Zvezda VankovaMigration Policy Group

Zvezda Vankova Migra on Policy Group

A Regional MIPEX Assessment of FYROM, Croa a, Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina

March 2014

Zvezda Vankova Migra on Policy Group

A Regional MIPEX Assessment of FYROM, Croa a, Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina

March 2014

INTRODUCTION What is the Migrant Integration Policy Index? Integration actors can struggle to find up-to-date, comprehensive research data and analysis on which to base policies, proposals for change and projects to achieve equality in their country. Instead they may find anecdotal, out-dated information and piecemeal statistics that are too disconnected from the real impact on people’s lives to assist in formulating improvements.

The Migrant Integration Policy Index (MIPEX) is a reference guide and a fully interactive tool to assess, compare and improve integration policy. It measures integration policies in 40 countries in Europe and North America in order to provide a view of integration policies across a broad range of differing environments. MIPEX was developed in these countries by the British Council and the Migration Policy Group (MPG). Using 148 policy indicators, MIPEX establishes the extent to which all residents are legally entitled to equal rights and responsibilities, as well as to any support that addresses their specific needs to make equal opportunities a reality.

Uses for policymaking Policymakers and civil society obtain a quick reference guide to assess the impact of their policy changes and get an overall impression of their country’s strengths and weaknesses. This allows governments to see the effects of their approach and policy changes. It highlights policies that score well and possible areas for improvement. They can compare these strengths and weaknesses with other countries, either across their region, Europe and North America, or all the countries at once. They can find inspiration for policies and learn lessons from their objectives, implementation, and results. Since policies are one of the factors influencing integration, MIPEX can be used as a starting point to evaluate how policy changes can improve integration in practice. Its research findings can be complemented with further information from official statistics, budgets, project and scientific evaluations, government reporting, and evidence from NGOs, courts and migrants.

What are the highest standards used by MIPEX? MIPEX demonstrates how countries can do better in creating the legal environment in which immigrants contribute to a country’s well-being, where they have equal access to employment and education, live in security with their families, become active citizens and are protected against discrimination. For each of the 7 policy areas: labour market mobility, family reunion, education, political participation, long-term residence, access to nationality and anti-discrimination, MIPEX identifies the highest European and international standards aimed at achieving equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities for all residents. These standards establish a basic rule-of-law approach, which has helped to improve policies in European Union and Council of Europe Member States. Where only minimum standards exist, policy recommendations are used from international research networks and civil society.

How does MIPEX obtain its scores? The 148 policy indicators have been designed to benchmark current laws and policies against the highest standards through consultations with top comparative researchers as well as international and European institutions. A policy indicator is a question relating to a specific policy component of one of the 7 policy areas. For each answer, there are 3 options. The maximum of 3 points is awarded when policies meet the highest standards for equal treatment. A score of 2 is given when policies lie halfway to the highest standards, and a score of 1 is given when they are furthest from the highest standards. Where a country has no policies on a specific indicator, it is given a default value of 1.

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Within each of the 7 policy areas, the indicator scores are averaged together to give one of 4 dimension scores which examine the same aspect of policy. The 4 dimension scores are then averaged together to give the policy area score for each of the 7 policy areas per country which, averaged together one more time, lead to the overall scores for each country. In order to make rankings and comparisons, the initial 1-3 scale is converted into a 0-100 scale for dimensions and policy areas, where 100% is the top score.

MIPEX key legend (0-100) 0 Critically unfavourable for integration 1-20 Unfavourable 21-40 Slightly unfavourable 41-59 Halfway favourable 60-79 Slightly favourable 80-100 Favourable for integration

Who gathered the data? Unlike indexes based on expert opinion, MIPEX is based on public laws, policies and research. In every country, independent experts in migration law, education and anti-discrimination, filled out the score for each indicator based on the country’s publically available documents as of 1 November 2013. All scores were then peer-reviewed by a second expert.

The Migration Policy Group moderated any discrepancies and checked the completed questionnaires for consistency across strands and countries over time. Migration Policy Group wrote up this country report based on its official scoring and analysis of the questionnaire results, following the established MIPEX procedure. Comparisons are made with the average practices in most MIPEX countries and EU Member States. Special attention was paid to the EU’s ‘new’ Member States and new immigration countries, particularly their recent progress in establishing basic procedures and statuses in this field.

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A MIPEX assessment OVERVIEW

Integration policies in Croatia, FYROM, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia are barely halfway favourable for societal integration, scoring below the European average and alongside other ‘new’ immigration countries in MIPEX, such as Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania and the Czech Republic. Newcomers in these countries will face slightly more obstacles than opportunities to participate in society. These countries are at different stages of their EU accession, with Croatia as the newest Member State. Interestingly, the policies that could contribute the most to integration are EU law-driven - anti-discrimination legislation in the case of Serbia and FYROM, family reunion policies in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and long-term residence in Croatia. Despite these improvements, the conditions in law are undermined by authorities’ rather discretionary procedures in all four countries, a problem across Central and Eastern Europe. In addition to the negative impact of this uncertainty on integration, newcomers critically lack many basic citizenship, education and political opportunities that are becoming best practice across Europe.

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LABOUR MARKET MOBILITY As in most MIPEX countries, long-term residents in Bosnia and Herzegovina, FYROM and Croatia enjoy equal social and economic rights in general, reflecting the EU legal standards for long-term residence. Family members in these countries are also entitled to rights in line with the requirements of the EU acquis. Serbian legislation does not reflect these EU legal standards, even though the country is a candidate for EU membership. Although long-term residents in Serbia obtain equal access to employment, they have some of the weakest rights in Serbia compared to most MIPEX countries. They do not have equal access to social security and health care, unless their country of origin has signed international agreements. Under EU law, long-term residents must enjoy equal rights to employment, education and vocational training, study grants, unemployment benefits, social security, and access to goods and services available to the public, including housing. Moreover, family migrants in Serbia obtain only temporary permits with limited socio-economic rights, a situation which is very rare among MIPEX countries. Under the Council Directive 2003/86/EC on the right to family reunification, non-EU family members are entitled to equal access to education, employment and vocational training.

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In all four Balkan countries assessed with MIPEX, some categories of temporary migrant workers do not have immediate access to employment and the right to change jobs and sectors, and thus cannot fully contribute to the economy of their respective country. In contrast, many new immigration countries in MIPEX, such as Italy, Portugal, Spain, are increasingly opening equal access to the labour market to all legal temporary residents, granting newcomers nearly equal opportunities to change jobs and careers. In Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia, temporary migrants cannot benefit from public employment services, adult education, or vocational training on an equal footing with nationals and long-term residents. Moreover, hardly any targeted support is available for them in these countries. As a result, temporary migrant workers could spend years trapped in a job below their qualifications, and their skills and ambitions would go to waste. General and targeted support for migrant workers is already more favourable than average in several new immigration destinations, including Portugal, Spain, Estonia and Romania. Immigrants in Portugal, for instance, can learn how to use their rights in cases of exploitation through the Legal Aid for Immigrants Office of the National Immigrant Support Centre. They benefit from many targeted measures included in the National Plan for Immigrant Integration and delivered mainly by the High Commissioner for Immigration and Intercultural Dialogue (ACIDI). The Plan gives special attention to vulnerable groups such as immigrant youth, promoting equal opportunities through equal access to work and training. It also recognises the potential of migrant women as entrepreneurs. Another positive example from Central Europe could be found in Estonia. Its programmes help all Estonian residents, especially youth, find jobs or training, get their qualifications recognised, improve their language skills for their profession and meet other professionals in their field. Its integration strategy’s target is to reduce any differences in employment and income for Estonia’s residents, whatever their nationality.

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FAMILY REUNION

Council Directive 2003/86/EC on the right to family reunification has had an impact on the family reunion policies in Bosnia and Herzegovina, FYROM, Croatia and Serbia. Sponsors in all four countries can apply for their spouse and minor children, following the Directive’s minimum standards.

Immigrants in these countries have limited access to autonomous residence permits in case of widowhood, divorce or violence, and in Serbia they are not even entitled to an independent status, which is not in conformity with EU standards. Austria and the Netherlands for instance, provide entitlements in cases of death, divorce, separation and violence, while several other countries (e.g. FR, PT, ES, SE, NO, US) are introducing a clearer automatic right to autonomous residence for all families after a few years.

As in many Central European countries, Bosnia and Herzegovina, FYROM, Croatia and Serbia create few legal obstacles for non-EU citizens to apply for family reunion, but maintain very discretionary procedures with many grounds for authorities to reject their application or withdraw their permit. Procedures that lack explicit rules give discretion to the administration and pose a risk of abuse, contrary to the rule of law principles. Furthermore, applicants are never fully prepared as they do not know what they will be asked during a procedure and can never feel secure in their status. EU law limits authorities’ discretion and the number of vague grounds for refusal or withdrawal of a permit. Authorities need to consider the family’s personal circumstances, the solidity of the sponsor’s family

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relationship, the duration of residence and existing links with the country of origin, which is not the case in the four Balkan countries (see for instance PL, CA, IT, ES). Bosnia and Herzegovina, FYROM, Croatia and Serbia apply restrictive definitions of a family and applicants are not able to reunite with their registered or co-habiting partners, unlike in half of the MIPEX countries. Migrants who are kept apart from their families have few prospects to integrate in the community where they live. Therefore, several new countries of immigration, such as Slovenia, Lithuania and the Czech Republic, broadened the definition of a family in their laws, recognising registered partnerships. In Slovenia registered or co-habiting partners can reunite regardless of their gender or sexual orientation.

EDUCATION All children in Serbia, irrespective of their legal status, enjoy equal access to all levels of the school system, as in half of the MIPEX countries. Bosnia and Herzegovina provide access for all children to only pre-primary and compulsory-age education, while Croatia and FYROM have only liberalised access to compulsory-age education. Beyond legal access to the school system, the four Balkan countries provide hardly any integration measures for the specific needs of immigrant children, unlike in most new immigration countries in Southern and Central Europe. In the best case, newcomer children can benefit from general support measures available for nationals – e.g. assessment of prior education in Bosnia and Herzegovina or measures available for disadvantaged children in Serbia.

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Schools in most Balkan countries are not prepared to meet the needs and opportunities that immigrant students bring, and do not encourage their contribution to society. In these countries, even though intercultural education is an official policy aim, it is largely absent from the curriculum and school life. If there is any government support for cultural diversity promotion, it depends on ad hoc funding, and immigrant integration is mainly done through initiatives of NGOs and international organisations. The lack of integration measures to meet the specific needs of migrant children could have severe consequences for their life as adults. Due to the lack of language support in these Balkan countries, they can never properly learn the language of the host society. If teachers are not trained, are not from diverse backgrounds themselves or do not have any resources at their school, they cannot reach out to parents with different languages and backgrounds, and are not equipped to handle diversity in their school. Immigrant children from these Balkan countries can easily end up in under-performing schools and at the lowest educational level. They are at risk of dropping out of school and, as early school leavers are less likely to find a job, they are at greater risk of social exclusion. Most MIPEX countries, including some Central European countries, provide additional tuition for immigrant pupils to master the official language of the country, additional funding or teachers for schools with immigrant pupils, and teacher trainings on immigrants’ needs and intercultural education. Most other countries also support the teaching of immigrant languages and cultures during the school day. Estonia for instance, provides all newcomer pupils with compulsory, continuous, and standardised support to learn Estonian, as well as their own language and culture. Similarly, in Czech law, language courses should be needs-based, professionally taught and regularly evaluated, while mother tongue and culture classes should be available. Czech teachers can integrate multicultural education into their curriculum through state-supported pedagogical materials and teacher trainings, like the much-used information portal (www.czechkid.cz). Slovakia also recently introduced ‘multicultural education’ into its curriculum, as well as intercultural education trainings for qualifying and working teachers.

POLITICAL PARTICIPATION Democratic participation of migrants favours integration and the earlier migrants are given the opportunity for democratic participation, the more likely they are to participate and integrate.1 The 1992 Council of Europe “Convention on the participation of foreigners in public life at the local level” (ETS No. 144) is the only European legal standard that is directly relevant for the political participation of non-EU immigrants.2 They are guaranteed equal rights to media and political association, some sort of consultative body elected or appointed by their own communities, and local passive voting rights after maximum 5 years’ residence. All four Balkan countries have not ratified the Convention yet.

1 See Parliamentary Assembly Resolution 1618 (2008), State of democracy in Europe. Measures to improve the democratic participation of migrants, available at: http://assembly.coe.int/Main.asp?link=/Documents/AdoptedText/ta08/ERES1618.htm 2 Voting rights for immigrants: Next Stop, Berlin?, available at http://www.mipex.eu/blog/voting-rights-for-immigrants-next-stop-berlin

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Political participation is an area of weakness for integration policy in all four Balkan countries and most new countries of immigration. If foreigners do not naturalise, they are largely excluded from opportunities to participate in public life in these countries. Non-EU nationals are denied the right to vote and stand in elections in all four countries. Except for in Bosnia and Herzegovina, non-EU nationals cannot join political parties, unlike in most countries of immigration, including the Czech Republic, Estonia and Slovenia. Moreover, they cannot benefit from any form of structured consultation with foreigners on integration policies, even on the basis of pilot projects, as in Greece and the Baltic States.

There are many examples of good practices from the new countries of immigration in Central and Southern Europe, which have granted long-term residents the right to vote in local elections (Czech Republic in 2001, Estonia and Slovenia in 2002) and to stand as candidates in local elections (Lithuania in 2002 and Slovakia in 2003). Most countries have used the new European Integration Fund to support associations working on integration. Local and national authorities have started a dialogue and consultation with associations of foreign residents. Examples range from Portugal and Spain to Ireland, Greece, Estonia, Latvia, and Poland. For instance, the Spanish Forum for the Social Integration of Immigrants has an independent chair and issues opinions or reports on any drafts affecting social integration. The Forum has the right to prepare reports, plans, programs on request or own initiative, and to formulate its own proposals and recommendations. Members from immigrant-run associations participate extensively in the preparation and discussion of reports and resolutions, and secure much government consensus around their recommendations.

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LONG-TERM RESIDENCE

EU Member States agreed and implemented the EC long-term residence directive (2003/109/EC), with the common objective that the integration of long-term residents will promote economic and social cohesion. In line with the Directive, most legal immigrants are eligible to apply after 5 years for equal opportunities to integrate in economic and social life in Croatia and Serbia. This is not the case in Bosnia and Herzegovina, where students are excluded from the possibility to apply for this status, as well as in FYROM, where the temporary permits of students, researchers and humanitarian migrants are not considered for the 5-year residence requirement. As in the case of family reunion procedures, applicants who meet the legal conditions in these countries can still be rejected and can lose their residence permit on several grounds due to state discretion that is common in the region. They also have few protections against expulsion. Therefore, migrants in all four Balkan countries do not enjoy the security of status that is afforded by the Directive. Applicants in Bosnia and Herzegovina need to meet a vague language requirement, and those in Croatia an additional integration requirement, as part of discretionary procedures, without any available support. The 2009 CZ language test for long-term residence is an example for a good practise in terms of integration requirements, aimed to ensure equal and reasonable conditions. With an attainable level (A1), free support and professional examiners, this model creates conditions for applicants to succeed, rather than creating more bureaucratic obstacles.

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Since the adoption of the Directive, several new immigration countries introduced the entitlement to long-term residence for most temporary residents. For example, Spain opened equal chances for former students trained for its labour market to settle there. Portugal’s 2007 law opened long-term residence to nearly all categories of legal residents and protects from deportation anyone born in the country, living there since childhood, or raising their children there. Minors cannot be expelled in Slovenia (see stronger legal protections in Australia and several Western European countries).

ACCESS TO NATIONALITY

The Council of Europe 1997 Convention on Nationality n.166 provides the only legal standards on national citizenship in Europe. Even though it is designed more to address loss of citizenship than acquisition, its provisions limiting administrative discretion, stateless, and grounds for withdrawal would still slightly improve security of citizenship in Central Europe.3 However, its provisions on acquisition and facilitation have no effect on eligibility, conditions, or dual nationality. The Convention’s impact is also limited to the few but increasing number of ratifying countries (among MIPEX: AT, BG, CZ, DK, FI, DE, HU, NL, NO, PT, RO, SK, SE).

3 Access to nationality: Are we walking away from the EU Stockholm Programme?, available at: http://www.mipex.eu/blog/access-to-nationality-are-we-walking-away-from-the-eu-stockholm-programme

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In the four Balkan countries immigrants face long and discretionary paths to citizenship, including the renunciation of their previous citizenship. As part of the naturalisation procedure, foreigners in FYROM need to meet vague language and economic requirements. For example, they prove their knowledge of the Macedonian language by filling in a questionnaire, assessed on criteria which are not publicly available. Applicants for Croatian citizenship have to pass some of the highest language (B1) and discretionary integration requirements in Europe, and a “good character” condition. All these discretionary provisions make it really hard for the applicants to succeed. Research has shown that the application and decision-making procedure can affect the rate of citizenship acquisitions as much as the legal conditions.4 Many of the applicants for naturalisation in these four countries are forced to give up their original nationality, contrary to the trend in the majority of MIPEX countries. Furthermore, immigrants’ children are not automatically entitled to nationality at birth, as they would be in the majority of MIPEX countries. Dual nationality and some form of birthright citizenship are becoming the norm in most established countries of immigration across Europe. Newcomers in 18 of the countries assessed according to MIPEX III are entitled to dual nationality, among which France, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada and the United States. More and more countries in last decades are reforming their legislation to embrace dual nationality, e.g. Sweden, Finland, Luxembourg, Italy, Switzerland and more recently Czech Republic and Poland.5 In 2006 Portugal’s Parliament approved a coherent approach to reform access to nationality, which can serve as a model for new reforming countries. Favourable conditions once reserved for people form Portuguese speaking countries were opened to all residents speaking basic Portuguese. Liberalisation in this regard is planned also in Denmark.

ANTI-DISCRIMINATION Since passage of landmark EU legislation (Directives 2000/43/EC and 2000/78/EC), great progress has been made in all European MIPEX countries, especially Central European and new immigration countries. Positively, in line with the EU directive, victims of discrimination in Bosnia and Herzegovina, FYROM, Croatia and Serbia can benefit from NGO assistance, shifts in the burden of proof, alternative dispute resolution procedures and wide-ranging sanctions to prevent, discourage or correct discrimination.

Serbia and FYROM have enacted broad anti-discrimination laws, protecting people against most forms of discrimination in all areas of public life. Croatia’s and Bosnia and Herzegovina’s anti-discrimination legal frameworks contain some of the EU law basics but lack specific additional provisions that would make protection for foreigners against discrimination even more effective. For example, people in Bos-nia and Herzegovina and Croatia are not protected against nationality (citizenship) discrimination and racial profiling, unlike in half of the MIPEX countries. However, people in Serbia, Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina have weaker protections for multiple discrimination.

4 For example, see Access to Citizenship and its Impact on Immigrant Integration (ACIT). European Summary and Standards, available at: http://eudo-citizenship.eu/images/acit/acit_report_eu%20level%20summary.pdf 5 For more, see http://eudo-citizenship.eu

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Unlike Serbia and FYROM, Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina have established equality bodies with rather weak powers. The equality bodies in both countries can give legal advice to victims, investigate the facts of a case, instigate proceedings in their own name, but cannot make binding decisions and enforce findings, unlike equality bodies in Bulgaria and Hungary. As in many European countries, the major weaknesses in implementation concern the equality policies. The governments of the four Balkan countries could do more to promote equality through social and civil society dialogue, equality duties, and compliance monitoring (see PT, ES, UK, and Nordics).

There are many good practices in the new countries of immigration, that now have strong and inde-pendent equality bodies. Romania’s National Council on Combating Discrimination is an independent administrative body with a jurisdictional mandate. Hungary’s Equal Treatment Authority also has legal standing to intervene on behalf of the complainant, while instigating its own procedures against certain public bodies. In the policymaking process, Bulgaria’s Protection against Discrimination Commission can submit binding recommendations to the parliament and government to prepare bills and abolish dis-criminatory laws.

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Zvezda Vankova Migration Policy Group

Bosnia andHerzegovinaA MIPEX assessment

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March 2014

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INTRODUCTION 

What is the Migrant Integration Policy Index? Integration actors can struggle to find up‐to‐date, comprehensive research data and analysis on which to base policies, proposals for change and projects to achieve equality in their country. Instead they may find anecdotal, out‐dated  information and piecemeal statistics that are too disconnected from the real impact on people’s lives to assist in formulating improvements. 

The Migrant Integration Policy Index (MIPEX)  is a reference guide and a fully  interactive tool to assess, compare and improve integration policy. It measures integration policies in 40 countries in Europe and North  America  in  order  to  provide  a  view  of  integration  policies  across  a  broad  range  of  differing environments. MIPEX was developed in these countries by the British Council and the Migration Policy Group (MPG). Using 148 policy indicators, MIPEX establishes the extent to which all residents are legally entitled to equal rights and responsibilities, as well as to any support that addresses their specific needs to make equal opportunities a reality.  

Uses for policymaking Policymakers and civil society obtain a quick reference guide to assess the impact of their policy changes and get an overall impression of their country’s strengths and weaknesses. This allows governments to see the effects of their approach and policy changes.  It highlights policies that score well and possible areas for improvement. They can compare these strengths and weaknesses with other countries, either across their region, Europe and North America, or all the countries at once. They can find inspiration for policies and  learn  lessons from their objectives,  implementation, and results. Since policies are one of the factors influencing integration, MIPEX can be used as a starting point to evaluate how policy changes can improve integration in practice. Its research findings can be complemented with further information from official statistics, budgets, project and scientific evaluations, government reporting, and evidence from NGOs, courts and migrants.  

What are the highest standards used by MIPEX? MIPEX demonstrates how countries can do better in creating the legal environment in which immigrants contribute to a country’s well‐being, where they have equal access to employment and education, live in security with their families, become active citizens and are protected against discrimination. For each of the 7 policy areas:  labour market mobility, family reunion, education, political participation,  long‐term residence,  access  to  nationality  and  anti‐discrimination, MIPEX  identifies  the  highest  European  and international  standards  aimed  at  achieving  equal  rights,  responsibilities  and  opportunities  for  all residents. These standards establish a basic rule‐of‐law approach, which has helped to improve policies in European Union and Council of Europe Member States. Where only minimum standards exist, policy recommendations are used from international research networks and civil society.  

How does MIPEX obtain its scores? The  148  policy  indicators  have  been  designed  to  benchmark  current  laws  and  policies  against  the highest standards through consultations with top comparative researchers as well as  international and 

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European  institutions. A policy  indicator  is a question relating to a specific policy component of one of the 7 policy areas.   For each answer, there are 3 options. The maximum of 3 points  is awarded when policies meet the highest standards for equal treatment. A score of 2 is given when policies lie halfway to the highest standards, and a score of 1  is given when they are furthest from the highest standards. Where a country has no policies on a specific indicator, it is given a default value of 1. 

Within each of the 7 policy areas, the indicator scores are averaged together to give one of 4 dimension scores which examine the same aspect of policy. The 4 dimension scores are then averaged together to give the policy area score for each of the 7 policy areas per country which, averaged together one more time, lead to the overall scores for each country.  In order to make rankings and comparisons, the initial 1‐3 scale is converted into a 0‐100 scale for dimensions and policy areas, where 100% is the top score.  

MIPEX key legend (0‐100) 0  Critically unfavourable for integration 1‐20  Unfavourable 21‐40   Slightly unfavourable 41‐59   Halfway favourable 60‐79  Slightly favourable 80‐100  Favourable for integration  

Who gathered the data?  Unlike  indexes based on expert opinion, MIPEX  is based on public  laws, policies and research. In every country,  independent experts  in migration  law, education and anti‐discrimination,  filled out  the score for each  indicator based on  the  country’s publically available documents as of 1 November 2013. All scores were then peer‐reviewed by a second expert. 

The national experts from Bosnia and Herzegovina who filled out the scores for the MIPEX policy strands were Emir Prcanović, Nedim Kulenović and Elma Tekač. 

The Migration Policy Group moderated any discrepancies and checked the completed questionnaires for consistency across strands and countries over time. Migration Policy Group wrote up this country report based on  its official scoring and analysis of the questionnaire results,  following the established MIPEX procedure. Comparisons are made with the average practices in most MIPEX countries and EU Member States.  Special  attention was paid  to  the  EU’s  ‘new’ Member  States  and new  immigration  countries, particularly their recent progress in establishing basic procedures and statuses in this field.  

 

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Bosnia and Herzegovina  A MIPEX assessment OVERVIEW In  recent  years,  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  (BiH)  laid  the  foundation  of  its  migration  management structures and made improvements to its legislative framework.1 Mainly a source and transit country for irregular  migration,  human  trafficking  and  smuggling,  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  is  a  home  to  small numbers of  foreigners  from Serbia  (including Kosovo), Turkey, Croatia, Montenegro and China. These five countries of origin account for 68.50% of all persons issued temporary residence permits in Bosnia and Herzegovina during 2011 and 2012.2  With  an  overall MIPEX  score  of  41/100,  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina’s  policies  are  hardly  even  halfway favourable  for  societal  integration.  Newcomers  face  slightly  more  obstacles  than  opportunities  to participate in society, as in the case of Serbia, FYROM, Croatia and other new countries of immigration in the region. Foreigners go through short and low‐cost family reunion procedures, which can be easily undermined  by  the  authorities’  discretion.  This  is  also  a  problem  in  the  long‐term  residence  and naturalisation procedures in Bosnia, like in many Central European countries. Furthermore, immigrants do not receive any extra support to get further training, help their children  in school, or participate  in political life. MIGRATION STATISTICS ON BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA 

Net migration1 ‐5000

Three largest countries of origin2  Serbia, including Kosovo/UNSCR 1244, Turkey, Croatia, Montenegro and China

Foreign-born population3 23,197    

Foreign-born as part of population4  0.6% 

Women as part of foreign-born population5  50.09% 

Number of family permits per year6 1,207 

Number of work permits per year7 2,573

Number of student permits per year8 2,055

Refugees9 162

1 World Bank Data for 2012, available at: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SM.POP.NETM 2 Bosnia and Herzegovine Migration Profile for 2012, Ministry of Security, Sector for Immigration, 2013 

                                                            1 IOM profile for Bosnia and Herzegovina, available at: https://www.iom.int/cms/en/sites/iom/home/where‐we‐work/europa/south‐eastern‐europe‐eastern‐eur/bosnia‐and‐herzegovina.html 2 Bosnia and Herzegovine Migration Profile for 2012, Ministry of Security, Sector for Immigration, 2013  

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Opening labour market access in new countries of immigration

 The most recent MIPEX study found that many new immigration countries are increasingly opening equal access to the labour market to all legal temporary residents. The major countries of immigration in Southern Europe (Italy, Portugal, Spain) grant newcomers nearly equal opportunities to change jobs and careers, and equal access to general support. Poland in 2009 and Hungary in 2010 granted all non‐EU temporary residents the right to self‐employment. General and targeted support for migrant workers is already more favourable than average in several new immigration destinations, including Portugal, Spain, Estonia, and Romania.     

3 United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2013). Trends in International Migration Stock: Migrants by Age and Sex (United Nations database, POD/DB/MIG/STOCK/Rev.2013) 4 ibid 5 ibid 6 Data from the Service for Foreigners’ Affairs for 2012 7 Data from the Labour and Employment Agency of Bosnia and Herzegovina for 2012 8 Data from the Service for Foreigners’ Affairs for 2012 9 Persons with recognised refugee status in BiH at the end of 2012.UNHCR data, Bosnia and Herzegovine Migration Profile for 2012, Ministry of Security, Sector for Immigration, 2013  

 

LABOUR MARKET MOBILITY  Upon arrival in Bosnia and Herzegovina, temporary migrant workers cannot change jobs and sectors, use general  job  support  or  access  adult  education  or  vocational  training.  This  legal  access  and  general support is provided to immigrants in many other new and established countries of immigration (ES, PT, US). The  jobs that they manage to find  in Bosnia could be below their skills, since they cannot benefit from any targeted support, even in regards to recognition of skills and qualifications acquired abroad, in contrast to the practices in the major developed immigration countries. Although they pay taxes, some temporary migrant workers may have difficulties accessing social security benefits because access will depend on bilateral and multilateral agreements with different countries. Positively, they will be entitled to  the  same  working  conditions,  social  security  and  access  to  trade  unions,  as  in  most  European countries, and could start their own business, like in most of the MIPEX countries.   

 

   

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Conditions and procedure: from law to practice Many Central European countries create few legal obstacles for non‐EU citizens to apply for family reunion, but maintain very discretionary procedures with many grounds for authorities to reject them. This is not the case in Poland, where the law contains only few additional grounds for rejecting family reunion applications or withdrawing the status of family members (as in CA, IT, ES). AT, NL provide entitlements in cases of death, divorce, separation and violence, while several countries (e.g. FR, PT, ES, SE, NO, US) are working on clearer residence autonomy for all families after a few years. Slovenia’s 2011 Aliens Law broadened the definition of the family to registered or co‐habitating partners, regardless of gender or sexual orientation.  Lithuania and the Czech Republic also use inclusive definitions, recognising registered partnerships.   

 

FAMILY REUNION 

 As  in  several  new  immigration  destinations  in  Southern  and  Central  Europe,  reuniting  families  can benefit from slightly favourable legal conditions.  They go through short and low‐cost procedure, which, however,  can be easily undermined by  the authorities’ discretion.    Families  could  still be  rejected or refused  on  wide  discretionary  grounds,  without  due  account  taken  of  their  personal  and  family circumstances, unlike most of the EU countries.  Not in conformity with EU standards, they have limited access  to  autonomous  residence permits  in  case of widowhood, divorce or  violence. Moreover, only temporary migrants  residing  for more  than  18 months  in  the  country  and  permanent  residents  are eligible to apply for their spouse and children. Due to the restrictive definition of family, applicants are also not able to reunite with their partners.   

      

EDUCATION 

 Education  in  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  is  critically  unfavourable  for  integration  of  migrant  children, scoring 9/100, way below  the average  for most Central and Eastern European  countries. All  children, irrespective of  their  legal status, have access  to pre‐primary and compulsory‐age education, although their legal right is not explicitly regulated in law. In contrast, in half of the MIPEX countries, all immigrant children  enjoy  equal  access  to  all  levels  of  the  school  system.  Beyond  legal  access,  Bosnia  and Herzegovina offers hardly any support for  immigrant pupils. Newcomer children can benefit only from general  support  measures  to  access  pre‐primary  education  and  assessment  of  prior  education, according  to  standardised quality  criteria  and  implemented by  trained  staff.   Children  cannot benefit from  any  integration measures  for  their  specific  needs,  unlike MIPEX  countries, which  provide  basic integration  programmes  for  immigrant  pupils.  Most  MIPEX  countries,  including  Central  and Southeastern European countries, provide additional tuition for  immigrant pupils to master the official 

Adapting schools in recent countries of immigration Estonia provides all newcomer pupils with compulsory, continuous, and standardised support to learn Estonian, as well as their own language and culture. Similarly in Czech law, language courses should be needs-based, professionally taught, and regularly evaluated, while mother tongue and cultures should be available. Czech teachers can integrate multicultural education into their curriculum through state-supported pedagogical materials and teacher trainings like the much-used information portal (www.czechkid.cz). Slovakia also recently introduced ‘multicultural education’ into its curriculum as well as intercultural education trainings for qualifying and working teachers.

The participation of foreigners in public life at local level Although policymakers increasingly list participation in public life as a key area of integration, opening political opportunities often takes time and significant reforms. New immigration countries in Central and Southern Europe have made progress. Several Central European countries have granted long-term residents the right to vote in local elections (Czech Republic in 2001, Estonia and Slovenia in 2002) and to stand as candidates in local elections (Lithuania in 2002 and Slovakia in 2003). Most countries have used the new European Integration Fund to support associations working on integration. Local and national authorities have started a dialogue and consultation with associations of foreign residents. Examples range from Portugal and Spain to Ireland, Greece, Estonia, Latvia, and Poland. For instance, the Spanish Forum for the Social Integration of Immigrants has an independent chair and issues opinions or reports on any drafts affecting social integration. The Forum has the right to prepare reports, plans, programs on request or own initiative, and to formulate its own proposals and recommendations. Members from immigrant-run associations participate extensively in the preparation and discussion of reports and resolutions, and secure much government consensus around their recommendations.

language of the country, additional funding or teachers for schools with immigrant pupils, and teacher trainings on immigrants’ needs and intercultural education. Most other countries also support the teaching of immigrant languages and cultures during the school day.

POLITICAL PARTICIPATION Joining political parties or creating media are the only two formal rights that foreigners have to participate in public life in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Apart from the restrictions on voting and standing in elections, newcomers also face restrictions on forming associations and accessing public funding for their running. Moreover, they cannot benefit from any form of structured consultation with foreigners on integration policies, even on the basis of pilot projects, as in Greece and the Baltic States. If foreigners in Bosnia do not naturalise, they are largely deprived from opportunities to participate in public life, a problem in several other new countries of immigration in the region (Croatia, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria).

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An entitlement to long-term residence EU Member States agreed and implemented the EC long-term residence directive (2003/109/EC), with the common objective that the integration of long-term residents will promote economic and social cohesion. Since then, several new immigration countries introduced the entitlement to long-term residence for most temporary residents. For example, Portugal’s 2007 law opened long-term residence to nearly all categories of legal residents and protected them from deportation anyone born in the country, living there since childhood, or raising their children there. According to the ECHR case law, expulsion decisions must take into account several of their life circumstances.

Accepting dual nationality and birthright citizenship Dual nationality and some form of birthright citizenship are becoming the norm in most established countries of immigration across Europe. The past decade has seen significant reforms in Germany, Belgium, Sweden, Finland, Portugal, Luxembourg, and, until recently, Greece. Since the last edition of MIPEX in 2010, similar citizenship reform bills or laws have been introduced in Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Italy, and Poland. For more, see http://eudo-citizenship.eu

LONG-TERM RESIDENCE Even though long-term residence applicants in the country benefit from fairly inclusive legal conditions, they cannot enjoy completely secure residence status, contrary to EU legal standards. They have few protections against expulsion and can lose their unlimited residence permit due to the wide grounds, including if the original conditions are no longer satisfied. Applicants go through a short and low-cost, but rather discretionary procedure and need to meet a vague language requirement, without any available support. Furthermore, students are excluded from the possibility to apply for this status.

ACCESS TO NATIONALITY

Unless foreigners originally came from Bosnia or descend from a Bosnian, they must undergo long, costly and discretionary path to citizenship, only halfway favourable for their integration, which is a barrier to integration in many new countries of immigration. To be eligible for naturalisation, ordinary applicants are required to wait at least 8 years in total, from which 3 years of permanent residence, around the European average. Even though they are not required to pass language or integration requirement, many of them are forced to give up their original nationality, unless there are bilateral agreements with their country of origin allowing dual nationality. Due to Bosnia and Herzegovina’s discretionary procedure, naturalised citizens are slightly insecure in their status.

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Where are the strongest equality bodies in the region?

 

Bulgaria’s  Commission  for  Protection  Against  Discrimination,  Hungary’s  Equal  Treatment  Authority,  and Romania’s  National  Council  on  Combating  Discrimination,  offer  victims  independent  advice  and  can  issue binding appealable decisions. Romania’s Council  is an  independent administrative body with a  jurisdictional mandate. Hungary’s Authority also has the legal standing to intervene on behalf of the complainant, while also instigating  its  own  procedures,  although  only  against  certain  public  bodies.  In  the  policymaking  process, Bulgaria’s  Commission  can  submit  legally  binding  recommendations  to  the  parliament  and  government  to prepare bills and abolish discriminatory laws.

 

ANTI‐DISCRIMINATION 

 

Bosnia  and  Herzegovina’s  anti‐discrimination  legal  framework  contains  some  of  the  EU  law  basics  ‐ victims can benefit from financial and NGO assistance, shifts in the burden of proof, alternative dispute resolution  procedures  and  wide‐ranging  sanctions  to  prevent,  discourage  or  correct  discrimination. However, the law lacks specific additional provisions that would make protection for foreigners against discrimination even more effective. For example, people in Bosnia are not protected against nationality (citizenship)  discrimination,  multiple  discrimination  (see  AT,  BG,  UK)  or  racial  profiling.  Moreover, victims  cannot  benefit  from  a  strong  equality  body,  as  in  the  case  of  BG  and  HU.  The  country’s Ombudsman  for Human Rights of Bosnia and Herzegovina has  rather weak powers and cannot make binding decisions and enforce findings. In addition, Bosnia and Herzegovina could do more to promote equality  through  social  and  civil  society  dialogue  and  compliance  monitoring  (see  PT,  ES,  UK,  and Nordics). 

 

Zvezda Vankova Migration Policy Group

CroatiaA MIPEX assessment

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March 2014

 

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INTRODUCTION 

What is the Migrant Integration Policy Index? Integration actors can struggle to find up‐to‐date, comprehensive research data and analysis on which to base policies, proposals for change and projects to achieve equality in their country. Instead they may find anecdotal, out‐dated  information and piecemeal statistics that are too disconnected from the real impact on people’s lives to assist in formulating improvements. 

The Migrant Integration Policy Index (MIPEX)  is a reference guide and a fully  interactive tool to assess, compare and improve integration policy. It measures integration policies in 40 countries in Europe and North  America  in  order  to  provide  a  view  of  integration  policies  across  a  broad  range  of  differing environments. MIPEX was developed in these countries by the British Council and the Migration Policy Group (MPG). Using 148 policy indicators, MIPEX establishes the extent to which all residents are legally entitled to equal rights and responsibilities, as well as to any support that addresses their specific needs to make equal opportunities a reality.  

Uses for policymaking Policymakers and civil society obtain a quick reference guide to assess the impact of their policy changes and get an overall impression of their country’s strengths and weaknesses. This allows governments to see the effects of their approach and policy changes.  It highlights policies that score well and possible areas for improvement. They can compare these strengths and weaknesses with other countries, either across their region, Europe and North America, or all the countries at once. They can find inspiration for policies and  learn  lessons from their objectives,  implementation, and results. Since policies are one of the factors influencing integration, MIPEX can be used as a starting point to evaluate how policy changes can improve integration in practice. Its research findings can be complemented with further information from official statistics, budgets, project and scientific evaluations, government reporting, and evidence from NGOs, courts and migrants.  

What are the highest standards used by MIPEX? MIPEX demonstrates how countries can do better in creating the legal environment in which immigrants contribute to a country’s well‐being, where they have equal access to employment and education, live in security with their families, become active citizens and are protected against discrimination. For each of the 7 policy areas:  labour market mobility, family reunion, education, political participation,  long‐term residence,  access  to  nationality  and  anti‐discrimination, MIPEX  identifies  the  highest  European  and international  standards  aimed  at  achieving  equal  rights,  responsibilities  and  opportunities  for  all residents. These standards establish a basic rule‐of‐law approach, which has helped to improve policies in European Union and Council of Europe Member States. Where only minimum standards exist, policy recommendations are used from international research networks and civil society.  

How does MIPEX obtain its scores? The  148  policy  indicators  have  been  designed  to  benchmark  current  laws  and  policies  against  the highest standards through consultations with top comparative researchers as well as  international and 

 

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European  institutions. A policy  indicator  is a question relating to a specific policy component of one of the 7 policy areas.   For each answer, there are 3 options. The maximum of 3 points  is awarded when policies meet the highest standards for equal treatment. A score of 2 is given when policies lie halfway to the highest standards, and a score of 1  is given when they are furthest from the highest standards. Where a country has no policies on a specific indicator, it is given a default value of 1. 

Within each of the 7 policy areas, the indicator scores are averaged together to give one of 4 dimension scores which examine the same aspect of policy. The 4 dimension scores are then averaged together to give the policy area score for each of the 7 policy areas per country which, averaged together one more time, lead to the overall scores for each country.  In order to make rankings and comparisons, the initial 1‐3 scale is converted into a 0‐100 scale for dimensions and policy areas, where 100% is the top score.  

MIPEX key legend (0‐100) 0  Critically unfavourable for integration 1‐20  Unfavourable 21‐40   Slightly unfavourable 41‐59   Halfway favourable 60‐79  Slightly favourable 80‐100  Favourable for integration  

Who gathered the data?  Unlike  indexes based on expert opinion, MIPEX  is based on public  laws, policies and research. In every country,  independent experts  in migration  law, education and anti‐discrimination,  filled out  the score for each  indicator based on  the  country’s publically available documents as of 1 November 2013. All scores were then peer‐reviewed by a second expert. 

Snjezana Gregurovic,  PhD  and Drago  Zuparic‐Iljic  from  the  Institute  for Migration  and  Ethnic  Studies filled out the scores for the indicators  in the Antidiscrimination policy strand. Education and Family re‐union policy strands were covered by Julija Kranjec, Centre for Peace Studies. Goranka Lalic Novak, PhD, Faculty of Law  in Zagreb was the expert for the Long Term Residence and Political Participation policy strands. The Access to Nationality policy indicators were scored by Jelena Zlatkovic, PhD, from the Insti‐tute  for Migration  and  Ethnic  Studies,  and  the  Labour Market Mobility  policy  indicators  ‐  by  Helga Spadina, PhD, Faculty of Law in Osijek.  All scores were peer  reviewed by: Eli Pijaca Plavsic, Forum  for Freedom  in Education  (Education), Go‐ranka  Lalic Novak  (Family Reunion),  Julija Kranjec  (Long Term Residence), Drago Zuparic‐Iljic  (Political Participation), Lana Ofak, PhD, Faculty of Law  in Zagreb  (Nationality),  Ivana Vukorepa, PhD, Faculty of Law in Zagreb (Labour Market Mobility), Sara Lalic, Centre for Peace Studies (Antidiscrimination).    

The Migration Policy Group moderated any discrepancies and checked the completed questionnaires for consistency across strands and countries over time. Migration Policy Group wrote up this country report based on  its official scoring and analysis of the questionnaire results,  following the established MIPEX procedure. Comparisons are made with the average practices in most MIPEX countries and EU Member States.  Special  attention was paid  to  the  EU’s  ‘new’ Member  States  and new  immigration  countries, particularly their recent progress in establishing basic procedures and statuses in this field.  

 

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Croatia A MIPEX assessment OVERVIEW  In  the  last  two decades,  regional  immigration, mainly  from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Slovenia, Macedonia and Kosovo, has replaced the flows of refugees and displaced persons into Croatia, following the break‐up of the former Yugoslav republic. Due to the economic downturn, the number of migrant workers has decreased significantly  in the shipbuilding and construction  industries, which traditionally employ the largest number of migrant workers.  

As part of  its preparation for EU accession, Croatia harmonised  its Aliens’ Act and Asylum Act with the EU acquis in 2013, and started a significant policy and administrative reform. The Croatian government adopted a strategic document, establishing the migration policy priorities of the Republic of Croatia for 2013 – 2015, as well as the “Action Plan on the removal of obstacles to the exercise of particular rights in  the  area  of  the  integration  of  foreigners  2013‐2015”.  Croatia  has  ratified  most  of  the  main international human rights treaties, but has not signed the  International Convention on the Protection of  the  Rights  of  All  Migrant  Workers  and  Members  of  their  families,  nor  ratified  the  European Convention on Nationality (ETS 166).  

Newcomers to Croatia will face barely halfway favourable policies for their integration. With an overall MIPEX  score  of  42/100,  it  ranks  alongside  other  ‘new’  immigration  countries  in  the MIPEX  on  the Balkans, such as Bulgaria, Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Serbia.   Croatia’s policies that best promote  integration  are  in  areas  of  European  law.  Nevertheless,  these  legal  conditions  can  be undermined  by  authorities’  rather  discretionary  procedures,  a  problem  across  Central  and  Eastern Europe. Newcomers to Croatia lack many basic opportunities, such as targeted state support to find the right  job,  improve the education of their children, or participate  in political  life. Their children, even  if born in the country, are not eligible to be citizens at birth and dual nationality is not accepted, which is contrary to the trend in the majority of MIPEX countries.  

 MIGRATION STATISTICS ON CROATIA 

1. Net migration1  ‐ 3, 918 2. Immigration flow2  8,959 3. Three largest countries of origin3  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 

Serbia, FYROM 4. Foreign‐born population4  31,952 5. Foreign‐born as part of population5 0,75% 

 

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Opening labour market access in new countries of immigration

 The most recent MIPEX study found that many new immigration countries are increasingly opening equal access to the labour market to all legal temporary residents. The major countries of immigration in Southern Europe (Italy, Portugal, Spain) grant newcomers nearly equal opportunities to change jobs and careers, and equal access to general support. Poland in 2009 and Hungary in 2010 granted all non‐EU temporary residents the right to self‐employment. General and targeted support for migrant workers is already more favourable than average in several new immigration destinations, including Portugal, Spain, Estonia, and Romania.     

6. Women as part of foreign‐born population6 48,2% 7. Number of family permits per year7 9,969 8. Number of work permits per year8  4,820 9. Number of student permits per year9 725 10. Number of humanitarian permits per year10 964  1  Croatian  Bureau  of  Statistics  data:  “Migration  of  Population  of  Republic  of  Croatia,  2012”,  available  at: http://www.dzs.hr/Hrv_Eng/publication/2013/07‐01‐02_01_2013.htm  2 ibid 3 ibid 4 Ministry of interior data: “Foreign citizens by the status of temporary residence on the date 31.12.2012” and “Foreign citizens by the status of permanent residence on the date 31.12.2012”, available at:  http://mup.hr/main.aspx?id=172024   5 ibid 6  Croatian  Bureau  of  Statistics  data:  “Migration  of  Population  of  Republic  of  Croatia,  2012”,  available  at: http://www.dzs.hr/Hrv_Eng/publication/2013/07‐01‐02_01_2013.htm 7 Ministry of interior data: “Foreign citizens by the status of temporary residence on the date 31.12.2012” and “Foreign citizens by the status of permanent residence on the date 31.12.2012”, available at:  http://mup.hr/main.aspx?id=172024   8 ibid 9 ibid 10 ibid  

LABOUR MARKET MOBILITY  Migrant workers in Croatia have slightly more opportunities on the labour market than in most Central European  countries,  such  as Bosnia  and Herzegovina  and  Serbia. However,  some  temporary  resident workers could spend years trapped  in a  job below their qualification because they cannot change  jobs and sectors, and access immediate self‐employment.  Once they can, all legal workers have the right to work  in any private  sector  job and some public  sector positions, as  in most European countries. Still, their foreign qualifications might not be recognised, while their education and training opportunities are limited because hardly any  targeted support  is available  in Croatia.  In contrast  to  the practices  in  the major developed  immigration  countries, migrant workers  in Croatia  cannot benefit  from  information campaigns.   Once employed,  all migrant workers  are  entitled  to  the  same working  conditions,  social security, and access to trade unions, as in a number of leading countries.   

 

 

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Conditions and procedure: from law to practice Many Central European countries create few  legal obstacles for non‐EU citizens to apply for family reunion,  but maintain  very  discretionary  procedures with many  grounds  for  authorities  to  reject them. PL does not  follow  this  trend. While  the  length and cost of  the procedure may be burden‐some, there are few additional grounds for rejecting their application or withdrawing their status (as in CA, IT, ES). AT, NL provide entitlements in cases of death, divorce, separation and violence, while several  countries  (e.g.  FR, PT, ES,  SE, NO, US)  are working on  clearer  residence  autonomy  for  all families after a few years.  

FAMILY REUNION 

 Reuniting families enjoy a right to family reunion around the EU average because Croatia follows the EU standards to a minimum. Sponsors can quickly apply for their spouse and minor children, following the Family Reunion Directive’s minimum standards. Those who meet  the slightly  favourable requirements are still  insecure about their families’ future due to the discretionary procedures  in Croatia, as  in most Central European countries. Authorities may reject their application or withdraw their permit on wide discretionary  grounds, without  considering  their  family’s  personal  circumstances,  below  the  EU  legal standards.  Furthermore, family members  in Croatia have  limited access to autonomous permit if their sponsor dies  or  is  abusive, unlike  traditional  countries  of  immigration,  such  as Norway,  Sweden  and Portugal. Positively,  reunited  families generally benefit  from  the  same  rights as  their  sponsors  like  in most MIPEX countries.  

      

EDUCATION 

 Following  the  recent  amendments  of  the  Law  on  Education  in  Primary  and  Secondary  School  of 07/15/2013, undocumented migrant pupils  in Croatia will now have access to primary education. Still, they will not be able to enrol  in secondary school, as  in nearly all MIPEX countries, and access higher education  or  vocational  training,  as  in  half  of  the MIPEX  countries. Moreover,  Croatian  schools  are required to provide very few integration measures for migrant pupils, as in most of the Balkan countries. Migrant children can benefit from official language support in primary and secondary education, but are not provided with an opportunity to learn their mother languages. Schools must integrate intercultural education  throughout  their  curricula,  which  can  be  modified  to  reflect  the  diversity  of  the  local population.  However,  they  are missing  out  on  the  new  opportunities  that  immigrants  bring  to  the classroom. For  comparison, most new  immigration  countries  in Southern and Central Europe provide additional tuition to master the official  language and  immigrants’ home  languages, specific  funding or teachers for schools, and required teacher trainings on immigrants’ needs.  

 

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Adapting schools in recent countries of immigration

 

Estonia provides all newcomer pupils with compulsory, continuous, and standardised support to learn Estonian, as well as their own language and culture. Similarly in Czech law, language courses should be needs‐based, professionally taught, and regularly evaluated, while mother tongue and cultures should be available. Czech teachers can integrate multicultural education into their curriculum through state‐supported pedagogical materials and teacher trainings like the much‐used information portal (www.czechkid.cz). Slovakia also recently introduced ‘multicultural education’ into its curriculum as well as intercultural education trainings for qualifying and working teachers.

The participation of foreigners in public life at local level

 

Although policymakers increasingly list participation in public life as a key area of integration, opening political opportunities often  takes  time and  significant  reforms. New  immigration countries  in Central and Southern Europe have made progress. Several Central European countries have granted  long‐term  residents  the  local right  to vote  (Czech Republic  in 2001, Estonia and Slovenia  in 2002) and to stand as candidates  in elections (Lithuania  in 2002 and Slovakia  in 2003). Most  countries have used  the new European  Integration Fund  to support  associations  working  on  integration.  Local  and  national  authorities  have  started  a  dialogue  and consultation  with  associations  of  foreign  residents.  Examples  range  from  Portugal  and  Spain  to  Ireland, Greece, Estonia, Latvia, and Poland. For  instance, the Spanish Forum for the Social Integration of Immigrants has an independent chair and issues opinions or reports on any drafts affecting social integration. The Forum has  the  right  to  prepare  reports,  plans,  programs  on  request  or  own  initiative,  and  to  formulate  its  own proposals  and  recommendations. Members  from  immigrant‐run  associations  participate  extensively  in  the preparation and discussion of reports and resolutions, and secure much government consensus around their recommendations.

    

 

 

POLITICAL PARTICIPATION 

 Non‐EU citizens are excluded from democratic life in Croatia, just as in Macedonia, Serbia and other new countries of immigration in the region. Only naturalised Croatian citizens have the possibility to inform and  improve the policies that affect them daily. Migrants are denied the right to vote and cannot  join political  parties,  unlike  in most  countries  of  immigration,  including  the  Czech  Republic,  Estonia  and Slovenia. Moreover, the government does not structurally finance immigrant‐run associations or consult them in national, regional, or local consultative bodies (see instead bodies in the Nordic countries).    

 

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Reducing state discretion 

Migrants  pass  numerous  state  procedures  to  integrate  e.g.  for  family  reunion,  long‐term  residence  and citizenship. Procedures that  lack explicit rules give discretion to the administration and pose a risk of abuse. Furthermore, applicants are never fully prepared as they do not know what they will be asked. The 2009 CZ language test for long‐term residence aimed to ensure equal and reasonable conditions. With an attainable level (A1), free support and professional examiners, this model creates conditions for applicants to succeed, rather than creating more bureaucratic obstacles.  Portugal’s 2007 law aimed to create a legal regime fostering legal immigration by opening long‐term residence to nearly all categories of  legal residents and protecting from deportation anyone born  in the country,  living there since childhood, or raising their children there.  

 

 

LONG‐TERM RESIDENCE  Standard in the EU, most newcomers must wait 5 years to apply for equal opportunities to integrate in economic and social  life  in Croatia. Thanks to EU  law, most  legal  immigrants are eligible to apply for a long‐term residence permit after  five years’  residence and under  rather straightforward conditions.  In line with the EU legal standards, half of the residence time as a student or a pupil will still be counted. Still,  the  high  level  language  and  integration  requirement  could  be  a  major  obstacle  in  practice.

Applicants who meet the legal conditions can still be rejected on several grounds due to state discretion that  is common  in the region.  Once accepted, Croatian  long‐term residents enjoy  indefinite residence rights  and  equal  social  and  economic  rights  as  in most MIPEX  countries.  However,  they  have  few protections against expulsion, a problem  in most countries  (see stronger  legal protections  in Australia and several Western European countries).     

  

ACCESS TO NATIONALITY   Immigrants’  access  to  Croatian  nationality  is  slightly  unfavourable  for  immigrant  integration,  scoring below  the  European  average.  Spouses  and  partners  have  access  to  a  facilitated  naturalisation procedure, although they have to meet the qualifying periods for permanent residents. Applicants are required to go through a rather discretionary procedure, as well as to pass some of the highest language and discretionary integration requirements in Europe, and a “good character” condition. They must give up  their  previous  nationality,  unless  they have  Croatian  origins  or  are  Croatian  spouses.  In  contrast, accepting dual nationality is now the trend in the majority of MIPEX countries (e.g. GR, HU, IT, RO, SK). 

 

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Accepting dual nationality and birthright citizenship

 

Dual nationality and some form of birthright citizenship are becoming the norm in most established countries of immigration across Europe. The past decade has seen significant reforms in Germany, Belgium, Sweden, Finland, Portugal, Luxembourg, and, until recently, Greece. Since the last edition of MIPEX in 2010, similar citizenship reform bills or laws have been introduced in Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Italy, and Poland.  For more, see http://eudo‐citizenship.eu 

Where are the strongest equality bodies in the region?

 

Bulgaria’s  Protection  Against  Discrimination  Commission,  Hungary’s  Equal  Treatment  Authority,  and Romania’s  National  Council  on  Combating  Discrimination  offer  victims  independent  advice  and  can  issue binding appealable decisions. Romania’s council  is an  independent administrative body with a  jurisdictional mandate. Hungary’s Authority also has the legal standing to intervene on behalf of the complainant, while also instigating  its  own  procedures,  although  only  against  certain  public  bodies.  In  the  policymaking  process, Bulgaria’s  Commission  can  submit  legally  binding  recommendations  to  the  parliament  and  government  to prepare bills and abolish discriminatory laws.

Moreover, Croatian‐born children are not automatically entitled to Croatian nationality, as they would be in the majority of MIPEX countries.    

 

 

 

ANTI‐DISCRIMINATION 

  Croatia  has  enacted  anti‐discrimination  legislation  that  is  only  halfway  favourable  for  integration. Nationality  (citizenship)  discrimination  remains  the  key weakness  in  law,  unlike  in half  of  the MIPEX countries. The anti‐discrimination  law provides weaker protections for multiple discrimination (see AT, BG,  UK).  Croatia  has  slightly  favourable  mechanisms  to  enforce  the  law.  Victims  can  benefit  from financial assistance, shifts in the burden of proof, and alternative dispute resolution procedures. Though the procedure remains rather  long,  if victims cannot take the case themselves, they can  look to NGOs for  support  and  class  actions.  Judges  have  the  full  range  of  sanctions  at  their  disposal  in  cases  of discrimination, in line with EU standards. The major weaknesses in implementation in Croatia and many European countries are equality policies and the powers of the equality body. Croatia’s Ombudsman can give  legal advice to victims,  investigate the  facts of a case,  instigate proceedings  in  its own name, but cannot make binding decisions and enforce findings, unlike equality bodies in Bulgaria and Hungary. In addition, the Croatian government could do more to promote equality through social and civil society dialogue, equality duties, and compliance monitoring (see PT, ES, UK, and Nordics).  

Zvezda Vankova Migration Policy Group

Former YugoslavRepublic of Macedonia (FYROM)A MIPEX assessment

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March 2014

 

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INTRODUCTION 

What is the Migrant Integration Policy Index? Integration actors can struggle to find up‐to‐date, comprehensive research data and analysis on which to base policies, proposals for change and projects to achieve equality in their country. Instead they may find anecdotal, out‐dated  information and piecemeal statistics that are too disconnected from the real impact on people’s lives to assist in formulating improvements. 

The Migrant Integration Policy Index (MIPEX)  is a reference guide and a fully  interactive tool to assess, compare and improve integration policy. It measures integration policies in 40 countries in Europe and North  America  in  order  to  provide  a  view  of  integration  policies  across  a  broad  range  of  differing environments. MIPEX was developed in these countries by the British Council and the Migration Policy Group (MPG). Using 148 policy indicators, MIPEX establishes the extent to which all residents are legally entitled to equal rights and responsibilities, as well as to any support that addresses their specific needs to make equal opportunities a reality.  

Uses for policymaking Policymakers and civil society obtain a quick reference guide to assess the impact of their policy changes and get an overall impression of their country’s strengths and weaknesses. This allows governments to see the effects of their approach and policy changes.  It highlights policies that score well and possible areas for improvement. They can compare these strengths and weaknesses with other countries, either across their region, Europe and North America, or all the countries at once. They can find inspiration for policies and  learn  lessons from their objectives,  implementation, and results. Since policies are one of the factors influencing integration, MIPEX can be used as a starting point to evaluate how policy changes can improve integration in practice. Its research findings can be complemented with further information from official statistics, budgets, project and scientific evaluations, government reporting, and evidence from NGOs, courts and migrants.  

What are the highest standards used by MIPEX? MIPEX demonstrates how countries can do better in creating the legal environment in which immigrants contribute to a country’s well‐being, where they have equal access to employment and education, live in security with their families, become active citizens and are protected against discrimination. For each of the 7 policy areas:  labour market mobility, family reunion, education, political participation,  long‐term residence,  access  to  nationality  and  anti‐discrimination, MIPEX  identifies  the  highest  European  and international  standards  aimed  at  achieving  equal  rights,  responsibilities  and  opportunities  for  all residents. These standards establish a basic rule‐of‐law approach, which has helped to improve policies in European Union and Council of Europe Member States. Where only minimum standards exist, policy recommendations are used from international research networks and civil society.  

How does MIPEX obtain its scores? The  148  policy  indicators  have  been  designed  to  benchmark  current  laws  and  policies  against  the highest standards through consultations with top comparative researchers as well as  international and 

 

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European  institutions. A policy  indicator  is a question relating to a specific policy component of one of the 7 policy areas.   For each answer, there are 3 options. The maximum of 3 points  is awarded when policies meet the highest standards for equal treatment. A score of 2 is given when policies lie halfway to the highest standards, and a score of 1  is given when they are furthest from the highest standards. Where a country has no policies on a specific indicator, it is given a default value of 1. 

Within each of the 7 policy areas, the indicator scores are averaged together to give one of 4 dimension scores which examine the same aspect of policy. The 4 dimension scores are then averaged together to give the policy area score for each of the 7 policy areas per country which, averaged together one more time, lead to the overall scores for each country.  In order to make rankings and comparisons, the initial 1‐3 scale is converted into a 0‐100 scale for dimensions and policy areas, where 100% is the top score.  

MIPEX key legend (0‐100) 0  Critically unfavourable for integration 1‐20  Unfavourable 21‐40   Slightly unfavourable 41‐59   Halfway favourable 60‐79  Slightly favourable 80‐100  Favourable for integration  

Who gathered the data?  Unlike  indexes based on expert opinion, MIPEX  is based on public  laws, policies and research. In every country,  independent experts  in migration  law, education and anti‐discrimination,  filled out  the score for each  indicator based on  the  country’s publically available documents as of 1 November 2013. All scores were then peer‐reviewed by a second expert. 

The national experts who filled out the scores for the MIPEX policy strands were Biljana Kotevska, Stu‐diourm, Program Director,  Elena Anchevska, Center  for Research  and Policy Making,  researcher, Ana Mickovska‐Raleva, Center for Research and Policy Making, researcher, and Zlatko Simonovski, Center for Research and Policy Making, researcher. The MIPEX scores were peer‐reviewed by Marija Risteska, PhD, Executive Director of Center for Research and Policy Making, and Zhidas Daskalovski, PhD, President of Center for Research and Policy Making.  

The Migration Policy Group moderated any discrepancies and checked the completed questionnaires for consistency across strands and countries over time. Migration Policy Group wrote up this country report based on  its official scoring and analysis of the questionnaire results,  following the established MIPEX procedure. Comparisons are made with the average practices in most MIPEX countries and EU Member States.  Special  attention was paid  to  the  EU’s  ‘new’ Member  States  and new  immigration  countries, particularly their recent progress in establishing basic procedures and statuses in this field.  

 

 

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FYROM  

A MIPEX assessment OVERVIEW  

Largely  a  country  of  emigration,  FYROM  has  slowly  started  to  become  a  country  of  transit  and permanent  immigration. FYROM attracts  immigrants mainly from Turkey, Albania and Kosovo, but also more  recently  people  from  Afghanistan  and  Pakistan,  as  well  as  Syrian  refugees.  In  2008,  the government adopted the first national migration policy and national strategy on integration of refugees and foreigners 2008‐2015. FYROM has ratified the main ILO and UN conventions but has not yet signed the UN International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their  Families,  the  Council  of  Europe  Convention  on  the  Legal  Status  of Migrant Workers,  and  the Convention on the Participation of Foreigners in Public Life at Local Level.  

With an overall MIPEX score of 44/100, the country’s policies are barely halfway favourable for societal integration.  These  policies  score  just  below  the  European  average  and  slightly  better  than  other countries in the region, such as Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Bulgaria. The country’s anti‐discrimination legislation could contribute the most to the integration of future immigrants, as in other countries with  similar  laws  in  Central  and  Eastern  Europe.  Victims  of  discrimination  have  access  to slightly  favourable enforcement mechanisms  and  a  relatively  strong equality body.    The obstacles  to immigrant  integration  lay  less  in  anti‐discrimination  law  than  in  foreigners’  law.  Temporary  foreign workers, families, and permanent residents cannot benefit from key rights that are guaranteed in other EU member states  through  the EU acquis. Common across  the  region,  the discretional powers of  the authorities  hamper  the  procedures  for  family  reunion,  long‐term  residence  and  naturalisation. Immigrants must also endure one of the longest waiting periods to be eligible for naturalisation. Beyond the law and their legal status, immigrants lack targeted state support to find the right job, improve the education  of  their  children  or  benefit  from  consultative  bodies,  enabling  their  voice  to  be  heard  in political debates.  

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

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MIGRATION STATISTICS ON FYROM 

Net migration 10531

Immigration flow 37872

Three largest countries of origin Turkey, Albania, Kosovo3

Foreign-born population 1397514

Foreign-born as part of population 6.6%5

Women as part of foreign-born population 58.4%6

Number of family permits per year 247

Number of work permits per year 25698

Number of student permits per year 8629

Refugees 1,06910

 

 

LABOUR MARKET MOBILITY  Some temporary migrant workers do not have immediate access to employment and the right to change jobs  and  sectors,  which  is  also  a  problem  in  Croatia  and  Serbia.  They  cannot  benefit  from  public employment services on an equal footing and are not entitled to register in their unemployed persons’ records, unlike  in most European countries. After becoming permanent residence holders or getting a personal work permit, migrant workers in FYROM can benefit from much better general support than is generally  available  in most of Central and Eastern Europe. They  can  then use  general  education  and training  programmes,  as  well  as  benefit  from  the  same  procedures  for  recognition  of  foreign qualifications  as  nationals.  However,  they will  not  be  able  to  benefit  from  any  targeted  integration measures or information campaigns, unlike in some of the new countries of immigration in MIPEX. 

                                                            1 Macedonian State Statistical Office data for 2012, available at: http://www.stat.gov.mk/OblastOpsto_en.aspx?id=2 

2 United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2013). Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by Age and Sex (United Nations database, POP/DB/MIG/Stock/Rev.2013) 3 ibid 4 ibid 5 Ibid. 6 Ibid. 7 Ministry of Interior data for 2013 8 “Working permits for foreigners issued by the Agency for Employment of the Republic of Macedonia”, Agency for Employment of the Republic of Macedonia, <http://www.avrm.gov.mk/makedonski‐ns_article‐posreduvanje‐2012.nspx > (Please note: max number for 2013 set at 2600 permits http://www.slvesnik.com.mk/Issues/fdddb50633c744a692da7c698886ab27.pdf). 9 Ministry of Interior data for 2013 10 Refugees, residing in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.  UNHCR data for 2013, available at: http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e48d8f6.html 

 

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Opening labour market access in new countries of immigration

 The most recent MIPEX study found that many new immigration countries are increasingly opening equal access to the labour market to all legal temporary residents. The major countries of immigration in Southern Europe (Italy, Portugal, Spain) grant newcomers nearly equal opportunities to change jobs and careers, and equal access to general support. Poland in 2009 and Hungary in 2010 granted all non‐EU temporary residents the right to self‐employment. General and targeted support for migrant workers is already more favourable than average in several new immigration destinations, including Portugal, Spain, Estonia, and Romania.     

Conditions and procedure: from law to practice Many Central European countries create few  legal obstacles for non‐EU citizens to apply for family reunion,  but maintain  very  discretionary  procedures with many  grounds  for  authorities  to  reject them.  This  is  not  the  case  in  Poland,  where  the  law  contains  only  few  additional  grounds  for rejecting family reunion applications or withdrawing the status of family members (as in CA, IT, ES). AT,  NL  provide  entitlements  in  cases  of  death,  divorce,  separation  and  violence,  while  several countries  (e.g. FR, PT, ES, SE, NO, US) are working on clearer  residence autonomy  for all  families after a few years. Slovenia’s 2011 Aliens Law broadened the definition of the family to registered or co‐habitating partners, regardless of gender or sexual orientation.  Lithuania and the Czech Republic also use inclusive definitions, recognising registered partnerships.   

 

FAMILY REUNION 

 Reuniting family members in FYROM face as many obstacles as opportunities and miss out on key rights guaranteed  in other MIPEX countries under EU  law. Most of the non‐nationals  in FYROM have a  legal right to reunite with their families and can quickly apply for their nuclear family. However, they cannot reunite with their partners, since long‐term relationships and partnerships are not recognised. Meeting average housing and income requirements does not bring full security in their status, as permits can be denied or lost on a wide range of grounds – for example where the original conditions no longer apply. Even though rejected applicants have the right to a legal remedy in the case of refusal or withdrawal of status, only the solidity of the sponsor’s family relationship is taken into account, which is below the EU legal standards. As in most MIPEX countries, family members are entitled to the same employment and social benefits as their sponsor. However, they have  limited access to autonomous status, even  in the case of death of the sponsor or domestic violence, below the EU  legal standards and unlike traditional countries of immigration.  

      

 

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Adapting schools in recent countries of immigration

 

Estonia  provides  all  newcomer  pupils  with  compulsory,  continuous,  and  standardised  support  to  learn Estonian, as well as their own language and culture. Similarly in Czech law, language courses should be needs‐based, professionally taught, and regularly evaluated, while mother tongue and cultures should be available. Czech  teachers  can  integrate  multicultural  education  into  their  curriculum  through  state‐supported pedagogical materials and teacher trainings like the much‐used information portal (www.czechkid.cz). Slovakia also  recently  introduced  ‘multicultural  education’  into  its  curriculum  as  well  as  intercultural  education trainings for qualifying and working teachers.

EDUCATION 

 As  in  almost  all Balkan  countries,  the  education of  immigrant  children  in  FYROM  is unfavourable  for integration, scoring 10/100 ‐ way below the average for most Central and Eastern European countries. Positively, all children, irrespective of their legal status, enjoy equal access to compulsory education and to vocational training available for nationals, as in half of the MIPEX countries. However, children cannot benefit  from  any  integration  measures  for  their  specific  needs,  unlike  in  most  new  immigration countries in Southern and Central Europe. Macedonian schools are not prepared to meet the needs and opportunities that  immigrant students bring, and do not encourage their contribution to society, as  in most of the Balkan countries. Even though  intercultural education  is an official policy aim,  it  is  largely absent  from  the  curriculum  and  school  life.  Government  support  for  cultural  diversity  promotion depends on ad hoc funding and implementation of the few available measures  is mainly done through initiatives of NGOs and international organisations.     

 

 

POLITICAL PARTICIPATION 

Apart from the right to create media and become members of associations, foreigners in FYROM cannot participate in the democratic life in the country, as in several other new countries of immigration in the region  (Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, RO, BG). They cannot vote  in any elections, unlike  in half  of  the MIPEX  countries  or  even  join  political  parties,  unlike  in most  countries  of  immigration, including the Czech Republic, Estonia and Slovenia. The state does not encourage new communities to organise and represent their civic and political interests. They cannot influence the decisions that affect them because they cannot participate in the integration policy making through consultative bodies, as in several new countries of immigration (IE, ES, PT).   

 

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The participation of foreigners in public life at local level

 

Although policymakers increasingly list participation in public life as a key area of integration, opening political opportunities often  takes  time and  significant  reforms. New  immigration countries  in Central and Southern Europe have made progress. Several Central European countries have granted long‐term residents the right to vote  in  local elections  (Czech Republic  in 2001, Estonia and Slovenia  in 2002) and  to stand as candidates  in local  elections  (Lithuania  in  2002  and  Slovakia  in  2003).  Most  countries  have  used  the  new  European Integration Fund to support associations working on integration. Local and national authorities have started a dialogue and consultation with associations of foreign residents. Examples range from Portugal and Spain to Ireland, Greece,  Estonia,  Latvia,  and  Poland.  For  instance,  the  Spanish  Forum  for  the  Social  Integration  of Immigrants has an independent chair and issues opinions or reports on any drafts affecting social integration. The Forum has the right to prepare reports, plans, programs on request or own initiative, and to formulate its own proposals and  recommendations. Members  from  immigrant‐run associations participate extensively  in the preparation and discussion of  reports and  resolutions, and secure much government consensus around their recommendations.

An entitlement to long‐term residence 

 

EU Member  States agreed and  implemented  the  EC  long‐term  residence directive  (2003/109/EC), with  the common objective  that  the  integration of  long‐term  residents will  promote  economic  and  social  cohesion. Since  then,  several new  immigration  countries  introduced  the entitlement  to  long‐term  residence  for most temporary residents. For example, Portugal’s 2007 law opened long‐term residence to nearly all categories of legal residents and protected them from deportation anyone born in the country, living there since childhood, or  raising  their children  there. According  to  the ECHR case  law, expulsion decisions must  take  into account several of their life circumstances. 

 

 

LONG‐TERM RESIDENCE  To enjoy  indefinite residence rights and equal social and economic rights, migrants  in FYROM need to meet rather restrictive eligibility criteria and go through a costly procedure. Students, researchers and humanitarian migrants  in  FYROM  are  excluded  from  permanent  residence,  because  their  temporary permits will not be  considered  for  the 5‐year  residence  requirement. Moreover,  residence  time  as  a student or pupil is not counted, unlike most Central European and Balkan countries, and below the EU legal standards. However, the 5‐year permit brings only half‐way security to the successful applicants, since  it  can  be  refused  or  withdrawn  for  several  reasons,  including  an  absence  of  more  than  12 continuous months. Some personal circumstances will be considered before withdrawal, but this will not guarantee enhanced protection against expulsion (see countries like Italy, Portugal, Poland, Slovenia).   

  

 

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Accepting dual nationality and birthright citizenship

 

Dual nationality and some form of birthright citizenship are becoming the norm in most established countries of  immigration across Europe. The past decade has  seen  significant  reforms  in Germany, Belgium, Sweden, Finland, Portugal,  Luxembourg, and, until  recently, Greece.  Since  the  last edition of MIPEX  in 2010,  similar citizenship reform bills or laws have been introduced in Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Italy, and Poland.  For more, see http://eudo‐citizenship.eu 

ACCESS TO NATIONALITY   Immigrants  face  one  of  the  longest  and  most  discretionary  paths  to  citizenship,  including  the renunciation of their previous citizenship. To be eligible to apply for Macedonian nationality, foreigners in  FYROM must have 8  years of permanent  residence, which  can mean at  least 13  years  in practice. Applicants must then go through a costly (100 EUR) and discretionary procedure with no support. They can  still  be  refused  if  they  do  not  pass  a  criminal  record  requirement  and  cannot meet  the  vague language  and  economic  requirements.  For  example,  they  prove  their  knowledge  of  the Macedonian language by  filling  in a questionnaire, assessed on criteria which are not publicly available. They must give  up  their  previous  nationality,  unless  they  can  prove  that  their  country  of  origin  does  not  allow renunciation of citizenship or sets unreasonably high fees for renunciation, contrary to the trend in the majority of MIPEX countries (e.g. GR, HU, IT, RO, SK).  Furthermore, immigrants’ children are not entitled to Macedonian nationality at birth, as they would be in the majority of MIPEX countries.   

 

ANTI‐DISCRIMINATION 

 

In  FYROM,  anti‐discrimination  legislation  could  contribute  the  most  to  the  integration  of  future immigrants,  as  in  Serbia  and  other  Central  European  countries with  similar  laws.   Victims  of  ethnic, racial, religious and nationality discrimination can use slightly  favourable mechanisms  to enforce their rights  in all areas of  life but are not protected against discrimination by association or on the basis of assumed characteristics, and racial profiling. They can benefit from legal aid, interpretation, shifts in the burden of proof and alternative dispute resolution procedures. Victims can also  look  for support  from NGOs  and  from  the  country’s Commission  for Protection  against Discrimination, which  is  a  relatively strong equality body,  rating above  the MIPEX  average. However, procedures are  rather  long and  the equality body cannot make binding decisions and enforce findings, unlike equality bodies  in BG, HU. In addition, the state could do more to promote equality through social and civil society dialogue, equality duties, and compliance monitoring (see PT, ES). 

 

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Where are the strongest equality bodies in the region?

 

Bulgaria’s  Commission  for  Protection  Against  Discrimination,  Hungary’s  Equal  Treatment  Authority,  and Romania’s  National  Council  on  Combating  Discrimination,  offer  victims  independent  advice  and  can  issue binding appealable decisions. Romania’s Council  is an  independent administrative body with a  jurisdictional mandate. Hungary’s Authority also has the legal standing to intervene on behalf of the complainant, while also instigating  its  own  procedures,  although  only  against  certain  public  bodies.  In  the  policymaking  process, Bulgaria’s  Commission  can  submit  legally  binding  recommendations  to  the  parliament  and  government  to prepare bills and abolish discriminatory laws.