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Contents

1. Thinking About the Study of the Old Testament....................................................................3

2. The Book oF Genesis.............................................................................................................. 5

3. The Book of Exodus................................................................................................................7

4. The Book of Leviticus..............................................................................................................9

5. The Book of Numbers...........................................................................................................11

6. The Book of Deuteronomy...................................................................................................13

7. The Book of Joshua...............................................................................................................15

8. The Book of Joshua...............................................................................................................17

9. The Book of Ruth..................................................................................................................19

10. The Book of Samuel..............................................................................................................21

11. The Book of Kings.................................................................................................................23

12. The Book of Chronicles.........................................................................................................25

13. The Book of Ezra-Nehemiah.................................................................................................27

14. The Book of Esther............................................................................................................... 29EXCURSUS ON THEOLOGICAL HISTORY.............................................................................................31

15. The Book of Job....................................................................................................................32

16. The Book of Psalms.............................................................................................................. 34

17. The Book of Proverbs...........................................................................................................37

18. The Book of Ecclesiastes.......................................................................................................39

19. The Book of Song of Songs...................................................................................................41

20. The Book of Isaiah................................................................................................................43

21. The Book of Jeremiah...........................................................................................................45

22. The Book of Lamantations....................................................................................................47

23. The Book of Ezekiel.............................................................................................................. 49

24. The Book of Daniel............................................................................................................... 51

25. The Book of Hosea................................................................................................................53

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26. The Book of Joel................................................................................................................... 55

27. The Book of Amos................................................................................................................ 57

28. The Book of Obadiah............................................................................................................59

29. The Book of Jonah................................................................................................................61

30. The Book of Micah................................................................................................................63

31. The Book of Nahum..............................................................................................................65

32. The Book of Habakkuk..........................................................................................................67

33. The Book of Zephaniah.........................................................................................................69

34. The Book of Haggai...............................................................................................................71

35. The Book of Zechariah..........................................................................................................73

36. The Book of Malachi.............................................................................................................75

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chapter one

THINKING ABOUT THE STUDY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT

The study of the Old Testament can seem like a daunting challenge. Full of names, places, dates, and ideas that are completely foreign to the modern reader. Jumping into the lives of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob is much like a young Westerner sitting in the tent of a modern Bedouin. The experience can be unnerving and jarring, but ultimately hospitable and oddly heartwarming. One might even find themselves at home with a family not of their birth. Tremper Longman III seeks to act as your guide through this familiarly unfamiliar world by teaching you the cultural lingo, pointing you towards similar historical works, and theological underpinnings for the lives of those in the Old Testament. Each chapter seeks to answer these four questions:

1. Content: what is the book about?2. Authorship and Date: who wrote the book and when?3. Genre: what is the style of the book?4. Connections: how does the book anticipate the Gospel?

A short excursus will address the genre of theological history after the chapter on Esther. Genre types such as law, poetry, and wisdom will be addressed in relevant chapters. Check the end of each chapter for introductory, intermediate, and advanced resources.

Key Termstheological history The recording of history from perspectival and subjective retelling in

order to communicate theological truths about God's redemptive actions. A.K.A. Biblical Historiography.

content The substance or material dealt with in a book as distinct from its form or style, i.e. Joseph's journey to Egypt, David's battle with Goliath.

authorship Identifying the possible authors of specific content based on style, perspective, and literary evidence.

date Identifying possible dates of composition in order to determine the motivation and historical experiences known to the author.

genre A type of prose or poetry that is important for the reading and interpretive strategy of the text or story.

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connections Identifying Old Testament (OT) themes at work in the New Testament (NT)

Discussion/Reflection Questions

1. How does the study of the context of the Old Testament deepen our understanding and faith in Jesus?

2. Why do Christians tend to avoid the study of the Old Testament?3. Think about two or three of your favorite Old Testament Narratives or Psalms and think:

o Why are these stories important to me?o What do they teach me about the work of God in his plan of salvation?o How do they work within the framework of the Israelite people?o Are there curious details in the story that seemed to be overlooked by the

author?o When was this story written, and to whom, and for what purpose?

Further Reading

Introductory The NLT Study Bible. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House, 2008.The NIV Study Bible. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2011.

Intermediate Alexander, T. Desmond, and D. W. Baker, eds. Dictionary of the Pentateuch. Downers Grove, IL:

InterVarsity Press, 2003.Arnold, B., and H.G.M. Williamson, eds. Dictionary of the Historical Books. Downers Grove, IL:

InterVarsity Press, 2005.Boda, M., and G. McConville, eds. Dictionary of the Prophets. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity

Press, 2012.Longman III, T., and P. Enns, eds. Dictionary of Wisdom, Poetry, and Writings. Downers Grove,

IL: InterVarsity Press, 2008.

Advanced Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids:

Zondervan, 2006.

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chapter two

THE BOOK OF GENESIS

Genesis is the foundation story for the Old Testament and the greater biblical story set forth and culminated with the New Testament. Genesis teems with questions regarding how to understand the creation of the cosmos and humanity in Genesis 1–2; the departure from the garden and rebellion of humanity in Genesis 3; the various genealogies and stories set forth in Genesis 4–11; and then the focus on Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph in Genesis 12–50. There are many ideas set forth concerning the sources and composition of Genesis, but regardless of how a person understands the discrete stories, the final form evinces a unified foundation story for Israel.

Key TermsDocumentary Hypothesis

The observation and identification of four literary sources in the Pentateuch. This study was popularized by Julius Wellhausen in the late 19th century as J (Jahwist), E (Elohist), D (Deuteronomist), and P (Priestly) sources.

redactors The Jewish scribes who edited or put together sources and arranged the OT books.

Pentateuch The first five books of the OT (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy). Also known as the Torah or Book of Instruction.

primordial history Genesis 1–11. Composed of the stories of Creation, Fall, Flood, and Babel. Concerned with the general history of humanity and resembles other creation and flood narratives in the ancient Near East.

patriarchs The forefathers of Israel including: Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph. These narratives coincide with other ANE (Ancient Near East) nomadic cultures like Mari and Nuzi.

J Jahwist: Southern source dated to the 10th Century. Interested in the interactions between God and humanity and often anthropomorphizes God in an attempt to relate to humanity. Uses the term YHWH for the name of God.

E Elohist: Northern source dated to the 9th Century. Identifies God by the term Elohim

D Deuteronomist: Associated with Josiah's reforms in the 7th Century.

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Interested in issues of centralization and life in the promised land.

P Priestly: Post-Exilic source dated to the 5th or 4th century. Interested in genealogies, dates, laws, and purity.


1. How does Genesis relate to the rest of the Pentateuch?2. What does the creation story teach us about God, ourselves, and our world?3. How does the story of Abraham inform us about the nature of faith?4. What does the Joseph narrative tell us about the nature of divine providence?5. Who wrote the Pentateuch?6. Read Galatians 3:15-22 and see if you agree with the perspective offered in this chapter. 7. What were the promises given to Abraham? How were they fulfilled in the lives of his

children?8. What are some key stories where God shows his faithfulness despite his promises being

threatened?

Further Reading

Duguid, I. M. Living in the Gap between Promise and Reality: The Gospel according to Abraham. Phillipsburg, NJ: P and R Publishing, 1999.

______. Living in the Grip of Relentless Grace: The Gospel according to Isaac and Jacob. Phillipsburg, NJ: P and R Publishing, 2002.

Longman, T. How to Read Genesis. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2005.Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 38-62 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed. Grand

Rapids: Zondervan, 2006. Waltke, B. K. Genesis. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2001.Walton, J. H. “Genesis”. Pages 2-159 in ZIBBC 1. Edited by J. H. Walton. Grand Rapids:

Zondervan, 2009.

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chapter three

THE BOOK OF EXODUS

Exodus demonstrates that Yahweh is a rescuing and redeeming God for Israel. God’s deliverance of the Hebrew people from Egypt is a watershed experience that forms Israel’s identity. In addition to redeeming the people from slavery, God gave the people his instructions for how to maintain the covenant relationship. He also made Israel build a wilderness sanctuary in order to know and approach their redeeming God. Tradition attributes the book of Exodus to Moses; modern scholars grant varying degrees of responsibility to Moses as writer, but most acknowledge Moses as the source of the material found in Exodus. Throughout Exodus, God progressively reveals more of his person and character to Abraham's offspring and establishes his presence in their midst in the form of the tabernacle.

Key TermsTen Commandments The “ten words” or ten commandments given in Exodus 20:1-17.

Four concerning the relationship between God and humanity and six concerning human's relationship with one another.

book of the covenant

Legal codes given by Moses to Israel at Mount Sinai in Exodus 20:22–23:19. Concerned with covenant case law and expounds upon the ten commandments.

early 15th century exodus date

An exodus date proposal based on 1 Kings 6:1 and Judges 11:26 and archeological evidence from Qantir and Tell el-Retebah placing it around 1447 BC.

late 13th century exodus date

An exodus date proposal based on Exodus 1:11 and archaeological evidence from tell el-maskhouta and Tanis placing it around 1250 BC.

Sinai The mountain where Yahweh gave his legal and ritual covenant code to Israel via Moses.

tabernacle The dwelling of God while Israel wandered in the wilderness before the construction of the Temple under Solomon in 966 BC. Made up of concentric zones of holy places with starting with the Holy of Holies (most holy), the interior chamber, the courtyard, and the camp (least holy).

Sargon Birth Legend A Mesopotamian tale about Sargon the great who was cast into the river Euphrates as part of the 'river ordeal' in order to allow the gods to judge his worth. He survived the ordeal and was raised by a man

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who was not his father. Story serves as a cultural parallel to Moses' ordeal in the Nile.

"command-fulfillment" pattern

The pattern exemplified in the construction of the tabernacle. First the command is given to construct and then the story explains how the command was carried out.


1. How does the exodus event, and in particular the crossing of the sea, demonstrate God’s glory (Exod. 14:4, 31)?

2. What is the relationship between the Ten Commandments and the case law? Give some examples.

3. How does the tabernacle represent God’s presence? 4. Is the historicity of the exodus event important? Why or why not?5. How do the Gospel stories relate Jesus to the exodus? What significance does such a

connection have? 6. What are some ways that the exodus event has shaped modern cultural values,

literature, and songs?7. How does God’s faithfulness to the Israelite people transcend the exodus event?8. Is the law given to Israel as an expectation or a means of grace? 9. What elements of the Law given in Exodus reveal God’s hope for restored humanity?

Further Reading

Enns P. Exodus. NIVAC. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000.Hoffmeier, J. K. Israel in Egypt: The evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition.

Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.Longman, T. How to Read Exodus. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2009.Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 63-80 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed. Grand

Rapids: Zondervan, 2006. Wells, B. “Exodus”. Pages 160-283 in ZIBBC 1. Edited by J. H. Walton. Grand Rapids: Zondervan,

2009.

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chapter four

THE BOOK OF LEVITICUS

Leviticus picks up where Exodus left off in the narrative of Israel's journey. The book prescribes the procedures for liturgical worship and the regulations for holiness in the community, concluding with the establishment of the covenant between Yahweh and Israel. Despite the heavy emphasis on law, the book maintains narrative unity with the rest of the Pentateuch. Holiness is a central theme of Leviticus. When applied to God, this concept denotes God's separation from his creation; when applied to God's creatures, the concept indicates something that has been set apart for God's service. The purpose of the sacrificial system was to allow the people to worship God and to maintain his presence in their midst. Small infractions meant the difference between life and death, because disobedience meant the dissolution of the community.

Key TermsHoliness Code A section on ritual laws and festivals that Israel followed for vertical

(with God) and horizontal (with neighbors) covenant relationship (Lev 17-27).

five offerings The offering types for Israel to maintain and restore covenant relationship with Yahweh (i.e., burnt, grain, fellowship, sin, and guilt offerings).

burnt offering Chapter 1: worshiper identifies with animal by placing their hands on the animal's head and offers it as an atonement for their sin. Cattle, sheep, or birds were required based on economic ability

grain offering Chapter 2: from the Hebrew minha meaning gift or tribute. To be offered with grain, incense, and salt.

fellowship offering Chapter 3: also translated as a peace offering. Represents reconciliation between humanity and God and among one's neighbors.

sin offering 4:1–5:13 Offering given on behalf of unintentional sins.

guilt offering 6:24-30 Offering given in violation of 'any of the LORD's holy things' and required an extra 20% to the offering.

Day of Atonement The annual festival in Leviticus 16 that removed all of Israel’s sins

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before Yahweh. It falls on the tenth day of Tishrei, which is usually in September.

ritual purity The way that Yahweh designated the transference of clean and unclean people, animals, and objects. Ritual purity was essential to stay in covenant relationship.


1. What purpose did sacrifices serve in Israel?o What relevance do they have for Christian readers?

2. What function(s) did priests serve during the time of the Old Testament?o Are there priests today? Why or why not?

3. Why were Israelites to observe the Day of Atonement?4. Why don’t Christians worry about ritual purity?5. Why would God have commanded the Israelite people, specifically the priests, to abide

by so many laws?o What were they separating themselves from?o What connection do the laws have with life and death?o What was Israel’s greatest threat to monotheism?

Further Reading

Gane, R. Leviticus, Numbers. NIVAC. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2004.______. “Leviticus.”. Pages 284-337 in ZIBBC 1. Edited by J. H. Walton. Grand Rapids:

Zondervan, 2009.Hartley, J. E. Leviticus. WBC. Nashville: Word, 1992.Hess, R. S. “Leviticus.” Pages 586-826 in Genesis-Leviticus. EBC-R 1. Edited by T. Longman and D.

E. Garland. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2008.Longman, T. Immanuel in Our Place: Seeing Christ in Israel’s Worship. Phillipsburg, NJ: P and R

Publishing, 2001.Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 81-91 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed. Grand

Rapids: Zondervan, 2006.

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chapter five

THE BOOK OF NUMBERS

The purpose of the book of Numbers is to extol the patience and faithfulness of Yahweh and to further explicate the nature of his covenant with Israel. Though holiness dominates the portrayal of God, other aspects of God's character also emerge in his interactions with his people. Numbers explains how the people came to enter Canaan after their flight from Egypt and sojourn at Sinai, and records the early history of God's covenant with the people after he forms them into a community. The book also serves as a warning to future generations as it records the tragic consequences of rebellion and disobedience against God.

Key TermsBalaam A non-Israelite prophet hired to prophecy against Israel, but God uses

him to prophecy blessings on Israel. Extra-biblical evidence found at 'Alla, Jordan in the mid 8th to 7th century identifies Balaam as a 'seer of the gods.'

geographical structure

Milgrom's structure based on three places or settings: Sinai 1:1–10:10, Kadesh 10:11–20:13, and the plains of Moab 20:14–36:13.

thematic structure Olson’s structure based on two themes: counting, travels, and judgments of the first generation 1–25 and successes and counting of the New Generation 26–35.


1. What period of time does Numbers encompass?2. What is the relationship between Numbers 1 and 26, and how do they relate to the

major theme of the book?3. What is the importance of the spy narrative (chaps. 13-14) to the message of the book?4. How do the series of stories about Balaam testify to God’s providence? 5. How does God show his righteousness throughout the book of Numbers in light of his

promises to the people of Israel as well as in their constant grumbling?6. What are the possible reasons why the people would be prone to rebellion and dissent

against Mosaic leadership?7. What was Moses’ sin in chapter 20?

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Further Reading

Cole, R.D. Numbers. NAC. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 2001.______. “Numbers.” Pages 338-417 in ZIBBC 1. Edited by J. H. Walton. Grand Rapids:

Zondervan, 2009.Gane, R. Leviticus, Numbers. NIVAC. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2004.Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 92-101 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed.

Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006. Olson, D. T. Numbers. Interp. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1996______. The Death of the Old and the Birth of the New: The Framework of the Book of Numbers

and the Pentateuch. BJS 71. Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1985.

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chapter six

THE BOOK OF DEUTERONOMY

Deuteronomy is presented as Moses' final address to the Israelites before his death, reminding them of the experiences of the previous generation and providing them with the opportunity to renew the covenant. Deuteronomy formalizes and clarifies the covenant between Israel and Yahweh, giving the second-generation opportunity to renew the covenant before they enter the land. The primary theme of the book is summarized in the Shema, which exhorts the people to follow and serve the one Lord with their hearts, as one people. Deuteronomy serves as a guide stone in the Old Testament. The former covenants with Adam, Noah, and Abraham look forward to this covenant and the Davidic covenant is based on the fact that God chose the people of Israel and out of that people he chose the house of David to lead them. This covenant is threatened by Israel’s infidelity and outside threats, but God chooses to fulfill his covenant with his people by bringing them out of exile and giving them a Messiah out of the line of David and one like Moses, Jesus of Nazareth.

Key Termscovenant treaty A legal (often conditional) agreement between a suzerain lord and

vassal people.

historical prologue Section of a covenant treaty that details the accomplishments of the superior party and demonstrates their ability and right to govern.

suzerain The party who makes the covenant obligations.

vassal The party who follows covenant obligations.

centralization The expectation that Yahweh will choose Jerusalem as the place for his temple. There is some tension between the portable ark of the covenant and permanent Jerusalem Temple shrines.

herem Holy war stipulation that governs how plunder is supposed to be dispersed. God is the sole recipient of any goods acquired in a war governed by herem.

Hittite covenant treaty

Second Millennium treaty style developed by the Hittites located in Syria-Anatolia, modern day Turkey.

Assyrian covenant First Millennium treaty style modeled after Esarhaddon’s treaty

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treaty located in Assyria, modern day Syria-Iraq.


1. What does the name “Deuteronomy” mean, and how does that name reflect the contents of the book?

2. What are some of the laws of Deuteronomy that exert a strong influence on later Scripture?

3. How do the themes of life and death in Deuteronomy bring closure to the story began in Genesis 1–3?

4. List the implications of the treaty nature of the covenant.5. What role do witnesses play in the book?6. What role does covenant play in the developing theology of the Old and New

Testaments?7. What is the hope for kingship as displayed in chapter 17?8. When considering Dt. 6–9, what is Israel’s righteousness?

Further Reading

Carpenter, E. E. “Deuteronomy.” Pages 418-547 in ZIBBC 1. Edited by J. H. Walton. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009.

Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 101-119 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006.

Kline, M. G. Treaty of the Great King. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1963.McConville, J. Deuteronomy. Apollos. Leicester, UK: InterVarsity Press, 2002.

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chapter seven

THE BOOK OF JOSHUA

Joshua's purpose is to reveal the role of God in keeping his covenant promises to Abraham by giving the land to Israel. The book describes the Israelites' entrance into the land, the commissioning of Joshua, and the conquest narratives, then details the territorial boundaries of the tribes and narrates the renewal of the covenant. Joshua only comes into conflict with the major coalitions of the land and two of those meetings were on the open battlefield. Therefore, the fact that the conquest was incomplete or that the archeological data is complex only shows that Joshua’s initial invasion was not all encompassing, but rather a broad defeat of the major powers already in the land. Though we cannot be sure of exact dates, the events of Joshua probably took place after the Hyksos were expelled from Egypt and before the Sea Peoples invaded Palestine. Historical reconstruction presents Egypt as the dominant but distant power in Palestine during the time of Joshua, primarily concerned with protecting military outposts and trade routes.

Key Termsearly conquest date Related to the early exodus date of 1446 BC and Israel’s entrance into

Canaan.

late conquest date Related to the late exodus date of 1250 BC and Israel’s entrance into Canaan.

minimalist rejection model

Advanced by minimalists that Israel did not exist until the Persian period, and the exodus is a literary and theological invention.

Immigration model Israel peacefully immigrated to Canaan and built settlements in sparsely populated areas.

peasant revolt model

Israel revolted against their laborers in Canaan and took control for settlement.

Collapse model Israel took over and settled in the highlands of Canaan during the Late Bronze Age collapse.

cyclic model Israel emerged as a nomadic people in the central highlands of Canaan.

holy war The divine command to Joshua and Israel to remove the foreign

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nations from Canaan.

land An important covenant theme of conquest and settlement in Deuteronomy and Joshua.

rest The hope that covenant with Yahweh in the land of Canaan would provide rest for Israel.


1. How does Joshua relate to the end of the book of Deuteronomy?2. Summarize the contents of the two major parts of Joshua.3. Why were the Israelites circumcised, and why did they celebrate Passover as soon as

they crossed into the Promised Land?4. What lessons was the later Israel to learn from the battle reports of Jericho and Ai and

the Gibeon narrative?5. What do we know about the authorship and date of Joshua?6. Is Joshua historically accurate?7. Describe the biblical picture of God as warrior. Can you think of other places in the Bible

not mentioned in this chapter where God is described as acting as a warrior?

Further Reading

Gundry, S., Ed. Show Them No Mercy: Four Views on God and the Canaanite Genocide. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2003.

Hess, R. S. Joshua. TOTC. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1996. ______. “Joshua.” Pages 2-93 in ZIBBC 2. Edited by J. H. Walton. Grand Rapids: Zondervan,

2009.Longman, T., and D. Reid. God is a Warrior. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1995.Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 120-132 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed.

Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009. Provan, I., V.P. Long, and T. Longman A Biblical History of Israel. Louisvill, KY: Westminster John

Knox, 2003. Woudstra, M. The Book of Joshua. NICOT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1981.

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chapter eight

THE BOOK OF JUDGES

The purpose of Judges is to explain the theological significance of the events between Joshua and David. The recurring disobedience and apostasy of the Israelites under the tribal leadership brings them under God's punishment (in enslavement) and subsequent mercy (in deliverance). The book demonstrates that the people need a king, not merely to lead them in battle, but to lead them in covenant faithfulness. The judges were raised up by God to deliver the Israelites, but the book specifies very little of their role apart from military leadership. The Spirit of the Lord plays a prominent role in the book, at times granting authority to the judges and empowering them for their tasks.

Key Termsjudges (major and minor)

Military and political figures who were regional leaders among the Israelite tribes.

literary cyclical (or downward) spiral

The literary storyline of Judges that escalates and intensifies the idea that Israel “did what was right in his own eyes.”

Deuteronomist Noth’s suggestion that an editor arranged the material from Joshua to Kings during the exile.

Otheniel The ideal judge that God raises up and invests his spirit. He is an able warrior and brings peace to the land.

Ehud Not raised up by God, left handed and probably from Benjamin, he does not judge Israel, and he delivers Israel through deceit and treachery.

Deborah Her saga is one of male failure and female success, which may be a condemnation of Israelite leadership. Victory is not bought about by military defeat, but rather through deception.

Gideon Gideon’s story is one of cowardice, failure to trust, and idolatry. Though he had done much good for the people of Israel and delivered them through faithfulness to YHWH and destroyed the Baal and Asherah shrines he still ends in failure. He keeps an army in reserve, sets up his own idol, has seventy sons, and one of them, Abimelek, tries to oppress the people by becoming king.

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Jephthah Jephthah’s rash vow ends up costing him his own daughter.

Samson Samson’s life was riddled with self-indulgence, selfishness, pranks, and all sorts of sexual escapades. His story is one parallel to that of Israel. He was more successful in delivering his people in his death.


1. The chapter describes the period of the judges as a time of moral depravity, spiritual confusion, and political fragmentation. Give examples.

2. What does the book of Judges say about kingship?3. What is the pattern used to describe the judges? Read the Jephthah story and identify

the pattern in this narrative.4. When was Judges written? How does its purpose fit in with its date?5. What is the role of women in the book of Judges?6. Are the Judges restricted to righteous men and women, or does God use flawed

individuals to fulfill his purposes?7. How does the book of Judges anticipate Christ?

Further Reading

Block, D. I. Judges. NAC. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 2002. ______. "Judges” Pages 94-241 in ZIBBC 2. Edited by J. H. Walton. Grand Rapids: Zondervan,

2009.Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 133-143 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed.

Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009. Younger, L. Judges, Ruth. NIVAC. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002.

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chapter nine

THE BOOK OF RUTH

The book of Ruth explains how, in the midst of apostasy and disobedience, covenant faithfulness could remain and be passed on to one such as David through his ancestors. We see God's hand of preservation upon those who were obedient, and his loyalty to the covenant. Two practices built into Israelite society were designed to preserve family and land, the backbones of the covenant: the kinsman-redeemer and land redemption. Both of these practices feature prominently in the book of Ruth. The covenant loyalty of the individuals in the book mirror and express God's own covenant faithfulness.

Key Termshesed Translated as loving-kindness, faithfulness, but essentially entails

covenant faithfulness.

go’elKinsman redeemer: the nearest family member of a deceased husband was to marry his wife in order to bear him a son and redeem his land for that son. This was to ensure that widows were taken care of in their youth and their old age.


1. What ancient customs are important to know to understand the plot of Ruth? How do they factor into the story?

2. What role does divine providence play in the book of Ruth?3. What do we learn about God from the book?4. In light of later developments in Israelite history, how does the book of Ruth combat

later Jewish antagonism towards Gentiles?5. How does the story of Ruth connect with King David?6. How does the story of Ruth connect with Christ?

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Further Reading

Block, D. I. Ruth. NAC. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 2002. Bush, F. Ruth, Esther. WBC. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1996. Hals, R.M. The Theology of the Book of Ruth. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1969. Hubbard, Jr., R.L. The Book of Ruth. NICOT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988.Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 144-150 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed.

Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009. Manor, D.W. "Ruth” Pages 242-265 in ZIBBC 2. Edited by J. H. Walton. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009.Ulrich, D. R. From Famine to Fullness: The Gospel according to Ruth. Phillipsburg, NJ: P and R

Publishing, 2007. Younger, L. Judges, Ruth. NIVAC. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002.

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chapter ten

THE BOOK OF SAMUEL

The purpose of the Book of Samuel is to record the history of the Davidic covenant. The book introduces Samuel as the one who brings about the transition from the judges to the kings. Also marking this transition is the self-imposed exile of Yahweh, who abandons Israel because of her apostasy. The people's desire to establish a king demonstrates a further rejection of God; from the beginning, the people misunderstand the function of the human king, who was intended to represent the divine king, Yahweh. The first king, Saul, acts much like the judges of the previous age––providing temporary deliverance to the people from their enemies. His failure results from lack of spiritual depth and sound judgment. In the transition from Saul to David, the author is careful to avoid any implication of fault in David. The author intends to legitimize David's claim to the throne, but he does not conceal David's blameworthy actions. David's success as king is crowned by his retrieval of the ark of the covenant, the establishment of Yahweh's throne in Jerusalem, and the formation of the Davidic covenant.

Key Termsark narrative Material in 1 Samuel 4–6 recounting the ark movement to Jerusalem

that was probably a source for the Samuel editor.

period of the Judges 11th Century

rise of the monarchy Early 10th Century

fall of southern kingdom

597-586 BC

Eli High Priest whose sons’ leadership led to the capture of the ark by the Philistines.

Samuel Last of the Judges and first of the early Prophets.

Saul First Israelite king, chosen by the people of Israel by lot.

David First of a dynasty of kings, chosen by God.


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1. 1 Samuel 1–7 describes the end of the period of judges. How do these chapters compare with the picture given of the same time period in the book of Judges?

o In the book of Ruth?2. Is kingship a divinely authorized institution?

o How should the human king relate to God, the Divine King?3. Compare Saul and David as people and as Kings. 4. What are the consequences of David’s sin with Bathsheba?5. What is the purpose of the book of Samuel in the light of its connection with Kings and

the time of its final composition?6. How is the Davidic covenant fulfilled in the New Testament?

o In 2 Samuel 7?

Further Reading

Boda, M. J. After God’s Own Heart: The Gospel according to David. Phillipsburg, NJ: P and R Publishing, 2007.

Borgman, P. David, Saul and God. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.Gordan, V. P. 1 and 2 Samuel. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1988.Long, V. P. “1 Samuel” Pages 266-411 in ZIBBC 2. Edited by J. H. Walton. Grand Rapids:

Zondervan, 2009.________. “2 Samuel” Pages 412-491 in ZIBBC 2. Edited by J. H. Walton. Grand Rapids:

Zondervan, 2009.Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 151-166 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed.

Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009. Provan, I., V.P. Long, and T. Longman A Biblical History of Israel. Louisville, KY: Westminster

John Knox, 2003.

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chapter eleven

THE BOOK OF KINGS

The books of 1 and 2 Kings surveys the history of Israel from the united empire under Solomon to the split of the monarchy under Rehoboam and records the political and religious occurrences of the divided kingdoms until their end. The Israelite kingdom suffered from great political instability and spiritual apostasy. By comparison, the southern kingdom of Judah enjoyed relative political and spiritual stability and lasted about 150 years longer. The greater success of the southern kingdom is tied to the legitimacy of the Davidic dynasty, through which God intended to establish eternal kingship in Israel. Kings functions as a record of the covenantal failures of the Israelite kings and priests, who led the people into spiritual apostasy. Prophets functioned as divinely appointed messengers to guide the conscience of those in power. Disobedience resulted in the judgment of God on the entire nation. In contrast, obedience invited God's blessing. The narratives reveal the dynamic interaction between God's sovereign stewardship of the covenant and the reality of freedom and accountability in the recipients of the covenant. Thus, Kings functions as both a word of exhortation and of warning to the audience.

Key Termsthe law of centralization According to Deuteronomy 12, worship in Israel was to be

observed in the place where God set his name to dwell.

law of prophets According to Deuteronomy 13:1-5; 18:14-22, prophets were to speak the Word of God and all their words would come to pass.

law of kingship According to Deut. 17:14-20, kings were to be pious and just, avoiding wealth, women, and horses.

Jeroboam One of Solomon’s advisors, who fled to Egypt and later led the Northern Kingdom to rebel against Rehoboam.

Rehoboam First king of the Southern kingdom. Under his oppression the kingdom of Israel was divided in 920 BC.

Hezekiah First of the ‘good’ kings to centralize worship and destroy the high places. Reigned during the fall of Samaria.

Josiah The last ‘good’ king of the South. Instituted centralization

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of worship, renewed Torah observance, destroyed the high places, killed false prophets and mediums, and celebrated Passover.

Jehoiakim/Jehoiachin/Zedekiah The three successions of kings in Judah to experience the exile to Babylon.

fall of the northern kingdom Samaria fell to Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria in 722 BC.

fall of the southern kingdom Jerusalem fell to Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon in 597 and 585/6 BC


1. What is the nature of the differences between Kings and Chronicles?2. What contemporary issues is the author of the book of Kings addressing?3. What strategy does the author of the book of Kings use to answer the questions raised

by the situation at the time the book was completed?4. What is the law of centralization?

o How does it help shape the book of Kings?

Further Reading

Brueggemann, W. 1 and 2 Kings. SHBC. Macon, GA: Smyth and Helwys, 2000. Dillard, R. B. Faith in the Face of Apostasy: The Gospel according to Elijah and Elisha.

Phillipsburg, NJ: P and R Publishing, 1999.Konkel, A. H. 1 and 2 Kings. NIVAC. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006.Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 167-189 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed.

Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009. Monson, J. “1 Kings” Pages 2-109 in ZIBBC 3. Edited by J. H. Walton. Grand Rapids: Zondervan,

2009.Provan, I. 1 and 2 Kings. NIBCOT. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1995. ________. “2 Kings” Pages 110-219 in ZIBBC 3. Edited by J. H. Walton. Grand Rapids:

Zondervan, 2009.

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chapter twelve

THE BOOK OF CHRONICLES

Chronicles covers the historical period from the close of Saul's reign to the Babylonian captivity of Judah. The chronicler writes this work as a "theology of hope," looking forward to future restoration in the midst of present distress. His message focuses on the role of the united monarchy under David and Solomon in establishing and maintaining the temple in Jerusalem. He explains that Israel has brought the covenant curses upon herself by her disobedience and that Israel could only be restored by imitating the model of the faithful Jerusalem of the past.

Key Termsimmediate retribution

Found in Chronicles; the consequences of evil actions are met with immediate divine punishment upon the individual responsible rather than a distant descendant.

delayed retribution Found in Kings; the consequences of evil actions are met out in the exile of Israel from the land after the time of those who performed said actions.

Chronicler The postexilic writer of Chronicles who used earlier sources and was formative for Second Temple Judaism.

schism The division of monarchy and kingdom between northern Israel and southern Judah around 922 BC.

Cyrus Decree Permitted the Jews to return from their exile in Babylon.

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1. In what ways does the history in the book of Chronicles differ from that in Kings?2. How does the date of the composition of the book of Chronicles affect the shape of its

presentation in history?3. Why does the book of Chronicles devote so much attention to the construction of the

temple?4. What purpose do the genealogies in 1 Chronicles 1–9 serve? 5. Why does the book of Chronicles emphasize immediate retribution?

Further Reading

Dillard, R. B. 2 Chronicles WBC. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1987.Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 190-201 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed.

Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009. Mabie, F. J. and S. Sherwin “1 Chronicles” Pages 220-285 in ZIBBC 3. Edited by J. H. Walton.

Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009.Mabie, F. J. “2 Chronicles” Pages 286-393 in ZIBBC 3. Edited by J. H. Walton. Grand Rapids:

Zondervan, 2009.Williamson, H. G. M. 1 and 2 Chronicles. NCB. London: Marshall, Morgan, and Scott, 1982.

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chapter thirteen

THE BOOK OF EZRA-NEHEMIAH

Ezra and Nehemiah both ministered to Jerusalem during the postexilic period. The priest-scribe Ezra oversaw the religious revival of the postexilic community, while Nehemiah oversaw the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s wall. Both came from positions in the Persian royal court to minister in Palestine. Ezra and Nehemiah were originally a single composition of an anonymous postexilic chronicler. The chronicler's theological interests include the covenant renewal with the restoration community, the rebuilding and rededication of the Jerusalem temple, the continuity of the pre and postexilic Israel, and the legitimacy of the postexilic community as God's people. Rather than inspiring hope in the people, the new temple only reminded them of glory lost and expectations unfulfilled. The community was threatened externally by hostile neighbors and internally by apathy and decay. Against this backdrop, Ezra and Nehemiah instituted their reforms. The accounts emphasize the covenant renewal of the postexilic community, reminding the people that God's faithfulness in the past represents his plan in their present and future.

Key Termsmemoir The literary genre of the Ezra-Nehemiah complex.

Artaxerxes I The Persian king in the middle of the 5th century who possibly sent Ezra as a religious and civil legate to Jerusalem.

Cyrus Decree The alleged royal mandate by Cyrus the Great in 538 BC allowing the Jews to return to Judah and to rebuild the temple.

Sheshbazzar and Zerubbabel

The first leaders to return from the Exile in 539 BC, Zerubbabel is of the line of David.

Cyrus Cylinder Artifact written in Aramaic describing Cyrus’ victory over Babylon and outlining his gracious imperial policy of reconciliation. He allowed people to go to their homelands, worship their own gods, and live by their own laws in exchange for taxes and military assistance.

Ezra Arrived in Jerusalem in 458 BC after being commissioned by Artaxerxes to restore the Law in Jerusalem.

Nehemiah Arrived in Jerusalem in 445 BC after being commissioned by Artaxerxes to govern the province of Judah and rebuild her walls. Possibly as a defense against the Greco-Egyptian coalition.

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1. What is the Genre of Ezra-Nehemiah? Is there anything unique about its constituent parts?

2. Compare and contrast the leadership styles, roles, and achievements of Ezra and Nehemiah.

3. Who is Zerubbabel? When did he live, and what did he accomplish?4. How did God use the Persians in his plans for Judah during this time period?5. How does the book end, and what is the significance of the ending?6. Nehemiah’s reforms put a barrier between Jews and Gentiles that would not be

overcome until the time of Paul and the rise of the church. Why would Nehemiah want to forbid the Israelites from marrying foreign women?

Further Reading

Green, D. “Ezra-Nehemiah.” Pages 206-215 in A Complete Literary Guide to the Bible. Edited by L. Ryken and T. Longman. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993


McConville, J. G. Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther. DSB. Louisville, KY: Westminster Press, 1985. Yamauchi, E. M. Persia and the Bible. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1990.________. “Ezra and Nehemiah” Pages 394-467 in ZIBBC 3. Edited by J. H. Walton. Grand

Rapids: Zondervan, 2009.

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chapter fourteen

THE BOOK OF ESTHER

Much controversy surrounds the book of Esther, including questions of canonicity, genre, historicity, and authorship. The book is set during the reign of Xerxes I (Ahasueras), reigning during the 5th century BC. The plot and message of Esther are structured around the technique of reversal, which is heightened by irony. The text is read annually at the celebration of Purim, which commemorates the deliverance of the Jews recorded in the book and also establishes its celebration. The events of the book imply that God's display of power is designed to confirm the people in their faith, rather than witness to the surrounding world, which has already observed God's revelation through Israel.

Key TermsMordecai Jewish official, cousin of Esther, responsible for foiling an

assassination attempt against the Persian king and rescuing the Jewish people. From the line of Kish of the tribe of Benjamin, the same as king Saul.

Haman Amalekite official serving in the Persian court. He is from the line of Agag, the king whom Saul failed to kill. The feud between Saul and Agag seems to be resolved in the foiling of Haman’s plans to kill the Israelites.

Herodotus Greek historian who wrote concerning the court life of the Persian kings.

diaspora The regions outside Palestine where Jews were either exiled to or chose to live.

Purim Jewish holiday on the 14th/15th of Adar (Feb/Mar) commemorating the victory over the Persians in the book of Esther.

irony A literary device used when a particular action results in the opposite of an expected result.

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1. What is the significance of Mordecai’s relationship to Saul and Haman’s to Agag?2. What role do banquets play in the plot of Esther?3. Name the ironic reversals in the book of Esther.4. Who is the hero of the book of Esther?

o Why do you think so?5. What role does God play in the book?6. How does the book of Esther illuminate the life of Jews living under Persian occupation?

Further Reading

Bush, R. W. Ruth, Esther. WBC. Dallas: Word, 1996.Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 213-223 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed.

Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009. Jobes, K. Esther. NIVAC. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1999.Tomasino, A. “Esther” Pages 468-505 in ZIBBC 3. Edited by J. H. Walton. Grand Rapids:

Zondervan, 2009.

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EXCURSUS ON THEOLOGICAL HISTORY

Longman uses the term ‘theological history’ to refer to the type of history that is communicated in the Bible. All history is subjective, whether that subject is economy, warfare, politics, or language. Though the biblical text is interested in those things, it does not focus on them, nor should it. Historians cannot write about every single event that happens, instead they choose to focus on those events which communicate the history of the people. In the case of Israel, its history is entirely defined by their relationship with their God. Thus, the history of Israel is ultimately theological, interpreting events and catastrophes in light of Israel’s obedience or apostasy.


1. What is a theological history?2. What are the implications of reading the historical books with the insight that they are

trying to communicate theological truths to their audience?

Further Reading

Long, V. P. The Art of Biblical History. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1994.Longman, T. “History and History Writing” In Hearing the Old Testament. Edited by C.

Bartholomew and D. Beldman. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012. Provan, I., V.P. Long, and T. Longman A Biblical History of Israel. Louisville, KY: Westminster

John Knox, 2003.

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chapter fifteen

THE BOOK OF JOB

The book of Job seeks to discover God's policies concerning justice, specifically regarding his treatment of the righteous: does God's pattern of blessing the righteous interfere with their actual development of righteousness? The book of Job serves to vindicate God's policies as the author establishes and maintains Job's innocence. God's justice is maintained through his wisdom by which he orchestrates the events of the world. The book of Job confirms that God tends to act according to the retribution principle, but cautions that it cannot address the issue of causation. The book also affirms the divine attributes of wisdom, justice, and sovereignty.

Key Termsdialogue cycles Three cycles of dialogue occur between Job and his three friends.

retribution theology If you sin, then you suffer. Likewise, if you suffer, then you have sinned.

wisdom debate The genre of the book of Job. This addresses both the form and function of the book more accurately than theodicy or tragedy.

Accuser This is what the name “Satan” refers to. Though often associated with the fallen angel, here the character is one that brings an accusation against Job, which God chooses to allow Job to defend.

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1. What viewpoint does Job adopt about his suffering?o How about the three friends?o How about Elihu?o How about God?

2. With which character of the book should we associate its message?3. What is the main theme of the book?

o What contribution does the book make to that theme?4. What do we learn about suffering in the book of Job?5. What is retribution theology, and how does the book of Job contribute to the biblical

view on it?6. Compare and contrast Job and Jesus.

Further Reading

Jackson, D. R. Crying Out for Vindication: The Gospel according to Job. Phillipsburg, NJ: P and R Publishing, 2007.

Longman, T. Job. BCOTWP. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2012. Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 224-236 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed.

Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009.Seow, L. Job. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2013.Zerafa, P. P. The Wisdom of God in the Book of Job. Rome: Herder, 1978.

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chapter sixteen

THE BOOK OF PSALMS

The book of Psalms is divided into five books; close examination of the individual books reveals a purposeful arrangement intended to convey a message. The book was probably compiled in stages over a long period of time. The purpose and message of Psalms can be addressed at the level of the individual author and of the editor/redactor. Many of the psalms were probably written for liturgical use, others in response to historic circumstances, and others as private reflection. Most of the psalms can be classified as praise, lament, or thanksgiving, based on typical characteristics and a consistent format. Though we can observe some similarities between Israelite and Mesopotamian praise and lament, usually involving content and literary style, we also notice distinct differences, involving differing views of God and appropriate modes of worship.

Key Termsdoxology A song of praise, which closes a psalm or book.

brevity Is achieved by the spare use of conjunctions and direct object markers.

parallelism The colons within stanzas that intensify, sharpen, or further the thought of the first colon.

imagery Imagery is created by comparison, some explicit (simile) and some implicit (metaphor).

acrostic In an acrostic, the poet would begin each successive unit of poetry with a word that begins with a successive letter of the Hebrew alphabet.

hymns Hymns rejoice in the relationship of the author with their God and others.

laments Laments have the tone of anger, disappointment, fear, doubt, or shame.

thanksgiving When God hears and responds to a lament and rescues the psalmist from trouble, the psalmist responds with a thanksgiving psalm, which remembers the previous lament and gives thanks for its resolution.

remembrance They rehearse God’s mighty acts in the past in order to evoke praise form God’s people and inspire them with confidence and hope.

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confidence Recognized by their tone of quiet trust in God. They are typically brief and have a striking metaphor that supports the emotional quality of the song.

wisdom Poems that are concerned with the law.

kingship Psalms who’s content speaks of a king: either the human king or the divine king.

Baal Northwest Semitic deity in the Levant and sometimes recognized by Israelites.


1. What is the significance of the division of the book of Psalms into five books?2. How does the lack of historical events in the psalms enable later worshipers to use the

psalms as a “mirror of the soul”?3. Martin Luther called the book of Psalms a “fair pleasure garden.” What do you think he

meant by this?4. Read Psalm 110. How do you think this psalm was read after the coming of Christ? 5. What are the characteristics of Hebrew poetry?6. Look at Psalm 2:1-6 and discuss the parallelism.7. Read Psalm 130 and discuss its genre.

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Further Reading

Allender, D., and T. Longman. Cry of the Soul. Colorado Springs: NavPress, 1994. Broyles, C. Psalms. NIBCOT. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1999. Brueggemann, W. The message of the Psalms. Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1984.Firth, D., and P.S. Johnston, eds. Interpreting the Psalms: Issues and Approaches. Downers

Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2005.Goldingay, J. Psalms 1-41. BCOTWP. Grand Rapids Baker, 2006. _________. Psalms 42-89. BCOTWP. Grand Rapids Baker, 2007._________. Psalms 90-150. BCOTWP. Grand Rapids Baker, 2008.Kinder, D. Psalms. TOTC. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1973. Longman, T. How to Read the Psalms. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1987.Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 237-264 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed.

Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009. Miller, Jr., P. D. Interpreting the Psalms. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1986. Wilson, G. H. Psalms. Vol. 1. NIVAC Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002.

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chapter seventeen

THE BOOK OF PROVERBS

The purpose of Proverbs is to preserve wisdom for succeeding generations. The book is divided into discourse, collections of proverbs, and appendices, though these writings are not arranged systematically. Hebrew wisdom literature, unlike that of its neighbors, acknowledges only one God: Yahweh. The book emphasizes the close association of the fear of Yahweh with the knowledge of God. Because Yahweh is the source of wisdom, only those who know God can be wise. The blessings of the way of righteousness come when a proper relationship with Yahweh results in proper action toward one's neighbor. Proverbs has much to say about appropriate speech, as well as appropriate male-female relationships.

Key Termsanthology A collection of smaller writings.

Lady Wisdom The ideal personification of virtue and agent of creation.

Lady Folly The antitype of personified wisdom who is set as a warning in Proverbs.

Queen of Sheba An Ethiopian Queen who comes to visit Solomon on account of hearing of his great wisdom (1 Kings 10:1-13)

Meshalim The Hebrew term for proverbs.

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1. Who wrote Proverbs?2. What is wisdom?3. Who is Lady Wisdom?

o Lady Folly?o What is the contribution of chapter 9 to the message of the book of Proverbs?

4. What is a proverb?o How should we interpret and understand proverbs?

5. Are proverbs promises?o Why or why not?

6. Are proverbs always true?7. How is Christ related to Lady Wisdom?

Further Reading

Fox, M. Proverbs 1-9. AB. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000. _______. Proverbs 10-31. AB. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009. Longman, T. How to Read the Proverbs. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2002. _________. Proverbs. BCOTWP. Grand Rapids Baker, 2006._________. Pages 446-503 in ZIBBC 5. Edited by J. H. Walton. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009.Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 265-277 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed.

Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009. Waltke, B. K. Proverbs. 2 vols. NICOT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004-5.

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chapter eighteen

THE BOOK OF ECCLESIASTES

The author of Ecclesiastes is identified as "Teacher," traditionally associated with Solomon. While not impossible, this view is problematic. Regardless of the identity of the Teacher, the author is most likely an anonymous compiler of the Teacher’s wise sayings. The book contains a number of literary genres common to the Ancient Near East, in addition to works which address the incongruity between conventional wisdom and the reality of life experience. The basic message of the Teacher is that nothing "under the sun" can give meaning to life, but that the pursuit of God can allow one to enjoy the pleasures of life as gifts from God. Both good and bad come from God, and both are used by God for his purposes. The book states the problem, explains the author's experiences in attempting to solve the problem, and provides his solution: a worldview with God at the center. The author then applies his stated view to various life situations, particularly when facing adversity. The Teacher’s solution to facing adversity is followed by life advice, warnings, and injunctions.

Key TermsTeacher The pseudonym of the main speaker in Ecclesiastes.

frame narrator The literary device that edits the core of the book within a prologue and epilogue.

“meaningless” A recurring motif in the book suggesting that life is passing.

“under the sun” A common phrase in Ecclesiastes indicating everything on the earth is temporal.

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1. What is the primary theme of the book of Ecclesiasts? How does that theme relate to your own life?

2. Explain how the two speakers in the book interact with each other. What message does each have, and which is the final conclusion of the book?

3. What can we say about the authorship of the book and the date it was written?o Does it make any difference to our interpretation of the book?o Why or why not?

4. How does the book of Ecclesiastes anticipate Jesus Christ?

Further Reading

Allender, D., and T. Longman, Breaking the Idols of Your Heart: How to Navigate the Temptations of Life. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2007.

Bartholomew, C. G. Ecclesiastes. BCOTWP. Grand Rapids Baker, 2009.Longman, T. Ecclesiastes. NICOT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998._______. “Ecclesiastes.” Pages 251-337 in Job, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs. CsBC. Carol Stream,

IL: Tyndale House, 2006. Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 278-288 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed.

Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009. Provan, I. Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs. NIVAC. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2001.Shepherd, J. E. “Ecclesiastes.” Pages 253-365 in Proverbs—Isiah. EBC-R 6. Grand Rapids:

Zondervan, 2008.

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chapter nineteen

THE BOOK OF SONG OF SONGS

Song of Songs has puzzled interpreters because of its theme, the difficulty of classifying love poetry, and its inherent ambiguity. The three dominant approaches are literal (dramatic reading or love poem anthology), allegorical, or typological (relationship between Christ and the Church). Song of Songs is composed entirely in lyric poetry, quite similar to that found in Egypt during the New Kingdom. From a literal-historical interpretation, the purpose of Song of Songs is to celebrate and provide instruction concerning heterosexual love. The book affirms the virtue of chastity, provides a model of love, and affirms the merit of physical love within marriage.

Key Termsanthology of love poems

A collection of small poetry organized in a larger book.

dramatic-character reading

The literary view that there are two or three actors in Songs whereby the book has a storyline.

allegory A literary device used to make comparisons between one item and another.In the context of the Song, the man and the woman represent God’s relationship with his people, whether that is Israel or the Church.


1. How would you describe the Song of Songs—an allegory, a drama, love poems?o Why?

2. What is Solomon’s connection to the Song of Songs?3. How does the genre of the Song of Songs affect interpretation?4. What value do you think the Song of Songs has for the Church today?5. What can a Christian reader learn about God from the Song of Songs?6. How do you think the Song of Songs contributes to the message of the Bible as a whole?

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Further Reading

Allender, D., and T. Longman, Intimate Allies. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House, 1995. Exum, C. J. Song of Songs. OTL. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2005. Hess, R. R. Song of Songs. BCOTWP. Grand Rapids Baker, 2005.Longman, T. “Song of Songs.” Pages 239--293 in Job, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs. CsBC. Carol

Stream, IL: Tyndale House, 2006. ________. Song of Songs. NICOT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001.Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 289-300 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed.

Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009.

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chapter twenty

THE BOOK OF ISAIAH

The purpose of Isaiah is to convey the trustworthiness of Yahweh. The book begins with oracles of indictment, and then records the commissioning of Isaiah. The author next treats the failures of Ahaz and delivers oracles against the nations. The “woe” oracles shift to the time of Hezekiah, recording his alliances with Egypt, his deliverance from Sennacherib, and the prophecy of his downfall. Next is the exile to Babylon, then prophecy of political and spiritual restoration for Israel, effected in part by “the Servant”––possibly the ideal Davidic king. The author closes by addressing those who would return from exile in the future. The book of Isaiah is second only to the book of Psalms to the number of times referenced in the New Testament. Themes of judgment are throughout the book, but ultimately hope for God’s miraculous in-breaking into the world through the work of his servant, the messiah.

Key TermsHoly One of Israel A common term applied to Yahweh throughout Isaiah.

remnant The historical and theological people who would survive various judgments.

servant songs Four extended poetic sections in the second half of Isaiah describing and expecting a messianic figure for Israel.

gentiles A common Greek term to refer to any tribe, nation, or people that are not ethnically and religiously Jewish. Synonymous with the term Goyim, which is the Hebrew term for the nations.

Immanuel The child that was to be born of a virgin, whose name means “God with us.” By the time the child was old enough to reject the wrong and choose the right, the Assyrian threat would be gone.

first Isaiah According to the critical approach, chapters 1–39 were composed by the eighth century prophet Isaiah son of Amoz.

second Isaiah According to the critical approach, chapters 40–66 were composed by an exilic or post-exilic prophet speaking in the tradition of the eighth century prophet.

oracle A prophetic utterance that either declares divine Judgment or salvation upon the earth.

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1. What are the issues involved in determining the authorship of Isaiah?2. How does Ahaz respond to Isaiah’s call to trust in the Lord?3. How do the oracles against the foreign nations fit into Isaiah’s message?4. Describe the structure of the book of Isaiah.5. Describe how Isaiah connects to the Syro-Ephramite war.6. Name the ways in which the gospel writers appropriate the message of Isaiah.

Further Reading

Goldingay, J. Isaiah. NIBCOT. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2001.Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 301-320 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed.

Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009. Motyer, A. Isaiah. Leicester, UK: InterVarsity Press, 1999.Oswalt, J. N. Isaiah. NIVAC. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2003.

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chapter twenty-one

THE BOOK OF JEREMIAH

Jeremiah's call came soon after the religious reform of Josiah and was quickly followed by the emergence of the Babylonian Empire. The destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar in 586/7 BC was followed by two deportations of the people to Babylon. Jeremiah was commissioned to warn the people of the consequences of their actions and to bring them back to covenant faithfulness. The book consists of poetic prophetic oracles (indictment, judgment, instruction, and aftermath), historical narratives, and prose speeches. Jeremiah explains God's policy for dealing with the nations: their evil and good deeds are measured on a scale, and when the evil outweighs the good by a certain amount, God sends judgment. Also notable in Jeremiah's writings is the proclamation of the new covenant. This covenant would be distinct from the other covenants in that it would contain only a document clause. People would not have to be taught the law, because it would be written on their hearts. The terms of the covenant, however, would be the same as that made with Abraham. The new covenant would thus be an extension of the previous covenants. Another prominent theme in Jeremiah is the difficulty caused by false prophets, who proclaimed a positive message to the people and accused Jeremiah of being a false prophet because of his negative message.

Key Termsoracles against the nations

A literary genre that provides divine judgment against foreigners.

Book of Consolation Jeremiah 30–33 and the expectation for Israel’s future restoration.

new covenant The expectation in Jeremiah 31 where God internalizes Torah in Israel and Judah.

prophetic sign acts Prophetic demonstrations in which the prophet would literally act out the judgment that would fall upon the people. Examples: Dirty linens, wooden yoke, buying a field.

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1. What is the main message of Jeremiah?o Read Jeremiah 7:1-15. How does this passage fit in with this message?

2. What does Jeremiah have for the foreign nations that have oppressed God’s people (see chaps. 46–51 in particular)?

3. What are prophetic sign acts (read Jer. 19:1–20:6 for example), and how do you think they affected the people who observed them?

4. Read Jeremiah 20:7-18. Why did Jeremiah complain to and about God so much? Did he have any justification to do so?

5. What makes the new covenant (31:31-34) new? o What is its connection with the New Testament?

6. What is the historical background to the prophecy of Jeremiah?o Is this background important to know as one reads through Jeremiah today?o Why or why not?

Further Reading

Dearman, A. Jeremiah. NIVAC. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002.Fretheim, T. E. Jeremiah. Macon, GA: Smyth and Helwys, 2002.Longman, T. Jeremiah, Lamentations. Repackaged ed. UBCS. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2012.Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 321-341 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed.


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chapter twenty-two

THE BOOK OF LAMANTATIONS

Jewish tradition ascribes this book to Jeremiah, but, given the lack of evidence, it is better to see it as an anonymous composition by an eyewitness of the fall of Jerusalem. Lamentations was probably written between the fall of Jerusalem and the release of Jehoiachin from prison in Babylon. The book is a response to the destruction of Jerusalem and its aftermath. Lamentations is less concerned with recording the historical data surrounding the fall and more with capturing the emotions and tragedy of the judgment against Israel, who had brought upon herself the covenant curses. The poet acknowledges the justice of God's actions against his people and finds hope even in God's anger, which indicates his ongoing concern for Israel. The book explores the themes of human suffering––inevitable because of the fall––and divine abandonment. The latter is caused, not by God's impotence, but by Israel's sin and disobedience. The poet urges Yahweh to return to dwell among his people.

Key Termsacrostic A literary device where each successive line begins with another

letter of the Hebrew alphabet.

city lament A literary genre describing the destruction or terror of a city.


1. What is an acrostic? o Where are acrostics found in Lamentations, and how do they contribute to the

book’s meaning?2. How does the author of Lamentations use personification in the book?3. What connection does the book of Lamentations have to ancient Near Eastern

literature? 4. How does Lamentations fit into the theology of the Divine Warrior of the whole Bible?5. Where is the message of hope found in Lamentations?6. How does the book end?

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Further Reading

Dearman, A. Lamentations. NIVAC. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002.Longman, T. Jeremiah, Lamentations. NIBCOT. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2008Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 342-353 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed.

Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009. Provan, I. Lamentations. NCB. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1992.

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chapter twenty-three

THE BOOK OF EZEKIEL

Ezekiel's ministry stems from the political and religious policies of Manasseh, which brought the decree of disaster upon Jerusalem. The revival and reform under Josiah averted judgment, but only temporarily, and Jerusalem eventually fell to the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar. Ezekiel was among the exiles deported to Babylon and warns the people of impending judgment. After the destruction of Jerusalem, Ezekiel warns the surrounding nations of God's impending judgment for their sin. Finally, Ezekiel inspires the captives with hope of future restoration and the coming of a messianic, Davidic king. Ezekiel's message centers on the sovereignty of God over both his people and the Gentile nations, as well as the responsibility of each individual generation for its own sin.

Key TermsKebar (Chebar) River The location in Ezekiel where the exiled Jews would gather for

community.

Pharaoh Neco An Egyptian leader at the end of the 7th century BC who defeated and killed King Josiah.

Zedekiah The last king of Judah before Nebuchadnezzar II exiles Judah.

son of man A common designation applied to Ezekiel signaling apocalyptic expectations.

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1. How does God’s glory figure in Ezekiel’s prophecy?2. What can we say about the structure of the book of Ezekiel?3. What is the significance of the picture of the future temple in Ezekiel 40–43?4. Who was Ezekiel, and where did he minister?5. Describe the time period during which Ezekiel prophesied?6. Ezekiel seems to challenge the notion that the Israelites are not responsible for the

failure of their society. In fact, it was their ancestor’s fault. What is Ezekiel’s response in chapter 18?

Further Reading

Duguid, I. Ezekiel. NIVAC. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1999.Longman, T. “The Glory of God in the Old Testament.” Pages 47-48 in The Glory of God. Edited

by C. W. Morgan and R. A. Peterson. Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2010.Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 354-370 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed.


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chapter twenty-four

THE BOOK OF DANIEL

The first six chapters of Daniel address events, while the remainder of the book contains visions. Each half of the book is ordered chronologically. God’s sovereign control over the spiritual and political aspects of life stands as one of Daniel’s key themes. The book demonstrates that the climax of God’s agenda for Israel is the kingdom of God, a kingdom that would never be destroyed. Human empires, in contrast, are only temporary and exercise limited dominion. The downfall of the earthly kings is their pride, while the downfall of Israel was her rebellion against God.

Key Termsabomination of desolation

The designation given to the act of defiling the Jerusalem Temple.

court narrative Daniel 1–6 has this genre relating Daniel’s interactions in the Persian government.

apocalyptic visions Daniel 7–12 has this genre of visions and God’s judgment on the nations.

apocalyptic prophecy

The literary device of describing future events in a more recent context, as opposed to traditional prophecy that describes near future events within their context.

Antiochus Epiphanes IV

The Seleucid king in the middle of the 2nd century BC who defiles the Jerusalem sanctuary.

Darius the Mede Although historically difficult to identify, he is a central king in Babylon in Daniel 6–9.

Belshazzar Son of Nabonidus and the last acting king of Babylon before the rise of the Persian Empire under Cyrus.

son of man Common designation in Daniel to refer to a ‘messianic’ figure that leads God’s armies against the four beasts and who will establish an ‘everlasting kingdom.’ The New Testament connects this figure with Jesus Christ.

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1. What is the theme of Daniel?2. How does Daniel 3 illustrate the theme?

o How does Daniel 8?3. What are the issues surrounding the date of Daniel’s composition?4. Describe apocalyptic literature. What purpose does it serve?5. How does Daniel speak to the situation of Jews living in exile across the hegemony of

two empires, Babylon and Persia?6. How does Daniel handle oppression? How does that inform the way that Christians

should encounter persecution?

Further Reading

Goldingay, J. E. Daniel. WBC. Nashville: Word, 1989.Longman, T. Daniel. NIVAC. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1999.Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 371-398 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed.

Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009. Lucas, E. Daniel. Apollos. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2002. Schwab, G. M. Hope in the Midst of a Hostile World: The Gospel according to Daniel.

Phillipsburg, NJ: P and R Publishing, 2006.

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chapter twenty-five

THE BOOK OF HOSEA

This book is attributed to the prophet Hosea. His prophetic message to the northern kingdom of Israel was prompted by Israel's unfaithfulness to Yahweh and the threat of Assyrian aggression. Hosea probably began to prophesy soon before the death of Jeroboam II. After Jeroboam's death, Hosea's threats become reality with the rapid decline of the northern kingdom. The covenant relationship between Yahweh and Israel was graphically depicted in Hosea's relationship with his harlot wife, Gomer. Hosea was charged to call the rebellious people back to faithful devotion to Yahweh. Though he prophesied immediate impending judgment, he also spoke a message of hope, that Yahweh was both willing and able to restore his adulterous people.

Key TermsGomer The promiscuous wife of Hosea.

Jezreel A valley in Israel and the name of Hosea’s first child.

Lo-ruhama The name of Hosea’s second child meaning “no compassion.”

Lo-ammi The name of Hosea’s third child meaning “not my people.”

Jeroboam II King of the Northern kingdom from 793-746 BC. King that marked the beginning of Hosea’s ministry

Hezekiah King of the Southern Kingdom whose reign ended in 687/6 BC. This king marked the end of Hosea’s ministry.

shrine prostitute A temple servant that would perform sexual services in the place of the fertility gods in Canaanite religion.

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1. How does Hosea use the marriage metaphor?o What makes it particularly appropriate for his message?

2. What is the significance of the names of Hosea’s children?3. Name as many images of God that you can find in chapters 4–14, and describe in your

own words what they are saying about God. 4. Name as many images of God’s people that you can find in chapters 4–14, and describe

in your own words what they are saying about them.5. How does the New Testament use the prophecy of Hosea in its presentation of the

gospel?

Further Reading

Barrett, M. P. Love Divine and Unfailing: The Gospel according to Hosea. Phillipsburg, NJ: P and R Publishing, 2008.

Hubbard, D. A. Hosea. TOTC. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1989. Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 397-408 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed.

Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009. McComiskey, T. E. “Hosea.” Pages 1-237 in The Minor Prophets: An Exegetical and Expository

Commentary. Edited by T. E. McComiskey. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2009.Ortlund, Jr., R. C. Whoredom: God’s Unfaithful Wife in Biblical Theology. Grand Rapids:

Eerdmans, 1996.

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chapter twenty-six

THE BOOK OF JOEL

One difficult issue for Joel concerns the date. While the overall message of the book does not depend on our knowledge of date, the historical context could shed light on Joel's message. The author of this text favor a postexilic date based primarily on the similarities between Joel and classical prophecy. The background of the book is difficult to reconstruct, given the uncertainties of Joel's date; the authors of this text favor the period after the construction of the temple by Zerubbabel and before the destruction of Edom. Joel is primarily concerned to address "the day of the LORD," correlating the locust plague with the judgment that would characterize that period. He calls the people to repent, and when the people respond positively, he announces a coming period of prosperity.

Key TermsSpirit of Yahweh The divine presence that would fall on all types of people for

restoration in Joel.

Pentecost For NT writers, this was the fulfillment of Joel’s prophetic events.

Day of the LORD The event in the last days which signifies both God’s impending judgment, but also his restoration and salvation of the entire earth.


1. What roles do locusts play in Joel’s prophetic oracles?2. How is the date of the book’s composition determined? How confident can we be of this

date?3. Read Joel 2:28-32. What does this passage anticipate? How does the New Testament

understand it to be fulfilled?

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Further Reading

Hubbard, D. A. Joel and Amos. TOTC. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1989.Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 409-419 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed.

Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009. Dillard,, R. B. “Joel.” Pages 239-314 in The Minor Prophets: An Exegetical and Expository

Commentary. Edited by T. E. McComiskey. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2009.

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chapter twenty-seven

THE BOOK OF AMOS

We do not know how Amos' prophecies were recorded, but is seems most likely that he wrote down his revelations after his return to Tekoa, two years after his prophetic ministry in Bethel. Amos probably ministered to the northern kingdom just before the death of Jeroboam II. This king brought material prosperity and political stability to the people, but also social and moral decay. Amos denounces the sin of the Gentile nations and of Israel, foretelling their future destruction. He corrects the people's faulty conception of "the day of the LORD," then relates his five vision experiences. The prophet concludes with the promise of messianic restoration and blessing. The major theme of Amos is the importance of social justice as the ethical imperative of a covenant relationship with Yahweh. Amos 3 presents the notable scene where Israel is taken to court by God for their crimes against his law and surprisingly the nations will be the ones who stand as witnesses of Israel’s atrocities.

Key TermsTekoa The Judean city where Amos came from.

oracles against the nations

Literary genre and judgment against the nations found in Amos 1–2

judgment speeches The literary genre and proclamation against Israel in Amos 3–6.

vision reports The literary genre and divine encounters finalizing Israel’s judgment in Amos 7–9.

Day of Yahweh An important motif of divine judgment and restoration in the prophetic literature.

Amaziah False priest of the Northern Kingdom whom Amos meets at Bethel before the shrine of the Golden calf, after which Amos takes up the mantle of a ‘seer.’

prophetic lawsuit Amos 3 describes a courtroom in which God is the plaintiff, Israel is the defendant, Amos is the authoritative lawyer, and the nations stand as witness against Israel for their crimes against God’s law.

funeral dirge Common Ancient Near Eastern literary style lamenting the death of a king, here used to lament Israel’s sin and coming judgment.

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1. How does Amos use the oracles against the foreign nations in its condemnation of Judah and Israel?

2. Who was Amos?3. Why does Amos dispute the claim that he was a prophet?4. Describe the time period in which Amos prophesied. 5. What use does the New Testament make of Amos?

Further Reading

Hubbard, D. A. Joel and Amos. TOTC. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1989.Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 420-434 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed.

Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009. Niehaus, J. “Amos.” Pages 315-494 in The Minor Prophets: An Exegetical and Expository

Commentary. Edited by T. E. McComiskey. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2009.Ryken, L. “Amos.” Pages 337-347 in The Complete Literary Guide to the Bible. Edited by L. Ryken

and T. Longman. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993.

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chapter twenty-eight

THE BOOK OF OBADIAH

Obadiah is the shortest book of the OT; it contains no information concerning the time or place of its origin. Scholars have dated Obadiah between 850 and 400 BC, based on the assumption that vv. 11-14 refer to a specific event in Israelite history relating to Edom. The author of this text prefers to interpret the event as the destruction of Jerusalem. Edom was descended from Esau, son of Isaac; Edom and Israel became enemies during the reigns of Saul and David. Obadiah condemns the Edomites' mistreatment of Judah and foretells their doom; he moves from Edom specifically to the universal judgment, which will accompany the "day of the LORD." The prophet also addresses the godly remnant of Israel, promising deliverance and restoration of the people at the consummation of God's kingdom. Throughout the book, the prophet emphasizes the sovereignty of God over the nations.

Key TermsEdom The nation descending from Esau who aided the Neo-Babylonian

sacking of Jerusalem. Located on the South and East side of the Dead sea from the Wadi Zered to the Gulf of Araba.

Divine Warrior The description of Yahweh as he leaves his heavenly palace to fight against his enemies.

Idumean A people group descended from the Edomites who were forced to relocate during the Persian period to the southern territory of Judea known as the Negev.

Herod the Great A famous Idumean, ruling in Judah, living during the first century A.D. who plotted to kill Jesus at birth.

Obadiah Unknown prophet serving during the beginning of the sixth century after the fall of Jerusalem.


1. Why does Obadiah focus on the country of Edom?2. On what grounds are we able to date the book of Obadiah?

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Further Reading


Niehaus, J. “Obadiah.” Pages 495-541 in The Minor Prophets: An Exegetical and Expository Commentary. Edited by T. E. McComiskey. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2009.

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chapter twenty-nine

THE BOOK OF JONAH

Careful reading of this book suggests that we ought to equate Jonah with Nineveh: both are faced with impending calamity, both seek to avert the calamity by taking action; the action taken by both is insufficient, but is made sufficient by divine grace. However, Nineveh experiences nothing like Jonah's loss of his shade plant through the parasite. Jonah is not spared his calamity, but receives the treatment he desired God to deal to Nineveh. The message of the book concerns God's sovereign right to bestow grace and compassion on whomever he will. Nineveh's attempt at self-preservation was insufficient, but it did delay the inevitable judgment. Jonah's attitude forces him to confront God, whose compassion and deliverance bring the sections to a close. The theme of theodicy receives an ironic twist as Jonah questions God's leniency toward the wicked. The book answers the question by affirming God's right to be "slow to anger."

Key TermsNineveh Assyrian capital city marked for judgment in the book of Jonah.

Jonah 8th century during the reign of Jeroboam II from Geth-Hepher, northeast of Nazareth.

Tarshish Location to which Jonah seeks to flee from YHWH. Literally, the furthest he thought he could get from Jerusalem on the far western edge of the Mediterranean Sea.


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1. Evaluate the arguments in favor of and against the identification of the book as history. o In what ways, if any, does the historicity of the book affect the message of the

book? 2. Assess the book of Jonah as a literary composition. What can you say about its genre,

structure, and style?3. Compare and contrast Jonah with the Gentile characters in the story. 4. How does the Jonah story fit into its time period as indicated by the reference to Jonah

in 2 Kings 14:25?5. In your opinion, does the analogy that Jesus makes between himself and Jonah (Matt.

12:38-45; Luke 11:24-32) require that the story of Jonah be historical?o Why or why not?

Further Reading

Baldwin, J. “Jonah.” Pages 543-590 in The Minor Prophets: An Exegetical and Expository Commentary. Edited by T. E. McComiskey. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2009.

Estelle, B. D. Salvation through Judgment and Mercy: The Gospel according to Jonah. Phillipsburg, NJ: P and R Publishing, 2005.


Walton, J. H. “Jonah.” Pages 100-119 in ZIBBC 5. Edited by J. H. Walton. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009.

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chapter thirty

THE BOOK OF MICAH

The superscription of this book indicates that Micah prophesied in the last half of the 8th century––probably also the time when the prophecies were recorded. Most scholars assume that Sennacherib's campaign against Jerusalem provides the historical backdrop for Micah's prophecy. The list of cities mentioned in chapter 1 seems to coincide with Sennacherib’s route to Jerusalem. The success of King Uzziah had brought economic prosperity for some, resulting in the development of a merchant class. The agrarian segment of society was thus at the mercy of the merchants, who were characterized by injustice and false religiosity. Micah declares his purpose as denouncing these sins, which would result in destruction and exile. Micah also offers hope of deliverance to a remnant of the people and foretells a day when Israel will be purged from all elements that caused her to stray from Yahweh. Micah speaks of a royal, kingly deliverer from the line of David who would come after Israel's judgment was complete.

Key Termsjudgment oracle The literary genre given in Micah against the corrupt prophets and

priests.

salvation oracle The literary genre given in Micah that expresses hope for the future restoration of Israel and God’s establishment on Mount Zion above all the nations.

Samaria The northern capital that fell to the Neo-Assyrian Empire.

Moresheth A city 25 miles south west of Jerusalem in the hills of the Shephelah.

Sennacherib Assyrian king who invaded Judah in 701 BC during the reign of Hezekiah.

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1. What can be said about the structure of the book of Micah?2. What is the primary charge that Micah brings against God’s people?3. During what time period did Micah prophesy? What was happening in Israel and the

Near East at the time?4. How does Micah anticipate the gospel?5. Micah 6:6-8 sets forth the only thing that God requests of his people.

o How does this relate to the laws and regulations put forth in the Torah? o Is this statement a hyperbole or is it getting at a more fundamental principle

within the Torah?6. Micah tells of the coming of a future king.

o How are chapters 5 and 7 used in the gospels to describe the coming of the Messiah through the person of Jesus Christ?

Further Reading

Longman, T. “Micah.” Pages 659-764 in Evangelical Old Testament Commentary. Edited by W.A. Elwell. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1989.

Waltke, B. W. “Micah.” Pages 543-590 in The Minor Prophets: An Exegetical and Expository Commentary. Edited by T. E. McComiskey. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2009.


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chapter thirty-one

THE BOOK OF NAHUM

With the exception of the opening psalm in Nahum 1:2-8, the unity of this book has been widely accepted. The book contains no chronological information, but the internal evidence points to a date prior to the fall of Nineveh. This event marked the end of the empire, though its decline began much earlier. The purpose of Nahum was to pronounce the doom of the city; the oracles of judgment, however, were probably addressed as a word of encouragement to the people of Judah.

Key Termsvision A literary genre relating a divine experience for the prophet.

oracle A literary genre relating a divine proclamation against Yahweh’s enemies.

Thebes An Egyptian city given as an ominous note to Nineveh’s destruction.


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1. How would you summarize Nahum’s prophetic message?2. What is the significance of Nineveh in Nahum’s prophecy?3. What message does Nahum have for Judah?4. How can Nahum’s violent prophecy anticipate the gospel?

Further Reading

Longman, T. “Nahum.” Pages 765-829 in The Minor Prophets: An Exegetical and Expository Commentary. Edited by T. E. McComiskey. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2009.

Longman, T., and D. Reid. God Is a Warrior. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1995. Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 456-462 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed.


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chapter thirty-two

THE BOOK OF HABAKKUK

The background for Habakkuk is the decline of the Assyrian Empire and the rise of the Babylonians. At the same time, free from the threat of Assyrian aggression, King Josiah of Judah began to institute his religious reforms. The decline of the Assyrians caused confusion for the prophets, who recognized that the appointed instrument of God's punishment was passing away before the judgment of Judah was complete. God answers their concerns by revealing Babylon as the next appointed instrument of punishment. The book is organized around the prayers of the prophet and God's responses, which occur in three cycles. Habakkuk is concerned that, if God gives victory to the Babylonians against Judah, God will be showing approval of the Babylonians. God emphasizes the responsibility of the individual to act with integrity and gives assurance of his own justice: the Babylonians will likewise receive punishment for their wickedness. This book reveals God's policies for dealing with the nations: God keeps accounts of good and evil deeds, which are weighed in opposing balances of a scale; when evil deeds outweigh good, the nation incurs God's judgment. Good conduct carries more weight than bad, the scale is reset only when God judges the accumulated wickedness, and God expects more from those who have received more.

Key TermsChaldeans The name given to the Neo-Babylonian invaders of Judah during

Habakkuk’s ministry.

woe oracles Form which derives from funeral rituals and which thus state the object of the oracle as good as dead.


Nabopolassar First king of the Neo-Babylonian empire that proclaimed himself king in 626 BC, an event referred to by Hab. 1:6.

hegemony Rulership or dominance by one country or social group over another.

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1. Habakkuk preaches against injustice. Where does he see injustice, and how does he ask God to respond to it?

2. During what time period did Habakkuk prophesy? o How do we know?

3. What literary forms does Habakkuk use to communicate his message?4. Why does Habakkuk include a hymn celebrating the Divine Warrior at the end of his

prophecy?5. How does Paul use Habakkuk to insist that righteousness is by faith? What does he

mean by this?

Further Reading

Bruce, F.F. “Habakkuk.” Pages 831-896 in The Minor Prophets: An Exegetical and Expository Commentary. Edited by T. E. McComiskey. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2009.

Bruckner, J. Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah. NIVAC Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2004. Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 463-469 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed.


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chapter thirty-three

THE BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH

The reign of King Manasseh was characterized by widespread religious syncretism; Josiah's reforms succeeded in correcting Israelite religious practices, but failed to change the people's hearts. Freedom from Assyria would only be a short relief until the rise of the Babylonians. Against this backdrop, Zephaniah pronounced his message concerning the day of the Lord, when God would judge wickedness (of Israel and of the nations) and restore the fortunes of his people. The prophets use "the Day of the LORD" to speak of a time when the current state of affairs will be replaced by God's intended order. The prophets explain that this day will come as a gradual process of dealing with the inequities that threaten the desired end. Thus, numerous "Days of the LORD" will precede the final day. The prophets warn Israel and Judah that they will not be immune to the judgment of this day: all of God's enemies, whether Gentile or Jew, will receive judgment.

Key TermsJosianic reform Cultic and civil reforms of Judah and parts of the north at the end of

the 7th century BC.

Daughter Zion The symbolic name given to the city of Jerusalem and her inhabitants after the exile.

theophany The presence of God being made known to humanity.

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1. According to Zephaniah, against whom will God bring judgment and why?2. During what time period did Zephaniah prophesy?

o What was going on at the time?3. What is the Day of the LORD in Zephaniah and how does this day anticipate the New

Testament?

Further Reading

Baker, D. W., Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah. TOTC Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1988. Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 470-476 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed.


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chapter thirty-four

THE BOOK OF HAGGAI

The background for the book of Haggai is the reign of Darius (Cyrus) of Persia, and the outcome of his decree allowing conquered people to return to their native lands. The first group of emigrants to Jerusalem was led by Sheshbazzar; under his leadership, the foundation of the temple was laid. The project, however, was soon abandoned. The second wave of emigrants, under the leadership of Zerubbabel and Jeshua and the encouragement of Haggai and Zechariah, began a second reconstruction effort, and the temple was finally complete in 520 BC. The reconstruction of the temple was Haggai's sole mission; to accomplish this, the prophet sought to awaken the people to the responsibilities, obligations, privileges, and promises of their covenant heritage. He rebukes the people for their preoccupation with personal comfort, calls the people to repentance and challenges them to rebuild the temple, reveals God's intention to overthrow the nations and restore Israel, and rekindles the messianic expectations of the people through God's promise to establish a ‘son of David’ as "a signet ring" in Zion. Through the rebuilding of the temple, Haggai called the people back to proper worship of Yahweh, rather than to blind faith in a building. The temple would symbolize the covenant presence of Yahweh among his people and mark these people as God's elect among the nations.

Key TermsZerubbabel Acts as the appointed leader of those who returned from exile to

settle in Jerusalem and also comes from the line of David.

Zechariah The priestly prophet who experienced a series of night visions relating the restoration of Jerusalem.

Joshua The high priest who was given charge over restoring the temple complex.

eschatological A descriptor used to identify events that will happen in latter times.

Darius Persian king to whom Haggai dates his ministry to about 520 BC.

Festival of Tabernacles

A fall festival that is characterized by the people dwelling in tents to remind themselves of life in the wilderness when God dwelt among his people. This is significant considering the topic of Haggai is the

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rebuilding of the temple, so that God’s glory may dwell with his people again.


1. During what time period did Haggai prophesy?o What was going on at the time?

2. What is Haggai’s main message?3. What role does Zerubbabel play in Haggai’s message?4. What is the relationship between Jesus and the temple?5. Do you think that Haggai’s language concerning the rebuilding of the temple was meant

to be manipulative or inspiring?6. Haggai speaks of the return of the glory of the LORD. Why is this significant? Where else

do in scripture do we see the Glory of the LORD moving?

Further Reading

Boda, M.J., Haggai, Zechariah. NIVAC. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2004. Motyer, J.A., “Haggai.” Pages 963-1002 in The Minor Prophets: An Exegetical and Expository

Commentary. Edited by T. E. McComiskey. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2009.Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 477-483 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed.


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chapter thirty-five

THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH

The background for Zechariah's prophecy is the reign of Darius and the return of the exiles to Jerusalem. In spite of their return, the people were discouraged by the perceived lack of promised restoration. God responded to this distress by raising up two prophets to initiate the physical rebuilding of the temple and the spiritual renewal of the city. Zechariah's message was one of rebuke, exhortation, and encouragement: the solution to the people's sin and rebellion could only come through repentance. Zechariah's vision of the "Day of the LORD" was concerned with social justice for the present, not simply for future restoration. Zechariah speaks of the messianic shepherd-king more than any other OT book except Isaiah. Though Zechariah does not use the terms "Day of the LORD" or "the kingdom of God," his work greatly contributes to our knowledge of the Hebrew understanding of these concepts. Zechariah emphasizes the salvation, re-gathering, and restoration of Israel, which would culminate in a new world order.

Key TermsZerubbabel The “seed of Babel” who was the anointed “Branch” who would lead

Judah.

night visions Chapters 1–6 in Zechariah that narrate a night encounter where Zechariah sees the restoration of Jerusalem.

apocalyptic imagery Symbolism relating the expectation of God restoring his people in the midst of foreign aggression.

branch The symbolic name applied to Joshua as the High Priest of Judah.

Joshua The high priest who was given charge over restoring the temple complex.

Shekinah glory The term used to describe the Glory of the Lord as seen in the tabernacle, that which left the temple during the destruction of Jerusalem, and that which will fill the New Temple.

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1. What are the major themes of Zechariah’s night visions?2. What role does the temple play in Zechariah’s message?3. How does Zechariah 1–8 differ from 9–14?4. When did Zechariah give his prophetic message?

o How does his message fit into his time period?5. How does Jesus’s life connect to the book of Zechariah?6. What does it mean in Zechariah 14 when the prophet states that all of the nations will

flood to Jerusalem to celebrate the feasts and honor God as King?

Further Reading

Boda, M.J., Haggai, Zechariah. NIVAC. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2004. Gregory, B.R. Longing for God in an Age of Discouragement: The Gospel according to Zechariah.

Phillipsburg, NJ: P and R Publishing, 2010.McComiskey, T.E., “Zechariah.” Pages 1003-1244 in The Minor Prophets: An Exegetical and

Expository Commentary. Edited by T. E. McComiskey. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2009.Longman III, T., and R.B. Dillard. Pages 482-495 in Introduction to the Old Testament. 2nd ed.


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chapter thirty-six

THE BOOK OF MALACHI

The backdrop of Malachi's ministry was the completion of the second temple and the apathy and disillusionment that followed among the community of returned exiles. Malachi's message emphasizes the covenant relationship between Yahweh and Israel and its ramifications. Yahweh was both the maker and keeper of the covenant; Israel, in contrast, was a covenant-breaker. The prophet's teaching of marriage reminds one of OT wisdom literature, presenting marriage as a covenant for fellowship and procreation. Malachi makes clear that the provisions for divorce were provided because of sin, but that God hates divorce. Malachi also condemns the intermarriage between Jews and foreign people. Malachi speaks of an Elijah-like messenger of the covenant, proclaiming the time of Yahweh's wrath and the inauguration of the messianic age.

Key TermsElijah The expected figure that would come and prepare the way of

Yahweh.

John the Baptist Figure in the New Testament who is said to have fulfilled the prophecy that closes the book of Malachi. Responsible for baptizing Jesus Christ and preached about the coming Day of the Lord.

Day of the LORD The day of eschatological judgment against Israel and the Nations.

disputation Literary form unique to Malachi and characterized by:1. Assertion of Truth2. People provoked to question said Truth3. The Lord responds

peha A post-exilic Persian term for governor. Evidence that the book was written during the Persian period.

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1. How does Malachi use the disputation form in support of his message?2. What does the book of Malachi tell us about the spiritual state of the people of God?3. When did Malachi prophesy?

o How does his message relate to his time period?4. How is John the Baptist related to the message of Malachi?

Further Reading

Stuart, D., “Malachi.” Pages 1245-1396 in The Minor Prophets: An Exegetical and Expository Commentary. Edited by T. E. McComiskey. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2009.


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