocultures, when one cultivar5 is
planted on a large acreage. Multiple cropping, in which several crops are grown
sequentially in one year, and intercropping, when several crops are grown at the same
time are other kinds of annual cropping systems known as polycultures.
In tropical environments, all of these cropping systems are practiced. In
subtropical and arid environments, the timing and extent of agriculture may be
43
limited by rainfall, either not allowing multiple annual crops in a year, or requiring
irrigation. In all of these environments perennial crops are grown (coffee, chocolate).
In temperate environments6, where ecosystems were predominantly grassland or
prairie, highly productive annual cropping is the dominant farming system.
The last century has seen the intensification, concentration and specialization
of agriculture, relying upon new technologies of agricultural chemicals (fertilizers
and pesticides), mechanization, and plant breeding (hybrids and GMO's7).
Notes: 1 crop production - растениеводство
2 shifting cultivation - изменяющееся возделывание почвы ( вырубка и сжигание)
3 annual, perennial crops - однолетние, многолетние культуры
4 population density - плотность населения
5cultivar - культура
6temperate environments - умеренный климат
7GMO’s - измененный генетический код
ВАРИАНТ №3
TRANSGENIC PLANTS Transgenic plants
1 have been engineered to possess several desirable traits,
including resistance to pests, herbicides or harsh environmental conditions2,
improved product shelf life, and increased nutritional value. Since the first
commercial cultivation of genetically modified plants in 1996, they have been
modified to be tolerant to the herbicides glufosinate and glyphosate, to be resistant to
virus damage as in Ringspot virus3 resistant GM papaya, grown in Hawaii, and to
produce the Bt toxin, a potent insecticide. Most of transgenic varieties grown today
are known as first generation transgenics4, because the transgenic trait provides
benefits to farmers. Plants of the second generation should directly benefit the
consumer with nutritional enhancement, taste, texture etc. Transgenic plants of the
second generation are being developed by both public research institutions and
private companies. However currently there is no such transgenic variety5 on the
market. Genetically modified sweet potatoes have been enhanced with protein and
other nutrients, while golden rice, developed by the International Rice Research
Institute, has been discussed as a possible cure for Vitamin A deficiency. In January
2008, scientists altered a carrot so that it would produce calcium and become a
possible cure for osteoporosis; however, people would need to eat 1.5 kilograms of
carrots per day to reach the required amount of calcium.
The coexistence6 of GM plants with conventional and organic crops has
raised significant concern in many European countries. Since there is separate
legislation for GM crops7 and a high demand from consumers for the freedom of
choice between GM and non-GM foods, measures are required to separate foods and
feed produced from GMO plants from conventional and organic foods. European
research programmes such are investigating appropriate tools and rules. At the field
level, biological containment methods include isolation distances and pollen barriers.
44
Notes: 1transgenic plants - трансгенные растения
2 resistance to pests, herbicides or harsh environmental conditions - устойчивость к
насекомым-вредителям, гербицидам и неблагоприятным климатическим условиям 3 ring spot virus - вирус кольцевой гнили
4 first generation transgenic - первое поколение трансгенной продукции
5 transgenic variety - трасгенный сорт
6 coexistence - сосуществование
7separate legislation - отдельные правовые нормативы на ГМ культуры
CISGENIC PLANTS
While conventional transgenic plants are developed by introduction of a gene
originating from distant, sexually incompatible species into the host genome, cisgenic
plants1 contain genes which have been isolated either directly from the host species or
from sexually compatible species. The new genes are however introduced using
recombinant DNA methods2 and gene transfer
3. Principally the same result could be
obtained by classical breeding4. However the disadvantage of classical breeding is
that with one desired trait also a number of undesired traits5 are transferred and the
number of backcrosses necessary to remove these undesired traits approaches
infinity. Some scientist hope that the approval process of cisgenic plants might be
simpler than that of proper transgenics, but it remains to be seen.
Notes: 1cisgenic plants- цисгенные растения
2 recombinant DNA methods-смешанные методы ДНК
3gene transfer-пересадка гена
4 classical breeding- классическое выведение сорта
5undesired traits-нежелательная характерная черта
BIOLOGICAL PROCESS
The use of GMOs has sparked significant controversy in many areas. Some
groups or individuals see the generation and use of GMO as intolerable meddling
with biological states or processes that have naturally evolved over long periods of
time, while others are concerned about the limitations of modern science to fully
comprehend all of the potential negative ramifications of genetic manipulation.
FOODCHAIN
The safety of GMOs in the foodchain1 has been questioned by some
environmental groups, with concerns such as the possibilities that GMOs could
introduce new allergens into foods, or contribute to the spread of antibiotic
resistance2. Although all studies conducted to date have shown no adverse health
effects resulting from eating genetically modified foods, environmental groups still
discourage consumption in many countries, claiming that GM foods are unnatural
and therefore unsafe3. Such concerns have led to the adoption of laws and regulations
that require safety testing of any new organism produced for human consumption.
GM proponents note that because of the safety testing requirements imposed
on GM foods, the risk of introducing a plant variety with a new allergene or toxin
using genetic modification is much smaller than using traditional breeding processes.
45
An example of an allergenic plant created using traditional breeding include is the
kiwi. Notes: 1foodchain - магазины по продаже продовольствия
2antibiotic resistance - устойчивость к антибиотикам
3unnatural and unsafe - неестественный и небезопасный
TRADE IN EUROPE AND AFRICA
In response to negative public opinion, it was announced to remove seed
cereal business from Europe. Some African nations have refused emergency food aid
from developed countries, fearing that the food is unsafe. During a conference in the
Ethiopian capital of Addis Ababa, Kingsley Amoako, Executive Secretary of the
United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA1), encouraged African
nations to accept genetically modified food and expressed dissatisfaction in the
public’s negative opinion of biotechnology. Notes: 1 the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA)-экономическая
комиссия по Африке при ООН
ВАРИАНТ №4
AGRICULTURAL SURPLUSES1
Chairman of the UK Food Group, accused some governments, especially the
US administration, of using GM food aid as a way to dispose of unwanted
agricultural surpluses. The UN blamed food companies2 of violating human rights,
calling on governments to regulate these profit-driven firms. It is widely believed that
the acceptance of biotechnology and genetically modified foods will also benefit rich
research companies and could possibly benefit them more than consumers in
underdeveloped nations.
LABELING
While some groups advocate the complete prohibition of GMOs, others call
for mandatory labeling3 of genetically modified food or other products.
Notes: 1agricultural surpluses-избытки с/х продукции
2The UN blamed food companies -ООН предъявила обвинения продовольственным
компаниям 3mandatory labeling—обязательная маркировка продукции , содержащая ГМО
UNDERDEVELOPED NATIONS
Some groups believe that underdeveloped nations will not reap the benefits of
biotechnology because they do not have easy access to these developments, cannot
afford modern agricultural equipment, and certain aspects of the system revolving
around intellectual property rights are unfair to undeveloped countries. For example,
The CGIAR (Consultative Group of International Agricultural Research)1 is an aid
and research organization that has been working to achieve sustainable food security
and decrease poverty in undeveloped countries since its formation in 1971. In an
evaluation of CGIAR, the World Bank praised its efforts but suggested a shift to
genetics research and productivity enhancement. This plan has several obstacles such
46
as patents, commercial licenses, and the difficulty that third world countries have in
accessing the international collection of genetic resources and other intellectual
property rights that would educate them about modern technology. The International
Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture2 has attempted to
remedy this problem, but results have been inconsistent. As a result, "orphan crops3",
such as teff, millets, cowpeas4, and indigenous plants
5, are important in the countries
where they are grown, but receive little investment. Notes: 1 The CGIAR (Consultative Group of International Agricultural Research)-
Международная консультативная группа по вопросам исследования сельского
хозяйства 2
The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture-
Международный договор по генетическим ресурсам продуктов питания и сельского
хозяйства 3 ―orphan crops‖- «сиротские культуры»
4 teff; millets; cowpeas- метличка абиссинская; просо; вигна китайская, фасоль
5 indigenous plants-местные растения
PRIVATE INVESTMENTS
The development and implementation of policies designed to encourage
private investments in research and marketing biotechnology that will meet the needs
of poverty-stricken nations, increased research on other problems faced by poor
nations, and joint efforts1 by the public and private sectors to ensure the efficient use
of technology developed by industrialized nations have been suggested. In addition,
industrialized nations have not tested GM technology2 on tropical plants, focusing on
those that grow in temperate climates3, even though undeveloped nations and the
people that need the extra food live primarily in tropical climates. Many European
scientists are disturbed4 by the fact that political factors and ideology prevent
unbiased assessment of the GM technology5 in some EU countries.
Notes: 1 joint efforts-совместные усилия
2 GM technology-ГМ технологии
3 temperate climates- умеренный климат
4 scientists are disturbed- ученые обеспокоены
5 unbiased assessment of the GM technology-беспристрастная сумма
обложения налогом ГМ технологий
TRANSGENIC ORGANISMS1
Another important controversy2 is the possibility of unforeseen local and
global effects as a result of transgenic organisms proliferating3.
Some critics have raised the concern that conventionally-bred crop plants4 can
be cross-pollinated5 (bred) from the pollen
6 of modified plants. Pollen can be
dispersed over large areas by wind, animals and insects. In 2007, the U.S.
Department of Agriculture7 fined Scotts Miracle-Gro
8 $500,000 when modified
genetic material from creeping bentgrass9 was found within close relatives of the
47
same genus (Agrostis) as well as in native grasses up to 21 km (13 miles) away from
the test sites, released when freshly cut grass was blown by the wind.
GM proponents point out that outcrossing10
, as this process is known, is not
new. The same thing happens with any new open-pollinated crop variety—newly
introduced traits can potentially cross out into neighboring crop plants of the same
species and, in some cases, to closely related wild relatives. Defenders of GM
technology11
point out that each GM crop is assessed on a case-by-case basis to
determine if there is any risk associated with the outcrossing of the GM trait into wild
plant populations. The fact that a GM plant may outcross with a related wild relative
is not, in itself, a risk unless such an occurrence has negative consequences. If, for
example, an herbicide resistance trait was to cross into a wild relative of a crop plant
it can be predicted that this would not have any consequences except in areas where
herbicides are sprayed, such as a farm. In such a setting the farmer can manage this
risk by rotating herbicides.
The European Union funds research programmes that investigate options and
technologies on the co-existence of GM and conventional farming. This also includes
research on biological containment strategies and other measures, to prevent
outcrossing and enable the implementation of co-existence.
If patented genes12
are outcrossed, even accidentally, to other commercial
fields and a person deliberately selects the outcrossed plants for subsequent planting
then the patent holder has the right to control the use of those crops.
Notes: 1transgenic organisms - трансгенные организмы
2controversy - бесспорно
3transgenic organisms proliferating-разрастание трансгенных организмов
4conventionally-bred crop plants- традиционно выведенные с/х культуры
5cross-pollinated-перекрестное опыление
6the pollen- пыльца
7the U.S. Department of Agriculture
–Департамент сельского хозяйства США
8fined Scotts Miracle-Gro-наложил штраф на компанию Скотс Мирэкл Груп
9creeping bentgrass-ползучая трава
10outcrossing- внешнее опыление
11defenders of GM technology- защитники ГМ технологий
12patented genes- доступные гены
ВАРИАНТ №5
"TERMINATOR"1 AND "TRAITOR
2"
"Technology Protection" is technology dubbed as 'Terminator'. This yet-to-
be-commercialized technology would allow the production of first generation crops
that would not generate seeds in the second generation because the plants yield sterile
seeds3. The patent for this so-called "terminator" gene technology is owned by Delta
and Pine Land Company and the United States Department of Agriculture. Delta and
Pine Land was bought by Monsanto Company in August 2006. Similarly, the
hypothetical Trait-specific Genetic Use Restriction Technology4, also known as
'Traitor' or 'T-gut', requires application of a chemical to genetically modified crops to
reactivate engineered traits5. This technology is intended both to limit the spread of
48
genetically engineered plants, and to require farmers to pay yearly to reactivate the
genetically engineered traits of their crops. Traitor is under development by
companies including Monsanto and AstraZeneca.
In addition to the commercial protection of proprietary technology6 in
self-pollinating crops such as soybean (a generally contentious issue), another
purpose of the terminator gene is to prevent the escape of genetically modified traits
from cross-pollinating crops into wild-type species7 by sterilizing any resultant
hybrids. Ironically, the terminator gene technology created a backlash8 among the
same groups that considered out crossing of GM plants dangerous. They felt the
technology would prevent re-use9 of seed by farmers growing such terminator
varieties in the developing world and was ostensibly a means to exercise patent
claims10
.
Hybrid seeds11
were commonly used in the developed countries long before
the introduction of GM crops. Hybrid seeds cannot be saved, so purchasing new seed
every year is already a standard agricultural practice.
There are technologies evolving which contain the transgene by biological
means and still can provide fertile seeds using fertility restorer functions12
. Such
methods are being developed by several EU research programmes. Notes: 1terminator - «терминатор», (последовательность нуклеотидов оперона и
транскрибируемой на нем мРНК, обуславливающая прекращение (терминацию) синтеза
РНК; агент обрывающий цепь 2traitor - «изменник», «предатель»
3sterile seeds - стерильные семена
4hypothetical Trait-specific Genetic Use Restriction Technology -предположительная
технология использования специфических генетических особенностей 5engineered traits - инженерные особенности
6proprietary technology - патентованная технология
7wild-type species - дикие виды
8backlash - отрицательная реакция
9re-use - вторичное использование
10patent claims - патентные требования
11hybrid seeds - гибридные семена
12restorer functions - функции восстановителя
GOVERNMENTAL SUPPORT AND OPPOSITION1
Australia.
Several states of Australia had placed bans2 on planting GM food crops,
beginning in 2003.However, in late 2007 the states of New South Wales and Victoria
lifted their bans3. Western Australia lifted their state's ban in December 2008, while
South Australia continues its ban. Tasmania has extended its moratorium until
November 2014. The state of Queensland has allowed the growing of GM crops since
1995 and has never had a GM ban.
Canada.
In 2005, a standing committee4 of the government of Prince Edward Island
(PEI) in Canada assessed a proposal to ban the production of GMOs in the province.
49
The ban was not passed. As of January 2008, the use of genetically modified crops on
PEI was rapidly increasing. Mainland Canada is one of the world's largest producers
of GM canola5.
Japan
As of 2009, Japan has no commercial farming of any kinds of genetically
modified food. Consumers have strongly resisted both imports and attempts to grow
GMO in the country. Campaigns by consumer groups and environmental groups,
such as Consumers Union of Japan6 and Greenpeace Japan, as well as local
campaigns, have been very successful. In Hokkaido, a special bylaw has made it
virtually impossible to grow GMOs, as the No! GMO Campaign collected over
200,000 signatures to oppose GMO farming. Consumers Union of Japan participated
at the Planet Diversity conference in Bonn, Germany on May 12-16, 2008, a global
congress on the future of food and agriculture, with a demonstration to celebrate
biodiversity, to oppose GMOs. Notes: 1governmental support and opposition- правительственная поддержка и оппозиция
2bans-запреты
3lifted bans–снял запреты
4standing committee- постоянный комитет
5canola- канола (разновидность рапса, название, которое дала своему продукту
канадская генно-инженерная фирма Can (ada) o (il) l (ow) a(cid) 6consumers Union of Japan-союз потребителей Японии
Строительный факультет
ВАРИАНТ№ 1
THE HISTORY OF BRIDGE AND TUNNEL BUILDING
1. An outstanding statesman once said in his speech, 'There can be little doubt that in
many ways the story of bridge-building is the story of civilization. By it we can
readily measure an important part of a people's progress." Great rivers are important
means of communication, for in many parts of the world they have been, and still are,
the chief roads. But they are also barriers to communication, and people have always
been concerned with finding ways to cross them.
2. For hundreds of years men have built bridges over fast-flowing rivers or deep and
rocky canyons. Early man probably got the idea of a bridge from a tree fallen across a
stream. From this, at a later stage, a bridge on a very simple bracket or cantilever
principle1 was evolved. Timber beams were embedded into the banks on each side of
the river with their ends extending over the water. These made simple supports for a
central beam reaching across from one bracket to the other. Bridges of this type are
still used in Japan, and in India. A simple bridge on the suspension principle2
was
made by early man by means of ropes, and is still used in countries such as Tibet.
Two parallel ropes suspended from rocks or trees on each bank of the river, with a
platform of woven mats laid across them, made a secure crossing. Further ropes as
handrails3 were added. When the Spaniards reached South America, they found that
50
the Incas of Peru used suspension bridges made of six strong cables, four of which
supported a platform and two served as rails.
3. All these bridges made possible crossings only over narrow rivers The type of
temporary floating bridge,4 the pontoon bridge, has been used for military purposes;
military engineers can construct a temporary bridge on this principle, able to carry all
the heavy equipment of a modem army, in an extremely short time.
The idea of driving wooden piles into the bed of the river in order to support a
platform was put into practice 3,500 years ago. This is the basis of the 'trestle' or pile
bridge5 which makes it possible to build a wider crossing easier for the transport of
animals and goods.
4. With the coming of the railway in the 19th century there was a great
demand for bridges, and the railways had capital for building them. The first railway
bridges were built of stone or brick. In many places long lines of viaducts were built to carry
railways; for instance, there are miles of brick viaducts supporting railways to London.
The next important development in bridge-building was the use of iron and, later, steel. The
first iron bridge crossed the river Severn in Great Britain.
The idea of a drawbridge6, a bridge hinged so that it can be lifted by chains from inside to
prevent passage, is an old one. Some St. Petersburg bridges were built on this principle.
A modern bridge probably demands greater skill from designer and builder than any other
civil engineering project. Many things should be taken into consideration,, and these may vary
widely according to local conditions. In deciding what type of bridge is most suitable the
designer has to consider the type and weight of the traffic, and width and depth of the gap to
be bridged, the nature of the foundations and the method of erecting the bridge. The designer
has to calculate carefully how the various loads would be distributed and to decide which
building materials are more suitable for carrying these loads.
Tunnels
5. Tunnelling is difficult, expensive and dangerous engineering work. Tunnels are built to
provide direct automobile or railway routes through mountain ranges, under or over rivers.
They can also provide underground channels for water, sewage or oil. Before the 19th century
men had not acquired enough skill in engineering to carry out extensive tunnelling. Tunnels,
however, were known in ancient times. They were, for instance, driven into the rock under the
Pyramids of Egypt, and the Romans built one in Rome for their chief drain, parts of which
still remain. One of the earliest tunnels known was made in Babylon. It passed under the
Euphrates river, and was built of arched brickwork being 12 feet high and 15 feet wide.
Other ancient tunnels were built for water supply and for drainage.
6. Modem tunnels are often very long and deep. The SimpIon Tunnel on the France-to-Italy
railway, for example, is 12 miles long and in one place the peaks of the Alps rise over 6,000
feet above it. Some tunnels are over 50 feet in diameter. Many are circular in cross-section.
Others are horseshoe-shaped7, with a level floor on which it is easy to lay permanent roads
and railways.
Tunnel Under Channel.
7. Connecting the Isles of Great Britain to mainland Europe is a fantasy that can be dated
back nearly 200 years.
We can name very few projects against which there existed a deeper and more powerful
prejudice than the construction of a railway tunnel between Dover and Calais.
51
The objections have been cultural, political and, of course, military. The British government
objected to the scheme mainly because they thought that the enemy could easily invade
England through such a tunnel.
The first suggestion to construct a tunnel came from Napoleon in 1800. His engineers even
drafted a tunnel plan, but Britain and France were at war at that time.
In 1988 the question of a Channel Tunnel was studied afresh by a group of French and British
engineers and the work actually began. They agreed to start boring for the Eurotunnel on both
English and French Coasts.
The Tunnel runs under the sea through a layer of dense chalk which is known to be free of
cracks and allows water to penetrate it slowly.
The work proceeded very quickly and was successfully completed in about six years. The
Tunnel was opened to traffic on May 7, 1994.
Two main tunnels, with service tunnel between, carry one-way rail traffic.
8. Original estimate was 7.2 billion dollars at current exchange rates, but cost to date is 13.1
billion dollars shared between Britain, France and other investors. So far the project is not
quite profitable and still needs more investments.
Cars and trucks carried by rail make the crossing in 35 minutes, about an hour less than by
ferry. Passengers remain in their vehicles.
The Tunnel personnel does its best to make passengers feel comfortable and safe during the
crossing. But as it was mentioned by the commercial director of the Tunnel, they still have
many serious problems and one of them is security. Nevertheless, the authorities are sure to be
able to solve all the problems successfully. Notes: 1. a bridge on a bracket or cantilever principle
(= a bracket or cantilever bridge) -
консольный мост
2. a bridge on the suspension principle (suspension bridge) – висячий (подвесной)
мост
3. handrails – поручни
4. a floating bridge - понтонный мост
5. a ―trestle‖ or pile bridge — мост на рамных основах
6. a drawbridge - разводной мост
7. horseshoe-shaped - подковообразный
ВАРИАНТ№ 2
THE TRIUMPH OF HUMAN SPIRIT
The Brooklyn Bridge was built in the year 1883. It is still one of the
most popular places of interest in New York.
The plan for the Brooklyn Bridge was made by a man named John Roebling.
This was in the year 1867.
Roebling was a German. He emigrated to the United States when he was
twenty-five. In 1867 Roebling was already quite famous. Years before he had
invented the steel cable (трос). Using this steel cable he built several bridges, one at
Niagara Falls (Ниагарский водопад) and a second across the Monogahela River at
Pittsburgh. He was sure he could build this new bridge.
52
It was decided to give Roebling a chance. A company was organized.
Roebling was head engineer. He began to work making the plans for the bridge. He
sent his son Washington to Europe to study some new bridges there. Some
experiments had been made with working in a large box under water.
And then the accident happened. Roebling was working near the river. A boat
struck the dock on which he was standing. Two weeks later he died. Before he died
he asked that his son Washington should continue his work.
W. Roebling began to work with the same interest and energy as his father.
The bridge was begun. There were many problems. According to the plans, there
were to be two large towers (башни). One of these towers was to be on the Brooklyn
side of the river and the other was to be on the I Manhattan side. From the towers
hung (свешиваться) a system of steel cables. These steel cables were to hold
(удерживать) the bridge.
Today engineers know how to do these things. They have had experience.
They have special machines. But at that time no one knew exactly how to do this
work. The Brooklyn Bridge was the first bridge of its kind in the world. They used
the new box that Washington Roebling had studied in Europe. The box was made of
wood and was about the size of a house. In this box men could work under water. Air
was forced into the box and the water was forced out of it. It was very dangerous. No
one understood the problems of this kind of work. Men became sick. There were
many accidents. Roebling himself worked with the men in the box. He tried to
encourage the men.
One day a worker went down into the box. He felt perfectly well. Within half
an hour he began to feel strong pains (боль). Five minutes later he was dead. The
same thing happened to other men. One day Roebling himself had a similar attack.
He could not talk. He could not hear. He became paralysed. After a week or two he
felt better. He went back again to work in the box. He had a second attack, more
serious than the first. He could not work again. In feet he was unable to work again
during the rest of his life. He remained a cripple (калека). Yet the work had to
continue. And Washington Roebling continued to direct the construction of the
bridge. His home was near the bridge. He used a telescope. He watched the work
every day. His wife helped him. Each day she went to the bridge. She carried her
husband's orders to the men. She worked with the men. At night she returned to her
husband. She told him about the work of the day. In this way, year after year, the
work continued.
In 1876 the first cable was placed from one tower to the other. In 1883 about
fifteen years after it was first begun, the bridge was officially opened. Many
important people, including the President of the US, took part in the ceremony.
Washington Roebling watched the ceremony through his telescope.
The bridge was one of the wonders of the nineteenth century. It is still today.
There is more traffic on it today than ever before. The bridge remains very strong. It
also remains a monument to the two men who built it, John Roebling and his son
Washington.
53
LONDON AS A PORT
1. What are the "hands" of London known for?
The port of London is to the east of the City. Here, today, are miles and miles of docks, and
the great industrial areas that depend upon shipping. This is the East End of London,
unattractive (непривлекательный) in appearance, but very important to the country's
commerce. The East End is a great proletarian area populated by factory workers, and small
craftsmen. The East End is the "hands" of London. The hands which have built the palaces,
theatres, shops and hotels, the hands which unload the cargoes in the docks, which make
furniture (мебель), dresses, motor cars, and a million and one other things which fill the
shops.
2. How were the goods unloaded in the early days?
The River Thames, flowing from west to east, divides London into two parts known as the
north bank and the south bank. Years ago the Thames used to overflow its banks when the
tide (прилив) came up, but now it has been banked up and you see a fine wide roadway
called the Embankment. The Thames estuary (устье) offered excellent facilities for shipping.
The deep channel and high tide of the lower river enable vessels to pass inland as far as the
bridge and unload in waters that were little troubled by heavy storms in the North Sea. In the
early days they anchored (бросать якорь) in the river and unloaded into small boats and
barges which carried the goods to landing-places on the banks.
3. How are the goods unloaded now?
As the ships grew larger this became too slow a process, and the river was overcrowded,
so docks were constructed, deep-water basins excavated in the banks of the river, where
vessels could come alongside and unloaded their cargoes directly on the wharves (пристань)
or even into lorries if necessary. Vessels increased rapidly in size during the last century and
are still growing, and hence, larger and larger docks have had to be constructed with deeper
and deeper basins.
4. When can ocean-going ships go up the Thames?
The Thames has the benefit (преимущество) of a good tidal range so that the biggest
vessels can go up the river and enter docks at high tide. By closing the dock gates and thus
shutting off their waters from the river, deep water can be maintained in the dock all the time
it is occupied by vessels. On the river there are ocean-going ships, and lines of barges pulled
along by tugs (буксир). Ships up to 6,000 tons can come as far as London Bridge below
which is the part of the river called the Pool.
5. How are the two halves of the drawbridge raised?
The ships can pass under Tower Bridge. It was designed by Sir Horace Jones, London
architect, and Sir John Wolfe Barry, civil engineer. It took eight years to build it (1886-1894).
It has permanent spans (пролет) 270 feet long, suspended on great chains, connecting them
with the river bank and smaller towers (башня) at the shore approaches. The two halves of
the drawbridge each weighing 100 tons, can be raised for the passage of ships by hydraulic
machinery in a minute and a half only.
ВАРИАНТ №3
FROM THE HISTORY OF HUMAN DWELLINGS
1. Where did primitive people look for protection?
54
Most of the time of a modern man is spent within the walls of some building. Houses are built
for dwelling; large buildings are constructed for industrial purposes; theatres, museums,
public and scientific institutions are built for cultural activities of the people. The purposes of
modern buildings differ widely, but all of them originate from the efforts of primitive (перво-
бытный) men to protect themselves from stormy weather, wild animals and human enemies.
Protection was looked for everywhere. In prehistoric times men looked for protection under
the branches of trees; some covered themselves with skins of animals to protect themselves
from cold and rain; others settled in caves (пещеры).
2. What are the earliest types of human dwellings?
When the Ice Age had passed, Europe remained very cold, at least in winter, and so the
people of the Old Stone Age had to find some warm and dry place to shelter from bad
weather. They chose caves, dwelling places that storm and cold could not destroy. On the
walls of their caves ancient people painted pictures. Such decorated caves are found in
Europe, Asia and Africa.
When man began to build a home for himself, caves were imitated in stone structures,
trees were taken as a model for huts built of branches, skins were raised on poles and formed
tents.
Primitive stone structures, huts and tents are the earliest types of human dwellings, they are
lost in the prehistoric past but serve as prototypes for structures of later historic times.
3. Why were the houses in town higher than in the country?
In the days of early civilization, once men had learnt how to build simple houses for their
families, they began to feel a need to have a number of different kinds of houses in one place.
At first the difference was mainly in size - the chief or leader had a larger hut or tent than the
rest of the people. Much later, when men began to build towns, there grew up a difference
between town houses and country houses. The streets in towns were very narrow and there
was not much place for building within the town walls, and therefore houses had to be built
higher than they were in the country. A typical town house consisted of a shop opening on the
street where the man did his work or sold his goods, with a kitchen behind and a bedroom
above
4. What were the houses in ancient Egypt built of?
In the country ordinary people lived in simple one-storey cottages which did not differ
much from the mud and stone huts of an earlier age.
The rich people in the country, on the other hand, built huge castles (замки) with thick
walls and narrow windows. These castles were built not only as dwellings, but also to stand
up to enemy attack and to be strong bases in time of war. The earliest houses of which
anything is known are those of ancient Egypt. They were built of bricks dried in the sun.
Some of them were built around a courtyard or garden with rooms opening into it.
5. How did the light come into early English houses?
Greek houses, too, had a courtyard in the middle and round their courtyard ran a covered
walk (аллея), its ceiling supported by pillars. There were special women's quarters, usually
upstairs on the second storey.
In Rome bricks were used for building and houses were often finished with plaster over
bricks on both inside and outside walls. The centre of family life was a garden-courtyard,
surrounded by columns and with rooms opening out into it.
55
The earliest houses in Britain were round, built of wood or wicker basket work (плетение
из прутьев) plastered over with clay. In the centre of the house was the hearth (очаг) and
light came in through the hole in the roof above it and through the door because there were no
windows.
IMPRESSIONS OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE
(A LETTER FROM ENGLAND) 1. You ask what I think of modern architecture. I don't know very much about
modem architecture in Europe, but styles are probably similar in most countries
today. I think this is because now architects have no opportunities they had in the
past. They are seldom asked to design buildings like wonderful churches and
cathedrals of the Middle Ages. Architects today have to design schools, hospitals and
huge blocks of flats and offices. If they, are asked to make plans for houses, these are
usually all alike or nearly alike.
2. Boxes - that's what a good deal of modern architecture reminds me of. The blocks
of flats in our big towns are huge boxes, whether the fronts and sides are square or
oblong. A man who lives in one of these boxes works in another big box, high up in
the air. If he falls ill, he goes to another big box called a hospital.
3. Architects have done some very good work in designing new schools. Many of
these are prefabricated, which means that as much of the building work as possible is
done not on the building site, but in factories where mass production methods can be
used. The parts are taken to a site and put together there. Children who attend the best
of these new schools are very happy. Their classrooms are light and big, and they
have a fine large assembly hall. The children have dinner at school, and there is a
dining-hall completed with modern kitchen.
4. I began this letter by saying that many modern buildings, especially the blocks of
flats and business offices, were like big boxes. They do look like boxes from the
outside, but when we go inside, we find them very well planned for their purposes.
An architect today has to be an engineer too. The best modern buildings help us to
live and work in comfort. They save plenty of unnecessary work. There is central
heating, for example, instead of the dusty open fires we used to have, with coal to be
carried up long stairs and ashes to be carried down.
5. have given my opinion on what I have seen in England. I know a lot of interesting
work has been done in Scandinavia, and, of course, I've read about the work of Le
Corbusier in France and I'd like to see what American architects are doing now. You
may know the work of the American architect Frank Lloyd Wright. He designed the
Imperial Hotel in Tokyo. It was designed to resist earthquakes and it proved so strong
that it did. It was one of the few buildings in Tokyo that did not fall in the terrible
earthquake of 1923.
ВАРИАНТ №4
THE HOUSE
1. Man has always been a builder. This kind of house he built depended upon the
climate, upon his enemies, and upon the building materials at hand. The first houses in many
56
parts of the world were made of wood, for in those days the greater part of the Earth was
covered with forests. Men tied together the tops of several trees and covered them with the
skins of animals or with leaves and grass. So a tent, or hut, was the first house of the primitive
people who lived where there was much wood. In other regions the most convenient building
material was stone. Men began building houses out of stone very long ago. Although they
were built without cement, the remains of a few of them still exist.
It appears that the most ancient homes on the territory of Russia were earthenhouses. One
such home was discovered near Voronezh m 1927. It consisted of a shallow hole of oval
shape. The floor was covered with limestone slabs.1 The roof had been conical and stood on
poles (столб) covered by branches or animal skins. Such dwellings existed in that part of the
country in the Upper Paleolithic Period (from 40,000 to 12,000 years ago).
2. The ancient Egyptians built very simple houses, by present standards. Having dried the
bricks in the sun, they put up four walls, and above these they placed a flat roof. The roof was
flat because there was very little rain in Egypt. Although their buildings were simple in
construction, the Egyptian art of building was very beautiful. Their pyramids and monuments,
sphinxes and palaces arouse our admiration to this day. An important part in the history of
building has been played by the column, and it was ancient Egypt that gave the world its first
lessons in the art of making columns.
The Greeks learned much from Egypt. But they did not borrow the flat roof. They built a
slanting roof because there was much rain in their) country. The Greeks made the roof slant in
two directions from the middle. They also improved on Egypt's columns and soon became the
teachers of the world in column making.
The Romans, in turn, learned much from the Greeks. First of all they borrowed the
slanting roof and the columns. But they added the arch, thus adding much strength and beauty
to their buildings.
3. In Ancient Russia architecture flourished for the first time in Kiev Russ. Unfortunately only
a few of the church buildings of that period have remained, among them the famous
Cathedral of St Sophia, the cornerstone of which was laid in 1037 to commemorate the
victory over the Pechenegs. The churches of that time were strong buildings with thick walls
and small windows. They often had to serve as fortresses against enemy invasions. During the
Second World War the finest ancient architectural monuments were destroyed and great
effort has gone into restoring them.
4. In the Middle Ages in Europe numerous wars between different nations caused great
damages to the houses of crowded Medieval towns. Therefore many monarchs and nobles
built castles as a form of defence. Those castles had very strong walls, narrow windows and
projecting fortifications.
5. The Renaissance, which was a European movement, lasted roughly from the 14th to the
17th century. During this period, arts and sciences underwent great changes. In architecture
these changes were marked by a return to classical forms and proportions of ancient Roman
buildings.
6. Buildings of the 19th century are characterized by the use of new materials and by a great
diversity of architectural styles. From the end of the 18th century iron and steel became
widely used as alternatives to wood, for by that time many countries experienced shortage of
57
this material. Later the Industrial Revolution brought mass-production of building parts which
were manufactured at a factory and then simply assembled at a site.2
7. The 20th century is notable for widespread use of steel - reinforced concrete.3 Huge
reinforced concrete units manufactured in heated factory premises4 are brought to the site
which becomes something like an assembly shop.5 This technique has many advantages over
other building methods. First of all it cuts the labour needed for building by 60 to 70% and
extends the building season what is very important for countries where winter lasts for many
months Furthermore the duration of building is greatly cut. All this makes the building
process less expensive and much less labourous
Architecture of the 20th century is characterized by very high buildings - particularly
skyscrapers6 - and by great diversity of styles which completely differ from those of the past.
Notes:
1. limestone slab - известняковая плита
2. were simply assembled at a site - просто собирались на строительной площадке
3. reinforced concrete – железобетон
4. heated factory premises - отапливаемые заводские помещения
5. assembly shop - сборочный цех
6. skyscrapers – небоскребы
THE EGYPTIAN PYRAMIDS
Architecture is the art which makes buildings beautiful to look at as well as useful. A
man who designs (проектировать) buildings and makes the plans for them is called an
architect. He has to think not only of what he wants the building to look like when it is
finished, but also what it is to be used for. He must not forget the sort of material to be used in
the building. This may be stone, brick, wood or steel and concrete.
There have been many different styles or kinds of architecture in the past and there are
many different styles today in different parts of the world.
The oldest monuments which are met within architecture are the colossal pyramids of
Egypt most of which were constructed about 6,000 years ago.
The pyramids are large triangular (треугольный) buildings which were placed over the
tombs (могила) of Egyptian kings. The best known of the pyramids are a group of three built
at Giza south of Cairo. The largest of these is 482 feet high. They tell us of the advanced
civilization of ancient Egypt which is much spoken about even in our days.
It was a country which had expert mathematicians and engineers, where
astronomy and philosophy were known and studied.
The country was rich in hard and durable (прочный) stone, but poor in timber and
metal, so that the main material used for construction was granite, and this was the
reason for the durability of the pyramids.
Large blocks of stone were transported over long distances by land and water, and
placed into position with the help of the most primitive equipment. That was done by
slaves (рабы) working for thirty or forty years. All this great amount of work was
done, masses of material and a large territory sometimes of about 52,000 square
meters were used, only for protecting the body of a dead king and constructing a
dwelling place for his happy life in the "other world".
58
ВАРИАНТ №5
AIR POLLUTION AND SMOG ARE THE PROBLEMS OF MODERN
CITIES
The word smog comes from smoke and fog. Smog is a sort of fog with other
substances mixed in. Smog has been here a long time. Billions of years ago,
volcanoes sent millions of tons of ash and smoke into the air. Winds whipped up dust
clouds. Animal and vegetable matter decayed, adding polluting gases.
When people came along, they began to produce their own kind of air
pollution. They discovered fire. In the Middle Ages, people in cities such as London
used soft coal to heat their homes. The smoke from these fires, combined with
moisture in the air, produced dense layers of smog. The smog would blanket the city
for days, particularly in winter. The heat generated in large cities tends to circulate air
within a dome-like shape. This traps the smog and holds it over the city.
Smog, and the chemicals and other substances in it, can be harmful, even
deadly. Smog blurs vision. It irritates the eyes, the throat, and the lungs. Eyes water,
throats get sore, people cough. Smog can make people ill. And it can make sick
people sicker. Air pollution has been linked to eczema, asthma, emphysema,
cardiovascular difficulties, and lung and stomach cancer. It also has a harmful effect
on the environment. Food crops and animals suffer. Paint may peel from houses. It is
obvious that we must do everything possible to reduce man-made atmospheric
pollutants and smog.
Smog, along with smoke, is the most visible evidence of atmospheric
pollution. But some atmospheric pollution is not visible and may not become visible
until it is mixed with moisture. Lead compounds from leaded gasoline, hydrocarbons
(unburned gasoline), carbon monoxide, and other gases may pollute the air without
being seen. All air is polluted to some extent. That is, all air carries some polluting
substances. Much of it is natural: smoke and ash from volcanoes, dust stirred up by
the wind, compounds given off by growing vegetation, gases given off by rotting
animal and vegetable matter, salt particles from the oceans, and so on. Man adds to
these pollutants by burning coal, oil, gas, gasoline, and many other things.
Before we get to the automobile, however, let us review what we know about
combustion. Most fuels, such as coal, gasoline, and wood, contain hydrogen and
carbon in various chemical combinations. During combustion, oxygen unites with the
hydrogen and carbon to form water (H20), carbon monoxide (CO), and carbon
dioxide (C02).
In addition, many fuels contain sulfur; this burns to produce sulfur oxides.
Also, in the heat of combustion, some of the nitrogen in the air combines with oxygen
to form nitrogen oxides (NO). Some of the fuel may not burn completely, so that
smoke and ash are formed. Smoke is simply particles of unburned fuel and soot,
called particulates, mixed with air.
Altogether, it is estimated that 200 million tons of man-made pollutants enter
the air every year in the United States alone. This is about a ton for every man,
woman, and child in the country!
This man-made pollution is what clean-air laws are aimed at.
59
Consider Los Angeles, a large city set in a basin, with about 7,000,000
inhabitants. It is surrounded on three sides by mountains and on the fourth by the
Pacific Ocean. When the wind blows out over the ocean, it sweeps away pollutants.
But at other times, the air is stagnant. Smoke and other pollutants from industry and
automobiles do not blow away. They just build up into a thick, smelly, foggy layer of
smog. The location of Los Angeles, plus all the people and industry there, make it
one of the biggest "smog centers" in the country. And it is Los Angeles which has led
in measures to reduce smog.
Los Angeles has banned unrestricted burning, for example, burning trash.
Incinerators without pollution controls were outlawed. Industry was forced to change
combustion processes and add controls to reduce pollutants coming from their
chimneys. Laws were passed that required the addition of emission controls on
automobiles. All these measures have significantly reduced atmospheric pollution in
the Los Angeles area.
If not controlled, the automobile can give off pollutants from four places.
Pollutants can come from the fuel tank, the carburetor, the crank-case, and the tail
pipe. Pollutants from the fuel tank and carburetor consist of gasoline vapors.
Pollutants from the crankcase consist of partly burned air-fuel mixture that has blown
by the piston rings. Pollutants from the tail pipe consist of partly burned gasoline
(HC), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxide (NO), and - if there is sulfur in the
gasoline - sulfur oxides (SO).
THE STORY OF AMERICAN SCHOOLS
The first schools in America started in the 1600s. The Puritans, that is people who left
England because of their religious beliefs, wanted each person in New England to know the
Bible. So they organized schools to teach religion and basic subjects. But by the 19th century
large numbers of children did not attend school. The problem of children's education started a
great debate in America. There were three groups of people who had different ideas.
One group said that young people should spend their time at home helping their
families. As most Americans lived on farms there was always much agricultural work to be
done.
The second group, mostly businessmen, believed that children should work at
factories. America's Industrial Revolution had begun, and this group knew that there would be
many jobs in manufacturing. Some young people were already working at factories. They
were children from 7 to 16 years old and their working day lasted up to 13 hours.
The third group said that to help create a better society, young people should know
how to write and express their own ideas. Therefore each state should develop a system of
public schools, called free schools, or common schools. This idea had been supported by
Thomas Jefferson, the third president, and later by Abraham Lincoln who said that education
was very important for people.
In 1839 Horace Mann, a Massachusetts-born educator, a lawyer by profession,
opened the first common school in the United States. He devoted his life to this idea and
soon a lot of common schools were opened throughout the state of Massachusetts. His
example attracted national attention. Before long many states were doing what Massachusetts
had done. The free school supporters had won the debate.
60
Энергетический факультет
ВАРИАНТ № 1
FARM ELECTRIC MOTORS SELECTION ACCORDING TO STARTING
REQUIREMENTS
Single-phase electric motors1 are not inherently self-starting. Some special
component part or style of winding must be incorporated into their design before they
will start themselves and any attached load. Various electrical principles are used to
accomplish this purpose, and all except one of the single-phase electric motors are
named after the principle employed. This fact accounts for the following names: split-
phase, capacitor-start induction run capacitor motor, two-value capacitor motor,
repulsion motor2, repulsion-induction motor, repulsion-start induction motor, shaded-
pole motor, and the one exception - the universal motor.
Since different electrical-starting principles are employed, it is understandable
that the motors could very likely have different abilities to start a load. That is exactly
the situation. Therefore, the name not only indicates a certain starting principle but
also designates the motor's ability to develop starting torque. Furthermore, since one
of the motor's jobs is to start the load, the selection of a motor to perform this duty is
made according to the name of the motor.
The actual selection of a motor for starting a certain farm load is commonlyу
made from the three types of motors shown in Figs. 1 and 2 and three-phase type3 of
Fig. 3. The other types of motors are not as widely used, or are available only with
their associated equipment.
Machines that must be started with a part or all of their operating load
attached, or machines which in themselves present a fairly large amount of resisting
Fig. 2. (a) Repulsion-start induction
motor. This motor develops a very
high starting torque. (b) Two-value capacitor motor also
known as a capacitor-start capacitor-run
motor. The capacitors are located in the
base or in the end shields.
Fig. 2. (a) Repulsion-start induction
motor. This motor develops a very
high starting torque. (b) Two-value capacitor motor also
known as a capacitor-start capacitor-run
motor. The capacitors are located in the
base or in the end shields.
61
torque during the starting period, are said to be h a r d t о s t a r t. This category
includes such machines as a meat grinder, the vacuum pump of a milking machine,
Fig. 3. Three-phase squirrel-cage induction motor. It is used when three-phase service
is available. This motor will not start or operate satisfactory on a single-phase system.
Notice that the bearings of this particular motor are lubricated for life.
a small air compressor, a piston-type water pump, and a large-diameter attic fan. The
smaller sizes of feed grinders and conveyers are also classed as h a r d t o s t a r t .
Loads of this type require a motor that develops a high-starting torque. The capacitor-
star induction motor and the three-phase induction (squirrel cage) motor fulfill this
requirement. For the average farm a three-phase supply is not available so the
capacitor-star motor is the suggested solution to the selection problem.
The capacitor-start induction motor is commonly available in sizes ranging
from 1.6 to 5 hp. However, loads in this category do not usually require a motor
larger than 1 hp. This motor develops more starting torque than an equivalent-size
split-phase motor and at the same time has less input current while starting. It has a
greater initial cost than the split-phase motor, from one and one half to two times
more, but other than starting, its operating characteristics are the same.
Many farm machines offer a very large resisting torque when being started,
since they must be started while completely loaded, or under conditions which cause
even greater loads than normal. Such machines as large air compressors or
refrigeration compressors, small feed grinders (up to 1 hp), certain elevator
conveyers, and many of the larger water pumps fall into this category.
The capacitor-start motor described in the previous section may be
satisfactory for these jobs. However, the repulsion-start induction-type motor
develops more starting torque and is best adapted for the h a r d e s t-t o-s t a r t loads.
The repulsion-start motor develops about 20 per cent more starting torque than the
capacitor-start motor, and even then it requires less input current. The lower value of
input current is very important since it means less voltage drop in the lines which
serve the motor. This line-voltage-drop factor validates still further the selection of a
repulsion-start induction motor for the very-hard-starting loads.
The repulsion-start induction motor has more parts than the capacitor-start
motor and may be 7 to 12 per cent more expensive in the smaller sizes, but the cost
from 1.2 hp and upward is usually the same. This motor has brushes and a
commutator which may require occasional attention and, in general, a variety of
sizes are not readily available in many electrical stores. The larger stores usually
stock the motor in sizes ranging from 1.6 to 10 hp. Its principal advantage is that it
62
has the highest starting torque per input ampere of any of the single-phase induction
motors.
Larger loads such as ensilage cutters, large feed mills, conveyers, gutter
cleaners4, mixers, and blowers are usually hard or very hard to start, and require
motor sizes such as 1.5, 2, 3, and 5 hp. This type of load is separated from the others
since the driving motor must develop a large running torque and consequently will
also develop a large starting torque. One type of motor which was previously
described, the repulsion-start type, will also be satisfactory for these larger loads. In
addition, two other types, the capacitor-start capacitor-run motor and the three-phase
induction motor (squirrel-cage type), are quite well adapted for these applications.
The capacitor-start capacitor-run type (also termed a two-value capacitor
motor) has essentially the same starting characteristics as the capacitor-start motor
but has better running performance. It has a higher efficiency and a higher power
factor and is in effect an improved capacitor-start motor for the larger-horsepower
sizes. The cost is approximately the same as that of the repulsion-start motor, and the
motor is normally available in sizes from 1.2 to 10 hp.
For sizes over 1 hp the three-phase induction motor is the least expensive of the three
types. It has about the same starting torque as the capacitor type and is the most
rugged, reliable, and satisfactory motor of the group. This motor is highly
recommended if three-phase power is available. It is manufactured in sizes ranging
from 1.6 hp upward. Notes: 1single-phase motor – однофазный мотор
2repulsion motor – репульсионный мотор
3three-phase motor – трехфазный мотор
4gutter cleaner - канавоочиститель
ВАРИАНТ №2
FARM ELECTRIC MOTORS SELECTION ACCORDING TO THE
SURROUNDINGS
After having determined the horsepower rating of the motor for driving the
load and the type of motor that will satisfactorily start the load, the remaining
decisions involve those selections which are related to the location and surroundings
in which the motor will be operated.
Enclosures1. The enclosure, or housing, is most important in protecting the
working parts of the motor. Frequently motor failures occur or the life of the motor is
greatly reduced because the type of enclosure was not given proper consideration.
There are six standard types of enclosures, but unless the farm motor application is
most exceptional, only three of these types need to be considered. These are the open-
dripproof, the splashproof, and the totally enclosed types.
The most common type of enclosure for electric motors is the open-dripproof
type2. The motors of Figs. 1 and 2 have this type of enclosure. It is applicable for
locations in which the atmosphere is relatively free from foreign particles or
splashing liquids. It should not be selected if the motor is to operate near a water
spray, in the rain, or in areas containing lint, dust, or metallic or grain particles. In
63
general, if the atmosphere bothers the operator, it is certain to be too much for this
type of enclosure. The ventilation openings are near the base of the enclosure and
provide for air circulation which cools the motor's windings. If excessive amounts of
foreign particles, water, or oil are pulled inside through these openings, they destroy
the insulation on the windings by causing overheating of the wires. The foreign
particles may also get into the bearings and cause excessive wear.
Regardless of this limitation, the open-dripproof enclosure is suggested for general-
purpose use around the farm.
The splashproof type3 of enclosure provides more protection against water
and dust than does the dripproof type. This enclosure is especially well suited for the
dairy farm and for processing rooms where washing of the equipment is required. It is
also installed outdoors but should be covered when not in use. The housing protects
the motor against water and particles, with the exception of the small amounts I hat
may enter at an angle upward from the floor. The over-lead and sides are completely
shielded. The splashproof enclosure is shown in Fig. 4.
The totally enclosed type of enclosure affords the most reliable protection for
the motor of any of these types. (No air is circulated through the motor since there are
no external openings, but the cooling is accomplished by direct radiation and by
convection.) The totally enclosed motor should be used in many places around the
farm, but so far its use is not too common. It is a good selection for the driving motor
of a feed grinder or similar machine where the atmosphere is filled with dust and
small pieces of grain, and it is also adapted to areas subjected to water sprays. A mo-
tor having a totally enclosed housing is shown in Fig. 5.
Overload Protection. An overload means that the amount of current flowing
to the motor is greater than the value of current marked on the nameplate of the
motor. A motor must have current in order to produce torque, but the current also
produces heat. The insulation on the motor's windings is not injured if the motor
temperature is within the rated limits (usually 40°C above room temperature) but is
Fig. 4. The motor wittua splash Fig. 5. The totally enclosedfmotor
proof type of enclosure. is adequately protected from water, dust, and
int.
64
damaged by higher temperatures. It is only logical that proper protection against
excessive current be provided before operating the motor. Excessive current flows to
a motor owing to any one of the following reasons:
1. the connected load is too great or becomes jammed;
2. the belt is too tight;
3. the bearings are worn or need lubrication;
4. the input voltage to the motor is too low;
5. the (V-type) pulleys are cut of line;
6. alignment of the bearings is faulty owing to unequal tightening of the end
shields or base.
It may appear that these items can be avoided, but it is quite unlikely that they
could all be avoided over a period of years.
There are four types of overload protection for farm electric motors. One of
these is installed by the manufacturer and is known as built-in-overload protection.
Most types and sizes of motors for farm use are available with this protection. It is
primarily suggested for motor sizes of 1 hp and less and is available in two styles -
the automatic reset and the manual reset4. The automatic reset stops the motor in case
of an overload and starts it again after it has cooled. This reset is not used for motors
driving machines around which people are working, as there is a possibility of
someone attempting to clear or clean the machine just as it starts again. Motors
equipped with a manual-reset built-in overload are restarted by pressing a small
button on the motor frame. These overload controls operate on the bimetallic-strip
principle, and a certain length of time for cooling is necessary before the motor can
be restarted.
A second type of overload protection is the time-delay fuse. It is the cheapest
of the four types so far as initial cost is concerned but must be replaced after it has
performed its function. The correct ampere size for the time-delay fuse is obtained by
multiplying the motor-nameplate current value by 1.15 or by selecting a fuse rating
which exactly corresponds with the nameplate value.
The manually operated motor starting switch is a very excellent type of
overload control for motor sizes up to 1 hp. A similar switch with a larger frame is
manufactured for sizes up to 3 hp. This overload control consists of a metal
enclosure, a switch, bimetallic strips or a solder-and-ratchet wheel mechanism and a
heater coil. The ampere rating of the heater coil or strip is selected by multiplying
1.15 by the motor-nameplate current value. The motor current flows through the
heater coil, and the coil is designed to supply the necessary amount of heat to trip the
switch mechanism if excessive current flows to the motor. The overload heater coil
upon installation its ampere-rating tab should be retained and fastened to the switch,
either in the switch lever or on the coil itself. The life of the coil is indefinite, but
owing to the wide variety of types and sizes, replacements are not usually stocked
locally, so it is well to include a spare with the initial order.
The fourth type of overload protection for farm electric motors is the
magnetic starting switch. The overload protection is once again gained as a result of
heat generated by a heater coil or strip. When a predetermined amount of heat is
being developed by the heater, the overload contacts open, thereby interrupting the
65
flow of current to the main coil of the switch. Deenergizing the main coil breaks the
contacts to the motor. The magnetic switch is operated with pushbutton control or
with a single-pole toggle switch5. The pushbutton control is available as an integral
part of the magnetic-switch enclosure or as a separate unit which can be remotely
located for the convenience of the operator. It is always good practice to have a
switch instead of using the plug cap of the attached cable as a switch. The larger the
motor size, the more necessary a switch becomes, and one should be used for all sizes
from 1.2 hp upward. The magnetic starting switch is especially suggested for the 3-
and 5-hp motors and is recommended for use with the 1.5 - and 2-hp sizes. It is a very
satisfactory type of switch and provided for no-voltage protection as well as
protection against excessive current. Compared to the contacts of a double-pole
manually operated switch, the fast-operating, positive-acting contact points of a
magnetic switch perform much better and last longer. Notes: 1enclosure – кожух, корпус, вид исполнения двигателя
2open – dripproof – каплезащитное исполнение
3splash – proof – брызгонепроницаемое исполнение
4reset – возврат
5single – pole toggle switch – однополюсный рычажный выключатель
ВАРИАНТ №3 MANUAL ELECTRIC DRIVE CONTROLS
Switches. Every electric circuit must have some type of switch. Therefore a
switch is the most basic of all electrical controls. Its purpose is to open and close an
electric circuit. It must start and stop the flow of electricity, and, in effect, it does this
by connecting and disconnecting wires. The switch contacts always become a part of
the electric wire that is used for supplying electricity to the appliance in question.
Therefore, when the switch contacts are open, the wire is effectively broken, and
when the contacts are closed, the wire is made to be continuous again.
In addition to having contacts that open and close, a switch must have a
second mechanical feature: The contacts must open and close quickly. This is known
as the s n a p - a c t i o n feature of a switch. A switch would operate without this
feature, but it would not last very long. There is an arc when the flow of electricity is
started and another arc when the flow is stopped. The latter arc causes the switch
contacts to become pitted, burned, and worn. The greater the arc, the greater is the
wear on the contacts. If the contacts open and close very quickly, the amount of
arcing will be greatly reduced. For this reason a mechanical means of-causing the
switch contacts to snap open or closed must be incorporated in the switch
mechanism. There is an exception to this requirement in the case of a mercury switch,
for its contacts do not move. The quick opening and closing is achieved by a sudden
movement of a p o o l of mercury.
Approved nomenclature relative to the p o l e and t h r o w designation of a
switch is shown by illustration in Fig. 6.
The AC Relay. A relay is a type of switch having contacts which are
operated by magnetism. The contacts of the relay open and close circuits just the
66
same as if the contacts had been operated by hand. The magnetism is created by
allowing an electric current to pass through a coil of wire, and the magnetism is
removed when the flow of current through the coil is stopped. A switch, separate
from the relay, is used to connect and disconnect the coil from the source of power.
The principle of operation of a relay is illustrated in Fig. 7. The separate
switch which connects the relay coil to the source of power may be any type of
manually operated switch, or it may be an automatically operated type. The
magnetism created by the coil causes certain metal parts to snap together. The
movement of one of the metal parts operates the contacts of the relay. The electrical
input to the appliance is controlled by the relay contacts. When the coil of Fig. 7 is
connected to the voltage source, the end moves upward and the contacts close. The
movable contact is insulated from the movable metal part.
Although the relay contacts of Fig. 7 are normally open and close when the
coil is energized, they could be arranged to be normally closed, and then would open
when the coil was magnetized. Most applications use the normally open type of
contact. A further variation in the contacts is obtained by using double-pole-switch
contacts (four-contact button) instead of the single-pole type illustrated in the figure.
The current rating of the contacts is very important, and proper selection depends
upon the current flow to the appliance which is to be controlled.
The main advantage in using a relay is that the switch and wires which
control the current flow to the relay coil do not conduct the current to the appliance.
Since the current required for energizing the coil is quite small (less than 1 amp), the
wire and switch can have low-current ratings and proportionately low costs. The large
appliance current is conducted through the contacts of the relay. Also the switch may
be placed at a distant position from the appliance since long lengths of small-size
wire between switch and coil do not cause voltage drop in the wires leading to the ap-
pliance. This type of arrangement is .well adapted for controlling motors, heaters, or
large lighting loads from remotely located small-size switches.
Pushbuttons.1 The momentary-contact manually operated pushbutton is the
most common type of remote control device for starting and stopping electric motors.
It is also used for .operating the electric-relay type of circuit.
This control is not the same as the pushbutton wall switches2 that-are
sometimes used in the home for controlling lights. That type of pushbutton is not
momentary contact; Instead its contacts remain open or closed until the opposite
button is pressed. Another difference is that the pushbutton wall switch is a complete
control in itself, whereas the momentary-contact pushbutton requires other equipment
in performing its controlling function.
The standard-duty pushbutton control for farm use is usually the two-button
type. The function of each button is clearly labeled on the button or on the metal
cover. Pushbutton use for circuit control is illustrated in Fig. 8. The buttons and their
related contacts are held in position by springs. The buttons are usually made of
bakelite or similar moulded insulation, and the contacts are silver or silver alloy. The
current rating of the button contacts is small (1, 2, or 3 amp) since the appliance
current does not flow through these contacts. Knockout holes for the wiring are
provided in the metal or bakelite cases.
67
The pushbutton control illustrated in Fig. 8 starts and stops the flow of current
to a relay coil. The contacts of the relay, in turn, control the power input to the
appliance. Which in this illustration is several electric strip heaters. When the start
button is pressed downward, current flows from L1 through both pushbuttons,
through the relay coil and back to L2. The contacts snap closed and the appliance is
on. When the start button is released, a spring3 causes it to return to its normal
position (the normal position is up ns shown in the figure). With the start pushbutton
in the released position current cannot flow through its contacts, but notice that the
relay contacts labeled x and у would be dosed and would conduct the current around
the start button find on to the coil. When the stop button is pressed downward, the
current flow to the coil is interrupted, the coil loses its magnetism, and the relay
contacts open, thereby disconnecting the appliance. Notes: 1pushbuttons – кнопки, клавиши
2pushbutton wall switch – настенный кнопочный выключатель
3a spring – пружина
ВАРИАНТ № 4
AUTOMATICAL ELECTRIC DRIVE CONTROLS
Thermostats. A thermostat is a switch, but it is a special kind of switch. Its switch
contacts must open and close automatically in response to1 changes in temperature. A
thermostat 18 therefore an automatic electric switch used for temperature control.
Classified according to usage, there are two general types of thermostats. The type
for heating equipment has contacts which close when temperature decreases. When the
temperature increases up to some predetermined value2, the contacts automatically open and
disconnect the heating equipment. If the temperature decreases a small amount (usually 1° to
4° F) below this predetermined value, the contacts close and the heating unit functions,
raising the temperature bask to the original value. The other type of thermostat is for cooling
and has contacts which close on a temperature rise. When the temperature increases up to a
certain value, the contacts of the thermostat close and start an air-conditioning unit, a fan, or a
refrigerator. When the temperature is back down to the desired value, the contacts open and
stop the cooling equipment.
Thermostats are undoubtedly the most widely used type of automatic control and
already have found many applications on the farmstead. They are used in hot-water systems,
electric hotbeds, electric brooders, electric incubators, refrigeration systems, crop driers,
ventilating-fan cooling systems, electric stock waterers, electric ovens, and electric irons and
for controlling the heating system of the farm residence and other farm buildings. Several
different types of thermostats are shown in Fig. 14.
It does not matter whether the thermostat is to be used for heating or for cooling; its
switch contacts could be operated by the action of a bellows. A bellows is like a balloon in
that It expands when the pressure inside is increased and contracts when the pressure is
decreased. Actually, the bellows lengthens and shortens rather than changing in diameter. The
change in the length of the bellows trips and resets the switch mechanism, and so to
understand why the switch contacts open and close, it is necessary to know why the pressure
inside the bellows changes in amount.
68
The bellows3 is connected by a small metal tube to a metal bulb which contains liquid
and gas. When the liquid inside the bulb is heated, it begins to boil (evaporate) and
change into gas. The additional gas created by the boiling liquid causes an increase in
pressure inside the bulb, the tube, and the bellows. The bellows will expand (get
longer), owing to this increase in pressure. When the gas inside the bulb is cooled, it
begins to condense thereby changing back into the liquid form. Less gas means less
pressure inside the bulb, the tube, and the bellows.
Fig. 14. Thermostats used on farms. The air switch shown on the left has a coiled bimetallic strip which operates a mercury
switch. The bellows type with bulb and capillary tube, the bimetallic-strip type, and the wafer type are also pictured in this
figure.
Owing to the decreased pressure, the bellows contracts (gets shorter) .and allows the
switch contacts to change position. It is significant to realize that the switch contacts
are opened and closed in accordance with the temperature surrounding the metal
bulb; therefore the location of the metal bulb is very important. The location of the
thermostat itself is not important in controlling temperature, but the length of the tube
which connects the bellows to the bulb must be considered when planning the various
installations4.
The amount of pressure required for expanding the bellows and operating the
switch contacts is influenced by spring tension. The tension is adjustable and opposes
the expansion of the bellows. The gas pressure inside the bellows will then have to be
greater before the bellows can expand. Accordingly, the switch contacts will not be
operated until the temperature increases, thus resulting in a greater gas pressure. Most
metals expand when heated, but they do not expand the same amount. Two unlike
metals which expand different amounts with an equal change in temperature provide
the important mechanism in a bimetallic thermostat. The unlike metals are bonded
together into one unit, and when the surrounding temperature increases, one metal
expands more than the other, which causes the unit to bend. This bending action is
used to trip and reset the switch contacts. Refer to Fig. 9 for an illustration of the
bimetallic-strip principle, but realize that the bimetallic strips of a thermostat
automatically reclose and do not need to be manually reset is do the contacts of the
unit shown in this figure.
Usually this type of thermostat is cheaper than the bellows type. It has fewer
parts. However, it differs in application in that the thermostat itself must be placed in
the location where the temperature control is desired. This placement is necessary
since the bimetallic strip is the item that responds to temperature changes, and it is
mounted inside the thermostat housing. In the bellows type the bulb responds to the
changes, and it is separated from its associated thermostat housing. The wafer
thermostat is the cheapest of the three types that are used on the farm in connection
69
with electric heating. It consists of two hollow metal disks5, the switch mid its
contacts, and a frame for holding the parts in place. The metal disks are filled with
gas. When the gas is heated, the pressure increases and the disks expand. The
expansion pushes the switch contacts open. When the disks are cooler, they contract
and the switch contacts close. The thermostat is not calibrated in degrees, but this
may be done locally. Like the bimetallic type, the entire thermostat must be located at
that position where the temperature is to be controlled.
Notes: 1in response – в ответ на…
2predetermined value – предопределенная величина
3the bellows – мембрана, сифон
4installation - установка
5hollow metal disk – полные металлический диск
ВАРИАНТ№ 5 PARAMETERS OF AN ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
Parameters of an electric circuit are made up of three circuit components:
resistance, inductance and capacitance which determine the circuit characteristics.
1. The resistance of the circuit is determined by the properties of the conductor
of the circuit. It is not necessary that the circuit be made of segments of equal
resistance1.
2. The amount of magnetic linkage (the number of magnetic flux tubes linking
the circuit) per unit current is a mea of the inductance of the circuit:
3. If conductors are connected to metal plates, which are separated by a
vacuum or insulator, an electric potential will be built between the metal plates.
Electrical flux tubes will extend from one plate to the other. The intensity of the ele-
ctric field per unit potential is a measure of the capacitance2 of the circuit.
The purpose of any circuit is to transfer electric energy from an electric
generator battery of alternator3 to some other point of the circuit, where electric
energy is converted to some other form of energy, such as heat, light or mechanical
energy. It should be understood that energy is transmitted only when both electric and
magnetic field exist around the сconductor. The amount of energy transfer depends
on the intensities the electric and magnetic fields.
ELECTRIC MOTORS
The electric motor is exceptionally well suited for farm jobs, as it is efficient in
converting electric energy into mechanical energy, is easy to start and stop and can
be controlled automatically. Its overload capacity makes it particularly important as a
farm power unit since it can develop more than twice its rated power for periods of a
few minutes without damage. Electric motors when properly selected and installed
serve many years and require only periodic care. The electric motor has probably
done more to make the farmer's standard of living equal to that of the urban
resident than any other electric device including the electric lamp.
There are many different sizes of electric motors. Why are these different sizes
needed or, in other words, what is different about the various loads that causes one to
70
select one of motor for this application and another for a different application? The
answer is obtained by examining the characteristics of the various loads.
Any equipment4 requiring an electric motor has moving parts. The parts
represent an opposition to being moved, and in order for the motor to rotate it has to
develop enough force to overcome all opposition to its rotation. The turning effort
that the motor uses to overcome the opposition is called torque. The opposition is
called countertorque or resisting torque. The amount of counter-torque depends upon
the construction of the equipment and upon the amount of opposition added when the
machine is performing its job. Equipment with large, heavy, moving parts require-
more torque than equipment with lightweight parts. A 16-ft conveyor requires more
torque when it is operating at а 450 angle than it does when it is horizontal. The more
torque necessary) for turning the load, the larger is the horsepower rating5 of the
motor required for the job.
POWER TRANSFORMERS
The power transformer is an electric machine, without moving parts, for
transforming alternating voltage from a higher to a lower voltage or from a lower to a
higher voltage. It consists of two electric circuits called the primary and secondary
and a steel con (which forms a magnetic circuit). Either coil transformer may be used
as primary or secondary. Most transformers are designed for widely different
primary and secondary voltages. The coil with the high voltage is called the high-
tension winding and the one with low voltage the low-tension winding.
When a high voltage coil is the primary and the low voltage is secondary the
transformer is called a step-down transformer. When the reverse connection is used,
the transformer is called a step-up transformer. The ratio of the high-side voltage to
the low-side voltage the ratio of transformation.
Generally speaking, transformers may he designed for any desired ratio of
transformation. Common ratios are 5:1, 10:1, 20:1.
Transformer Name Plate. The name plate on the transformer gives the
voltage and kva ratings of the transformer and shows how the coils are connected. It
is common practice to build the lowvoltage winding in two coils and bring four
lead; to the outside of the transformer case. The coils may be connected in series or
parallel. If the coils are for 115 or 230 volts, they will supply rated kva at either
voltage.
The transformer should always be connected as shown on the nameplate.
Otherwise a short circuit which would damage the windings may result.
Transformer Connections. Single-phase transformers may be used for either
single-phase, two-phase or three-phase connections. One single-phase transformer
may he used to supply three-wire 115-230 volts or 230 460 volts
Since the secondary winding is electrically insulated from the primary, any
point of the secondary may be connected to ground. In single-phase, 115-230-volt
circuits it is common practice to ground the centre of the winding. If the system is a
three wire, 230-volt circuit with the centre of the coil grounded, there is a potential of
115 volts from the ground to either wire. The transformer case should be grounded. Notes: 1resistance - сопротивление
71
2capacitance - емкость
3alternator – генератор переменного тока
4equipment - оборудование
5horsepower rating – мощность в лошадиных силах
Институт инженерных систем, сервиса и энергетики
ВАРИАНТ №1
AUTOMOTIVE ENGINES AND TRACTORS HISTORY AND
DEVELOPMENT OF ENGINES
During the early part of the twentieth century, some steam-operated1
automobiles were in use. Since the steam engine can be stopped and started or
reversed at will, no clutch or transmission was required. However, the troubles
encountered in the operation of the steam engine, along with the development of
internal combustion engines2 and storage batteries
3, resulted in the gradual
elimination4 of the steam-propelled automobile. The development of the automobile
in the 1890's did much to further the development of the internal combustion engine.
Gradual acceptance of the automobile into our form of living brought about a demand
for dependability, economy, smoothness and quietness of operation, and increased
power and speeds. Early internal combustion engines used in automobiles had few
cylinders, had low-compression pressures, and developed little power. The engines
were large and of considerable weight, and were quite noisy and rough in operation.
In order to improve the performance of the automobile, it was necessary to
increase the power developed by the engine. This was generally accomplished by
increasing the size or number of cylinders or the length of the stroke5. However, such
improvements usually increased the weight and cumbersomeness6 of the engine.
Regardless of the number or size of the cylinders, these were all low-compression
engines approximately, 60 psi (pounds pressure per square inch). Top engine speeds
seldom exceeded 2,000 rpm (revolutions per minute).
The acceptance by the public of the automobile as a means of transportation
produced a demand for the improvement and development of roads. As more people
began to use and operate automobiles, the demand increased for greater reliability,
higher speeds, and economy of operation.
Improvements in fuels permitted higher compression pressures, resulting in
increases in power and engine speeds. Higher engine speeds, along with the improved
fuels, required changes in the combustion chamber7 design, resulting in a more even
burning of the fuel mixture within the cylinder. As engine speeds increased, the
timing of the valves8 became more critical. High operating speeds required that the
valves be held open for longer periods of time in order to allow sufficient time for the
fuel charge to enter the cylinder and the burned gases to be expelled.
72
The demand for better materials resulted in the rapid development of the
various sciences. While science, has contributed much to the modern automobile
engine, the engine has likewise contributed much to science by creating the need for
better materials. The requirements for interchangeable parts to permit mass
production have revolutionized manufacturing processes. While it can be said that
modern manufacturing methods make possible the present-day automobile engine, it
is equally true that the automobile engine has made possible the present methods and
standards in manufacturing.
While the internal combustion engine has undergone numerous changes in
design and construction, its basic principle of operation has not changed. Many
engines operate on the four-stroke-cycle9 principle patented by Dr. Otto in 1876.
Others operate on the two-stroke-cycle principle. Aside from improvements
in materials and methods, the chief changes that have been made in these engines are:
(1) Increased compression ratios.
(2) Improved valve timing.
(3) Better balance of moving parts.
(4) Better mixing and distribution of fuel.
(5) More accurate timing of fuel charge ignition
These changes have resulted in compact, powerful, highly efficient engines,
of light weight that can operate at extremely high speeds. The weight per horsepower
developed has been reduced to but a fraction10
of the weight of early engines.
Nevertheless, in principle, the modern automobile engine is the same as originally
conceived.
WHO INVENTED THE CAR?
Two Germans, Carl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler, both took credit for making
the first car. Eventually the car companies that they founded combined to become the
Daimler-Benz Company, which still produces Mercedes-Benz automobiles more than
100 years later.
Carl Benz was born in 1844, 10 years after Gottlieb Daimler. Both Germans
were mechanical engineers who worked to develop internal combustion engines that
ran on liquid gasoline. Then they installed the engines on bicycles, carriages and
other vehicles that were normally powered by people or animals. When these early
experiments worked well, the inventors continued to improve their designs until the
first cars were ready to race.
Carl Benz used a gasoline-powered engine with one cylinder to power a
three-wheeled car in 1885, but he did not get it patented until 1886. His car had a
tiller to steer the front wheel. Carl Benz began selling his cars in 1887. Gottlieb
Daimler patented his internal combustion engine in 1885. He also invented a
carburetor. Gottlieb Daimler sold one of his first cars to the Sultan of Morocco in
1889. In 1926, the two companies became the Daimler-Benz Company.
Other European and American inventors added innovations to make other
versions of early automobiles. Emile Levassor, a French man, was the first person to
think of putting the engine in the front of the car. This allowed a more powerful
73
engine than those used by either Benz or Daimler. Levassor's engine had two
cylinders. He showed off his automobile in a 700-mile race in France, which he won
in 49 hours.
Automobile races became popular ways for American car makers to test
market their designs. They also helped get the onlookers interested in perhaps
becoming car owners someday. One famous car race happened in Chicago on
Thanksgiving Day in 1895. Two car makers from Springfield, Massachusetts, Charles
and Frank Duryea, entered one of the two cars that finished the 49-mile race. The
other winner was one of Carl Benz's cars from Germany.
It did not take many years before cars became affordable to regular people. In
1900, 48,000 people attended the first National Automobile Show in New York's
Madison Square Garden. In 1908, Henry Ford started the Ford Motor Company,
which became famous for building the Model T, which sold for $850 at first. It got
cheaper, though - 8 years later, a Model T Ford only cost $360. New 2009 Fords
range in price from $17,000 to more than $34,000.
Notes: 1 steam-operate – с паросиловой установкой
2 internal combustion engine – двигатель внутреннего сгорания
3 storage battery – аккумуляторная батарея
4 elimination – устранение, отстранение
5 stroke – удар, ход поршня
6 cumbersomeness - громоздкость
7 combustion chamber – камера сгорания
8 valve – клапан
9 four-stroke-cycle – четырехтактный цикл
10 fraction – дробь, частица, доля
ВАРИАНТ №2
A COMPARISON OF SPARK-IGNITION1 AND
COMPRESSION-IGNITION2 ENGINES
CI and SI Engine Uses. The gasoline engine has been most useful in
automobiles, light trucks, a type tractor. The diesel or oil-burning engine has been
most popular in boats, in locomotives, and in powerhouses. As the speed of the diesel
engine has been increased, it has been used in more farm tractors, particularly in
those of the crawler type. Because of other, characteristics the diesel engine is
gaining favor for the row or wheel type of farm tractor.
What, essentially, are the differences between the CI and SI engines?
The SI Fuel System. One of the main differences is how the fuel is mixed. In
the SI engine we must provide a carburetor or mixer. This is a device for mixing air
with fuel. There are several hundred different carburetors in use. Some are quite
simple and others are extremely complicated. One characteristic of most carburetors
is that they must be in operation almost on a level or the liquid fuel will leak out. This
sometimes causes faulty operation when the tractor SI engine is tipped at a
considerable angle or when the farm truck goes around a corner.
74
The CI Fuel System. The CI engine does not have a carburetor. The fuel is
not mixed with the air outside of the cylinder space as in the SI engine. As a
substitute for the carburetor, a pump3 and an injector
4 are used. There are not as many
injectors in use as there are carburetors, but injectors and pumps are very precise
instruments. There is an injector or nozzle5 for every cylinder. Their purpose is to
prevent the air within the combustion chamber6 from leaking out but at the same time
inject a stream of fuel into the hot compressed gases at the correct time and interval.
It is, therefore, apparent that the air and fuel must mix within the combustion space.
The correct mixing of the fuel and air in the space above the piston is a difficult
design problem.
Injectors and Carburetors. In the SI engine, air and fuel are compressed
together. In the CI engine, the air alone is compressed in the cylinder space the fuel is
compressed as a liquid by a pump at the side of the engine. This pump must develop
a pressure greater than that of the air within the cylinder. The usual pressure is about
2700 psia (pounds per square inch, absolute). As the pressures in the cylinder before
combustion will seldom be higher than 800 psia the liquid fuel can be forced into the
cylinder at the proper time. Of course, this pump requires a force to operate it, and it
is negative work; that is, it does not add to our output of power. The ordinary
carburetor does not require any power to operate; there is some friction loss,
however.
Terminology. Usually the term SI means or implies that a carburetor is being
used. The CI engine never has a carburetor, - as the fuel is forced into the cylinder
space by an injector. The injection of the fuel is sometimes misnamed7 solid injection.
As the fuel is not in solid form, this is a misnomer8. A better name is liquid injection.
Throttling9. The carburetor of the SI engine must deliver the fuel to the
manifold10
and to the cylinder in rather definite ratios of fuel to air. If this is not done,
the engine will not operate correctly. The usual fuel-to-air ratio would be about 1 lb11
of fuel to 15 lb of air. Not only must the ratio be correct, but also the amount of
mixture fed to the cylinder must be controlled. The usual method of controlling the
amount of mixture, and therefore the power arid speed of the SI engine, is to install a
butterfly valve in the passageway leading from the carburetor to the manifold. By
turning this butterfly valve it is possible to regulate the amount of fuel and air from a
zero to a maximum. Moving the butterfly valve is called throttling. That is, throttling
an engine would imply regulating its speed. A closed throttle would allow the engine
to idle a full throttle would allow the engine to develop full power or speed. The
manifold throttle is a characteristic of the SI engine. It is not found on the CI engine.
It is an important difference between the two types of engines. The throttle has
considerable influence on the efficiency of the SI type of engine; for when the throttle
is almost fully open, the efficiency is the highest; when the throttle is at idling
position; the efficiency is the lowest.
Thus, the SI engine power is varied by manifold throttling. This means that
the amount of the fuel mixture is varied. In the diesel, only the fuel amount is varied;
the air volume remains relatively constant. Thus a diesel can operate on such a small
quantity of fuel that the air-to-fuel ratio may became 100:1, which is a very
economical ratio. This explains why the diesel will operate economically at light
75
loads. The large amount of surplus air also causes the diesel to operate at lower
temperatures. Thus, because of combustion characteristics, the diesel runs more
economically, and cooler at the slower speeds. And, because of the possible higher
compression ratio, the diesel is able to convert more of the heat energy of the fuel
into work energy at any speed.
Heavier Parts. The diesel engine has to be made heavier than the gasoline
engine in order to withstand12
the higher pressures. These pressures are against the
cylinder walls or liners, against the head and valves, and against the piston head.
These additional pressures are transferred through the piston head to the piston pin
through the connecting rod and to the crankshaft pin. All these parts must be made
heavier. The crankshaft13
is heavier, the rods are stronger, the bearings are thicker and
wider, and more bearings are used. Almost every diesel has a main bearing between
each crank throw for greater support. All this extra strength requirement means a
heavier engine and a more expensive engine.
Notes: 1 abbr. SI - искровое (электрическое) зажигание
2 abbr. CI - компрессионное воспламенение, воспламенение сжатием
3 pump – насос, накачивать
4 injector – инжектор, форсунка
5 nozzle – наконечник, сопло, форсунка
6 combustion chamber – камера сгорания
7 misname – неправильно называть
8 misnomer – неправильный термин, неправильное употребление термина
9 throttling - дросселирование
10 manifold – патрубок, труба, трубопровод
11 lb. – фунт (0,453 кг.)
12 to withstand –противостоять, сопротивляться, выдерживать
13crankshaft – коленчатый вал
ВАРИАНТ №3
COOLING SYSTEMS
The function of the cooling system is to maintain the temperature of the
engine at that temperature which the engineers have found advisable and for which
they designed the engine. Any variation to any extent above or below this optimum
temperature invites trouble and early engine deterioration1. There are two types of
liquid cooling systems based on the forces that circulate the coolant2. These two types
are the gravity3, natural, or thermosiphon system and the pump or forced system.
The forced type of circulation is the predominating method of circulating the
liquid coolant: A centrifugal4 type of pump is used, its pressure depending on its size
and the speed of operation. This type of pump is used because, if the regular channels
of circulation are cut off by thermostats, the pump merely circulates the water within
the pump housing with no damage to the part and no buildup of high pressures within
the system. A centrifugal pump draws liquid in at the center and throws it to an
outlet5 by the spinning effect of the rapidly rotating blades
6.
The pump is usually driven by the same shaft that supports the fan as the fan
rotates, so does the water pump. Ball bearings are being used in these pumps so that
76
they can be lubricated for life and, therefore, offer little maintenance problems.
Others have bushed bearings and utilize grease7
or oil. Spring-loaded8 fiber, rubber
9,
or leather seals10
keep the lubricant and coolant separated. Important parts of the
engine cooling system are the pump, the fan11
, radiator, shutters12
, thermostat, hose
belts, and gages or indicators.
Pumps of the centrifugal types are found in the forced circulation system.
They may pump anywhere from 15 to 50 gpm (gallons per minute). Systems using
high-capacity pumps will usually use less coolant, and they will, therefore, have a
quick warmup13
period as there is less coolant to heat.
The fans are necessary in order to move a large volume of air. This is true
where the engine is air-cooled or if it is liquid-and-air-cooled.
Gages14
or indicators indicate the approximate temperature of the coolant.
The most common radiator type has the coolant flowing from top to bottom
through round or flattened15
tubing. The flattened tubing has more flexibility in case
the coolant freezes and hence will not burst as easily.
The reader may come across the term heat exchanger. The tractor radiator is
one form of heat exchanger16
, merely serving as a device for the transfer or exchange
of heat from the liquid to the gaseous air.
The purpose of the cooling system is to control the temperature of the engine
within reasonable limits while operating, and to assist in the rapid warmup of the
engine so as to decrease wear and to arrive quickly at an efficient operating
temperature. To accomplish this purpose, tractor and automobile engines have been
equipped with shutters or thermostats, sometimes both. The cooling system using air
entirely as the outside coolant requires very little attention, perhaps just enough to see
if all the passages are free.
The engine using the liquid-air combination does require considerable
attention. It is just as important to keep the cooling system clean and free from
obstructions as it is the lubrication system. The three greatest "saboteurs" of the
cooling system are rust17
, scale18
, and electrolysis19
.
MACHINE DESIGN
Machine design is the art of developing new ideas for the construction of
machines and expressing those ideas in the form of plant and drawings. The idea may
be almost entirely new, as in the case of an invention or an improvement upon
existing machinery; or it may be only partially new, as when a machine or a machine
part is to differ in size, load, or materials from those already existing.
For a machine to be well-designed the parts must be strong enough for the
duty required of them and must be adequate for the functions they must perform, but
they must not involve unnecessary expenditure of material or prohibitive cost of
construction.
To design well any machine or part, the designer must have a working
knowledge of the elements of machine construction; must know how to analyze the
applied forces and their reactions and how to determine the resulting stresses; must
possess sufficient information about materials; and must understand the influence of
shape, method of assembling, and working conditions of parts upon the operation and
77
maintenance of the machine. Thus modern machine design involves the application
of the principles of three fundamental engineering subjects: mechanisms, mechanics,
and strength of materials, including elements of the theory of elasticity. In addition,
possession of experimental data on the performance of similar machines already
existing is of great value.
Notes: 1
deterioration – порча, повреждение; изнашивание, износ; разрушение 2 coolant – охлаждающая среда, охлаждающая жидкость
3 gravity CS – система охлаждения с циркуляцией самотеком, термосифонная система
охлаждения 4 centrifugal - центробежный
5 outlet – выход, выпуск, выпускное отверстие
6 blade – лопасть, лезвие, лемех
7 grease – густая, консистентная смазка
8 spring-loaded – пружинный, находящийся под действием пружины
9 rubber - резина
10 seal – сальник, (уплотняющая) прокладка
11 fan - вентилятор
12 shutter – задвижка, заслонка, затвор
13 warmup – прогрев(ание), нагрев(ание)
14 gage – датчик, измерительный прибор
15 flattened – овального сечения
16 heat exchanger - теплообменник
17 rust – ржавчина
18 scale - накипь
19 electrolysis - электролиз
ВАРИАНТ №4
THE FOUR-STROKE-CYCLE ENGINE
Prime Movers1. We have what are called prime movers doing a lot of useful
work for us. For instance, there is the windmill which takes advantage of the energy
of moving air to pump water. There is the hydraulic turbine which uses the velocity2
and consequent energy of moving water to create power. The water wheel uses the
energy of falling water; the steam engine, the energy of expanding steam. These are
examples of physical changes adding to man's source of power.
External Combustion Engine. Another important example of a prime mover
is the heat engine. Certain organic compounds which contain carbon are caused to
burn and give off heat. This heat furnishes power in one of two ways. In the external
type of heat engine, the fuel is burned in a chamber or firebox; the heat is applied to
some liquid such as mercury3 or water which, in turn, is piped to the engine as it
changes from a liquid to a gas. The heat has caused the molecules of the liquid to
separate so far from each other that they form a vapor which may be considered as a
gas. The enormous energy of the moving molecules of the gas creates a tremendous
pressure against a reciprocating4 piston or against the blades of a turbine. However, it
must be noted that the fuel is burned on the outside of the engine itself; it is,
therefore, of the external combustion type. The steam engine and steam turbine are
78
good examples. The steam engine has been inefficient in the conversion of heat into
the energy of movement. The average steam engine of the reciprocating type has only
been able to convert about 5 per cent of the energy of the fuel into, useful work. That
is one of the reasons why the diesel engine with a comparable efficiency of
approximately 30 per cent has been displacing the steam locomotive engine.
The Internal Combustion Engine. The most important type of prime mover
is the internal combustion engine. Most of the engines of this type use liquids as their
fuel, although some burn gas from manufactured or natural sources. The two most
common fuels used are gasoline and a less volatile5 fuel called diesel or fuel oil.
Engine Principles. In the internal combustion piston engine, the fuel is
forced into the space between the cylinder head and the piston which is usually called
the combustion chamber or space. The size of this space is variable, that is it depends
upon the position of the piston. If the piston is at the head end (HEDC6), the space is
small. If the fuel is in this space and is ignited, it will tend, to expand. As the head is
securely fastened to the block and as the cylinder walls are either in the block or are a
part of the block, the only object that can move is the piston. This it does, going as far
as it can toward the crankcase end (CEDC7).Thus the internally burning fuel causes
expansion, and movement in the internal combustion engine.
Engine Types. There are several types of such engines, depending upon
cycle, location of parts, and other items. A partial designation of engine types could
be as follows:
1. Type of fuel burned - gasoline, kerosene, fuel oils, and gases.
2. Method of cooling - liquid or gas (air).
3. Arrangement of cylinders.
4. Valve location.
5. Cycle - four-stroke and two-stroke.
6. Type of valves.
7. Ignition - spark or compression.
8. Moving parts - piston or blade (turbine).
9. Compression - low, medium, high.
One of the most important engine designation is by the cycle used. The usual
outboard boat engine8 is of the two-stroke cycle. The usual tractor engine and all
known automobile engines are of the four-stroke type.
The four-stroke-cycle engine is sometimes improperly called the four'-cycle
engine. This is not a correct technical designation. It is simply an abbreviation of the
longer descriptive term; it does not indicate that there are four piston strokes per
cycle.
Four-stroke-cycle Engine. In order to simplify the explanation of the
operation of the four-stroke engine, one of the gasoline-burning type will be used.
This is the usual type found on garden tractors, lawn mowers, and most wheeled farm
tractors.
Cycle Processes. By necessity we must start with one of the four events. The
most logical one for beginning is the intake of the fuel. As the piston moves down (in
the vertical engine), there is a tendency for a vacuum to form in the cylinder space.
This is caused by the expansion of the gas (air only, for our beginning stroke). For
79
instance, if one volume of air occupies six times as much space, say in an engine with
a compression ratio of 6:1, there should be about one-sixth the absolute atmospheric
pressure, according to Boyle's gas law. This means that the pressure on the outside is
much greater than on the inside. If now the intake valve is opened, there will be a
rush of air into the cylinder space. If by carburetion some fuel is mixed with air, we
have a combustible mixture in the engine. If the intake valve now closes, the mixture
is trapped. If this mixture is ignited at this point, no work wi11 be done as the piston
is down as far as it can go. Also the fuel would not have much force as the molecules
of fuel and oxygen (in the air) are quite widely separated. Therefore the piston is
moved to the top of the cylinder by moving the flywheel9 or hand crank
10. This will
compress the fuel-air mixture into approximately one-sixth of its former volume. The
mixture will now be under six times the pressure it was formerly, more if the
temperature of the mixture rose during compression. If both valves are left closed and
the mixture is ignited, the trapped and compressed gases will exert a tremendous
force while burning. This force will cause the piston to move to the crank end of the
cylinder, thus causing motion and doing work with heat energy.
To complete the cycle, the exhaust valve is opened when the power of the
rapid combustion is mostly spent, and, as the piston moves toward the head, the
exhaust gases are pushed from the combustion chamber. Energy stored in the
flywheel as momentum provides the power to exhaust the products of combustion, to
provide the engine with another charge of fuel and air, and to compress the mixture
ready for ignition and another power stroke.
Briefly the events are as follows: intake, one valve open; compression, both
valves closed; burning or combustion, both valves closed; exhaust, one valve open.
Thus one cycle of four events with four strokes of the piston has been completed
(ignition could be a fifth event).
Notes: 1 Prime Movers – машина – двигатель, первичный двигатель
2 velocity – векторная скорость
3 mercury - ртуть
4 reciprocating – двигать(ся), перемещать(ся) возвратно-поступательно
5 volatile – летучий, быстро испаряющийся
6 abbr. HEDC – head and dead centre – верхняя мертвая точка
7 abbr. CEDC – crankcase end dead centre – нижняя мертвая точка
8 outboard boat engine – подвесной (забортный) двигатель (моторной лодки)
9 flywheel – маховик, маховое колесо
10 hand crank – ручка, рукоятка; пусковая рукоятка
ВАРИАНТ №5
LUBRICATION SYSTEMS
If you were asked, "What is the most important job in caring for a tractor?"
you would probably say lubrication1. If any one job can be considered more
80
important than another, you would be right. The different lubricants used in the
tractor perform these essential functions:
Conduct away excessive heat.
Reduce friction and wear between moving parts.
Seal compression between pistons and cylinder walls.
Cushion2 loads on bearings of the power-transmitting system.
Because tractor work is so severe - long hours, heavy loads, dusty fields,
rough ground, steep hills, and all kinds of weather – we have to be very careful about
lubrication. Fortunately, however, the actual job of properly lubricating a tractor has
been made quite easy. The petroleum industry has developed excellent oils and
greases. Manuals tell what kinds and grades to use, and where and how often to apply
them. The lubrication system holds and circulates an ample3 supply.
Your job in properly lubricating a tractor can be summarized as follows:
1. Selecting the kinds of lubricants recommended by the manu-
facturer.
2. Applying these in correct amounts at recommended intervals.
3. Maintaining proper quantities within the tractor.
4. Changing lubricants as required.
5. Keeping these lubricants clean and free from contamination4 and
dilution5.
Engine Lubrication System. You should understand the construction of the
engine lubrication system and know how it circulates oil to all parts of the engine. In
most tractors, oil is circulated and distributed, within the engine by a gear-type oil
pump6. This maintains sufficient pressure to supply oil in proper quantities to all the
working parts. This is a full-pressure-type lubrication system.
The oil intake of the pump and is of the floating type, composed of afloat with
a metal screen, which prevents the entrance of large foreign particles that would
damage the pump gears7. The intake is hinged in a way that permits the float to re-
main near the surface of the oil in the oil pan in order to draw in the cleanest oil. The
pump forces the oil, under pressure, to the principal distribution passages drilled into
the cylinder block. This pump also has a pressure regulating valve which maintains
the specified pressure to protect the lubricating system and the pump mechanism
when the lubricants are thickened by cold temperature.
The valve which regulates the pump pressure opens to permit oil to escape
into the oil pan through a bypass. An oil pressure gage, which can be seen by the
operator, is connected to the main oil passage. From the main oil passage the oil is
forced through smaller passages drilled in the block to main crankshaft bearings and
other parts of the engine. The excess oil is by-passed from the main oil passage
through a smaller passage, is forced through the filter, and is then returned through a
metering hole located in the central bolt of the filter, to the oil pan.
In the center bearing of the camshaft there is a small oil slot8. As the camshaft
revolves, contacting the main oil passage, the oil flows through passage or
intermittently lubricating the rocker arms and valves, and the exhaust valve stems and
guides; the overflow returns to the oil pan. The intake valve stem guides are
lubricated by oil vapors. The oil is forced under pressure from the three main
81
crankshaft bearings through passages drilled in the crankshaft to the four connecting
rod bearings. On the larger engines the connecting rods9 are drilled and the oil from
the bearing is forced through this drilled oil passage to lubricate the piston pin10
and
cylinder walls. On the smaller engines the oil lubricates the connecting rod bearings,
escapes at the ends, and splash lubricates the cylinder walls, piston pins, etc. The
front camshaft bearing contains oil holes and passages which index with other
passages at each revolution. As this occurs, the oil is forced intermittently through the
drilled oil passages to the timing gears and through the oil passage to the governor
assembly (on engines using a carburetor).
The purpose of the oil filter is to remove foreign matter from the oil and other
substances which might damage the engine.
MOTOR OIL
Motor oil, or engine oil, is an oil used for lubrication of various internal
combustion engines. While the main function is to lubricate moving parts, motor oil
also cleans, inhibits corrosion, improves sealing and cools the engine by carrying heat
away from moving parts.
Motor oils are derived from petroleum-based11
and non-petroleum
synthesized chemical compounds. Motor oils are today mainly blended by using base
oils composed of hydrocarbons12
, thus organic compounds consisting entirely of
carbon and hydrogen.
Motor oil is a lubricant13
used in internal combustion engines. These include
motor or road vehicles such as cars and motorcycles, heavier vehicles such as buses
and commercial vehicles, non-road vehicles such as go-karts14
, snowmobiles, boats
(fixed engine installations and outboards), lawn mowers, large agricultural and
construction equipment, locomotives and aircraft, and static engines such as electrical
generators. In engines, there are parts which move against each other causing friction
which wastes otherwise useful power by converting the energy to heat. Contact
between moving surfaces also wears away those parts, which could lead to lower
efficiency and degradation of the motor. This increases fuel consumption and
decreases power output and can, in extreme cases, lead to engine failure.
Lubricating oil creates a separating film15
between surfaces of adjacent
moving parts to minimize direct contact between them, decreasing heat caused by
friction and reducing wear, thus protecting the engine. In use, motor oil transfers heat
through convection as it flows through the engine by means of air flow over the
surface of the oil pan16
, an oil cooler and through the build up of oil gases evacuated
by the Crankcase Ventilation system.
In petrol (gasoline) engines, the top piston ring can expose the motor oil to
temperatures of 320°F (160 °C). In diesel engines the top ring can expose the oil to
temperatures over 600°F (315 °C).
Coating metal parts with oil also keeps them from being exposed to oxygen,
inhibiting oxidation at elevated operating temperatures preventing rust or corrosion.
Corrosion inhibitors may also be added to the motor oil. Many motor oils also have
82
detergents and dispersants added to help keep the engine clean and minimize oil
sludge build-up.
Notes: 1 lubrication – смазка
2 cushion – амортизатор, амортизировать, смягчать
3 ample – достаточный, обильный
4 contamination - загрязнение
5 dilution – разжижжение
6 gear-type oil pump – шестеренчатый масляный насос
7 gear – зубчатое колесо
8 slot – прорезь, щель
9 connecting rod - шатун
10 piston pin – поршневой палец
11 petroleum-based - на нефтяной основе, базирующийся на нефтяном сырье (о
производстве) 12
hydrocarbon - углеводород 13
lubricant - смазочный материал, смазка 14
go-kart - карт (микролитражный автомобиль для картинга) 15
film – пленка 16
oil pan – маслянный поддон, маслосборник, поддон картера
83
Второй год обучения
ГРАММАТИЧЕСКИЙ МАТЕРИАЛ
1. Модальные глаголы can, may, must и их эквиваленты.
2. Временные формы группы Perfect.
3. Неопределенные местоимения some, any, no, every и их производные.
4. Употребление местоимений many, much, little, few.
5. Местоимения one (ones), that (those), как заменители существительного.
6. Использование существительного в функции определения. Перевод его на
русский язык.
7. Страдательный залог и особенности перевода пассивных конструкций
8. Глаголы to be (to), to have (to), выражающие долженствование.
9. Простые неличные формы глагола.
10. Герундий. Значение, употребление и перевод на русский язык.
84
КОНТРОЛЬНО-ТРЕНИРОВОЧНЫЕ УПРАЖНЕНИЯ
Второй семестр
1. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, обращая
внимание на модальный глагол must:
1) Her English is very poor, she must study very hard.
2) They must spend more time on their English.
3) You must help her in every way possible.
4) We must learn at least ten new words every day.
5) He must leave at once.
6) The students must do their homework regularly.
7) You must do this important work quickly.
2. Заполните пропуски модальными глаголами can или may. Переведите
предложения на русский язык:
1) ... I ask you to explain the rule once more?
2) ... you lend me your dictionary?
3) You ... take this book; I don’t need it.
4) It was a very popular song at the time, you ... hear it everywhere.
5) ... I ask you to do me a favour?
6) Atoms of different kinds ... join together in different ways.
7) They ... continue their experiment.
3. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, обращая
внимание на глаголы to have (to) и to be (to):
1) It looks like raining. You have to take your raincoat.
2) Remember that we are to be at this place not later than eight.
3) He will have to stay there for a month.
4) We are to leave on Monday.
5) The children had to stay indoors because it was raining.
6) Nobody met me when I came, because I was to arrive by the ten o’clock train, but
I couldn’t get a ticket for it.
7) We had to touch upon this question at the scientific conference.
8) You will have to work hard to finish the work in time.
4. Заполните пропуски модальными глаголами или их эквивалентами:
1) She ... play chess well. 2) ... I take your pen? 3) ... I ask you a question? 4) You ...
not talk at the lesson. 5) He ... not speak, English last year. 6) My sister ... not play
the piano two years ago, but now she ... 7) You ... get this novel in our library. 8) I ...
go to the library today to prepare for my report at the conference. 9) ... you do me a
favour?
85
5. Напишите следующие предложения в вопросительной и отрицательной
формах:
Образец: Не can play chess well.
Can he play chess well?
He can’t play chess well.
1) We must tell her this news. 2) He may smoke here. 3) She can speak English
perfectly. 4) The students must translate the text at home. 5) We can go to the theatre
tonight. 6) We shall be able to help them. 7) They had to wait for a long time. 8) His
friend couldn’t get this book. 9) You were allowed to take this book home. 10) May I
go home now? 11) They were allowed to come at four.
6. Употребите глаголы, данные в скобках, в форме Present Perfect:
1) I (speak) to him about it several times.
2) We (learn) many new words in this course.
3) He (make) that same mistake several times.
4) I (hear) that story before.
5) I am afraid that I (lose) my car keys.
6) She (see) this film three times.
7) I (tell) John what you said.
8) She (return) my book at last.
9) She says that she (lose) her new pocket-book.
7. Употребите глаголы, данные в скобках, в форме Past Perfect:
1) I was sure that I (see) the man before.
2) I asked him why he (leave) the party so early.
3) It was clear that he (give) us the wrong address.
4) The teacher corrected the exercises which I (prepare).
5) He knew that he (make) a serious mistake.
6) She said she (look) everywhere for the book.
7) I felt that I (meet) the man somewhere before.
8) He wanted to know what (happen) to his briefcase.
8. Употребите глаголы, данные в скобках, в форме Future Perfect:
1) I am sure they (complete) the new road by June.
2) He says that before he leaves he (see) every show in town.
3) By the time you arrive, I (finish) reading your book.
4) I (be) in this country two years on next January.
5) A year from now he (take) his medical examinations and (begin) to practice.
6) If you don’t make a note of that appointment, you (forget) it by next week.
9. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на
употребление времен группы Perfect:
1) Не has told her all about his travel. 2) I have never been to St. Petersburg. 3) Have
you finished your homework? 4) They have been friends for years. 5) By the time he
leaves home, we shall have come to the station. 6) We are sure that he will have kept
86
his promise. 7) She told us that she had not finished her report yet. 8) He has been the
best student in the class. 9) She said she had had her lunch. 10) By the end of the
week we shall already have translated this book. 11) They have been absent from
class all week.
10. Напишите следующие предложения в вопросительной и отрицательной
формах:
1) There are some extra chairs in the next room.
2) He made some mistakes in spelling.
3) They have some pretty dresses in that store.
4) The teacher taught us some important rules of grammar.
5) We learned some new words in class yesterday.
6) There are some flowers in the yellow vase.
7) The doctor gave her some pills to take.
8) I bought some stamps at the post-office.
9) He told us about some of his experiences.
11. Заполните пропуски местоимениями some или any. Переведите
предложения на русский язык:
1) You will need ... warm clothes there.
2) I don’t have ... money with me.
3) Please, give me ... more coffee. – I’m sorry, but there isn’t … more coffee. I’m
sorry, but I didn’t have ... time to prepare my lessons last night.
4) It was in Greece that ancient civilization was highly developed.
5) I didn’t have ... stamps, so I went to the post-office to buy ...
6) Please, put ... water in that vase, the flowers are dying.
7) There are ... famous museums in that city but we didn’t have time to visit ...
8) The doctor gave me ... medicine for my cough.
9) There aren’t ... students in the room at the moment.
12. Напишите следующие предложения в вопросительной и отрицательной
формах:
Образец: Не told us something about his trip.
Did he tell us anything about his trip?
He didn’t tell us anything about his trip.
1) There is someone at the door. 2) You left something on the hall table. 3) He will
bring someone with him. 4) There is somebody in the next room. 5) He has
something important to say to you. 6) There is something wrong with this telephone.
7) She gave us something to eat. 8) He spoke to somebody about it.
13. Заполните пропуски местоимениями some, any, no, every и их производ-
ными. Переведите предложения на русский язык:
1) Не found ... new words in this lesson. 2) I have ... living in that city. 3) She comes
here ... day. You can find her in ... time between nine and six. 4) If you have ...
against me, speak out. 5) Have ... more ice-сream. – Thanks, ... more for me. 6) ...
87
day he comes here and asks me the same questions. 7) ... was ready. 8) I told you ... I
had to tell. There is hardly ... to add.
14. Заполните пропуски местоимениями much, many, little, few. Переведите
предложения на русский язык:
1) Very ... people know about it. 2) He is a man of ... words. 3) ... was said but ...
done. 4) Say ... and do ... . 5) ... heard about the book but ... read it. 6) There isn’t ...
harm in it. 7) He has very ... knowledge of the matter. 8) ... is spoken about it, but ...
believe it. 9) We have ... friends in Leningrad. 10) There were very ... mistakes in his
spelling.
15. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на
местоимения one (ones), that (those):
1) This text is more difficult than that one. 2) One of the students is absent today. 3)
One must always try to speak English at our lessons. 4) There is only one way to do
it. 5) Those present at the meeting were the teachers from our school. 6) I like to read
English books as well as Russian ones. 7) The students of the first group study better
than those of the second one. 8) These pictures are better than those. 9) This film is
more interesting than that I saw last week. 10) I don’t like this book. Give me another
one.
16. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на
употребление инфинитива:
1) You must get up early to be in time for the lesson. 2) We sometimes stay at our
institute to discuss the news. 3) One must study hard to know English well. 4) To
improve pronunciation one must read aloud. 5) To learn how to use this method you
must solve many problems. 6) He worked hard to complete his experiment in time. 7)
It will take you much time to perform this work. 8) To translate this text without a
dictionary you must know all the new words.
17. Выберите из скобок требующуюся форму причастия.
1. a) The girl (writing, written) on the blackboard is our best pupil.
b) Everything (writing. written) here is quite right.
2. a) The house (surrounding, surrounded) by tall trees is very beautiful.
b) The wall (surrounding, surrounded) the house was very high.
3. Read the (translating, translated) sentences once more.
4. Name some places (visiting, visited) by you last year.
5. She was reading the book (buying, bought) the day before.
6. Here is the letter (receiving, received) by me yesterday.
18. Употребите глаголы, данные в скобках, в форме герундия. Переведите
предложения на русский язык:
1) I enjoy (study) with Miss Smith. 2) They have finished (paint) our apartment at
last. 3) Mr. Smith stopped (go) to his English class. 4) We are considering (buy) an
automobile. 5) Do you mind (wait) a few minutes in the hall? 6) My little brother
88
enjoys (listen) to the radio. 7) You shouldn’t risk (go) out if you have a cold. 8) We
shall appreciate (receive) an answer immediately. 9) She insisted on (help) me with
the report.
19. Закончите предложения и переведите их на русский язык:
1) She is not interested in ... 2) He is fond of ... . 3) We both enjoy ... . 4) He is tired
of ... 5) We all need more practice in ... 6) Do you mind ... ? 7) They are both very
fond of ... 8) He hasn’t had any experience in ... 9) She left suddenly without
20. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на
неличные формы глагола:
1) It’s no use (argue) when the matter is settled.
2) I don’t like to interrupt people when they are speaking.
3) It was very useful to hear the different opinions.
4) Shall we ever have a chance of seeing you here again?
5) He left suddenly without saying a word.
6) Do you think this book is worth reading?
7) She is not interested in learning English.
8) We went straight home instead of visiting his parents.
21. Переведите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на
употребление времени Present Indefinite после союзов when, while, if, before,
after:
1) If we get the tickets we shall go to the concert.
2) I shall let you know when she comes.
3) When a child leaves the junior school, he will go to a secondary school of one type
or another.
4) When this lesson is over, we shall have a break.
5) Before you translate the text, you will learn the new words.
6) When the weather is fine, we shall go for a walk.
7) He will translate this article, if you give him a dictionary.
8) I shall tell you about it after I learn some new facts.
22. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, обращая
внимание на окончания -s, ’s, -s’:
1) In England there is an infants’ school and a junior school. 2) It was not our idea, it
was theirs. 3) My friend’s sons read English well. 4) She studies English and French
at the courses of foreign languages. 5) The students of our group like to read English
books. 6) Our scientists’ discoveries in the exploration of outer space are known all
over the world. 7) This engineer’s report contains very interesting data.
23. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, обращая
внимание на место наречий в предложении:
1) We usually go for a walk in the park on Sunday. 2) He has always prepared his
lessons. 3) He is planning to visit us at our home tonight. 4) Nobody ever has a bad
89
word to say about Nick. 5) He promised to give me an answer in the morning. 6) My
friend often goes to Leningrad on business trips. 7) She is always late for the lessons.
8) He is often too busy to eat lunch. 9) I never go for a walk on Sunday.
24. Переведите предложения на русский язык, употребляя наречия, данные
в скобках:
1) He prepares his lessons. (carefully) 2) She plays the piano. (well) 3) I have spoken
to him about that. (often) 4) Does he fail to prepare his homework? (sometimes) 5)
He is going to leave for Leningrad. (tomorrow) 6) She stayed with me. (seldom) 7) I
saw Mr. Smith in the cafeteria. (yesterday) 8) Have you visited that city? (ever) 9)
Have you finished writing your exercises? (already)
25. Замените в следующих предложениях действительный залог
страдательным. Переведите предложения на русский язык:
Образец: They developed a new method of teaching.
A new method of teaching was developed by them. – Новый метод обучения
был разработан ими.
1) The audience enjoyed the concert very much.
2) The little boy ate the cake.
3) The teacher corrects our exercises at home.
4) They started a dancing class last week.
5) Everybody will see this film soon.
6) The teacher returned our written work to us.
7) Mr. Smith will leave the tickets at the box-office.
8) The students translate texts during the lessons.
9) Mary took that book from the desk.
26. Замените в следующих предложениях страдательный залог действи-
тельным. Переведите предложения на русский язык:
Образец: This letter was written by John.
John wrote this letter. - Джон написал это письмо.
1) The entire city was destroyed by the fire.
2) The lecture was attended by many people.
3) The book will be published in spring.
4) The class is taught by Mr. Smith.
5) It was designed by a French engineer.
6) This book is always read by the students of the first course.
7) The letter was left on the table.
8) The house was struck by lightning.
9) The cries of the child were heard by everyone.
27. Напишите следующие предложения в вопросительной и отрицательной
формах:
Образец: Не was sent to New York.
Was he sent to New York?
90
He was not sent to New York.
1) The first prize was won by John.
2) Our exercises are corrected each night by the teacher.
3) The mail is delivered at ten o’clock.
4) The bridge will be finished this year.
5) The contract will be signed tomorrow.
6) His report was listened to with great interest.
7) The film is much spoken about.
8) All the letters are looked through by the secretary.
9) All these books were published by this publishing house.
28. Переведите следующие пары предложений и определите, какой частью
речи являются выделенные слова:
1) A deaf child studies literature with his parents. Serious reasons changed his results
in these studies.
2) Water can freeze and become solid. Iron is a solid.
3) These works of art belong to the famous painter. She works at school.
4) Heat brings about many changes in materials. Any material changes when it is
heated. 5) They wanted to find the most gifted children. He was gifted by nature with great
talent to write poetry.
29. Переведите следующие словосочетания на русский язык:
music school, full-part students, five-year plan, high speed car, University Art
Department, district music school, labor time, television programme, fresh-water
pond, research laboratory equipment.
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КОНТРОЛЬНАЯ РАБОТА №2
1. Прочитайте текст и письменно ответьте по-английски на вопросы,
следующие за текстом.
2. Найдите в тексте и переведите на русский язык предложения, в которых
употреблены модальные глаголы и их эквиваленты.
3. Найдите в тексте и переведите на русский язык предложения, в которых
употреблены неопределенные местоимения some, any, no, every и их
производные.
4. Выпишите из текста 5 глаголов и образуйте от них причастия настоящего
и прошедшего времени; переведите их на русский язык.
5. Найдите в тексте и переведите на русский язык предложения, в которых
употреблено причастие настоящего времени.
6. Найдите в тексте и переведите на русский язык предложения, в которых
употреблено причастие прошедшего времени.
7. Поставьте глагол-сказуемое одного предложения из текста во все
временные формы группы Perfect, произведя все необходимые
смысловые изменения.
Образец: He has just translated the text.
He had translated the text before the bell rang.
He will have translated the text by tomorrow.
8. Найдите в тексте и переведите на русский язык предложения, сказуемые
которых употреблены в страдательном залоге.
9. Переведите письменно выделенный текст контрольной работы №2 на
русский язык. При переводе пользуйтесь англо-русским словарем.
92
ВАРИАНТ №1
AGRICULTURE IN RUSSIA
Russia comprises roughly three-quarters of the territory of the former Soviet
Union but has relatively little area suited for agriculture because of its arid climate
and inconsistent rainfall. Northern areas concentrate mainly on livestock, and the
southern parts and western Siberia produce grain. Restructuring of former state farms
has been an extremely slow process. The new land code passed by the Duma in 2002
should speed restructuring and attract new domestic investment to Russian
agriculture. Private farms and garden plots of individuals account for over one-half of
all agricultural production. The Agriculture in Russia is struggling to rebuild as it
transforms itself from a command economy to a more market-oriented system.
Following the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991, large collective and
state farms – the backbone of Soviet agriculture – had to contend with the
sudden loss of state-guaranteed marketing and supply channels and with a
changing legal environment that created pressure for reorganization and
restructuring. In less than ten years, livestock inventories declined by one-half,
pulling down demand for feed grains, and the area planted to grains dropped by
25%. The use of mineral fertilizer and other purchased inputs plummeted,
driving yields down. Most farms could no longer afford to purchase new
machinery and other capital investments. After nearly ten years of decline,
Russian agriculture has begun to show signs of modest improvement. The
transition to a more market-oriented system has introduced an element of fiscal
responsibility, which has resulted in increased efficiency as farmers try to
maintain productivity while adjusting to resource constraints. The farming
structure has changed and the relatively small family farms that have emerged
and grown stronger in the new market environment are now producing in
aggregate value more than the total output of large corporate farms that
succeeded the traditional collectives.
The share of Russia's agriculture in GDP has remained below 6% since 2000,
much lower than the average for the other countries of the Commonwealth of
Independent States (17% on average for the 12 CIS countries). The share of
agricultural employment is relatively high at 16% of the total number of employed,
but this is also substantially lower than in other CIS countries (around 40% on
average). Russia is thus much less agrarian by both measures than other former
Soviet republics. The disproportion between the share of agriculture in GDP and its
share in employment suggests that the productivity of labor in Russia's agriculture is
below the average in the economy.
Notes:
a severe transition decline - серьезное снижение перехода
a command economy - административно-командная экономика
a market-oriented system - ориентированная на рынок система
a breakup - распад
plummeted - резко упавший
the backbone – основа
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collective and state farms – колхозы и совхозы
aggregate value - совокупная ценность
the Commonwealth of Independent States - Содружество Независимых Государств
the gross domestic product (GDP) - валовой внутренний продукт
the gross domestic income (GDI) - валовой внутренний доход
Questions:
1. Why is the territory of Russia not suitable for agriculture?
2. When did the Duma pass the new code?
3. What was the backbone of Soviet agriculture?
4. Why did the area planted to grains drop by 25%?
5. What has the transition to a more market-oriented system introduced?
ВАРИАНТ №2
AGRICULTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN
For the period of latest decades Great Britain's agriculture saw a
significant increase in scientific and technical level and profitability of agro-
industrial complex. Countries support kites at the cost of local resources (the
growth since postwar time rose from 1/3 to 4/5): a full self-sufficiency is reached
by such products as milk, a high self-sufficiency have eggs, poultry, wheat, oats,
barley, and potato: imported are fruits, butter, sugar, and cheeses. Due to
conditions occurred in the EU imported goods cost more as compared to
opportunities of foodstuffs import from the former colonies: this creates
continuous controversies between Great Britain and other members of the UK.
The British agriculture is nowadays one of the most efficient and mechanized in
the world. The share of employment in the field amounts 2% of the total
employment in the country. The total area of farmlands is 58.3 mln ha (76% of
the total area of the country). Animal husbandry prevails in the structure of
agricultural production. Developed are dairy and beef cattle breeding, pig
husbandry, beef sheep and poultry husbandry for meat.
Great Britain is one of the largest suppliers of sheep wool. Traditionally,
animal husbandry is concentrated in river basins. Nearly 60% of tillage in crop
husbandry is occupied by permanent grasses, more than 28% - by cereal crops
(including wheat 1 5%, barley - 11 %), 12% -by industrial crops (rapeseed. sugar
beet, flax) and feeding crops (including potato), and also by-vegetable gardens and
small-fruit crops, ['lie main crop-producing areas are fast England and the Southeast.
There are many fruit gardens in Great Britain. Agriculture uses generous
government support and receives donations from the UK budget.
Production volumes exceed the volumes of consumption by such products as
wheat, barley, oats, and pork; production volumes are lower than the volume of
consumption by such products as potato, beef, mutton, wool, sugar and eggs.
Therefore, Great Britain has to import many of the necessary products. The country
imports 4/5 of butter, 2/3 of sugar, a half of wheal and bacon, ¼ of beef and veal
consumed in the country.
The country occupies sixth place among UK members in terms of agricultural
production volume. The area of farmlands in use makes nearly 77% of the countries
area.
94
Notes:
self – sufficiency – самодостаточность;
controversies – споры, дискуссии, полемики;
to prevail – преобладать;
donation – дар, пожертвование.
Questions:
1. When did Great Britain’s agriculture see a significant increase?
2. What is British agriculture nowadays?
3. Does Agriculture use government support and receive donations?
4. What products does the country import?
5. What place does the country occupy?
ВАРИАНТ №3
HIGHER EDUCATION IN RUSSIA
Higher education plays an important part in the life of any country as it
provides the country with highly-qualified specialists for future development and
progress. It trains people to become teachers, engineers, doctors and other
professional workers.
At present a new system of education is introduced in this country — a
distance education system. This computer system of learning helps working
professionals to continue their education while remaining at their jobs. This system
enables people to get knowledge and a good foundation in the sciences basic to his or
her field of study. Distance learning has developed over years from satellite video
courses to modern videoconferencing through personal computers.
The academic year usually lasts 9 months and is divided into two terms
(semesters). The first- and second-year students obtain thorough instructions in
the fundamental sciences of mathematics, physics, chemistry and drawing as
well as computer engineering and a number of others. The curricula are
enriched and broadened by instructions in such subjects as foreign languages,
history and economics.
At the third year students get more advanced knowledge and begin to
concentrate on their special interests, so to say, their «major» subject and take
many courses in this subject. Specialized study and courses will help students to
become specialists and prepare them for their future work.
After four years students will get a bachelor's degree. Then the students
may go on with their studies and in a year or two of further study and research
get a master's degree. After graduating from the university they may go on with
their study and research and may get a still higher degree. About 75 percent of
students receive state grants and 15 percent are sponsored by enterprises. Universities
have their own students’ hostels and some of them have large and excellent sport
centers.
Education is a process through which culture is preserved, knowledge and
skills are developed, values are formed, and information is exchanged.
Education is the way to success. Notes:
over years — за многие годы
95
curricula are enriched and broadened — программы (курсы обучения) обогащаются и
расширяются
Questions:
1. When does the academic year begin in Russia?
2. What subjects do students study in the first year?
3. What degree do students get after four years of study?
4. What degree can a student get after two years of further study and research?
5. What new education system is introduced in Russia?
ВАРИАНТ №4
HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE USA
Finishing school is the beginning of an independent life for millions of school
graduates. Many roads are open before them. But it is not an easy thing to choose a
profession out of more than the 2000 existing in the world.
Out of the more than three million students who graduate from high school
each year, about one million go on for ―higher education‖. Simply by being admitted
into one of the most respected universities in the United States, a high school
graduate achieves a degree of success. A college at a leading university might receive
applications from two percent of these high school graduates, and then accept only
one out of every ten who apply. Successful applicants at such colleges are usually
chosen on the basis of : a) high school records; b) recommendations from high school
teachers; c) the impression they make during interviews at the university; d) their
scores on the Scholastic Aptitude Tests (SAT).
There is no national system of higher education in the United States.
Higher education is given in colleges and universities. There are over 2100
various higher educational institutions, including colleges, technological
institutes and universities. The average college course of study is 4 years. The
academic year is usually 9 months or 2 terms (semesters) of four and a half
months each. Classes usually begin in September and end in June. The first-year
students are called freshmen.
Students choose a major subject and take many courses in this subject.
After four years, they get a traditional Bachelor's degree. Then the students may
go on to graduate school and with a year or two of further study get a Master's
degree.
After another year or two of study and research, they may get a still
higher degree as Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. D.). The student's progress is
evaluated by means of tests, term works and final examinations in each course.
The student's work is given a mark, usually on a five point scale. Letters indicate
the level of achievement. «A» is the highest mark. «F» denotes a failure.
Most American colleges and universities charge for tuition. The methods of
instruction in the universities are lectures, discussions, laboratory and course works
and seminars.
Most cities have colleges or universities that hold classes at night as well as in
daytime. In this way people may work for a degree or just take a course in the subject
that interests them.
96
Notes: graduate from – заканчивать учебное заведение
major subject – профилирующий предмет, дисциплина
graduate school – старшие курсы
five point scale – 5-ти бальная система
Questions: 1. Where Americans can get their high education?
2. When do usually classes begin?
3. How many years do students need to get Ph.D. degree?
4. What do you think: is it easy to choose a profession?
ВАРИАНТ №5
AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Agriculture is a major industry in the United States and the country is net
exporter of food. As for the last census of agriculture in 2009, there were 2.2 million
farms, covering area of 922 million acres, an average of 418 acres per farm.
European agriculture practices greatly affected the New England landscape.
Colonists brought livestock over from Europe which caused many changes to the
land. Along with livestock changing the plant species in New England from the
original native species to European species they also contributed to the deterioration
of the forests and fields.
Soil exhaustion was a huge problem in New England agriculture. Plowing
with oxen did allow the colonist to farm more land but it increased erosion and
decreased soil fertility. In the U.S., farms spread from the colonies westward
along with the settlers. In cooler regions, wheat was often the crop of choice
when lands were newly settled. Also very common in the Midwest was farming.
After the "wheat frontier", more diversified farms including dairy cattle
generally took its place. Warmer regions saw plantings of cotton and herds of
beef cattle. In the south, raising tobacco and cotton was common. In the
northeast, slaves were used in agriculture until the early 19th century. In the
Midwest, slavery was prohibited by 1787.
The introduction and broad adoption of scientific agriculture since the
mid nineteenth century has made a large improvement in the USA's economic
growth. Soybeans were not widely cultivated in the United States until the 1950s,
when soybeans began to replace oats and wheat.
Significant areas of farmland were abandoned during the Great Depression and
incorporated into nascent national forests. Notes:
census -перепись
New England- Новая Англия (название исторически сложившегося р-на в северо-восточной
части США)
Midwest- Центрально-западная часть США
dairy cattle- молочное животноводство
beef cattle- мясное животноводство
nascent- возникающий, появляющийся
97
Questions:
1. Is agriculture main industry in the United States of America?
2. How many farms were there in 2009 according to the last census of agriculture?
3. Did European agriculture practices greatly affect the New England landscape?
4 What was a huge problem in New England agriculture?
5. What was the crop of choice in cooler regions?
6. What kind of plantings did warmer regions see?
7. What has made a large improvement in the USA’s economic growth?
Тексты для дополнительного чтения по направлениям.
Зооинженерный факультет
ВАРИАНТ №1
BEEKEEPING
Beekeeping, also called apiculture, means management of colonies of bees for
the production of honey and other hive products for the pollination of crops. Bees are
sure to be among the most studied and best known insects. The honeybee is
considered to be a common name for any of several species of highly social bees
known for their honey-hoarding behaviour1 and their use as a domesticated species.
One should refer the honeybee to the order Hymenoptera and one of the Apis species.
Honeybees are native to Asia and the Middle East and were introduced to North
America by early European colonists. By the mid-1800s, honeybees had become
widespread in the world. At present, one may find honeybees on every continent
except Antarctica, since they can be easily reared and adapted to many climates.
It has been found that honeybees are social insects noted for providing their
nests2 with large amounts of honey. One can describe colony of honeybees as a
highly complex cluster of individuals functioning actually as a single organism. The
colony usually consists of the queen, the worker bees and male bees, or drones. The
former is normally the only one in each colony. Unlike the worker bee, the queen bee
is fertilized female capable of laying a thousand or more eggs per day. Like any
worker bee the queen bee has a sting but it is a venomous sting. The number of the
worker bees known as sexually undeveloped females may from a few to 60,000 bees.
It is quite likely that there may be few drones the colony, but sometimes there may
live as many as 1,000 drones.
Colonies are kept in hives where honeybees build the nest. Groups of hives are
called apiaries, and a beekeeper may also be called an apiarist or apiculturist.
There exist a few recognized species of honeybees, including the European
honeybee, the Indian honeybee, the dwarf honeybee3, the mountain giant honeybee
etc. However, only the European, the Indian, and to some extent, the dwarf honey
bees are the species that have been domesticated. The former is said to be the most
widespread domesticated bee and the one species kept in North America. There have
been found any races of the European honeybee, but the ones most popular in
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modern beekeeping are the Italian, Carniola, and Caucasian. Most honeybees used in
hives today seem to be mixtures of these and sometimes other races. Thus, modern
beekeeping mainly refers to the husbandry of the European honeybee, though one
can also refer beekeeping to the management of other domesticated species.
A beekeeper is an ancient and widespread profession and beekeeping
originally appeared in the Middle East. The early Egyptians kept bees and traded for
honey and beeswax along the East African coast several thousand years ago. Until
1851, beekeepers harvested honey and beeswax by killing the colonies inhabiting the
hives. In that year the American apiarist Lorenzo Lorraine Lang troth discovered the
principle of ―bee space" according to which bees leave spaces of about 0.6 cm
between wax combs. In artificial hives, if this space is left between adjacent comb
frames4 and between the end frames and the walls of the hive, each comb will remain
unattached to neighbouring5 combs. Langstroth's discovery made it possible to
remove individual frames from a beehive and to harvest honey and wax without
destroying the colony. Due to this discovery, one can control bee diseases and
maintain a larger number of colonies.
Honeybees are the primary source of honey and beeswax. The latter is
described as fine wax with unusual qualities. Honeybees also produce propolis, a
substance possessing antibacterial properties, and royal jelly6 and pollen for human
consumption. Honeybee venom7 is extracted for the production of antivenom therapy
and is being investigated as a treatment for several serious diseases of the muscles,
connective tissue8, and immune system, including multiple sclerosis
9 and arthritis
10.
In addition, bees have proved to be of great practical value for crop farming as in the
act of collecting nectar they pollinate the flowers of many valuable crops and wild
plants they visit.
The pollination of plants is sure to be the most important contribution of bees
to the economy and the environment. Many species of wild pollinators have
disappeared from the land as their habitats were destroyed by humans. It is the
honeybee that has taken over11
as pollinator of many of the wild plants that remain.
In this regard, the ecological value of honeybees is tremendous12
.
Beekeepers worldwide are known to earn their living from selling the honey
and beeswax their hives produce, but in some countries, beekeepers are paid for their
pollination services. However, honeybee colonies used in commercial pollination and
those kept in cities may suffer from pesticides, fungicides, fertilizers, and other
agricultural chemicals widely used in modern crop farming. As a result, bees are
frequently poisoned by accident13
and this is a major concern14
of modern
beekeepers.
Apiaries require an abundant supply of nectar and pollen. One should keep
apiaries in an area where nectar-producing plants such as clover or eucalyptus are in
abundance. As a rule, the apiaries of major honey producers are established in areas
where intensive agriculture occurs, because it is not practical to grow plants for
honey production alone. For a commercially successful operation, the area should
support 30 to 50 colonies in an apiary.
Some beekeepers have migratory apiaries and transport their bees to Stable
forage. Apiaries may consist of from 1 to 200 hives, depending on the means of the
99
beekeeper and the flower resources available. Commercial beekeepers who make
their entire living from bees often keep hundreds or thousands of hives.
Most beekeepers use standard equipment, that is, boxes (called supers15
)
holding ten separate comb frames. It is interesting that the modern hive and the one
described by Langstroth in 1851 are alike in dimensions16
.
Beekeeping is a successfully developing branch of agriculture in many
countries, for example China, the United States, Argentina, Turkey, Ukraine,
Mexico, and Russia are believed to be the world leading honey-producing countries.
The leading honey exporters are China, Argentina, Mexico, while the leading
importers are Germany, the United States, Japan, and the United Kingdom.
Notes: 1 honey-hoarding behavior – способность к накоплению меда
2 nest – зд. рой (пчел)
3 dwarf honeybee – пчела карликовая
4 adjacent comb frames – зд. рамки смежных сот
5 neighbouring – соседний
6 royal jelly – маточное молочко пчел
7 venom – яд (противоядие)
8 connective tissue – соединительная ткань
9 multiple sclerosis – рассеянный склероз
10 arthritis – артрит
11 to take over – зд. взять на себя обязанности
12 tremendous – огромный, громадный
13 by accident – случайно
14 concern – забота, беспокойство
15 super – магазин для меда, медовая надставка
16 dimension – размер
ВАРИАНТ №2
AQUACULTURE
Aquaculture, also called Fish Farming, Fish Culture, or Mariculture, means the
propagation and husbandry of aquatic organisms for commercial, recreational, and
scientific purposes. The main aim of aquaculture is to ensure the production of
aquacultural crops for human consumption and for use by the pharmaceutical and
chemical industries. However, aquaculture is known to produce aquatic bait1 animals,
ornamental or aquarium fishes, aquatic animals used to increase natural populations
for capture and sport fisheries.
Aquaculture is an agricultural activity, despite the many differences between
aquaculture and terrestrial2 agriculture. Aquaculture mainly produces protein crops,
while starchy staple crops3
are the primary products of terrestrial agriculture. In
addition, terrestrial animal waste is usually collected by farmers and used as fertilizer,
whereas in aquaculture such waste accumulates in the culture environment.
Consequently, aquaculturists are expected to manage their production units carefully
in order to avoid any water deterioration4 or pollution, especially in areas where fish
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usually spawn. Moreover, aquaculturists should not make the culture organisms
suffer from any stresses as a result of the intensive production.
Scientists know fish to be cold-blooded aquatic vertebrates, some species of
which are especially valued as food due to high content of protein, phosphorus,
iodine and vitamins A and D. In addition, a wide variety of other aquatic organisms
are produced through aquaculture, including crustaceans (mainly shrimps, crayfish,
and prawns), mollusks, algae5 (a seaweed), and some aquatic plants. In contrast to
capture fisheries, aquaculture requires deliberate human intervention in the
organisms' productivity to result in yields that exceed those from the natural
environment alone. Stocking water with juvenile organisms (also called seed),
fertilizing the water, feeding the organisms, and maintaining water quality are
considered to be common examples of such intervention. The concept of pond
fertilization6 was developed in Europe about 1500. In this process, manure is added to
the water to encourage the growth of small organisms such as aquatic invertebrates
and plankton, which in turn are eaten by the fish.
Aquaculture was developed more than 2,000 years ago in such countries as
China, Rome, and Egypt. Formerly, aquacultural practices involved capturing wild
immature specimens7 and then raising them under optimal conditions in which they
were well fed and protected from predators8 and competitors for light and space. For
instance, carp fingerlings (or juvenile fish) were captured from rivers, and kept in
ponds or other bodies of water for further growth. It was not until 1733, however, that
a German farmer successfully raised fish from eggs that he had artificially obtained
and fertilized. Male and female trout were collected when ready for spawning. Eggs
and sperm were pressed from their bodies and mixed together under favourable
conditions. After the eggs hatched, the fish fry were taken to tanks or ponds for
further cultivation. Methods have also been developed for artificial breeding of
saltwater fish, and now it is possible not only to rear sea animals but also to have the
complete life cycle under hatchery control.
Nowadays various methods enable aquaculturists to rear aquatic organisms
artificially in fresh, brackish or salt water. In addition, aquacultural production can
occur not only in natural waters but in artificial aquatic impoundments, for instance
fish may be confined in earthen ponds, concrete pools9, barricaded coastal waters
10,
or cages placed into open water. In these enclosures, the fish can be supplied with
adequate food and protected from many natural predators. Earthen ponds have been
found to be suitable for fish and crustacean aquaculture. These ponds are usually
equipped with water inlets and outlets that provide independent control of water
addition and discharge. Ponds are stocked with a specific quantity of juvenile aquatic
animals. Management practices range from pond fertilization, which increases the
number of natural food organisms, to the supply of a complete, formulated feed that
provides all nutrients necessary for growth. Animals that have reached market size
are harvested from the ponds. Channel catfish grown in the United States, and marine
shrimp grown in China, Central America, and South America, are often cultured in
earthen ponds of about 5 to 10 hectares.
Fish can also be raised in cages or raceways. The latter are long, narrow
earthen or concrete ponds that receive a continuous flow of water from a nearby
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artesian well, spring, or stream11
. Fish breeders believe raising fish in cages to be a
good method in case of using the water of lakes, bays12
, or the open ocean. Besides,
aquaculturists have shown raceways and cages to be more efficient than earthen
ponds, for many more fingerlings can be stocked in them, however, nutritionally
complete formulated feed must be provided to fish grown in these systems. Rainbow
trout are grown in raceways in many places, including Chile, Europe, and the United
States. Salmon are grown in cages, and Norway ranks the first in the world
production of farmed salmon.
Recently in aquaculture there have appeared a method known as ocean
ranching which means the rearing of fish and shellfish under artificially controlled
conditions in order to restock lakes, seas and oceans and it is usually carried out by
government agencies in the US and some other countries. According to this method
young fish are bred in the controlled environment until they become mature enough
to be released into the open sea. Using this approach, oysters (as a source of both
food and pearls), scallops13
, and mussels14
are raised throughout the world. Moreover,
ocean ranching is of great value forcing carp, trout, catfish, and tilapia15
. Experiments
with ocean ranching the late 20th century led to the economically successful
aquaculture of lobsters.
One of the main aims of aquaculture is to breed edible fish in special ponds
for sale to meet the increasing demand of population for fish. However, the growth
of world aquaculture has been stimulated by a number of other factors, including
overfishing, destruction of habitats for some unique fish species, water pollution,
and dietary changes.
Notes: 1 bait ‒ приманка, наживка
2 terrestrial ‒ происходящий на земле, на суше
3 starchy staple crops ‒ зд. основные культуры, содержащие крахмал
4 deterioration ‒ зд. ухудшение состояния или качества
5 alga (pl algae) ‒ водоросль
6 pond fertilization ‒ зд. внесение органических веществ в пруд в качестве питательной
среды 7 specimen ‒ экземпляр
8 predator ‒ хищник
9 concrete pools ‒ забетонированные небольшие пруды
10 barricaded coastal waters ‒ зд. огороженные участки прибрежных вод
11 artesian well, spring, stream ‒ артезианский колодец, источник или родник/ручей
12 bay ‒ залив
13 scallop ‒ зоол. гребешок, двустворчатый моллюск
14 mussel ‒ мидия
15 tilapia ‒ тилапия (африканская пресноводная рыба семейства цихлид, используемая
в пищу и широко выращиваемая сейчас во всем мире)
ВАРИАНТ №3
BASIC TYPES OF FEEDS
Animal feeds are classified into two main groups: concentrates and roughages.
The former are high in energy value and are subdivided into following four groups:
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(a) cereal grains and their by-products (barley, corn (or maize), oats, rye, wheat), (b)
high-protein oil meals or cakes (soybean, cottonseed), (c) by-products from
processing of sugar beets, and (d) by-products from other industries. Roughages
include such feeds (a) pasture grasses, (b) hays, (c) silage, (d) root crops, and (e)
straw.
Concentrate feeds. a) Cereal grains and their by-products. In the cultural
practices of North America and northern Europe, barley, corn, oats, rye, and
sorghum are grown mainly as animal feed, however small quantities are processed for
human consumption as well. These grains are fed, whole or ground, either singly or
mixed with high-protein meals or other by-products, minerals, and vitamins, to form
a complete feed for pigs and poultry or an adequate dietary supplement for ruminants
and horses. By-products from commercial processing of cereal grains, for instance
wheat bran, corn gluten meal1, rice bran or hulls
2, are used as animal feeds in large
quantities.
b) High-protein meals. Vegetable seeds such as soybeans, flax-seeds3,
cottonseeds, sunflower seeds4 are produced mainly as a source of oil for human food
and industrial uses. After these seeds are processed to remove the oil, the residues5,
which may contain from 5 per cent to less than 1 per cent of fat and 20 to 50 per cent
of protein, are used as animal feeds. The latter are valuable supplements to roughages
or cereal grains and other low-protein feeds because they provide the protein needed
for efficient growth of production.
c) By-products of sugar beets. From the sugar-beet industry come beet tops,
which are used on the farm either fresh or ensiled6, and dried beet pulp and beet
molasses7, which are produced in the sugar factory. These are all palatable, high-
quality sources of carbohydrates. In some European countries, fodder beets and some
other roots are grown as animal feed.
d) Other by-product feeds. By-products of brewing industry (yeast)8, dairy
industry (dried skim milk or whey or buttermilk)9
and fish industry (fish meal)
contain 50 per cent or more of high-quality protein and such mineral elements as
calcium and phosphorus so they are well-known as useful animal feeds.
Roughages. a) Pasture. Various pasture grasses (timothy, Sudan grass) and
legumes (clovers, soybeans, sorghum), both native and cultivated, are the most
important single source of feed for cattle, horses, sheep, and goats. During the
growing season they supply most of the feed for these animals at a cost lower than
other feeds that must be harvested, processed, and transported. Hundreds of different
grasses, legumes, bushes, and trees are acceptable as feeds for grazing animals. The
nutritive value of the cultivated varieties has been studied, but information is
incomplete for many naturally growing plants.
b) Hay. It is produced by drying different mature10
grasses (such as timothy
and Sudan grass) or legumes (alfalfa, clover) when they contain the maximum
quantity of digestible protein and carbohydrates but before the seeds develop. The
moisture content must be reduced to 22 per cent or less to prevent moulding11
,
heating, and spoilage during storage. Legume hays are high in protein, while the
grasses are lower in protein but vary greatly with the stage of maturity and level of
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nitrogen fertilization which have been applied to the crop. Hay is usually fed to
animals when sufficient fresh pasture grass is unavailable.
c) Silage. Silage is usually made from immature plants of corn, sorghums,
grasses, legumes in a storage container to exclude the air and allow fermentation to
develop acetic and other acids, which preserve the moist feed. Storage may be in
upright tower silos or in trenches in the ground. Best quality silage results when the
forage is ensiled with a moisture content of 50 to 65 per cent. Ensiled forage can be
stored for a longer period of time with lower loss of nutrients than dry hay. The
nutritive value of silage depends upon the type of forage ensiled and how properly it
has been made.
d) Root crops. Nowadays such root crops as mangels, rutabagas, cassava12
and
sometimes potatoes are used less extensively as animal feed than in the past, for
economic reasons. Roots are lower in dry-matter content than are most of the other
feeds listed. They are relatively low in protein also and provide mostly energy.
e) Straw and hulls. Quantities of straws that remain after wheat, oats, barley,
and rice crops are harvested and used as feed for cattle and other ruminants. The
straws are low in protein and very high in fibre. Moreover, digestibility13
of straws is
low. Straw is useful in maintaining mature animals during periods of shortage of
other feeds, but it is too low in quality in order to be satisfactory for long periods
without adding supplements. Corn stalks, cottonseed hulls, and rice hulls can also be
used as sources of fibre in ruminant rations. Rice hulls are lower in value, while the
others are similar to straw.
Notes: 1 corn gluten meal – кукурузная глютеновая мука
2 hull – пленка (зерна), лузга
3 flaxseed – льняное семя
4 sunflower seed – семя подсолнечника
5 residue – остаток
6 ensiled – засилованный
7 beet molasses – свеклосахарная меласса
8 brewing industry (yeast) – пивоваренная промышленность (дрожжи)
9 dried skim milk/whey/buttermilk – обезжиренное сухое молоко/сухая сыворотка/сухая
пахта 10
mature – зрелый, созревший 11
to mould – плесневеть 12
mangels/rutabagas/cassava – кормовая свѐкла/ брюква/ маниока 13
digestibility – усвояемость
ВАРИАНТ №4
ANIMAL ETHOLOGY
Ethology is the scientific study of the behaviour of animals in their natural
habitat. It is mainly a 20th-century phenomenon and is a branch of zoology as only
animals have nervous systems and they have abilities for perception, coordination,
orientation, learning, and memory.
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Many naturalists have studied aspects of animal behaviour through the
centuries, among the early ethologists were Herbert Spencer and Charles Darwin.
However, the modern ethology as a discrete discipline was established by biologists
Konrad Lorenz (Austria) and Nikolaas Tinbergen (the Netherlands) in the 1920s. In
1973 they and zoologist Karl von Frisch (Austria) were jointly awarded the Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their work in developing ethology. Their
emphasis was on field observations of animals under natural conditions.
Tinbergen concentrated on the importance of both instinctive and learned
behaviour to animal survival. He is especially well known for his long-term
observations of sea gulls1, which led to important generalisations on courtship
2 and
mating behaviour. Among his more important works are Social Behaviour in Animals
(1953), and Animal Behaviour (1965), The Study of Instinct (1951).
About 1910 Frisch proved that fish could distinguish colour and brightness
differences and he later discovered that auditory acuity3 and sound-distinguishing
ability in fish is superior to that in humans. However, Frisch is best known for his
studies of bees. His research was devoted to communication among bees, so-called
"dance language", and added greatly to the knowledge of the chemical and visual
sensors of insects. In 1919 he demonstrated that they can be trained to distinguish
between various tastes and odours. Also, he found that bees communicate the
distance and direction of a food supply to other members of the colony by rhythmic
movements or dances. In 1949 Frisch established that bees, through their perception
of polarized light, use the sun as a compass. Study of the honey bee's navigational
system has revealed much about the mechanisms used by higher animals.
The most important discovery of Lorenz concerned the early learning of young
nidifugous birds4, a process which he described in 1935 and called imprinting
5.
Lorenz observed that at a certain critical stage soon after hatching6, the young
chickens, ducklings and goslings learn to follow real or foster mothers. Lorenz
discovered that this following response could be transferred to an arbitrary stimulus7
if the eggs were incubated artificially and the stimulus was presented for the few days
after hatching. The concept of imprinting has been widely adopted in developmental
psychology.
The study of animal behaviour now includes many different topics, ranging
from animal behaviour during the reproductive period to communication between
animals. Many different hypotheses have been proposed in order to explain the
variety of behavioural patterns which are found in animals. Modern ethology
concentrates on the systematic observation, recording, and analysis of how animals
function, with special attention to physiological, ecological, and evolutionary aspects.
Nowadays, the ethologist is more interested in the behavioural process than in a
particular animal group and often studies one type of behaviour, for instance,
aggression, in a number of animal species.
It has been found that an organism's actions may be classified as either
instinctive or learned behaviour. The former include the actions that are not
influenced by the animal's previous experience, such as common reflexes. The latter
comprise the actions that are depended on earlier experiences, for example, problem
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solving. Ethologists put emphasis on the complex interaction of environment and
genetically determined responses, especially during early development.
Thus, evolution based on the general mechanisms, which are described by
ethology, has generated a nearly endless list of behavioural wonders by which
animals have almost perfectly adapted to their world.
Notes: 1
sea gull – чайка 2 courtship – ухаживание
3 auditory acuity – острота слуха
4 nidifugous bird – выводковая птица
5 imprinting – запечатление, импринтинг (термин в этологии)
6 to hatch (out) – вылупляться (из яйца)
7 arbitrary stimulus – зд. произвольный раздражитель
ВАРИАНТ №5
ANIMAL FEEDS
Animal feeds include any feedstuff1 which is grown or developed for livestock
and poultry. The main aim of a farmer is to provide animals with as highly nutritional
diets as possible in order to maintain them healthy and ensure the quality of such final
animal products as meat, milk, or eggs. Even today the problem of feeds is still a
subject of study for agricultural scientists.
Proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals and vitamins are known as the basic
nutrients that animals require for growth, reproduction, and good health, but the
amount of these substances varies greatly with the type of feed. The first effort to
evaluate feeds for animals on a comparative basis was made by Albrecht Thaer
(1752-1828), in Germany, who developed "hay values2" as measures of nutritive
value of feeds. Tables of the value of feeds and of the requirements of animals were
first drawn up3 in Germany; later they were used in other countries as well.
Present-day knowledge represents an expansion and further improvement of
these early efforts. The usual chemical analyses of feeds provide information on the
total amount of dry matter, protein, fat, fibre, and ash4 contained in the feed. Energy
value, mineral elements, and vitamins are also determined; these values are included
in complete tables of feed composition. The better methods for chemical analyses of
feeds are developed, the more reliable data are obtained for calculating feeding
rations for animals.
Animal feeds are classified according to: 1) the origin, that is, plant or animal
origin of feeds; 2) the chemical composition, such as high-protein, high-fibre, high-
moisture etc; 3) the nutritional value, as concentrates and bulky feeds.
Generally, animal feeds may be classified into two large groups: concentrates
and roughages. The former are higher in energy value than the latter and are
subdivided into the following types: 1) cereal grains such as wheat, corn (maize),
oats, rye, barley and their by-products which remain after grain has been processed
for human use, 2) high-protein oil meals or cakes from soybeans, sorghum, 3) by-
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products from processing of sugar beets, 4) animal and fish by-products. Roughages
include such feeds as: 1) green roughages (clover, timothy, other pasture grasses and
legumes), 2) dry roughages or fodder (hays, straws); 3) silage, 4) root crops. Green
forage grasses, silage and roots comprise a group of succulent feeds which are high in
moisture.
Concentrates are valuable in feeding all classes of animals as they have a high
food value relative to volume, that is, they are rich in both protein and carbohydrates
as well, they contain a number of microelements, minerals and vitamins. Roughages
are bulky feeds with high-fibre content which is poorly digestible. Thus, they are fed
in large quantities to cattle and sheep but they are not suitable for feeding pigs.
Succulents are known as palatable feeds but contain a lot of water and have a laxative
effect5. The younger the grass is, the higher it is in vitamins and minerals, so farmers
start grazing cattle and sheep as early in spring as possible. The quality of silage and
its nutritive value is greatly affected by a number of factors such as the type of a
forage crop, the plant age and storage conditions. Roots are low in protein but high in
carbohydrates and moisture, so they are often used as supplements to hay and straw
in order to provide complete rations for cattle and sheep.
Feeds vary not only in the amount of nutrients but in costs6 from season to
season. Thus, it is important for a farmer to select feed ingredients for complete
rations as economically as possible. Nowadays large-scale7 commercial livestock
companies as well as small-scale producers widely use special computer programmes
for selecting feed mixtures that will satisfy the nutrient requirements of a specific
type of animal at a particular stage of development. The more palatable and nutritious
rations are provided for animals on the basis of the lower-cost feeds, the higher
profits8 a farmer can get.
Notes: 1 feedstuff –корм; кормовой продукт (syn: feed, fodder)
2 hay value – кормовая ценность сена
3 to draw up (a table) – составлять (таблицу)
4 ash – зола
5 laxative effect – слабительное действие
6 costs (мн.) – издержки, затраты (на производство)
7 small-scale (large-scale) – небольшой (крупный)
8 profit – прибыль
Факультет агротехнологий и декоративного растениеводства
ВАРИАНТ №1
LIFE CYCLE OF CHINCH BUG AND CONTROL
Life Cycle: Chinch bugs1 spend the winter as adults
2 in partially protected
areas (under shrubs or around foundations of houses). As the weather warms in the
spring, adults move into open areas, where females begin laying eggs. Fifteen to 20
eggs per day are deposited for two to three weeks. The eggs hatch in one to two
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weeks, and the nymphs3 begin to suck the juices from host plants. It takes 30-90 days
to reach adulthood. There are two generations per year, with a partial third generation
in unusually warm summers. There is considerable overlap of generations, and all
stages can be found during the summer.
Control: In many instances, chemical control of chinch bugs is not necessary.
Studies in Michigan have demonstrated that lawns which receive adequate amounts
of water throughout the summer (preferably weekly deep waterings) are able to
tolerate relatively high populations of chinch bugs without sustaining damage. In
addition, many lawns have natural populations of predators. Notes: 1chinch bug- клоп-черепашка
2adult-взрослая особь
3nymphs-личинки
MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
Management in the vegetable garden involves correcting the conditions that are
favorable for the scab organism1. Some of the important points to be considered are
given below:
1. Rotations2 with other than root crops should be employed as the size of the
garden permits. This way the buildup of aggressive scab strains3 can be avoided
2. Purchase certified potato seed pieces. Do not save tubers from the garden for
use as seed. Seed treatment will help to prevent the introduction of the organism into
relatively scab free soils but is not a replacement for using clean seed. There are no
home garden pesticide products labeled for seed piece treatment against scab in New
York.
3. Plant resistant varieties4. If scab has been a problem before, test one of the
following varieties under local conditions to determine whether it is suitable.
4. In a garden where irrigation is available, scab can be reduced by keeping the
soil reasonably wet for several weeks while the young tubers are beginning to form.
5. Great care should be taken to avoid the application of fertilizer or other
materials that tend to make the soil highly alkaline.
6. One of the best methods for combating scab is the use of acid producing
fertilizers, especially those that contain liberal amounts of sulfate of ammonia.
7. Test the pH of the soil and apply elemental sulfur to lower the soil pH to 5.2. Notes: 1scab organism- организмы, вызывающие заболевание паршой
2rotations-севообороты
3aggressive scab strains-агрессивные штаммы парши
4resistant varieties-устойчивые сорта
BARLEY
Barley is best adapted to well-drained, fertile, loam soils1. It generally produces
low yields2 on sandy soils. Moderately fertile soils favor a rapid growth, but barley
grown on soils high in nitrogen often produces low grain yields3.
It is grown in rotation with other crops, particularly after cultivated row crops
such as corn, soybeans, beans, potatoes or sugar beets. Sometimes barley follows
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other small grains. Fertilizers sometimes are applied to barley that follows another
cereal crop. Notes: 1loam soils-суглинки
2low yields-низкий урожай
3grain yields-урожай зерновых
PLANTS
Plants consist essentially of three main parts. Below ground is the rooting
system1, which serves as an anchorage to attach the plant firmly to the soil, and which
is able to absorb water, and water solutions of plant nutrients from the soil.
Above ground are the stems and leaves2, which are the green part of the plant.
The stems are, in most cases, rigid and capable of keeping the plant erect, and the
leaves are arranged on the stems in a manner that exposes them to sunlight, from
which they absorb energy for the manufacture of materials for plant growth.
The third essential structure in a plant is the flower3, which contains the parts
associated with reproduction and which is responsible for seed formation.
The rooting system remains in darkness below the surface of the soil. In many
rooting systems,
There is a central root, sometimes known as the tap root, from which a number
of side roots develop as branches, and the side roots end in a large number of fine
rootlets with fine root hairs,
Which absorb water and water solutions of plant nutrients from the soil. Through a
series of hollow vessels the substances absorbed by the root hairs reach the base of
the stem. Another series of vessels in the stem is available for the passage of these
materials to the leaves and flowers Notes: 1rooting system- корневая система
2stems and leaves-стебли и листья
3flower-цветок
ВАРИАНТ №2
DISEASE CYCLE
The Penicillium expansum type of blue mold1 has been the form most
frequently reported, but a number of other less common species, which are also
usually less aggressive, have been encountered. The positive identification of the
different species2 that cause blue mold is only possible by means of laboratory
cultures and microscopic examination, and even then positive determination is
difficult because of the very slight differences encountered among species. All of the
blue molds are primarily wound parasites, most frequently gaining entrance through
fresh mechanical injuries3 such as stem punctures, bruises
4 and insect injuries, finger-
nail scratches by pickers, necrotic tissues5 of diverse origin or through normal stems
or open calyx canals6. Sometimes infections may occur through lenticels, especially
when they are damaged by cracking after a sudden abundant supply of water
following a period of dryness, or after bruising late in the storage season when fruit
have been weakened by ripening and aging.
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Notes: 1blue mold- голубая плесень
2different species-различные сорта
3mechanical injuries-механические повреждения
4bruises- повреждение (растений , фруктов)
5necrotic tissues-некротические (отмирающие) ткани
6calyx canals-каналы чашечки
VARIETIES. SEED SELECTION
The names of the original varieties1 from which strains have been selected are
not known, but all South Australian celery2
is generally called South Australian Long
White. Individual growers select their own strains. These mature over a period of
time and comprise approximately 50 per cent early, 40 per cent mid-season and 10
per cent late strains.
As the crop is being cut, a number of well-shaped, true-to-type and vigorous
plants are selected and left standing for seed bearers. When cutting has finished, these
selected plants are lifted and planted together. Care is taken to plant the different
strains some distance from each other to prevent crosspollination. As the seed heads
grow, the plants have to be supported. They are regularly sprayed to reduce septoria
leaf spot infection.
When the seed has matured, about January or February, it is threshed, cleaned,
spread out to dry and then stored in air tight containers until required. Seed matures
too late for use in the following year's crop, and two year's supply is usually kept on
hand. Septoria leaf spot is one of the principal diseases affecting celery. It is
commonly carried on the seed, and an early infection often starts from sowing
infected seed. Notes: 1varieties-сорта
2celery- сельдерей
AGRICULTURE OF GREAT BRITAIN
Great Britain is a developed industrial and agricultural country. The greater
part of lands in the country belongs to big landowners who, as a rule, lease their land
to farmers. On big farms fertilizers and up-to-date agricultural machinery are used.
The prevailing type of agriculture in England is suburban farming. Sheep-
farming, cattle-farming and dairy-farming are important branches of the British
economy. Chicken farms produce a great number of chickens and eggs for the
population.
Britain’s arable farming specializes in fodder crops, market-gardening and
horticulture. Almost half of the tilled area is under forage crops (barley and oats).
Cucumbers, tomatoes, potatoes, and other vegetables are grown mainly in the suburbs
of big towns. The south of Great Britain is often called the ’’Garden of England‖.
This is because there are many gardens and orchards.
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SEEDS AND SEEDING
The time of seeding has an important influence on both the rate of seeding and
the amount of fertilizer to use.
As a rule, small grains are seeded at a heavier rate on poor soils than on the
more productive soils. In the case of intertilled crops1, such as corn, potatoes, and
tobacco, the plants may be left thicker on rich soils than on poor soils. These crops
must be planted at the rates that will utilize the plant nutrients of the soil most
economically. Different methods of seeding are practiced in soils of different
moisture conditions at planting time. In those sections of the country where rainfall is
likely to be abundant at planting time, corn and other cultivated crops are planted just
deep enough to ensure germination. In sections where soil moisture is likely to be low
at planting time and during the early stages of growth, listing is often practiced,
especially with corn. (’’Listing’’ consists in opening a furrow several inches deep by
means of an implement with a double moldboard and depositing the seed about 2
inches below the bottom of the furrow). Where drainage is poor, crops are often
planted on ridges or beds2.
Notes: 1Intertilled crops-пропашные культуры
2ridges or beds-гребешки борозды или грядки
ВАРИАНТ №3
SYMPTOMS IN THE SEEDBED
Tobacco seedlings with erect leaves in small patches in the seedbed are usually
the sign of early blue mold infection. Seedlings with leaves between 2 and 4 cm in
diameter show clear round yellow spots on the upper surface with corresponding gray
or bluish mold1 in the lower surface. At this stage some of the leaves are usually
cupped. Young seedlings, up to 4-weeks old, are very susceptible to blue mold and
are easily killed by the fungus2. Leaves of older seedlings are puckered and deformed
and dark, dead areas may develop. Diseased seedlings are stunted, and in severe cases
the stem and root become infected and turn brown in color.
The presence of the downy mold on the under surface of the leaf is the most
reliable symptom of blue mold. This downy mold carries thousands of tiny
reproductive units called "conidia"3. If sufficient conidia form at different spots in the
seedbed an outbreak is likely to occur and all seedlings in the greenhouse become
infected overnight. Notes: 1bluish mold-голубоватая плесень
2fungus-гриб
3conidia-конидии
CUCUMBER GROWING
Cucumbers can be grown on almost any good soil. The crop, however, is
produced largely on the sandy loams. In order to avoid diseases, it is essential that
cucumbers be grown in long-period rotations and on new land. Good drainage,
together with moisture - holding capacity is essential in soils on which cucumbers are
to be grown.
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Even where considerable manure is available, one or more of the soil-
improvement crops should be included in the rotation, and these should be turned
under to enrich the soil and add humus. Where a winter cover crop is grown on the
land it will be necessary to turn it under at least 2 or 3 weeks in advance of planting.
Commercial fertilizers containing 4 to 5 percent of nitrogen, 8 to 10 percent of
phosphoric acid, and 4 to 5 percent of potash are applied broadcast at the rate of 1 ton
to the acre by most cucumber growers.
Soils for cucumbers are easy to prepare. The more successful growers disk and
harrow the land several times after plowing in order that all the manure and fertilizers
may be thoroughly mixed with the soil. The methods of soil preparation depend upon
locality. Where a soil-improvement crop is grown during the late summer, it is
plowed under before it is killed by frost.
AGRONOMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF CROP PLANTS
From the agronomical standpoint, crop plants are classified according to the
way or ways in which they are used. On this principle, the following classification is
often used.
Cereals or Grain Crops1. It is known that a cereal may be defined as any
grass grown for its edible grain. ‖Grain‖ is a collective term for the fruit of cereals.
Wheat, rye, barley, corn, oats and rice are considered to be the great cereals of the
world. One should know that wheat, barley, and oats occupy by far the greatest part
of the cultivated area occupied by cereals.
Legumes2 for Seed. The term ‖legumes’’ may be defined as a plant of the
natural family Leguminoseae. It is field beans, field peas, peanuts, cowpeas and
soybeans that are the principle legumes raised for their seeds.
Forage Crops3. The term ’’forage’’ may be defined as vegetable matter
utilized as feed for animals in the form of harvested hay, soilage, silage, or a pasture.
Forage crops include all grasses cut for hay, legumes cut for forage, sorghum, and
corn fodder.
Root Crops4. A root crop is one grown for its edible roots. In this group are
found such plants as turnips, rutabagas, and various form of the beet. The sweet
potato is a true root crop, whereas the potatoes is not. Many root crops such as
turnips, rutabagas, mangels5 and carrots are grown far less in the United States than
Canada and Europe. Notes: 1cereals or grain –зерновые культуры
2legumes-бобовые
3forage crops-фуражные культуры
4root crops- корнеплоды
5turnips, rutabagas, mangels- турнепс, брюква, кормовая свекла
ВАРИАНТ №4
DISEASE CYCLE
Scab begins when tubers start forming. Initially the spots may be so small that
they are not noticed. As the tuber continues to grow, the areas of these reddish brown
spots also enlarge. An older tuber has too thick a protective layer on its surface to be
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invaded readily. In any thimbleful1 of soil there may occur thousands, or even
millions, of individuals belonging to the genus Streptomyces. These are
actinomycetes2 which have characteristics placing them between bacteria and fungi.
Not all of the Streptomyces organisms recovered from the soil can cause scab on
potatoes, but many of them can. Collectively these usually are grouped under
the name Streptomyces scabies. Streptomyces scabies can live on decomposing
material in the soil and does not require a potato or root crop to remain alive.
However, it does become more aggressive on any given crop, such as potatoes, if the
same crop is grown year after year without rotation. The organism infects the tuber
by means of a tiny thread that pushes directly through the tender skin of the forming
potato. It slowly continues to grow until the crop is harvested. The infected areas on
the potato respond at once by laying down a corky layer. As each layer is invaded by
the scab organism, new cork formation takes place until a mature scab spot is
produced. Scab does not develop further after the potatoes are dug, but the organism
remains alive all winter in storage. Notes:
1 Thimbleful-небольшое количество, щепотка
2 Actinomycetes- акциномицеты
TOMATOES
The tomato is one of the most widely planted of all home garden vegetable
crops. The seed should be sown in the hot-bed during February and the plants later
transplanted to the field when all danger of frost has passed. A few plants of at least
two varieties should be grown, one of the early sorts, such as Barliana, and the other
of the later type. Where only a few plants are to be set out and space is scarce, it is
best to stake and prune1 them to a single stem.
If not staked, the plants should be mulched with straw so as to keep the fruit off the
soil and conserve moisture.
Young tomato plants should be kept free of weeds and grass by hosing and shallow
cultivation. Deep cultivation is discouraged at all times because of the resulting root
pruning and breaking of the plants. Where available without much expense, irrigation
will serve to increase the yields and occasionally prolong the picking season until
frost. Notes: 1stake and prune-подпирать колышком и удалять боковые веточки
AGRICULTURE
Agriculture is an important branch of economy of any state. It deals with plant
growing and animal breeding.
Modern agriculture in all leading countries of the world is highly equipped with
machinery. Such processes as plowing, sowing and harvesting are carried out by
machines. Electricity is widely used in agriculture, especially in animal husbandry.
We cannot imagine modern agriculture without applying commercial fertilizers,
without using herbicides against pests, without means of control diseases of plants
and animals. Thus, mechanization, electrification and chemization are the most
important factors of rapid development of highly productive agriculture.
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Land areas used in agriculture are called agricultural lands. Not all agricultural
lands are absolutely fit ones. People turn unsuitable lands into suitable by rooting up
trees and bushes, by draining swamps and irrigating deserts. Land reclamation or land
improvement is called melioration. Drainage and irrigation are the main components
of melioration.
THE NEED FOR SEED TESTING
Knowledge of the quality of the seed to be planted is of the highest importance to
the farmer.
It is the purpose of the seed test to disclose any undesirable conditions of crop
seeds that might result in failure of crops, an excessive cost of the actually good seed,
or the introduction and spread of troublesome and noxious weeds. The usual
laboratory test of a seed sample consists of a purity test and a germination test. In the
purity test the seed is examined to determine the actual proportion of the crop seed in
the sample: the quantity and kinds of other crop seeds that may be present; the
quantity and kinds of weed seed; and the quantity and character of the inert matter
present. The germination test shows the proportion of the pure crop seeds that may be
expected to produce plants.
ВАРИАНТ №5
POTATO SCAB1
Symptoms: A common tuber disease2 that occurs wherever potatoes are grown,
potato scab appears as superficial, dark brown, pithy patches that may be raised and
"warty." These lesions may affect just a small portion of the tuber surface, or may
completely cover it. Sometimes the ridged portions are in broken concentric rings.
Potato scab is caused by the bacteria-like organism Streptomyces scabies that
overwinters in fallen leaves and in the soil. The organism can survive indefinitely in
slightly alkaline soil but is relatively scarce in highly acid soils. It is transmitted to
plants by infected seed tubers, wind and water. The organism is also spread in fresh
manure, since it can survive passage through the digestive tract of animals.
S. scabies enters through pores (lenticels) in stems, through wounds, and
directly through the skin of young tubers. In addition to potato, other crops infected
include beets, radish, turnip, carrot, rutabaga, and parsnips. This should be kept in
mind when considering a crop rotation schedule.
Note: S. scabies can survive in the soil for many years in the absence of potato. Notes: 1potato scab-парша на картофеле
2tuber disease-заболевание клубней
LETTUCE1
Lettuce is the most popular of the salad crops. It is grown on many kinds of
soils from clay loams to sandy loams. Lettuce reaches its highest development on
sandy loams and silt loams well supplied with organic matter and on a good well-
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drained muck or peat soil. Where earliness is important sandy loam is preferred
because it warms up earlier than other soils.
Lettuce does not grow well on mineral soils that are strongly acid, but it is not
desirable to completely neutralize the acidity by liming.
The soil for lettuce should be well drained but retentive of moisture. Thorough
preparation to obtain a good seedbed is important.
The lettuce plant has a small root system, therefore the surface soil should be
well supplied with nutrients. The soil should have a good supply of organic matter
also. When lettuce is grown on mineral soils, manure or soil-improving crops should
be used to maintain the soil in good physical conditions.
Shallow cultivation2 to control weeds is very important for lettuce as the plants
cannot compete successfully with weeds. The root system is small and many of the
roots are near the surface, therefore cultivation should be shallow. Notes: 1
lettuce-cалат- латук 2
shallow cultivation-неглубокое возделывание
WHEAT1
Wheat is one of the leading crops of the eastern United States. This region is
made up of eastern Texas, eastern Oklahoma, eastern Kansas, southeastern Nebraska,
Iowa, southern Wisconsin, and all States to the east, and produces about one-fifth of
the country’s wheat.
More than 75 distinct varieties of wheat are grown on a commercial scale in
this region. Soft red winter varieties predominate, but white winter wheat is grown
extensively in New York and Michigan, and hard red winter varieties are grown in
Iowa, northern Illinois, northwestern Indiana, and southern Wisconsin, primarily
because of their greater winter hardiness.
This wheat is grown largely as a supplement to other crops. It fits well into
rotations and serves as an important cover crop to prevent soil erosion and leaching in
the late fall, winter, and early spring, when the land would otherwise be bare. It is
often grown because it can immediately be converted into cash. Notes:
1 wheat-пшеница
WEEDS1
A weed may be defined as ’’a plant out of place’’ or ’’a plant growing where it
is not desired’’. It follows that a plant may be a weed in some places and not in
others. For example, Bermuda grass, which is considered one of the most noxious
weeds in places, where it is not desired in certain parts of the South is the most
valuable pasture grass. Some plants are considered weeds wherever they grow, as
they do not seem to serve a useful purpose anywhere. Some of our most useful plants,
however, have been considered worthless weeds in the past. As late as 1893, laws
were passed in Wisconsin (US) to prevent the spread of sweat clover, which was
classed as a weed pest.
A weed has other characteristics that classify it than the place where it is
growing. In the first place, a weed has no economical use. This does not imply that an
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economic use may not some day be discovered, but until it is the plant should
continue to be called a weed.
The cost of weeds to the farmers is enormous as weeds (1) reduce crop yields,
(2) increase the expense (cost) of cultivation and harvest, (3) reduce the market value
of crops, (4) harbor fungi and insect pests that attack adjacent crops, (5) poison or
injure man, livestock, or livestock products. Notes: 1weeds-сорняки
Строительный факультет
ВАРИАНТ №1
TEXT 1
The science of building is Architecture. Any engineer cannot take a form of the
building without consideration of structural principles, materials, social and economic
requirements. So a building cannot be considered as a work of architecture. From the
very beginning architecture of many skills, systems and theories have been used for
the construction of the buildings that men have housed in all their essential activities.
The coexistence of change and survival1 is evident in all phases of the human story.
This change and repetition is clearly illustrated in any architectural style. The
historical background of architecture is the value of our cultural heritage. The
heritage2 of the past cannot be ignored. Such recognition of continuity does not imply
repetition or imitation. It must be expressed in contemporary terminology.
Writing on architecture is almost as old as writing itself. There are a lot of
books on the theory of architecture, on the art of a building and on the aesthetic
appearance3 of buildings. The oldest book is a work of Marcus Vitruvius Pollio,
written in the first century B.C. Nearly two thousand years ago the Roman architect
Vitruvius set the principles upon which buildings should be designed and aims to
guide the architect. He was the first who listed three basic factors in architecture —
"convenience, strength and beauty". The sequence of these three basic aims —
"convenience, strength and beauty" — has its own significance. These three factors
are always present and are always interrelated in the best structures. It is impossible
for a true architect to think of one of them without considering the other two as well.
Thus architectural design entails a consideration of the constant interaction of these
factors. At last we can say that every element in a building has a triple implication. At
the same time its contemporary expression4 must be creative and consequently new.
Architecture is an art. The triple nature of architectural design is one of the
reasons why architecture is a difficult art. The architect does not first plan a building
from the point of view of convenience, then designs around his plan a strong
construction to shelter it, and finally adjusts and decorates the whole to make it
pretty. It takes him a special type of imagination as well as long years of training and
experience to produce a designer capable of making the requisite in the light of these
three factors — "use, construction, aesthetic effect" — simultaneously. First of all,
the designer must have sufficient knowledge of engineering, building materials to
enable him to create economically. I see any building is built because of some
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definite human need. The use problem — "convenience" — is therefore primary5. In
addition, the designer must possess the creative imagination which will enable him to
integrate the plan and the construction into one harmonious whole. The architect's
feeling of satisfaction in achieving such as integration is one of his greatest rewards. Notes:
1. Survival – выживание
2. cultural heritage – культурное наследие
3. aesthetic appearance – эстетический внешний вид
4. contemporary expression – современное высказывание
5. primary - первичный
TEXT 2
We can not ignore the heritage1 of the past. There are different styles and kinds of
architecture in the past around the world. It is not a secret, that various cultures have
left their imprint on history through their great monuments and buildings, great
castles and cathedrals. The oldest monuments which are met within architecture are
great structures such as Egyptian pyramids, the Parthenon in Athens, the Roman
Pantheon, and Hagia Sophia in the "New Rome", Constantinople, great castles and
cathedrals of the Middle Ages, the palaces of the Renaissance2 and the civil
engineering infrastructure of the industrial revolution. Great architects and engineers
followed an integrated process of conception, design and construction. This
integrated construction process persisted through the end of the nineteenth century,
when the Roebling family (John, Washington, and Emily) designed and built the
Brooklyn Bridge.
It is necessary to select materials, a type, a size and a configuration to carry
loads in a safe and serviceable fashion. The architects and engineers mobilize the
resources needed to realize the final structure. This classical approach is used to
build. In general, structural design implies engineering of stationary objects such as
buildings and bridges, objects that may be mobile but have a rigid shape such as ship
hulls and aircraft frames. But it is an area of mechanical design, to which devices are
generally assigned. These are devices with parts planned to move with relation to
each other.
Notes:
1. heritage – наследие
2. the Renaissance – эпоха Возрождения (период в культурном и идейном развитии стран
Западной и Центральной Европы 14-16вв.)
TEXT 3
First of all, the value of true architecture lies in the direct effect of the structure
itself. It depends on many reasons. One of them is a drawing1. Drawings are works of
architecture. An architect uses drawings to achieve his objective. In fact, drawings
can represent buildings only on paper. It is called "paper architecture". We mean the
result of architect's thinking of drawings. But, there is a danger of "paper
architecture". The architect mustn't forget that many elements which look well on a
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drawing may be either completely ineffective or definitely harmful2 in the actual
building.
For example, it is electric architecture. Electric buildings are full of decorative
elements which look well on the drawing. Perhaps even seem necessary on the
drawing. But in the actual buildings they are completely meaningless3. An architect is
able to see variations of a plan, of color and a shade. Each of these variations is due
to the effects of light on the building materials employed. The architect must always
study each detail from the viewpoints of both use and appearance4 as well as from
that of construction. He must not see it as an isolated detail but as an individual note
in a great composition. A work of an architect exists only when it stands a complete,
concrete object for all to see or to use.
The architect must project an integration of the whole in order to create a work
of architecture. He must remember about the architect's alphabet. Knowledge of this
alphabet is as essential to him as knowledge of words to the writer or of notes to the
musician. The letters of the architect's alphabet are such elements as walls and
openings, supports and ceilings, enclosed areas or rooms. We enter the building and
our attention meets the same complexity of elements. They are doors to allow ingress
and egress5; windows to admit light and air; walls for shelter or support; roofs to keep
out the rain, snow, cold, and sometimes sun. A partition separates space from space.
There may be stairs, escalators, or elevators to allow progress from level to level and
halls or corridors to permit easy circulators from part to part Finally there may be all
sorts of interior spaces for definite human activities — rooms both public and private
— to take care of the varying functions of human living. No building can exist
without some of them.
Any true architectural design is no mere fantasy, no unreal dream. It
contemplates an actual building. There must be adequate structure for a building to
exist. Then we observe the physical structure of a building outside. Next, "strength"
becomes the second necessity for the construction. A true construction must stand up
solidly.
Finally, mankind has always realized that buildings to be complete must have
not only "convenience" and "strength", but also "beauty". Some people think that
architecture is not a fine art at all. For such people the world of fine arts is something
entirely set apart from ordinary living and that its single purpose should be satisfying
of physical necessities. At the same time architecture is a matter of pictures or
sculpture, poems or music. The architect has the task of being an artist as well as an
inventive engineer. The expression of the purpose of buildings would seem to call for
additional thought on this point. The emotions are evoked by beauty. It may be
theaters, churches, dwellings and buildings, which always differ from one another.
Yet a separate consideration of an individual building is a very real artificial sense. Notes:
1. drawing - рисование
2. definitely harmful – определенно вредный
3. meaningless – не имеющий смысла
4. both use and appearance – как использования, так и внешнего вида
5. ingress and egress – вход и выход
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ВАРИАНТ №2
TEXT 1
We have mentioned that architecture is a science of building. On one hand,
coming of a building science also marked a major change in the role of an architect.
The response of the architect was to develop a new role of licensed professional on
the model of licensed professions such as law1 and medicine. It meant a bewildering
range of new building types. On the other hand, with coming of a building science,
there was a farther division of labor in the design process. Some new disciplines
appeared to teach engineers and architects. One of them was structural engineering2
as a separate discipline specializing in the application.
We know that for building an architect and an engineer are needed. One of the
first buildings for which an architect and an engineer were separate persons was the
Granary (1811) in Paris. The building design professions were founded, including the
Institute of Civil Engineers (1818) and the Royal Institute of British Architects
(1834), both in London, and the American Institute of Architects (1857). Official
government licensing of architects and engineers was not realized until beginning
with the Illinois Architects Act of 1897. With the rise of professionalism was the
development of government regulation, which took the form of detailed municipal
and nation a building codes3 specifying both prescriptive and performance
requirements for buildings. Notes:
1. law – правоведение
2. structural engineering – структурное строительство
3. municipal and nation a building codes – муниципальный, национальный, строительный
свод законов
TEXT 2
Engineering1 is a complex discipline, including a lot of fields
2. One of them is
an architectural engineering. It is a discipline that deals with the technological aspects
of buildings. They are the properties and behavior of building materials and their
components, foundation design, structural analysis and design, construction
management, and building operation. Besides, architectural engineering deals with
environmental system analysis3 and design. Every engineer knows an environmental
system, which may account for 45—70% of a building's cost, includes heating,
ventilating and air conditioning, illumination, building power system, plumbing4 and
piping, storm drainage, building communications, acoustic, vertical and horizontal
transportation, fire protection, alternate energy sources, heat recovery, and energy
conservation. In addition, it is necessary to help protect everybody from unnecessary
risk. That's why architectural engineers must know and be familiar with the various
building codes, plumbing, electrical and mechanical codes, and the Life Safety Code.
The latter code is designed to require planning and construction techniques in
buildings which will minimize possible hazards to the occupants. Notes:
1. engineering1 - строительство
2. fields2 - области
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3. environmental system analysis3 – анализ экосистемы
4. plumbing4 – вертикальная установка
TEXT 3
One of the ancient1 human activities is building construction. It began with a
purely functional need for a controlled environment to moderate the effects of
climate. Human shelters2 were constructed to adapt human beings to a wide variety of
climates and become a global species. But temporary structures were used only a few
days or months. Over time were they evolved into such a highly refined form as the
igloo. After adventing agriculture, people began to stay in one place for long periods.
That's why more durable3 structures began to appear. The first human shelters were
very simple. The first shelters were dwellings. But later they were used for other
functions, such as food storage and ceremony. Some structures began to have
symbolic as well as functional value, marking the beginning of the distinction
between architecture and building.
Building construction has its own history, which is marked by a number of trends. Let's
describe some of them. One of these trends is increasing durability of the materials. The first
building materials were perishable. We mention leaves, branches and animal hides. Later
people began to use more durable natural materials such as clay, stone, timber. Finally,
synthetic materials such as bricks, concrete, metals, plastics were used in building. Another
trend is quest for buildings of greater height and span. It was possible by the development of
stronger building materials and by knowledge of how materials behave and how to exploit
them to greater advantage. The third trend involves the degree of control exercised over the
interior environment of buildings: increasingly precise regulation of air temperature, light and
sound levels, humidity, air speed. All factors that affect human comfort become possible. A
modern trend is change in energy of the construction progress, starting with human muscle
power and developing toward the powerful machinery.
The present state of building construction is complex. There is a wide range of
products and systems which are aimed primarily at groups of building types. We
know about a great role of the design process for buildings. It draws upon research
establishments that study material properties and performance, code officials. Last
ones adopt and enforce safety standards and design professionals who determine
user's needs and design a building to meet those needs. It proves that the design
process for buildings is highly organized. The construction progress is also highly
organized. It includes the manufacturers of building products and systems. On the
building site craftsmen assemble themselves. A work of the craftsmen is employed
and coordinated by contractors. There are also consultants who specialize in such
aspects as construction management, quality control and insurance. We must mention
about complexity and measure of mastery of natural forces, which can produce a
widely varied built environment to serve the needs of society. In conclusion, modern
building construction is a significant part of an industrial culture. Notes:
1. ancient – первобытный, древний
2. shelters – укрытия, кров
3. durable - прочный
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ВАРИАНТ№ 3
TEXT 1 We have mentioned about some problems connected with building. One of
them is a foundation. Architects and engineers are aware of the problems involved in
laying building's foundations. They do not always realize to what extent the earth can
be pressed down by the weight of a building. Too little allowance has sometimes
been made for the possibility of a heavy structure's sinking unevenly. There are a lot
of examples of foundations' problems. One of them is the Leaning Tower of Pisa1.
Why did the Leaning Tower of Pisa lean? The answer is that its foundations were not
soundly laid. Though the Leaning Tower is 14 feet out of the perpendicular, it has
never toppled. But there is a way out. As the building began to lean over, the builders
altered the design of the tipper stories to balance it. At the same time as one side of it
sank into the ground, the earth beneath was compressed until it became dense enough
to prevent further movement.
That's why a foundation engineer has a lot of work. But in a tall modern
structure the load may be very heavy indeed. In this way the foundation engineer has
an extremely important job to do. To begin with, he must have thorough
understanding of soil mechanics, which entails a scientific study of the ground to see
what load it can be without dangerous movement. We know that trial pits, holes can
be. So the engineer must collect undisturbed samples of earth from various depths.
By examining this, the engineer can forecast the probable shifts in the earth during
and after building, according to the sort of the foundation he designs. Thus he comes
to the most important decision of all in the building's construction. He decides
whether the earth is a type that can best support each column on a separate solid
block, or whether he must aim at lightness.
It is important for the foundation engineer to know about different types of the
ground. If it is a firm ground at great depth, the foundation engineer may use piles.
These are solid shafts made either by driving reinforced, concrete deep into the
ground, or by boring holes in the earth and pouring in the concrete. Each pile
supports its load in one, or two ways. It may serve as a column with its foot driven
into solid еаrth. At the same time it may stand firm because friction along its sides
"grips" the column and prevents it from sinking.
But it may be a question of building's floating. In this way the foundations take
the form of a vast, hollow concrete box. This box is divided into chambers. These
ones will be house heating and ventilating plants as well as provide garage and
storage space for the building.
The situations may be different. There are no problems at all or few of them. It
can be if the earth is stable. Buildings stand on hard rock like granite or ironstone.
For them neither piles nor need flotation be used. It is the best time for those
foundation engineers whose buildings stand on the foundations possessing few
problems. Notes:
1. Leaning Tower of Pisa – наклонившаяся Пиззанская башня
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TEXT 2
A very important part of any structure is a wall. Walls may be constructed in
different forms. The walls include windows and doors, heads1 and sills
2, stanchion
casings3 and inner lining panels
4. The doors and windows provide for controlled
passage of environmental factors and people through the, wall line. The aluminium
heads, sills and windows are fixed from inside the building. After this, the 900 mm
and 1.800 mm wide exterior doors are installed. These doors are aluminum framed
and pre-glazed or hardwood framed and glazing5 is done on site. All walls are also
designed to provide resistance to passage of fire for some defined period of time,
such as a one-hour wall. The function of resisting fire fulfills stanchions. The
stanchions are enclosed in casings.
That's why any engineer most knows all methods of constructing walls for
buildings. Of cause walls are made of various materials to serve several functions.
Тhе walls are divided into interior and exterior walls. The exterior walls protect the
building interior from external environmental effects such as heat and cold, sunlight,
ultraviolet radiation, rain, sound, while containing desirable interior environmental
conditions. The exterior walls are made up of brick cladding, wall planks. The wall
planks are designed to be weatherproof and to support the outer cladding. The wall
planks and floor units are fixed only while the steel frame is being erected. The
concrete floor units are capable of carrying a load of up to 5 kn/sq m. Finally, the
internal sills and lining panels are installed. The lining panels are capable of being
removed to give access to the services. The lining panels and the internal sills are
cavity for heating and electrical services.
Finally, the internal sills and lining panels are installed. The lining panels are capable of
being removed to give access to the services. The lining panels and the internal sills are cavity
for heating and electrical services. Notes:
1. Heads – верхний брус оконной или дверной коробки
2. Sills - подоконники
3. stanchion casings – подпорка, опалубок
4. inner lining panels – внутренние, выравнивающие панели
5. glazing – вставка стекол
ВАРИАНТ № 4
TEXT 1
We have mentioned about some methods of constructing walls for buildings.
All walls are made of different materials. For example, walls are made of brick1. The
brick walls are laid up with a space between separate vertical parallel walls and
connected with occasional cross bricks or metal ties. This method provides «cavity
walls».
In areas of possible earthquake damage2 the «cavity» in brick work and the
open cells in concrete units is reinforced with standard reinforcing rods and fully
grouted with a soupy mixture of concrete. Normal spacing for vertical reinforcement3
is #4 at 24" with #4 at 48" horizontal fully, encased in grout up to 10" high.
Reinforcement requirements should be shown on the drawings for other situations.
122
But it is a special part of building called masonry. Masonry is installed with
cement mortar at bed and end joints, usually 3/8" or 1/2" thick. The masonry includes
a stone or brick work and concrete units. The concrete units are laid in a similar
manner, but obviously there is no open space between inner and outer shells. Each
unit has an open core. The concrete units are used primarily as foundation, exterior or
fire-separation walls. The brick and concrete units are manufactured in standard sizes.
Though, a stone may be any size, thickness4, quality or color.
Notes:
1. brick - кирпич
2. earthquake damage – повреждение от землетрясения
3. reinforcement - укрепление
4. thickness - плотность
TEXT 2
Besides masonry1, a brick work, any engineer must know about heating and
ventilation. They are two branches of engineering which are very closely connected.
Both they are treated as a dual subject. Heating is to prevent too rapid loss of heat
from the body. The rate of heat lost from the body is controlled. Some old concepts
of heating have been gradually changed since engineers obtained more precise
knowledge2 about how the body loses heat. Insufficient attention was paid formerly
to loss by radiation, which is the transmission of energy in the form of waves from a
body to surrounding bodies at a temperature. The human being also loses heat by
conduction (through his clothes) and convection, the latter by air currents not only
past his skin or outside clothing surface but also by evaporation of moisture3 from his
skin (respiration).
The determination of the capacity or size of the various components of the
heating system is based on the fundamental concept that heat supplied to a space
equals heat lost from the space. The most widely used system of heating is the central
heating4.
There are two most common systems of heating: hot water and steam. There
the fuel is burned in one place, from which steam, hot water or warm air is distributed
to adjacent and remote spaces to be heated. Both systems are widely used nowadays.
A hot-water system consists of the boilers and a system of pipes connected to
radiators suitably located in the rooms. The steel or copper pipes give hot water to
radiators or convectors which give up their heat to the rooms. Then cooled water is
returned to the boiler for reheating. As for steam systems, steam is usually generated.
The steam is led to the radiators through or, by means of steel or copper pipes. The
steam gives up its heat to the radiators and the radiators to the room. After this
cooling of the steam condenses to water. The condensate is returned to the boiler by
gravity or by a pump. The air valve on each radiator is necessary for air to escape.
Otherwise it would prevent steam from entering the radiator.
Recent efforts have resulted to completely conceal heating equipment in an
arrangement. Hot water, steam, air, or electricity are circulated through distribution
units embedded in the building construction. Panel heating is a method of introducing
heat to rooms in which emitting surfaces are usually completely concealed in the
123
floor, walls or ceiling. The heat is disseminated from such panels partly by radiation
and partly by convection. Ceiling panels release the largest proportion of heat by
radiation and floor panels release the smallest one. The proportion of heat
disseminated by radiation and convection is also dependent to some extent upon
panel-surface temperatures. Other factors must be considered by an engineer. They
are a type of occupancy, furniture or equipment location, large glass areas, heat-
storing capacity of building construction, room height, and possible change of wall
partitions, climate, exposure5, cost. Sometimes fuel is used for heating. They include
coal, oil, manufactured and natural gas, wood. Nowadays gas fuel is being used on an
increasing level.
But to do comfortable atmosphere is to use heating and ventilation together,
Heating and ventilation are concerned with providing a required atmospheric
environment within a space to produce a desired temperature for maintaining
comfort, health or efficiency of the beings. Nowadays air-conditioning is closely
related to both heating and ventilation. Notes:
1. masonry – каменная кладка
2. more precise knowledge – более точные знания
3. evaporation of moisture – испарение влаги
4. central heating – центральное отопление
5. exposure - мостоположение
ВАРИАНТ №5
TEXT 1
One of the building materials used in a construction is a brick. The production
of a brick was industrialized in the 19th century. Earlier it was a process of hand-
molding. Later it was superseded1 by «pressed» bricks. It was a mass production by a
mechanical extrusion process. In this way clay was squeezed by "pressed" through a
rectangular die as a continuous column and sliced to size by a wire cutter2.
Periodically fired kilns3 were used. Bricks were moved slowly on a conveyor belt.
New methods considerably reduced the cost of a brick. That's why it became one of
the constituent building materials of the age.
Rapid development of timber technology was in the 19th century in North
America. It was explained large softwood fir's forests and pine trees. There they were
used as industrial methods. Steam- and water-powered sawmills began producing
standard-dimension timbers4 in the 1820s. The production of cheap machine made
nails in the 1830s. It provided other necessary ingredient — a balloon frame5. That
made possible a major innovation in building construction. The first example was a
warehouse erected in Chicago in 1832 by George W. Snow. There was a great
demand for small buildings of all types settled on North American continent. Light
timber frame provided a quick, flexible, inexpensive solution6 to this problem. Heavy
timbers and complex joinery were abandoned in the balloon frame system. The
building walls were framed with 5 x 10-centimetre (2 x4-inch) vertical members.
They were placed at 40 centimeters (16 inches) from the centre. This supplied a roof
and floor joists, usually 5x25 centimeters (2x10 inches) and placed 40 centimeters
(16 inches) apart and were capable of spanning up to six meters (20 feet).
124
Notes:
1. was superseded – было вытеснено
2. wire cutter - кусачки
3. fired kilns – печи для обжига
4. timbers - древесина
5. balloon frame – надувная несущая конструкция
6. inexpensive solution – недорогое решение
TEXT 2 Among the oldest and newest of structural materials are composite materials
1.
It was discovered many years ago that two or more materials could be used together
as one. Later it was proved that such a combination often behaved better than each
material alone. Following this principle, clay and straw were combined to make
bricks. For centuries composite materials remained virtually untapped. Only then
monolithic materials, such as iron, copper were served for needs of an advancing
technology. Recently it was a development of technology with coming of reinforced
concrete, linoleum, plasterboard and plywood panels2. During the 1930`s and 1940`s
light-weight honeycomb structures, machine parts made from compressed metal
powders and plastic reinforced with glass fibers became commercial realities. These
developments marked the beginning of the modern era of composite engineering
materials. It was mentioned growing and using composite materials. The
consumption3 of the fiber reinforced plastics
4, for example, has been increasing at the
phenomenal rate of 25 per cent annually. Nevertheless, the emergence of a strict
discipline and technology of composite materials is barely 20 years old.
There are two major reasons for the current interest in composite materials.
The first is the demand for materials that will outperform the traditional monolithic
materials. The second and more important in the long run, is that composites offer
engineers the opportunity to design totally new materials, with the precise
combination of properties needed for a specific task. Although new composites are
usually more costly than conventional materials, they can be used more sparingly,
because of their superior qualities. Notes:
1. composite materials – композитные материалы
2. plywood panels – клееные панели
3. consumption – использование (потребление)
4. fiber reinforced plastics – волокнистый пластик для армирования
TEXT 3
All cultures have their own traditions and customs. That's why it is important
to know about them. Of cause, architecture has its own history. There are a lot of
different kinds of architectural styles, describing some features1 of every country. For
example red brick buildings of old Petersburg factories, grey Ferro-concrete cases of
industrial giants tell us about Soviet epoch. But, today they look old-fashioned.
Besides external unattractiveness2, the constructions of the last centuries have lacks
3.
They are internal narrowness4, conditions of communications in these buildings. In
particular, because of these lacks it is impossible to organize modern competitive
125
manufacture. The majority of the companies do not prefer building of new
constructions, using the тоя perspective materials and technologies, including an easy
metallic construction (LMC).
Let's tell some words about a basic fast construction for building» It is a metal
skeleton. There metal vertical racks5 and horizontal crossbar
6 with the help bolt
connections gather in cross-section frames. The cross-section frames are a system of
extensions communications, giving to design settlement durability fastens. There it is
established roofing, wall runs, frames under windows, doors. Any engineer may say
that a bearing skeleton is ready. Further it is possible to use any facing. It can be
Ferro-concrete, bricklaying, special panels such as "sandwich" any combinations of
the specified designs. It is necessary to tell some words about panels such as
"sandwich". Every panel consists of two sheets of the zinced iron between which a
special heater is placed. The design has no internal skeleton. Its durability is reached
due to the certain orientation of fibers.
It is very important for a future skilled engineer7 to remember about a
distinctive feature such as "fast". It is a high degree of a factory's readiness to
complete the building. In practice it is carried out as follows. All details, delivered to
a building site, are made at a factory with their obligatory8, test characteristics of
strong. On a building site all elements of a design are gathered with the help bolt
connections. With the purpose, excepting possible problems during installation, all
details are adjusted to each other on the factory-manufacturer control assembly of
each design.
The scope9 of fast metallic construction is very wide. For example, metallic
construction is not used at construction of buildings in which nuclear reactors will
place, or bank storehouses. There walls' and roofing designs should possess raised
isolation properties10
. It is not accepted to use them. Practically, fast metallic
constructions are used at the construction of any industrial targets, warehouses, sports
complexes. Recently fast construction designs are used in the market. This process
does .metallic construction attractive in the field of trading constructions.
Every construction has its own advantages and disadvantages. Advantages of a
fast metallic construction are obvious. A cost of a building from a metallic
construction is 30-40 % less, than on construction of a similar building, using
traditional materials. Naturally, the given statement is correct only under condition of
the certain identity of quality of external and internal furnishing11
. For example, the
building constructed from the cheapest brick without additional external furnishing,
will be cheaper than a construction from a fast metallic construction with a facade
trimmed with dark glass12
. The essential economy, while using a metallic
construction, is reached to decrease in expenses of a zero cycle approximately on
50%. Today a fast metallic construction is a leader among all building designs, first
of all, because of its low price. On the other hand, it has the shortest terms of
erection. The economy of time can become very significant and essentially important
for any customer13
. Besides the price and terms of assembly, fast metallic
constructions have more important advantage. The matter is that a metallic
construction is not only quickly gathered, but also can be disassembled14
fast and
without special financial expenses.
126
Notes:
1. features – особенности, характерные черты
2. unattractiveness - непривлекательность
3. lacks - недостатки
4. They are internal narrowness – внутри у них ограниченное пространство
5. vertical racks – вертикальные стойки
6. horizontal crossbar – горизонтальная перекладина
7. skilled engineer – опытный инженер
8. obligatory - обязательный
9. scope - масштаб
10. isolation properties – изоляционный свойства
11. internal furnishing - меблировка
12. trimmed with dark glass – отделанный темным стеклом
13. customer – заказчик (клиент)
14. can be disassembled – можно разобрать
Энергетический факультет
ВАРИАНТ № 1
THERMOSTAT SELECTION
Thermostat Selection. In addition to consideration of types, initial cost, type
of enclosure, and usage, several other factors are important when ordering a
thermostat. The desired temperature range and the allowable variations in temperature
must be specified. The range of a thermostat must include the temperature for which it is to
be used and the temperature variation should be consistent with the application. Usually the
thermostat allowing variations of 5° is satisfactory. A 5° variation (differential) means that the
thermostat would operate 2.5 above the temperature setting and would operate again 21/2°
below the setting. (Set at 85° F, contacts open at 87.5° and close at 82.5°.) Closer control is
available if desired.
A second important factor is the switch contacts. The ampere rating of the contacts,
the type of contact material (silver is best), whether single- or double-pole, and single-or
double-throw, must all be specified when placing an order. The decision relative to these
items is made after considering certain operating characteristics of the controlled appliance,
such as surge current, normal current, input voltage (230 volts double-pole contacts), and the
need for operating auxiliary equipment with the same thermostat.
Time Switch. A time switch1 is an electric clock that automatically operates switch
contacts at definite time intervals. The general-purpose time switch is designed automatically
to close the switch contacts two times and open them two times during any 24-hr period. By
adjusting the trip levers the timer can be set to provide only one on and one off operation
during the 24-hr period. Various appliances can be controlled by the contacts of the switch.
The clock motor is connected to the source of power independent of the switch contacts so
that the clock runs continuously, but the appliance is on only when the switch contacts are
closed.
127
On the farm, time switches are used more for poultry-house lighting than for any
other application. In addition, they are frequently used for controlling home-yard lighting,
automatic feeders, greenhouse lighting, cooling systems, hay curing, grain drying, and heating
systems.
Two models of time switches along with typical wiring diagrams are shown in Fig.
15. For simplicity single wires are used in the wiring diagrams. One of the diagrams illustrates
the use of a d i m c i r c u i t which provides a 15- or 20-min period of dim lights before all
lights are extinguished. The actual dimming is not incorporated in the switch but must be
provided by connecting an external resistance into the dimming circuit or by placing a low
value of lamp wattage on this circuit. Double-pole switch2 contacts are available for the 230-
volt-circuit application such as a three-wire poultry-house wiring system and for single
appliances requiring large wattages.
The automatic operation is performed by metal trip levers or riders3
which are
fastened4 to the rotating dial
5 and trip the switch mechanism as they pass by. The riders can be
removed or adjusted in position in order to regulate the timing intervals. Clocks performing
two on — off opera-lions in 24 hr require four riders. If more on — off operations are desired,
additional riders are necessary. However, there is a practical limit to the number of switching
operations possible with a single timer. The actual switching is a mechanical feature and the
dial must rotate some distance (and therefore some time elapses) before one rider can trip the
switch contacts and move past, thereby allowing the next rider to function.
In selecting a time switch, consideration should be given to the voltage rating of the
clock motor, the rating of the contacts, and the number of operations and the interval
between operations, as well as to the type of enclosure. The energy for operating the
timer is negligible, and the clock is self-starting and should last indefinitely.
Float Switch. A float switch is an automatic control that operates according to
some predetermined liquid level. The float is usually a hollow copper ball or cylinder
and is connected to the float switch by a rod or chain. The principle of operation is
based on the up and down motion о the float as the liquid level rises and falls.
The float switch is used mostly for controlling water levels in a non-pressure
tank or trough, but is also readily adapted for use with fuel-oil containers. The switch
contact are sometimes connected directly into the circuit of the con, trolled appliance,
such as a small motor, or they may be connected to control the relay coil of a
magnetic starter which operates larger motors or appliances. In other instances the
contacts are used for controlling the operation of a solenoid valve which in turn
controls the flow of water or similar liquid through a pipe. It is also possible to
employ a float switch to control the operation of a sump pump. For this latter
application the operating-lever position or the relative position of the float and the
counterweight must be sue' as to cause closed-switch contacts in the up position of
the float and open-switch contacts in the down position.
The counterweight is heavy enough to operate the switch contacts when the
float is supported by the proper level о liquid. When the liquid level decreases, the
float is not adequately supported and its unsupported weight is sufficient to overcome
the counterweight and to operate the switch contacts. The larger the diameter of the
float, the more sensitive it is to changes in the level of the liquid. The switch contacts
128
are so mounted mechanically, as to provide the snap-action feature necessary for long
life.
When placing an order for a float switch, the usual items of information to be
listed are the current rating of the switch contacts, type of enclosure, rod or chain
length, and number of poles required in the switch.
Notes: 1time switch – временный включатель, таймер, часы
2double-pole switch – двухполюсный выключатель
3rider – подвижный контакт
4to fasten – пристегивать, застегивать
5rotating dial – вращающийся диск, циферблат
ВАРИАНТ № 2
PRESSURE SWITCH1
A pressure switch is an automatic control having switch contacts which are
operated according to variations in liquid or gas pressure. The gas, vapour, or liquid
passes through the control, and the pressure of the eras or liquid expands a metal
bellows against the force of a spring. The motion of the expanding and contracting
bellows operates a snap-action switch mechanism. '' On the farm the pressure switch
serves as the control for pressure-type water systems and air compressors. It starts
and stops the electric motor which drives the water pump or the compressor. The
switch contacts of the control are generally used directly in the motor circuit, but they
could be .used to control the input to the coil of a magnetic starter. The latter case is
the usual connection for motors larger than2 hp.
When considering the application2 of a pressure switch, particular attention
must be given to the differential (difference in pressure between cut-in and cut-out)
and to the pressure range (upper and lower limits of desired pressure settings). The
user can adjust these values, within specified limits, by increasing and decreasing the
tension of springs. For instance, the pressure range of the average water-pump
Pressure control is from 20 to 80 psi, while the pressure differential is from 10 to 40
lb. If the range setting is adjusted tо 35 lb and the differential is set for 10 lb, the
switch would cut on and start the motor at 25 lb and would open, thereby stopping the
motor when the pressure reached 45 lb. The 'manufacturer varies the range limits and
the differential by combining different springs with different sizes of bellows. Other
items of importance in making a final selection of this type of control are voltage,
motor horsepower, pipe sizes, safety release valve, and type of enclosure.
Limit Switch. A limit switch is an electric switch which «s operated
mechanically by the movement of some other piece of material or machine. The
switch mechanism is frequently tripped by a knot in a rope, a metal stop fastened to ft
chain, a cam, or some similar specially rigged arrangement. One switch contacts are
usually returned to their normal position by the action of a spring. There is also a
maintained contact type which must be manually reset. The contacts may be of either
slow-action or snap-action type. The latter type trips instantly, once the mechanical
tripping device has traveled the required distance to trip the limit switch. The switch
having snap-action contacts is suggested for general-purpose use around the farm.
129
Limit switches are useful in farm applications where it is desired to limit the
travel of a rope, chain, or carriage.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS ILLUSTRATING USE OF CONTROLS
Many of the controls described in this chapter are shown in the schematic
diagrams of Fig. 16. The symbols employed in drawing the schematics are fairly well
standardized, and particular attention should be given to this phase of the figure. Note
especially the difference between the symbols for manually operated controls and
automatically controlled contacts. The relay-coil symbol is modified slightly in order
to differentiate between it and the overload3 heater symbol. Various modifications
and additions are possible, and after some study it will be clear how another control
can be substituted or added to the various schematics. It is not common practice to
include many words on a schematic drawing; but for clarity and familiarization,
explanatory notes and names have been included along with the symbols. Following
standard procedure, the switch contacts in the figure are shown in their normal
position. Thus the contacts of a relay are drawn as if the coil was deenergized, and
pushbuttons are shown in a released position.
ELECTRIC MOTORS PROTECTION Thermal Overload Relay. A thermal overload relay consists of two parts: (1)
a small switch that is normally held either open or closed against the force of a spring
by means of a catch and (2) a thermal device for tripping the catch. This thermal
device is usually a bimetallic strip which is heated by current passing directly through
the strip or by a heater coil surrounding the strip. The bimetallic strip consists of two
thin layers of different metals welded together. The metals are chosen to have quite
different temperature coefficients of expansion4, and, since the strip is firmly fixed at
one end, the other end deflects as the temperature rises. The heater coil is in series
with the circuit that is to be protected and is therefore designed to have a low
resistance. It is provided with a shunt if the current is large.
Such a device will not operate on momentary overloads, such as occur during
the starting of a motor, but will operate if the overload persists long enough to heat up
the bimetallic strip to the tripping point.
The magnetically operated contactor switch of Fig. 17 can be made to give
automatic overload protection if one inserts the contacts of a thermal overload relay
in the circuit of the operating coil and connects its heater coil in series with the main
circuit. Notes:
1pressure switch – переключатель напряжения
2application - применение
3overload - перегрузка
4coefficient of expansion – коэффициент расширения
ВАРИАНТ №3
FUSES1
A fuse is a piece of metal inserted in a circuit that is intended to melt and open
the circuit before excessive currents have had time to damage the remainder of the
circuit by overheating.
130
The melting2 or blowing of a fuse is accompanied by аn arc
3 and by spattering
of 'the fused metal, so that it is generally advisable to mount the fuse in the center of
a tube. Sometimes the tube is then filled with oil or a fireproof powder to quench the
arc. A fuse has heat storage capacity and, as far as protection from excessive current
is concerned, combines the functions of the thermal overload relay and the magnetic
contactor switch. Fuses are available for currents up to 600 amp at voltages up to 600
volts and for currents up to 300 amp at voltages up to 34,500 volts and also for
smaller currents at voltages up to 132,000. The higher voltages are alternating current
only.
Protection from Overloads and Short Circuits4. Electric circuits and
machines must be protected from overloads and short circuits, and this is
accomplished by automatically disconnecting the circuit or machine from the line
when such conditions occur.
An overload in general can injure5 a cable or machine only by overheating it to
a temperature that will damage the insulation, and, since all materials have heat
storage capacity, it follows that moderate momentary overloads do no damage.
Therefore the protective equipment should not operate on such overloads. On the
other hand, short circuits or other faults begin doing damage immediately and very
rapidly. Therefore they should be disconnected as quickly as possible. The circuit
breaker with instantaneous overload trip provides the most rapid and dependable
protection against short circuits and is used extensively for the protection of the
smaller and less important installations.
The best protection against overloads is given by thermal overload relays
controlling automatic switches, such as circuit breakers or magnetic contactor
switches. If magnetic switches are required in any case for the normal operation of
the motor, this method of protection is not expensive.
In the case of small low-voltage motors fuses are often the only protection
provided. They respond too quickly to momentary overloads, and this often means
that they must have current ratings too high to provide adequate protection against
moderate continuous overloads.
Circuit breakers are often provided with an inverse-time-limit attachment. This
is simply an adjustable dashpot that delays the movement of the tripping mechanism.
The length of the delay is approximately inversely proportional to the current through
the trip coil, so that the breaker responds slowly to moderate overloads but opens
131
quickly on heavy short circuits. The delay feature makes it possible to obtain
selectivity in the operation of circuit breakers that are in series on the same system.
By adjusting the time delays, the breaker that is nearest to the fault is made to open
first. This removes the fault, and therefore the other breakers do not open at all. In
this way the interruption is localized.
No-Voltage Release. Suppose that a motor is running at normal speed and that
the power supply is interrupted owing to some trouble in the powerhouse or in the
line; the motor will stop. If the power supply is now reestablished, with the starting
arm still in the running position, there will be no starting resistance in series with the
armature to limit the current. To take care of such a contingency, the starter is usually
provided with a no-voltage release, as shown at M, Fig. 18. The starting arm is moved
from the starting to the running position against the tension of the spring S and is held
in the running position by the electromagnet M. the power supply is now interrupted,
the motor will slow down and stop. The exciting current does not drop to zero as soon
as the power supply is interrupted, because the voltage Eg generated by the motor is
across the field circuit. That is, the motor has automatically become a self-excited
generator with no prime mover to drive it. As it slows down, its voltage decreases and
consequently its field current also decreases, which causes a further decrease in
voltage. At about half speed the magnet M becomes too weak to hold the arm against
the pull of the spring, and the arm is pulled back to the starting position. The
resistance R may be omitted if the line voltage is low enough to make it feasible to
design the coil of M for full-line voltage.
Fig. 18. Starter with a no-voltage release for a shunt or compound motor.
Another method of exciting the magnet M is to connect it in series with the
field coils of the motor. When connected in this way, it not only acts as a no-voltage
release but also protects the motor against the hazard of a break in the field circuit.
If the field circuit is accidentally broken, the field current is interrupted, and
the flux and back voltage drop approximately to zero, thus allowing a very large
current to flow through the armature winding. The magnet M, however, releases the
starting arm, which flies back to the starting position and interrupts this current
before any damage is done.
132
The no-voltage release of Fig.18 is the standard protection. It does not protect
against a break in the field circuit, but all motors are protected by either circuit
breakers or fuses, and the very large armature current resulting from a break in the
field circuit causes the breaker of fuses to operate very quickly and disconnect the
motor from the line. The chief objection to the no-field release is that most shunt
motors are operated with field control or speed, and it is difficult to provide a magnet
that will function properly over the whole range of field current. The no-field release
is used chiefly in special applications where the chances of the field circuit being
broken are unusually high, as for example in experimental laboratories.
Notes:
1fuses - предохранители
2to melt – плавить (ся)
3arc - дуга
4short circuit – короткое замыкание
5to injure – повреждать
ВАРИАНТ №4
CONDUCTORS1
For all practical purposes the copper cable and the star-section steel rod are the
best forms of conductors, although there is no serious objection to the use of a tubular
conductor. Cable has the advantage of being flexible and therefore easily installed.
Since it may be purchased in lengths as great as 1,000 feet, it need have few joints. If
too loosely woven, it may not have the required stiffness.
Steel rods make a mechanically strong, durable job. The 10-foot lengths must
be screwed together and special tools are required for making bends. Recently
aluminium conductor has come into use, but care must be taken to avoid electrolytic
corrosion where the aluminium comes in contact with iron, copper, or zinc. Such
contacts should be avoided u possible. According to the code the use of copper,
copper-covered steel, or copper-alloy fittings is not permissible when an aluminium
conductor is used. Aluminium should not be used for ground connections, since it
corrodes in the ground. Copper should be used in such exposures. The light weight
and flexibility of aluminium, however, are advantageous юг conductors above
ground.
According to the Code, copper cable2 or other copper conductor must have a
weight of not less than 3 ounces per foot galvanized steel about 5 ounces, and
aluminium about 1.6 ounces. Excellent lightning conductors are made with
galvanized steel or iron or steel with an integral copper coating.
Painting conductors above ground does not detract from the value of the
conductor, and their life may be increased by painting as soon as serious corrosion is
in evidence Aluminium conductors and fittings used in seacoast areas, subject to the
corrosive action of salt air, should be protected by painting or other means
immediately upon installation. Conductors forming the earth connections should not
be painted, since the electrical resistance of the ground is thereby much increased,
whereas the resistance should be as low as practicable.
133
AIR TERMINALS
Air terminals usually consist of three parts: (1) the point, (2) the elevation rod
or vertical conductor, to the upper end of which the point is attached, and (3) the
tripod support. Sometimes only a point (not less than 10 inches high), footed direct to
the roof conductor so as to be inconspicuous, is used. The points are the objects in the
protective conducting system that receive the lightning discharge, thus preventing
damage to the building itself.
When the elevation is short erect position of the air terminal is maintained by
firm attachment to the horizontal conductor on the roof, but, for heights of 18 inches
to 5 feel galvanized-iron tripod supports are often used. The supports are frequently
attached to the roof by galvanized nails. Screws are better, and where ready access3
may be had to the underside of the roof a firm attachment can be obtained by the use
of bolts. Air terminals erected as described and illustrated are seldom damaged by
wind or by snow and ice storms.
The copper tube or so-called shell point is extensively used with the copper-
tube elevation rod. When the point is solid for 3 inches or more from the end and the
walls of the tube are not less than No. 20 (0.032 inch) gauge in thickness, they are
sufficiently heavy to withstand the fusing effect of severe strokes. An alternative is
the copper bay point, a solid, substantial fitting that is generally preferable. The
bayonet point is also used with star-section steel elevation rods. Multiple points may
be used without objection when the individual points are sufficiently heavy, but one
large-size heavy point is enough for one air terminal and is less expensive. Where
conditions causing corrosion are severe for example, at the top of chimneys, points
and their associated conductors and fasteners if within 25 feet of the source of
corrosive gases or fumes are lead covered.
The elevation rod may be attached satisfactorily4 to the main conductor in
several ways. The lower ends of tube elevation rods are so shaped that they can
encircle a copper cable and be squeezed firmly into contact with it without the use of
solder. A T-connector, designed to be inserted into the tube and made with finger grip
that firmly engages the cable, may also be used. Star-section rods are provided with
screw fittings5 for contact with the flanges of the conductor.
Where end-to-end joints of the conductors are necessary, suitable solderless
connectors may be used. When copper cable is used joints may be made with fittings
of rugged construction that will permanently engage and connect the parts. Joints are
almost entirely avoided in copper-cable installations, since the cable often can be run
over a building from one corner to another diagonally opposite without a break. All
joints must be mechanically strong and of low resistance without dependence upon
the use of solder. Solder may be added to protect the joint from corrosion.
Fasteners6 for securing the conductors to the walls and roof of a building
should be spaced generally not more than 4 feet on the construction of the building.
The principal aim is to obtain a neat and durable job with the conductor firmly held in
place. Holes through the roof made by the fastener screws or nails must be made
watertight.
134
Notes: 1conductor – проводник
2copper cable – медный кабель
3access – доступ
4satisfactory – удовлетворительно
5fittings – осветительная арматура
6fasteners – крепеж
ВАРИАНТ №5
GALVANIZED-STEEL CONDUCTORS
If galvanized-steel, star-section rod with copper-bronze couplings is used, the
rod shall be three-fourths inch in diameter. The conductor shall be run as directly as
possible on the building with no sharp bends or loops, and in such manner the rod
shall be used, and end-to-end joints shall be carefully screwed together. Where
branches are attached to the main conductor, Y-connectors shall be used so that bends
of at least 2-foot radius may be formed with the laterals.
Copper-bronze or galvanized, malleable-iron screw fasteners or other fasteners
of approved design shall be used. The fasteners shall be spaced not more than 4 feet
apart, and screwed directly into wooden walls and roofs. Lead expansion shields
shall be used for masonry and concrete walls.
Holes through the roof made by the fasteners shall be rendered watertight by
means of elastic roof cement.
Star-section elevation rods shall be used with an inverted Y- or other approved
connection to the main conductor. The diameter of the elevation rod shall be the same
as the conductor.
Solid, copper, bayonet air terminal points screwed to the upper end of the
elevation rod shall be used.
Air terminals shall be placed above ridges, gables, chimneys, and flat roofs,
and shall be not less than 10 inches above the tops of chimneys, peaks, and pointed
parts of the building.
Galvanized-iron tripod supports for the air terminals shall be furnished and
installed and fastened to the roof with galvanized-iron screws, bolts, or expansion
screws, as the case requires. When bolts are used, a lock nut shall be provided or the
end of the bolt upset to prevent loss of nut.
FROST PROOFING WATER SYSTEMS IN POULTRY HOUSES Poultry need a constant supply of drinking water for maximum egg production
and proper growth.
Maintaining a constant water supply during cold weather is often difficult.
Drinking vessels freeze; pipes may burst.
You can prevent the water in watering equipment from freezing by using
electric warmers1. You can protect the pipes in a water supply system with electric
heating cable. The cable may also be used to prevent the water in trough-type
waterers from freezing.
Two general types of electric water-warming units for poultry watering
equipment are available immersion and external. An immersion warmer heats the
135
water directly; the heating element is placed in the water. An external warmer heats
the container that holds the water.
Drinking fountains with built-in heating units are also available.
SELECTION
Water warmers have the wattage stamped on them. This rating indicates the
heating capacity. To obtain a warmer of the correct heating capacity, consider the size
of the watering equipment, and plan to maintain the water temperature at not less than
40° F.
Tests have shown that immersion warmers are more efficient than external
warmers. The heating capacity of an immersion warmer need not be as high as that of
an external warmer to heat a given quantity of water.
For example, to prevent the water in a 14-quart bucket from freezing at 0° F,
you need an immersion warmer rated at 50 watts or more. (An external heater of 75
watts or more would be needed.) To prevent the water in an 8-gallon fountain from
freezing at 0° F, you need an external warmer of 150-watt capacity.
Insulating the drinking vessel reduces the heating requirement 20 to 40 per
cent.
OPERATION Following are some general instructions for operating electric water warmers.
Install the convenient outlets for the warmers on a circuit separate from the
lamps in the poultry house. During cold weather you may need to use the warmers in
the daytime while the lamps are turned off. In mild weather the warmers will not be
needed.
Water warmers are designed to operate on a specific voltage. Connect them to
a power supply of the specified voltage. If the voltage is lower than that specified, the
warmer will put out less heat than the rated heating capacity. If the voltage is more
than that specified, the warmer will use more wattage.
Since the wattage rating is comparatively low it takes considerable time to heat
the water. Therefore, operate the warmers continuously during cold weather. It is
especially important to do this if the poultry house lights are turned on in the
morning. A thermostat can be installed to turn on or shut off the power as the water
becomes cold or warm. This reduces the cost of operation.
Electric Heating Cable Electric heating cable protects pipes
2 in a water supply system against freezing
even in the coldest weather. Its use save labor and may save expense. Pipes do not
have to be drained when the temperature drops3 to freezing. Water does not have to be
carried from other sources because of frozen pipes. There is no expense of replacing
frozen pipes. Most impotent, poultry have a constant supply of drinking.
Several types of electric heating cable are available. Heating capacity of the
cables ranges from 2.5 to 10 watts per foot. The type most frequently used has a
heating capacity of 5 watts per foot. Notes:
1electric warmer - электрообогрватель
136
2pipe - трубопровод
3temperature drop – падение напряжения
Институт инженерных систем, сервиса и энергетики
ВАРИАНТ №1
IGNITION SYSTEMS
There are two general types of ignition: the compression1, and the spark
2
methods.
Compression ignition. The compression type utilizes the heat of compressed
air to ignite the fuel as it is introduced to the combustion or precombustion chamber3.
The temperature of this air may be as high as 1000 F and sometimes may be higher.
If fuel was mixed with the air before compression, preignition would occur; that is,
the mixture would ignite before the piston was in the most favorable position to
receive the thrust of the expanding gases. This would not be desirable. Ignition is
timed in the compression-ignition engine by timing the injection of the fuel. In an
engine operating at a constant speed, the need for variance of the timing would not be
present. The truck diesel engine, which must operate under a large range of speed
conditions, must have a governor system which can control the injection4 starting
point and the injection period. In a cold engine, some trouble is usually experienced
in bringing the compression temperature up to the ignition temperature of the fuel. To
assist the process, glow plugs are sometimes used. These are operated electrically and
are turned off when fuel ignition begins.
Most diesel (compression-ignition) engines utilize heavy-duty electrical
starters, powered by 12 volts or more from storage batteries, or gasoline engines to
turn the CI engine over fast enough to bring the temperature up to the ignition point.
When the CI engine has reached temperatures that ignite the fuel, no further trouble is
experienced with ignition. There are no wires5, coils, and plugs to cause trouble.
Some diesel engines under light load or at idle may cool sufficiently to produce poor
ignition of the fuel. This condition is overcome as more fuel is burned under
operating conditions.
The other ignition system, the spark type, is the one which is more
complicated, and therefore it is the frequent cause of poor engine performance.
Spark Ignition. The purpose of the spark-ignition system is to deliver a
perfectly timed surge of electricity across a spark-plug gap in each cylinder at the
exact moment when explode the cylinder's charge of compressed gasoline and air
with maximum power efficiency. The distinguishing feature of the SI (spark-ignition)
engine is that there is a spark plug in the head. The plug projects into the combustion
chamber. In most modern SI engines the gap of the plug remains fixed while the
engine operates.
Considering the source of electric current, there are two of spark ignition.
They are the battery-ignition and the magneto-ignition types. With the battery,
current is produced by chemical reactions within the battery; with the magneto,
currents are induced or created by rapidly moving coils or magnets.
137
Battery-ignition Types. There are two types of battery ignition according to
the type of battery. At one time, dry-cell6 batteries, such as are used in flashlights
7
today, were used to furnish the electric power. Four of these batteries fastened
together in series would produce a force of 6 volts or more, until they began to
deteriorate8. Once deterioration set in, the batteries had to be discarded. Storage
batteries have almost entirely replaced the dry-cell batteries for ignition purposes.
The storage battery can readily be charged while the engine is operating by means of
an accessory called the generator.
Trends9. Magnetos are used on small one-cylinder engines powering
motorboats and lawn mowers and on airplane engines and farm tractors. The above
vehicles have little need for lights and therefore do not need a battery, and so
magnetos have been retained. But as farm tractors have been designed to use battery
conveniences, such as lights and starters, there has been a trend to use the same
battery for ignition purposes. Also, there has been some trend away from magneto
ignition because of the initial high cost and because of the difficulty in finding
mechanics capable of servicing magnetos. As most automobile mechanics are
familiar with battery-ignition systems found on trucks and cars, better service can be
obtained with the battery system. The magneto and battery systems are almost
identical in theory and operation. The main difference lies in the production of the
current. The battery produces current and voltage by chemical action. The magneto
produces current and voltage in one of two ways: either a coil rotates within a
magnet, or a magnet rotates near a coil.
SPARK PLUG10
A spark plug (also, very rarely nowadays, in British English: a sparking plug)
is an electrical device that fits into the cylinder head of some internal combustion
engines and ignites compressed fuels such as aerosol gasoline, ethanol, and liquefied
petroleum gas by means of an electric spark.
Spark plugs have an insulated11
central electrode which is connected by a
heavily insulated wire to an ignition coil or magneto12 circuit on the outside, forming,
with a grounded terminal on the base of the plug, a spark gap inside the cylinder.
Early patents for spark plugs included those by Nikola Tesla. Some historians
have reported that Edmond Berger invented an early spark plug on February 2, 1839.
Karl Benz is also credited with the invention. But only the invention of the first
commercially viable high-voltage spark plug as part of a magneto-based ignition
system by Robert Bosch's engineer Gottlob Honold in 1902 made possible the
development of the internal combustion engine.
Reciprocating internal combustion engines can be divided into spark-ignition
engines, which require spark plugs to initiate combustion, and compression-ignition
engines (diesel engines), which compress the air and then inject diesel fuel into the
heated compressed air mixture where it autoignites. Compression-ignition engines
may use glow plugs to improve cold start characteristics.
Spark plugs may also be used in other applications such as furnaces where a
combustible mixture should be ignited. In this case, they are sometimes referred to as
flame igniters.
138
Notes: 1 compression – воспламенение от сжатия
2 spark – воспламенение от искры или принудительного зажигания
3 precombustion chamber – пусковая камера
4 injection – впрыск, впрыскивание
5 wire – проволока, провод
6 dry-cell – сухой элемент
7 flashlight – ручной электрический фонарик
8 deteriorate – ухудшаться; портиться; изнашиваться
9 trend – общее направление, тенденция
10 spark plug – запальная свеча, свеча зажигания
11 insulated - изолированный
12 magneto – магнето, индуктор
Вариант №2
NOMENCLATURE OF ENGINE PARTS
While different types and makes of engines vary as to size, horsepower
developed, and design, they are all alike in that they have certain parts that perform
similar functions. The various parts of the engine and their functions are as follows:
Cylinder Block1. The cylinder block, together with the crankcase, forms the
main body of the engine. On automotive engines the two are usually cast together
forming a single casting. Some engines have separate cylinder block and crankcase
castings bolted together to give a rigid form of construction. Individually mounted
cylinders are employed on some types of engines. The cylinder block provides the
smooth cylindrical bores which guide the pistons. The number of cylinders in an
engine varies according to the engine size and design. The crankcase supports the
crankshaft and camshaft by means of bearings, as well as numerous other engine
parts. An oil pan bolted to the bottom of the crankcase provides a tight enclosure for,
the crankshaft and a reservoir for a supply of lubricating oil.
Cylinder Head2. The cylinder head is usually a one-piece gray iron or
aluminium casting that is bolted to the top of the cylinder block. The cylinders,
together with the cylinder head, form the combustion chambers3 in which the burning
and expansion of gases takes place. A gasket between the cylinder block and cylinder
head maintains a pressure-tight joint.
Pistons4. Pistons receive the energy or force resulting from the combustion of
fuel within the cylinders. As the pistons move downward, they transmit this energy
through a connecting rod to the crankshaft.
Piston Rings5. Piston rings are used to maintain a pressure-tight seal between
the moving piston and the cylinder wall. Piston rings also provide a means of
conducting heat away from the head of the piston, and they are designed to prevent
oil from entering the combustion chamber. They generally are made of cast gray iron,
although steel is sometimes used. Most piston rings are classified as either
―compression‖ or ―oil-control‖ rings. The number and type of piston rings used is
determined by the requirements of a particular engine.
139
Piston Pins6. A piston pin, sometimes called the wrist pin, connects the piston
to the upper end of a connecting rod. The piston pin is fitted into accurately bored
holes located in the piston bosses. The upper end of the connecting rod rides on the
central portion of the pin between the two piston bosses. The piston pin rides on
bearing surfaces located either in the piston bosses, the connecting rod, or both.
Several types of retaining devices are employed to prevent endwise movement of the
piston pin.
Connecting Rod7. A connecting rod, attached to the piston by means of the
piston pin, converts the reciprocating (up and down) motion of the piston to a rotary
motion of the crankshaft. Connecting rods are usually drop-forged8 from alloy steels
and are made with an I-beam9 cross section. The upper or small end of the connecting
rod usually contains a bushing or clamp or the piston pin. The lower end of the
connecting rod is split to permit assembly to the crankshaft and contains a journal
bearing.
Crankshaft10
. The crankshaft transforms the power it receives from the
pistons and connecting rods into a rotary motion, returning the piston to the top of the
cylinder. The crankshaft is provided with journals which rotate in bearings located in
the engine crankcase. The crankshaft has one or more crank arms along its length, the
number depending upon the design of the engine and the number of cylinders. The
journals, between the crank arms provide bearing surfaces for the large, split end of
the connecting rod. Crankshafts are either forged or cast from alloy steels and often
have counterbalances located opposite the crank arms to assist in reducing main-
bearing loads and to improve engine smoothness. A flywheel bolted to a flange on the
crankshaft serves to smooth out the flow of power from the engine.
Engine bearings11
. The rotating parts of an engine generally are supported in
plain bearings, the journals turning within a bearing of antifriction metal. The
antifriction metal employed in engine bearings is an alloy such as babbitt12
, copper-
lead, cadmium-silver, and others. Bearing metals are selected for their low coefficient
of friction and their ability to withstand heavy bearing loads, high surface speeds, and
high temperatures without seizure and excessive wear of the crankshaft. Engine
bearings are either replaceable or cast directly in the crankcase or connecting rods.
Replaceable bearings usually are composed of thin steel shells lined with a thin layer
of bearing metal. To provide ease in assembly and replacement, the main and
connecting rod bearings are usually the ―split‖ or two-piece type. On some types of
engines, ball or roller bearings are employed for main and connecting rod bearings.
Valves13
. In most engines, intake and exhaust valves of the poppet type are
employed to open and close openings or ports through which the gases enter and
leave the cylinders. Each cylinder in the four-stroke-cycle engine has at least one
intake and one exhaust valve. The valves are located either in the cylinder block or in
the cylinder head and are supported in valve guides. A camshaft opens each valve at
the proper time and a valve spring closes the valve.
In two-stroke-cycle gasoline engines, the fuel mixture is admitted and the
exhaust gases expelled through ports in each side of -the cylinder, the ports being
opened and closed by the action of the piston. Two-stroke-cycle diesel engines
140
generally have one port opening in the cylinder and one cam-actuated poppet valve
through which the air is admitted into the cylinder and the exhaust gases expelled.
Camshaft14
. A camshaft opens the valves against the tension of the valve
springs at the proper time and holds them open for the required interval. A separate
cam is provided on the camshaft for the operation of each valve. Some opposed
engines have each intake cam operate two intake valves. The camshaft is driven from
the crankshaft through timing gears, or a timing chain and sprockets.
In four stroke-cycle engines, the camshaft revolves at one-half crankshaft
speed, and each valve opens and closes once every two, revolutions of the crankshaft.
In a two-stroke-cycle diesel engine, the camshaft revolves at crankshaft speed, and
each valve opens and closes with each revolution of the crankshaft,
Valve Lifters15
. Valve lifters or tappets are employed between the camshaft
and the valve stem to open the valves. Valve stems expand when they become heated;
and in most, engines a definite clearance must be provided between the valve stem
and the valve lifter. In some engines, valve lifters are provided with adjusting screws
to regulate the clearance. Some engines are equipped with self-adjusting hydraulic,
valve lifters which operate with no clearance between the valve stem and valve lifter.
Manifolds16
. Manifolds are employed to conduct the gases into and out of the
cylinders. An intake manifold is connected between the carburetor and the intake
valve ports leading into the cylinders. The exhaust manifold connects the exhaust
ports to the exhaust system. The intake and exhaust manifolds may be separate
castings bolted together, or both may be cast together. Exhaust gas usually is utilized
to heat the intake manifold, thus assisting in vaporizing the incoming fuel charge.
In diesel engines, the intake manifold conducts air to the cylinders, the fuel oil
being sprayed directly into the cylinder at the proper time by a fuel injector. Two-
stroke-cycle gasoline engines have no intake manifold. The crankcase is utilized as a
receiver for the fuel mixture.
Notes: 1 cylinder block – бок цилиндров
2 cylinder head – крышка цилиндра
3 combustion chamber – камера сгорания
4 piston – поршень
5 piston ring – поршневое кольцо
6 piston pin – поршневой палец
7 connecting rod – шатун, соединительная тяга
8 drop-forge – штамповать
9 I-beam – двутавровое железо, профиль, балка
10 crankshaft – коленчатый вал
11 bearing – подшипник
12 babbitt – баббит (сплав на основе олова или свинца) 13
valve – клапан 14
camshaft – кулачковый (распределительный) вал 15
valve lifter – толкатель клапана 16
manifold – патрубок, труба, трубопровод
141
ВАРИАНТ №3
TRANSPORT FOR TOMORROW
One thing is certain about the public transport of the future: it must be more
efficient than it is today. The time is coming when it will be quicker to fly across the
Atlantic to New York than to travel from home to office. The two main problems are:
what vehicle shall we use and how can we plan our use of it?
There are already some modern vehicles which are not yet in common use,
but which may become a usual means of transport in the future. One of these is the
small electric car: we go out into the street, find an empty car, get into it, drive to our
destination, get out and leave the car for the next person who comes along. In fact,
there may be no need to drive these cars. With an automatic guidance system for cars
being developed, it will be possible for us to select our destination just as today we
select a telephone number, and our car will move automatically to the address we
want.
For long journeys in private cars one can also use an automatic guidance
system. Arriving at the motorway, a driver will select the lane1 he wishes to use,
switch over to automatic driving, and then relax — dream, read a newspaper, have a
meal, flirt with his passenger — while the car does the work for him. Unbelievable?
It is already possible. Just as in many ships and aircraft today we are piloted
automatically for the greater part of the journey, so in the future we can also have this
luxury in our own cars.
A decade ago, the only thing electronic on most automobiles was the radio.
But at present sophisticated electronics is playing a big part in current automotive
research. For example, in every gasoline-powered2car that General Motors
Corporation makes there is a small computer continuously monitoring the exhaust.
The device, about the size of a pack of cigarettes, adjusts the vehicle carburetor fuel
intake3 to get the best fuel economy. Ford cars are equipped with an electronic
instrument panel that, among other things4, will calculate how far one can drive on
the fuel left in the tank. It will also estimate the time of arrival at destination and tell
the driver what speed he has averaged5 since turning on the ignition.
According to specialists these features made possible by microelectronics are
only the beginning. Radar may control the brakes to avoid collisions, and a display
screen may show the car's position on the road. Recently a radar to be mounted on
lorries and cars has been designed in the USA. The radar aerial looks like a third
headlight placed directly above the bumper. Having summed up the information
about the speed and distance of various objects ahead, the computer detects all
possible dangers and their nature. A third component in the system is a monitor on
the instrument panel. The radar only observes objects ahead of the vehicle. It is
automatically turned on when the speed exceeds ten miles an hour. The green light on
the panel indicates that the system is on. The yellow light warns of stationary objects
ahead, or something moving slower than the car. The red light and buzzer warn that
the speed should go down. Another red light and sound signal make the driver apply
the brakes.
142
A Japanese company is designing a car of a new generation. When completed,
the new model will have a lot of unusual characteristics. The car's four-wheel control
system will ensure movement diagonally and even sideways, like a crab, at right
angles to the longitudinal axis. This is especially important when leaving the car in
parking places. To help the driver get information while concentrating on the road,
the most important data will be projected on the wind screen. A tourist travelling in
such a car will not lose his way even in Sahara with its impassable roads: a
navigation Earth satellite will indicate the route.
A new ceramic engine has been developed in Japan. Many important parts as
pistons, pressure rings6, valves and some others have been made of various ceramic
materials, piston rings7 made of silicon materials being in many respects better than
those of steel. They withstand temperatures up to 1,000 °C. Therefore, the engine
does not need a cooling system.
THE RUNNING GEAR
The running gear8 of the car includes the wheel-suspension system, the
stabilizers, and the wheels and tyres. The frame of the car may be considered the
integrating member of the running gear. It is attached to the rear axle and to the front
wheels by springs. These springs, along with the axles, the control and support arms,
and the shock absorbers, constitute the wheel-suspension system. In modern cars the
front wheels are independently suspended from the frame in a manner that permits
either wheel to change its plane without appreciably affecting the other. This type of
front-wheel suspension is known popularly as independent suspension9. The
stabilizers consist of spring-steel bars, connected between the shock-absorber arms by
levers, to decrease body roll and improve steerability.
THE CONTROL SYSTEM
Steering10
is controlled by a hand wheel, mounted on an inclined column and
attached to a steering tube inside the column. The other end of the tube is connected
to the steering gear, which is designed to provide maximum ease of operation. Power
steering, adapted for passenger cars in the early 1950s, is generally a hydraulic
mechanism used as a booster to reduce the effort of steering.
A car has two sets of brakes: the hand or emergency brake and the foot brake.
The emergency brake generally operates on the rear wheels only. The foot brake in
modern cars is always of the four-wheel type, operating on all wheels. Hydraulic
brakes on cars and hydraulic vacuum, air, or power brakes on lorries apply the brak-
ing force to the wheels with much less force on the brake pedal than is required with
ordinary mechanical brakes. The wheel brakes are generally of the internally expand-
ing type, in which a convex strip of material is forced against a concave steel brake
drum.
Notes: 1
lane – ряд 2 gasoline-powered – с бензиновым двигателем
3 fuel intake – впрыск топлива
143
4 among other things – кроме всего прочего
5 what speed he has averaged – какова была его средняя скорость
6 pressure ring – уплотнительное кольцо
7 piston ring – поршневое кольцо
8 running gear – передаточный механизм (двигателя)
9 independent suspension – независимая подвеска
10 steering – рулевое управление
ВАРИАНТ №4
CONSTRUCTION OF AN AUTOMOBILE
The primary components of a car are the power plant, the power
transmission, the running gear, and the control system. These constitute the chassis,
on which the body is mounted.
The power plant includes the engine and its fuel, the carburettor, ignition,
lubrication, and cooling systems, and the starter motor.
The Engine1. The greatest number of cars use piston engines. The four-cycle
piston engine requires four strokes of the piston per cycle. The first downstroke
draws in the petrol mixture. The first upstroke compresses it. The second downstroke
- the power stroke - following the combustion of the fuel, supplies the power, and the
second upstroke evacuates the burned gases. Intake and exhaust valves in the cylinder
control the intake of fuel and the release of burned gases. At the end of the power
stroke the pressure of the burned gases in the cylinder is 2.8 to 3.5 kg/sq cm. These
gases escape with the sudden opening of the exhaust valve. They rush to a silencer
(muffler), an enlarged section of piping containing expanding ducts and perforated
plates through which the gases expand and are released into the atmosphere.
Greater smoothness of operation of the four-cycle engine were provided by
the development of the four-cylinder engine, which supplies power from one or
another of the cylinders on each stroke of the cycle. A further increase in power and
smoothness is obtained in engines of 6,8,12, and 16 cylinders, which are arranged in
either a straight line or two banks assembled in the form of a V.
Carburation2. Air is mixed with the vapour of the petrol in the carburettor.
To prevent the air and the carburettor from becoming too cold for successful
evaporation of the fuel, the air for the carburettor is usually taken from a point close
to a heated part of the engine. Modern carburettors are fitted with a so-called float-
feed chamber and a mixing or spraying chamber. The first is a small chamber in
which a small supply of petrol is maintained at a constant level. The petrol is pumped
from the main tank to this chamber, the float rising as the petrol flows in until the
desired level is reached, when the inlet closes. The carburettor is equipped with such
devices as accelerating pumps and economizer valves, which automatically control
the mixture ratio for efficient operation under varying conditions. Level-road driving
at constant speed requires a lower ratio of petrol to air than that needed for climbing
hills, for acceleration, or for starting the engine in cold weather. When a mixture ex-
tremely rich in petrol is necessary, a valve known as the choke cuts down the air
intake, permitting large quantities of unvaporized fuel to enter the cylinder.
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Ignition3. The mixture of air and petrol vapour delivered to the cylinder from
the carburettor is compressed by the first upstroke of the piston. This heats the gas,
and the higher temperature and pressure facilitate ignition and quick combustion. The
next operation is that of igniting the charge by a spark plug. One electrode is
insulated by porcelain or mica; the other is grounded through the metal of the plug,
and both form part of the secondary circuit of an induction system.
The principal type of ignition now commonly used is the battery-and-coil
system. The current from the battery flows through the coil and magnetizes the iron
core. When this circuit is interrupted at the distributor points by the interrupter cam, a
current is produced in the primary coil with the assistance of the condenser. This in-
duces a high-voltage current in the secondary winding. This secondary high voltage is
needed to cause the spark to jump the gap in the spark plug. The spark is directed to
the proper cylinder by the distributor, which connects the secondary coil to the spark
plugs in the several cylinders in their proper firing sequence. The interrupter cam and
distributor are driven from the same shaft, the number of breaking points on the
interrupter cam being the same as the number of cylinders.
The electrical equipment controls the starting of the engine, its
ignition system, and the lighting of the car. It consists of the battery, a
generator for charging it when the engine is running, a starter and the
necessary wiring. Electricity also operates various automatic devices and
accessories, including windscreen wipers, directional signals, heating and
air conditioning, cigarette lighters, powered windows and audio equipment.
Lubrication4. In the force-feed system, a pump forces the oil to the main
crankshaft bearings and then through drilled holes in the crankpins. In the full-force
system, oil is also forced to the connecting rod and then out to the walls of the
cylinder at the piston pin.
Cooling5. At the moment of explosion, the temperature within the cylinder is
much higher than the melting point of cast iron. Since the explosions take place as
often as 2,000 times per minute in each cylinder, the cylinder would soon become so
hot that the piston, through expansion, would «freeze» in the cylinder. The cylinders
are therefore provided with jackets, through which water is rapidly circulated by a
small pump driven by a gear on the crankshaft or camshaft. During cold weather, the
water is generally mixed with a suitable antifreeze, such as alcohol, wood alcohol, or
ethylene glycol.
To keep the water from boiling away, a radiator forms part of the engine-
cooling system. Radiators vary in shape and style. They all have the same function,
however, of allowing the water to pass through tubing with a large area, the outer
surface of which can be cooled by the atmosphere. In air cooling of engine cylinders,
various means are used to give the heat an outlet and carry it off by a forced draught
of air.
The Power Transmission6. The engine power is delivered first to the
flywheel and then to the clutch. From the clutch, which is the means of coupling the
engine with the power-transmission units, the power flows through the transmission
and is delivered into the rear-axle drive gears, or differential, by means of the drive
145
shaft and universal joints. The differential delivers the power to each of the rear
wheels through the rear-axle drive shafts.
Notes: 1 the Engine – двигатель, мотор
2carburetion - карбюрация, насыщение парами бензина, смесеобразование
3 ignition – зажигание, воспламенение
4 lubrication – смазка, смазывание, подача смазки
5 cooling - охлаждение
6 the Power Transmission - передача
ВАРИАНТ №5
AUTOMATION IN INDUSTRY.
FIXED AND PROGRAMMABLE AUTOMATION
Automated production lines. An automated production line consists of a
series of workstations connected by a transfer system to move parts between the
stations. This is an example of fixed automation, since these lines are set up for long
production runs, making large number of product units and running for several years
between changeovers. Each station is designed to perform a specific processing op-
eration, so that the part or product is constructed stepwise as it progresses along the
line. A raw work part enters at one end of the line, proceeds through each workstation
and appears at the other end as a completed product. In the normal operation of the
line, there is a work part being processed at each station, so that many parts are being
processed simultaneously and a finished part is produced with each cycle of the line.
The various operations, part transfers, and other activities taking place on an
automated transfer line must all be sequenced and coordinated properly for the line to
operate efficiently.
Modern automated lines are controlled by programmable logic controllers,
which are special computers that can perform timing and sequencing1 functions
required to operate such equipment. Automated production lines are utilized in many
industries, mostly automobile, where they are used for processes such as machining
and pressworking2.
Machining is a manufacturing process in which metal is removed by a cutting
or shaping tool, so that the remaining work part is the desired shape. Machinery and
motor components are usually made by this process. In many cases, multiple
operations are required to completely shape the part. If the part is mass-produced, an
automated transfer line is often the most economical method of production. Many
separate operations are divided among the workstations.
Pressworking operations involve the cutting and forming of parts from sheet
metal. Examples of such parts include automobile body panels, outer shells of
laundry machines and metal furniture More than one processing step is often required
to complete a complicated part. Several presses are connected together in sequence
by handling mechanisms that transfer the partially completed parts from one press to
the next, thus creating an automated pressworking line.
146
Numerical control3. Numerical control is a form of programmable auto-
mation in which a machine is controlled by numbers (and other symbols) that have
been coded on punched paper tape or an alternative storage medium. The initial
application of numerical control was in the machine tool industry, to control the
position of a cutting tool relative to the work part being machined. The NC part
program represents the set of machining instructions for the particular part. The
coded numbers in the program specify x-y-z coordinates in a Cartesian4 axis system,
defining the various positions of the cutting tool in relation to the work part. By
sequencing these positions in the program, the machine tool is directed to accomplish
the machining of the part. A position feedback control system is used in most NC
machines to verify that the coded instructions have been correctly performed. Today
a small computer is used as the controller in an NC machine tool. Since this form of
numerical control is implemented by computer, it is called computer numerical
control, or CNC. Another variation in the implementation of numerical control
involves sending part programs over telecommunications lines from a central
computer to individual machine tools in the factory. This form of numerical control is
called direct numerical control, or DNC.
Many applications of numerical control have been developed since its initial
use to control machine tools. Other machines using numerical control include compo-
nent-insertion machines used in electronics assembly, drafting machines that prepare
engineering drawings, coordinate measuring machines that perform accurate
inspections of parts. In these applications coded numerical data are employed to
control the position of a tool or workhead relative to some object. Such machines are
used to position electronic components (e.g., semiconductor chip modules) onto a
printed circuit board (PCB). It is basically an x-y positioning table that moves the
printed circuit board relative to the part-insertion head, which then places the
individual component into position on the board. A typical printed circuit board has
dozens of individual components that must be placed on its surface; in many cases,
the lead wires of the components must be inserted into small holes in the board,
requiring great precision by the insertion machine. The program that controls the
machine indicates which components are to be placed on the board and their
locations. This information is contained in the product-design database and is
typically communicated directly from the computer to the insertion machine.
Automated assembly5. Assembly operations have traditionally been per-
formed manually, either at single assembly workstations or on assembly lines with
multiple stations. Owing to the high labour content and high cost of manual labour,
greater attention has been given in recent years to the use of automation for assembly
work. Assembly operations can be automated using production line principles if the
quantities are large, the product is small, and the design is simple (e.g., mechanical
pencils, pens, and cigarette lighters). For products that do not satisfy these conditions,
manual assembly is generally required.
Automated assembly machines have been developed that operate in a manner
similar to machining transfer lines, with the difference being that assembly
operations, instead of machining, are performed at the workstations. A typical
assembly machine consists of several stations, each equipped with a supply of
147
components and a mechanism for delivering the components into position for as-
sembly. A workhead at each station performs the actual attachment of the component.
Typical workheads include automatic screwdrivers, welding heads and other joining
devices. A new component is added to the partially completed product at each
workstation, thus building up the product gradually as it proceeds through the line.
Assembly machines of this type are considered to be examples of fixed automation,
because they are generally configured for a particular product made in high volume.
Programmable assembly machines are represented by the component-insertion
machines employed in the electronics industry.
Notes:
1 sequencing – упорядоченный, последовательный
2 pressworking – прессование
3 Numerical control – цифровой контроль (abbr. NC)
4 Cartesian декартов; декартовский, Cartesian coordinate system – прямоугольная
система координат 5 Automated assembly – автоматическая сборка
148
Список использованной литературы:
(на русском языке)
А. Е. Агабекян. Английский для технических вузов. Ростов-на-Дону, 2008.
Ю. В. Бжиская. Английский для строительных специальностей. Ростов-на-
Дону, 2007.
Л.А. Воронцова, А.П. Грызулина. Сборник контрольных работ и
контрольно-тренировочных упражнений по английскому языку: Пособие для
студентов-заочников 1-11 курсов неяз. фак. пед. ин-тов, М., Просвещение, 1984
Е. Н. Комарова. Английский для специальностей «зоотехния» и
«ветеринария». М., 2008.
И. П. Куклина. Пособие по английскому языку для средних специальных
технических заведений. СПб, Каро, 2000.
И. З. Новоселова, Н. С. Резник, Ю. М. Жилинский. Применение
электричесива в сельском хозяйстве. М., Высшая школа, 1963.
И. В. Орловская, Л. С. Самсонова Учебник английского языка для
технических университетов. М, 2009.
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О. А. Письменная. Английский для международного туризма, М, Айрис
Пресс, 2006.
Т. Ю. Полякова. Английский для инженеров. М. 1998.
А. С. Чеслова, Г. М. Татарчук. Пособие по подготовке к выпускным и
вступительным экзаменам по английскому языку. М., Ростов-на-Дону, 2004
В. А. Шляхова, Т. Д. Любимцева. Английский для технических
специальностей. М., Высшая школа, 2000.
(на английском языке)
Archie A. Stone, Harold E. Gulvin. Machines for power farming. New – York.
1957.
Saarniit M. English reading for students of farm mechanization. Tartu. 1961.
Culpin C. Farm machinery. London. 1969.
Научные журналы:
Better crops with Plant Food
Bioscience
Biotechnology and Biochemistry
Journal of Agricultural Science
Japanese Journal of Crop Science
Ecological Research
Справочные издания:
Encyclopedia Britannica 2009
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, www.wikipedia.org
149
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