© 2007 mcgraw-hill higher education. all rights reserved. youth sports chapter 14

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.

Youth SportsYouth Sports

Chapter 14


Objectives Objectives • Describe specific categories of youth sports

children participate in and account for the explosion in the number of children participating in organized youth sport programs

• Describe the 10 most important reasons children give for participating in youth sports

• Explain competence motivation theory and describe how this theory influences children’s participation in youth sports

• Explain the 11 most important reasons children stop playing a particular sport

• Describe both the medical and psychological issues surrounding youth sports participation


Objectives Objectives • Describe characteristics of the volunteer

coaching profession and the controversial issues regarding the education and certification of coaches

• Describe the role of parental education in curbing youth sport violence toward parents, officials, coaches, and players

• Explain the Bill of Rights for young athletes• Describe the recommendations regarding

implementation of youth sport programs in the 21st century


Do you know what the #1 reason children Do you know what the #1 reason children cite for their participation in a sports cite for their participation in a sports program?program?

“to have fun” “to have fun”

““Winning the gameWinning the game” ranks near the bottom ” ranks near the bottom of the listof the list**.. Surprised?Surprised?

** #8 out of 10: Wankel and Kriesel, 1985#8 out of 10: Wankel and Kriesel, 1985

#10 out of 10 Athletic Footwear Association, 1990 #10 out of 10 Athletic Footwear Association, 1990



• Athletic endeavors that provide children and youth with a systematic sequence of practices and contests

• 39 million youth participate in nonschool sponsored programs

• 7 million youth participate in interscholastic sports


Youth SportsYouth Sports• Why are so many children involved?

– Trend toward earlier participation• A 4-year-old holds the age group record for

running a marathon

– Increase in female participation • The number of interscholastic sports for

girls has increased from 14 (1971) to 41 (1999)


Youth SportsYouth Sports• Why are so many children

involved?– Children are beginning to get involved

in what used to be considered nontraditional sport activities

• Tennis, cycling, bowling, ice hockey, cross-country skiing

– Rule changes• Even the youngest child can experience

success



• Why are so many children involved?– There is an increased in the number of

disabled children who participate• American Wheelchair Bowling Association• Handicapped Scuba Association• National Foundation of Wheelchair Tennis• National Wheelchair Softball Association• Special Olympics• United States Quad Rugby Association



• Benefits of youth sport activities– Academic performance improvement– Physical fitness – Self-esteem enhancement– Deterrent to negative behavior


Where Children Where Children Participate in SportsParticipate in Sports

Agency sponsored sports

Little league baseball

Pop Warner football

Club sports Pay for services (gymnastics, tennis)

Recreational sport programs

Everyone plays

Intramural sports Middle, junior, senior high school

Interscholastic sports Middle, junior, senior high school


Most Popular Interscholastic SportsMost Popular Interscholastic Sports

Girls Boys

Basketball Football

Outdoor track & field Basketball

Volleyball Outdoor track & field

Fast pitch softball Baseball

Soccer Soccer

Cross-country Wrestling

Tennis Cross-country

Swimming & diving Golf

Competitive spirit squads Tennis

Golf Swimming & diving


Why Children Why Children Participate in SportsParticipate in Sports• To have fun

• To improve skills

• To be with friends

• To be part of a team

• To experience excitement

• To receive awards

• To win• To become physically fit

(Wankel & Kreisel, 1985)


Why Children Why Children Participate in SportsParticipate in Sports• Wankel and Kreisel (1985)

– Emphasis should be on involvement, skill development, and enjoyment of doing the skills

– According to the children, winning and receiving rewards for playing are of secondary importance


Why Children Why Children Participate in SportsParticipate in Sports

10 Most Important Reasons I Play My Best School Sport(Athletic Footwear Association, 1990)

1. To have fun

2. To improve my skill

3. To stay in shape

4. To do something I’m good at

5. For the excitement of competition

6. To get exercise

7. To play as part of a team

8. For the challenge of competition

9. To learn new skills

10. To win


Participation: Competence Participation: Competence Motivation TheoryMotivation Theory• Harter’s Model

– Individuals are motivated to be successful in various achievement areas such as sports, academics, or human relationships

– When performance is successful, there is a positive effect on the individual

– When performance is not successful, the individual will most likely quit


Participation: Competence Participation: Competence Motivation TheoryMotivation Theory• Younger children evaluate their physical

competence based upon game outcome and parental feedback

• Older children and adolescents use social comparisons and evaluation by peers

• Children become more accurate in personal assessment of physical competence as they age


Why Children Drop Out of SportsWhy Children Drop Out of Sports

• Contrary to popular belief, children do not drop out of sports because of stress

• More often, withdrawing from a sport is due to interpersonal problems

• Pursue other leisure activities• Researchers report that a majority of

“dropouts” reenter the same or new sport– Caution should be used when using the term

“sport dropout”


Why Children Drop Out of SportsWhy Children Drop Out of Sports

11 Most Important Reasons Children Stop Playing a Sport(Athletic Footwear Association, 1990)

1. I lost interest

2. I was not having fun

3. It took too much time

4. Coach was a poor teacher

5. There was too much pressure

6. I wanted a nonsport activity

7. I was tired of it

8. I needed more study time

9. Coach played favorites

10. The sport was boring

11. There was an overemphasis on winning


Why Children Drop Out of Why Children Drop Out of SportsSports

Six Most Important Changes Children Would Make in a Sport

That Was Previously Dropped(Athletic Footwear Association, 1990)

BOYS GIRLS1. Practices were more fun

2. I could play more

3. Coaches understood players better

4. There was no conflict with studies

5. Coaches were better teachers

6. There was no conflict with social life

1. Practices were more fun

2. There was no conflict with studies

3. Coaches understood players better

4. There was no conflict with social life

5. I could play more

6. Coaches were better teachers

“I would play again if”


Children want to Children want to have fun and have fun and want practices want practices to be more fun!to be more fun!


Sport Participation: Sport Participation: ControversiesControversies• Medical Issues

– Football– Baseball – Soccer– Downhill skiing– In-line skating– Overuse injuries– Are youth sports injuries avoidable?– Nutrition– Making weight


Sport Participation: Sport Participation: Controversies ~ FootballControversies ~ Football• Football is classified as a

contact/collision sport

• Injury rate increases as players mature in age and grade level

• 65% of the injuries occur in offensive players

• However overall injury rate for youth football is low


Sport Participation: Sport Participation: Controversies ~ FootballControversies ~ Football• Overall injury rate in youth football

– Age range = 8-15 yr– Weight range = 22.5-67.5 kg– n = 5,128– Injury rate = 5.0%– # injuries = 257


Sport Participation: Sport Participation: Controversies ~ FootballControversies ~ Football

• Most prone injury sites– Hand/wrist– Knee– Shoulder/humerus

• Most common injuries– Fractures

• Epiphyseal fractures

– Sprains– Contusions– Strains


Sport Participation: Sport Participation: Controversies ~ FootballControversies ~ Football

• Injury rates by position– Quarterback/running

back– Defensive lineman– Offensive lineman– Linebacker– Kickoff/punt return– Defensive back– Receivers

• Players who were restricted for more than 21 days– Kickoff/punt return– Quarterback/running

back


Sport Participation: Sport Participation: Controversies ~ BaseballControversies ~ Baseball• Relatively safe sport for youth

– Two major injuries: chest and eye injuries

• Chest trauma– Commotio cordis – batter struck in chest

with pitched ball; catcher struck by foul tipped ball

– Occurs more often in boys under 16 yr– 2-4 deaths reported each year


Sport Participation: Sport Participation: Controversies ~ BaseballControversies ~ Baseball• Eye injuries

– Softer ball used because of the concern for commotio cordis

– Fewer commotio cordis injuries result– However, physicians are concerned that a softer

ball will allow more of the ball to enter the eye orbit, resulting in a greater number of eye injuries


Sport Participation: Sport Participation: Controversies ~ SoccerControversies ~ Soccer• Soccer is classified as a

contact/collision sport

• One of America’s fastest growing sports

• Studies suggest that youth soccer is a relatively safe activity– Most injuries are from person-to-person

contact


Sport Participation: Sport Participation: Controversies ~ SoccerControversies ~ Soccer• Classical study (Nilsson & Roaas, 1978)

– Examined injury rate from 1975-1977 in two tournaments (Norway Cup)

– Ages: 11-18 yr– n= 25,000 youth– 2987 matches– 1343 injuries– Girls had a higher injury rate

• Reason - lower skill development and training• Greater injury rate during final rounds• However, most injuries are minor


Sport Participation: Sport Participation: Controversies ~ SoccerControversies ~ Soccer• Heading the ball in soccer can result in

– Headaches • 49% of players complained after heading a ball

– Mild to severe deficits in attention– Problems with concentration– Mild to severe deficits in memory


Sport Participation: Sport Participation: Controversies ~ SoccerControversies ~ Soccer

• Common injury site– Thigh– Ankle– Foot– Torso– Head & neck

• Type of injury– Contusions– Muscle strains– Sprains– Fractures– Heat illness– Concussions

Boys and girls; 480 games; 74,000 playing hoursTotal injuries = 179 or 23.8 for every 10,000 playing hours


Sport Participation: Sport Participation: Controversies ~ SoccerControversies ~ Soccer

• Cause of injury– Person-to person contact

• 43%

– Repetitive overload• 20.4%

– Contact with ground• 17.5%

– Contact with goal post, etc.

• 6.5%

• Effect of injury– Missed one game

• 38.5%

– Missed all remaining games

• 19.3%

Boys and girls; 480 games; 74,000 playing hours;Total injuries = 179 or 23.8 for every 10,000 playing hours


Sport Participation: Sport Participation: Controversies ~ SoccerControversies ~ Soccer• How can soccer injuries be reduced?

– Closer officiating– Pregame warnings for playing tactics (take downs,

hacking)– Coaching within the spirit of the rules– Protective padding for players and goal posts– Remove all sideline objects (chairs, water coolers,

etc.)


Sport Participation: Sport Participation: Controversies ~ Downhill SkiingControversies ~ Downhill Skiing• Classified as a limited contact/impact sport• Injury occurs due to contact with ground or

stationary object– Contact usually occurs at a high velocity

• Girls are more prone to injury than boys• Injury rate increases up to age 13 yr of age• Injury rate levels off between age 13 and 15

yr


Sport Participation: Sport Participation: Controversies ~ Downhill SkiingControversies ~ Downhill Skiing• Out of 3456 participants, 423 injuries

reported

• Most of the injuries occurred in 12 and 13 year olds

• Common injuries– 51% ~ sprains– 11.1% ~ fractures

Garrick & Requa, 1979)


Sport Participation:Sport Participation:Controversies ~ In-line SkatingControversies ~ In-line Skating• Fastest growing recreational sport in the

US• In-line roller hockey is replacing ice

hockey in many areas• Excessive speed is the main cause for

injury (speeds of 30 mph are not uncommon)

• 35% of all falls result in injury• 60% of all injury occurs in youth

between 10 and 14 years of age


Sport Participation:Sport Participation:Controversies ~ In-line SkatingControversies ~ In-line Skating

• Prevention of injuries– Players should wear all

protective gear available to them

• Wrist guards

• Elbow pads

• Knee pads

• Helmet

• Often, children do not use protective equipment because discomfort, cost, and unsightly appearance


Sport Participation:Sport Participation:Controversies ~ Overuse InjuriesControversies ~ Overuse Injuries• Youth are specializing in sport at earlier

ages which involves year round training

• Overuse injuries occur as a result of placing the body under repeated stress over a long period of time

• Common sites: epiphyseal plates, cartilage of the apophyses, articular cartilage, stress fractures


Sport Participation:Sport Participation:Controversies ~ Overuse InjuriesControversies ~ Overuse Injuries

• Traction apophyses injuries– Osgood-Schlatter disease

• Insertion of the patellar tendon at the tibial tubercle

– Sever’s disease• Insertion of the Achilles tendon into

the calcaneous

• Both injuries occur because the skeleton is growing faster than soft tissue elongation



• Little League elbow– Repeated stress to the medial and lateral

structures of the elbow

• Rule changes are designed to protect the young pitcher– T-ball, ball is not pitched to the batter– Some leagues no longer allow the curve

ball – Limit the number of innings/wk that a

young player may pitch



• Significant increase in Runner’s knee injuries– Inappropriate tracking of the kneecap


Sport Participation:Sport Participation:Controversies ~ Avoidable?Controversies ~ Avoidable?• Make sure young athletes have been

properly conditioned

• Avoid overtraining

• Provide qualified adult supervision

• Change rules to create a safe environment

• Match competitors according to body size and weight


Sport Participation:Sport Participation:Controversies ~ Avoidable?Controversies ~ Avoidable?• Require use of appropriate safety equipment• Do not allow an injured child to return to

competition until the injury has been fully rehabilitated

• Do not allow children to partake in questionable practices designed to create a competitive edge

• Use coaches who are certified• National Center for Sports Safety

– Online certification course

http://www.sportsafety.org/


Sport Participation:Sport Participation:Controversies ~ NutritionControversies ~ Nutrition• Child’s appetite should dictate need

• The practice of fasting (wrestling) and quick weight gain (football) should be avoided

• Vitamin supplements are not necessary when the young athlete is eating a balanced meal


Sport Participation:Sport Participation:Controversies ~ NutritionControversies ~ Nutrition

• Vitamin A poisoning– Vitamin A and E are not readily excreted

from the body• Fat soluble

– Parents placed their child on large doses of Vitamin A believing this would give him a competitive edge in tennis


Sport Participation:Sport Participation:Controversies ~ Making WeightControversies ~ Making Weight

• Some adults have used unacceptable practices to give their child a competitive edge– Exercising in a sauna– Not letting child drink water– Not allowing child to swallow spit– Administering diuretics– Exercising in a rubber suit– Fasting



• Dangers of rapid dehydration– Cells, urine output, blood volume and sweating

mechanisms do not function properly– 3% weight loss will decrease physical performance– 5% weight loss can lead to heat exhaustion– 7% weight loss can lead to hallucinations– 10% weight loss can lead to heat stroke

and circulatory collapse



• Dangers of fasting– Carried to an extreme can result in death

• True story– A young gymnast was told by a judge that if she

did not lose weight she would never make the Olympic team

– At 15 years of age, she weighed 90 lb; 4’11” tall– For six years this young gymnast ate very little and

eventually died of multiple organ failure• She weighed 60 lb


Sport Participation: Sport Participation: ControversiesControversies• Psychological issues

– Stress• Unpleasant emotional state

– Reducing competitive stress

• Are young athletes being exposed to too much competitive stress?


Sport Participation:Sport Participation:Controversies ~ StressControversies ~ Stress

Appraisal Individual evaluates his/herability to meet the demands

of the situation

Consequences Withdraw and try a new

sport; Withdrawpermanently

Emotional ResponseUnfavorable appraisalleads to physiologicaland cognitive stress

SituationIndividual views outcome

as important

Model depicting the development of stress and potential behavioral outcomes

Passer, 1982


Sport Participation:Sport Participation:Controversies ~ Another ViewpointControversies ~ Another Viewpoint

• Youth sport participation is not the only stress encountered in the daily life of a young person

• Precompetitive state anxiety– Study by Simon & Marten (1979)– 468 children in youth sports– 281 children who competed in a physical

education softball game, school test, group competition in band, and band solo competition

Sport Participation:Sport Participation:Controversies ~ State AnxietyControversies ~ State Anxiety

Children’s precompetitive state anxiety in 11 sport activities.The precompetitive state anxiety scale ranges from 10-30.

Result: note the greatest level of precompetitive state anxiety is for band solo students


Sport Participation:Sport Participation:Controversies ~ Reducing StressControversies ~ Reducing Stress

• Change something about the sport so that success occurs more often than failure– T-ball uses stationary batting tee

instead of a pitcher

• Skill training instills confidence– More time should be spent on

teaching and less time on scrimmaging


Sport Participation:Sport Participation:Controversies ~ Reducing Controversies ~ Reducing StressStress• Children who perceive themselves

as competent are less threatened and perform better

• Winning/losing should be placed in perspective– Child may feel that he/she has

disappointed parents or coach

• Help child set realistic goals


Youth Sport CoachingYouth Sport Coaching

• Who’s coaching our children?– 3.5 million coaches– 2.5 volunteers

• 90% lack the necessary formal preparation to coach

– 9 out of 10 volunteer coaches are men

• Safe on First– An organization designed to run background

checks on those who coach children– Sex offenders, criminal record, etc.– Safe on First Web Site



• Why do people volunteer?– Involvement of coach's child in league– Personal enjoyment– Skill development of players– Character development of players– Personal challenge


Youth Sport Coaching - Youth Sport Coaching - EducationEducation• The annual turnover rate for

coaches is 50%

• There is a rise in the number of lawsuits directed toward youth sport coaches and organizations because of alleged negligence during practices and games


Youth Sport Coaching - Youth Sport Coaching - EducationEducation

• The National Standards for Athletic Coaches has recently been established– These standards are endorsed by over

140 sport organizations

• Technological advances now allow educators to reach more potential youth sport coaches to obtain coaching education and certification


Youth Sport Coaching - Youth Sport Coaching - EducationEducation• National Standards for Athletic Coaches

– Injury care and prevention– Risk management– Knowledge of growth and development– Training, conditioning, and nutrition– Social/psychological aspects of coaching– Skills, tactics, strategies– Teaching and administration– Professional preparation and development


Youth Sport Coaching ~ Youth Sport Coaching ~ Current CertificationCurrent Certification• American Sport Education Program• Coaching Association of Canada• National Alliance for Youth sports• National Association for Sports and Physical

Education• National Federation of State High School

Associations• Youth Sports Institute-Michigan State

University• Institute for the Study of Youth Sports



• Arguments against mandatory coaching certification– Due to the increase in participation, more sport

offerings are required, and therefore, additional coaches are needed

– Demand for coaches exceeds supply• Programs may have to be cut

– Certification process is expensive



• Evaluating coaching effectiveness– Coach serves as a role model– Coaching Behavioral Assessment System

• Instrument designed to evaluate the behaviors of coaches in an actual game setting

• Unannounced observers watch coach for

– Reactive behaviors to players– Spontaneous behaviors by the coach



Guidelines to Enhance Youth Sport Experienced

Healthy philosophy of winning by coach

Appropriate reactions to desirable behaviors

Appropriate reactions to mistakes

Appropriate reactions to misbehaviors, lack of attention, and maintaining discipline

Appropriate behavior by the coach


Parental Education:Parental Education:Curbing ViolenceCurbing Violence• There has been a significant increase in

violent behavior from parents during the last 15 years– Occurrences range from attacks to murder


Parental Education:Parental Education:Curbing ViolenceCurbing Violence• Organizations are requiring parental

education– Sportsmanship training– Parents Association for Youth Sports

(PAYS)

• Parent beats a volunteer coach to death in front of his children after a youth ice hockey game for ten year olds


Bill of Rights of Young AthletesBill of Rights of Young Athletes

1. Right of the opportunity to participate in sports regardless of ability level

2. Right to participate at a level that is commensurate with each child’s developmental level

3. Right to have qualified adult leadership

4. Right to participate in safe and healthy environments

5. Right of each child to share in the leadership and decision making of his/her sport participation

6. Right to play as a child and not as an adult

7. Right to proper preparation for participation in the sport

8. Right to an equal opportunity to strive for success

9. Right to be treated with dignity by all involved

10. Right to have fun through sport

© 2007 mcgraw-hill higher education. all rights reserved. youth sports chapter 14

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