zoë a. meletis* and lisa m. campbellpeople.duke.edu/~lcampbe/docs_lmc/meletis_campbell... ·...

copy 2007 The AuthorsJournal Compilation copy 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Geography Compass

14 (2007) 850ndash870 101111j1749-8198200700048x

Call It Consumption Re-Conceptualizing Ecotourism as Consumption and Consumptive

Zoeuml A Meletis and Lisa M Campbell

Nicholas School of the Environment and Earth Sciences Duke University

Abstract

Labeling ecotourism as lsquonon-consumptiversquo and contrasting it with direct uses ofwildlife through activities such as hunting is common practice among organizationsand academics primarily concerned with conservation We interrogate this binaryopposition by questioning the assumptions underlying it namely that lsquothe directconsumption of wildlifersquo (i) does not occur in ecotourism (ii) is incompatible withecotourism (iii) is the primary concern and (iv) is inferior to ecotourism as botha conservation and development strategy Based on a review of the relevant theoreticaland case-study based literature as well as our own research we argue that categorizingecotourism as lsquonon-consumptiversquo is not only inaccurate but also has consequencesfor both environments and people We suggest ways in which ecotourism can bere-conceptualized in order to better achieve its goals of conserving both nature

and culture and of contributing to both conservation and development

1 Introduction

Despite existing critiques (eg Charnley 2005 Duffy 2002 Honey 1999Kiss 2004 Lindberg et al 1996) ecotourism has emerged as a widelypromoted strategy for reconciling wildlife conservation with humandevelopment This is particularly the case among conservation organizationsfor example World Wildlife Fund (News 2004 Troeumlng and Drews 2004)and Conservation International (Conservation International 2004) and amongacademics and practitioners primarily concerned with wildlife (and moregenerally with nature) conservation (Tisdell and Wilson 2002) The promo-tion of ecotourism has been particularly noticeable in developing countries(Campbell 1999 Mowforth and Munt 1998 Weaver 1998) While there aremany definitions of ecotourism in the literature for the purposes of this articlewe include two of those most commonly cited lsquoEcological tourismrsquo orlsquoecotourismrsquo as defined by the World Conservation Union (IUCN)rsquosEcotourism Programme is lsquoenvironmentally responsible travel and visitationto relatively undisturbed natural areas in order to enjoy and appreciate nature(and any accompanying cultural features ndash both past and present) that promotesconservation has low visitor impact and provides for beneficially active

copy 2007 The Authors

Geography Compass

14 (2007) 850ndash870 101111j1749-8198200700048xJournal Compilation copy 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Call it consumption 851

socio-economic involvement of local populationsrsquo (Ceballos-Lascuraacutein 1993acited in Ceballos-Lascuraacutein 1996 20) The International Ecotourism Society(no date given) defines ecotourism as lsquoresponsible travel to natural areasthat conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local peoplersquoCombined these definitions highlight two common features of ecotourismdefinitions first that ecotourism can feature both natural and culturalattractions and second that it has both environmental conservation andsocio-economic development goals

In conservation literature ecotourism is often categorized as non-consumptive use of wildlife (and other environmental features) and contrastedwith consumptive use For example writing about sea turtle tourism andwhale watching Wilson and Tisdell (2003) write

[T]hese two resources have been increasingly used for nonconsumptivepurposes marking a significant shift away from previous consumptive usesMany countries previously using these resources for consumption are nowturning to nonconsumptive uses in the form of nature-based tourism (p 50)

Consumptive use is typically defined as the direct use or removal ofwildlife through activities such as hunting (Freese 1998) In contrastlsquoWhile ecotourism can impact negatively on species and ecosystems adefinition of consumptive use based strictly on ldquodeliberate removal of aspeciesrdquo excludes ecotourismrsquo (Campbell 2002b 31) Labeling ecotourismas non-consumptive is based on several assumptions however namely thatno direct consumption of wildlife occurs in ecotourism that the directconsumption of wildlife is incompatible with ecotourism and that the directconsumption of wildlife is the primary issue of concern Furthermorenon-consumptive use is often assumed to be a superior economic andenvironmental alternative to the consumptive use of wildlife Theseassumptions have been challenged by geographers and other social scientistsand we draw on their work and our own research to demonstratehow labeling ecotourism as non-consumptive is not only misleading butcarries potential consequences for both local peoples and environments inecotourism destinations We also situate ecotourism in wider contemporarydebates about the nature of consumption and specifically regardingalternative consumption and moralizing consumption

Prior to doing so several caveats are noted here First a vast literature onecotourism has emerged over the past two decades much of it increasinglycritical (eg Cater 2006 Duffy 2002 Honey 1999 Mowforth and Munt1998 Weaver 1999 Wheeler 1994) While the problems with ecotourismare widely recognized in the tourism literature enthusiasm for ecotourismremains in some of the major conservation organizations It is in thiscontext that we find assumptions about the non-consumptive nature ofecotourism particularly problematic Second debates about the meaningof ecotourism and the utility of term are also evident and some criticsoutline criteria that need to be met for ecotourism to succeed (Ross and

852 Call it consumption


Geography Compass


Wall 1999 Scheyvens 1999 70) In this article we accept claims to eco-tourism at face value if destinations promoters national governments andtourists believe that what they are engaging in

is

ecotourism academicacceptance or rejection of such claims is to a certain extent irrelevantFor example in one of the cases discussed in this article over 80000 lsquoeco-touristsrsquo visit Tortuguero National Park Costa Rica Despite these largenumbers of visitors and problems with environmental planning and man-agement Tortuguero is considered an ecotourism destination by actors ofall kinds at all scales including environmental non-governmental organ-izations the Costa Rican government tour operators local businessesand tourists (Caribbean Conservation Corporation 2003 Cuevas andThe Caribbean Conservation Corporation 2002 Harrison et al 2004Smith 2005 Troeumlng 2004 Troeumlng and Drews 2004) Finally while weare critical of ecotourism we also accept that it is with us for theforeseeable future As a result we finish our article with suggestions forre-conceptualizing ecotourism rather than abandoning it all together

2 Unpacking the Assumptions Underlying the Classification of Ecotourism as Non-Consumptive Use

21

no direct consumption of wildlife occurs in ecotourism

Using the term lsquonon-consumptiversquo to describe ecotourism assumes aseparation of ecotourism and the direct consumption of wildlife howevermost definitions of ecotourism do not directly preclude consumptive useFor example the definition adopted by the IUCN refers to lsquoenjoyingrsquowild plants and animals (Ceballos-Lascurain 1996) and one interpretationof enjoying could include eating traditional dishes made from localingredients Wild game is an important source of protein in many partsof the world and hunting fishing and trapping represent essentialactivities in many cultures (Freese 1998) Opportunities for incorporatingsuch activities into tourism abound and combining ecotourism andconsumptive use could lead to increased socio-economic returns in somedestinations (Freese 1998) Tourists undertaking Inuit-hosted eco-toursfor example might be invited to attend a community feast that includeslocally killed meats (Hinch 1998) Tourists might also participate directlyin hunting andor fishing

USA Todayrsquos

(2004) lsquo10 Great Places to TreadLightly On Earthrsquo list of ecotourism destinations for instance includes fishingas part of the promoted activities for two destinations (Sell 2004) In BotswanaKenya Zimbabwe and Pakistan eco-tours that include game hunting providean important source of revenue to parks and protected areas (Akama1996 Freese 1998 Mowforth and Munt 1998 Novelli et al 2006) thuslinking consumptive use directly to conservation Therefore not onlyare there examples where ecotourism and consumptive use are combinedthere may be further instances where they are compatible


Geography Compass



22

direct consumption of wildlife is incompatible with ecotourism

Defining ecotourism as non-consumptive perpetuates a Western-influencedpro-preservation and anti-extraction conception of ecotourism and masksthe heterogeneous nature of peoples places and activities that composeecotourism (Akama 1996 Nygren 2003) The worldviews of manyindigenous peoples for instance are at-odds with the preservation-focusedWestern morals that ecotourism is infused with (Hinch 1998) Someindigenous peoples view extractive practices and rituals as an importantpart of their culture and their interactions with the environment Definingecotourism as incompatible with consumption renders these practicesincompatible with ecotourism It also homogenizes the consumptive useof wildlife denying the diversity of practices and views associated with itand suggests that lsquonon-consumptive activities refect and convey morallysuperior values and lead to more intense and desirable experiencesrsquo(Tremblay 2001 83) This in turn limits the potential to use ecotourismas a means of conserving local culture Hinch (1998 121) suggests thatextractive practices that might lsquooffend the sensibilities of many ecotouristsrsquoare often separated from tourists in a spatial or temporal manner thusdenying tourists authentic experiences (MacCannell 1973) because of thevalues and expectations of ecotourism as non-consumptive (West andCarrier 2004 Carrier and Macleod 2005) Thus in spite of an emphasison nature and culture in many ecotourism definitions [as in Ceballos-Lascurain (1996) but see also Wall 1996 Weaver 2005] nature lsquotrumpsrsquoculture when cultural practices do not conform to Western expectations ofwhat ecotourism should be (Carrier and Macleod 2005 Ryan et al 2000Weaver 2005) This in turn may prevent ecotourism from achieving itsgoals of cultural conservation and limit the development of local heritagepreservation via tourism In such instances outcomes are difficult topredict but can include increasing tensions between ecotourismists andlocal host communities

There are examples of local communities attempting to reclaim or take(greater) control of ecotourism development infusing it with their ownvalues ( Johnston 2003 Stronza 2000 2001 Wall and Long 1996 Wesche1996) For example Stronza (2000) details the efforts of the Native Com-munity of Infierno Peru to remain a serious partner in their sharedecotourism endeavor with Rainforest Expeditions Huicholsrsquo communityassemblies in Mexico are also involved in the planning and running ofa Huichol community-based ecotourism program called the BlueDear Visitors Program in which tourists called lsquovisitorsrsquo are placed inHuichol households (Nauman 2002) Australian examples of aboriginalcommunity membersrsquo efforts to enter into ecotourism include community-sponsored Aboriginal tour networks and related Web sites (egwwwaboriginaltouroperatorscom) as promoted by Aboriginal Groups suchas Kalkadoon an Aboriginal womenrsquos group (Kalkadoon 2007) While these



Geography Compass


examples do not rely on the extractive use of wildlife

per se

(althoughfishing is part of the Australian example) such use is much easier toconceive of within community-controlled ventures Tremblay (2001)specifically considers the potential compatibility of indigenous lifestylesand cultures with extractive use through recreational hunting and fishing

23

direct consumption of wildlife is the only issue of concern

Focusing definitions of ecotourism on the direct interaction of tourismists and wildlife assumes that this interaction is the primary concern interms of consumption However there are other ways in which ecotourismcan be consumptive and three issues are considered below

First by focusing on the lsquodirect removal of the speciesrsquo in definingconsumptive use the figurative consumption (including visual consumption)associated with ecotourism and impacts thereof are overlooked Ecotourismas an act of visual consumption is similar to mass tourism in that theecotourist aesthetic which often demands the appearance of lsquopristine naturersquois catered to often as a primary management concern This frequentlyinvolves shieldingseparating ecotourists from their own impacts as wellas others Their exposure to local impacts is also typically limited by thelengths of their stays which are often relatively short and the rise oforganized eco-tours (Mowforth and Munt 1998 Shepherd 2002 Weaver2001) that direct ecotourist gazes onto very specific sites places andlandscapes and away from other less desirable sights (Ryan et al 2000Urry 1995)

Social scientists have contributed greatly to our understanding of lsquotheTourist Gazersquo (Urry 1995 2002) and the lsquoecotourist gazersquo (Hughes andMorrison-Saunders 2003 Hvenegaard and Dearden 1998 Ryan et al2000) and how this influences everything from destination imagesprojected (Nelson 2005) to tour content and attraction design (Carrierand Macleod 2005 Luck 2003) to community membersrsquo identities(Mowforth and Munt 1998) to local environmental management needsand concerns (Carrier and Macleod 2005 Smith and Duffy 2003) Forexample the primacy of visual consumption of environmental featuresand landscapes in ecotourism can generate undesirable behaviors on thepart of guides andor attraction staff who may undertake activities suchas feeding wild animals so that nature lsquoperformsrsquo for watching ecotourists(Edensor 2001 Evans 1999 Farrell and Marion 2001 Grossberg et al2003) Other activities related to visual consumption like photographycan also have negative impacts on species especially if they remainneglected (Campbell 1994 Edensor 2001 Grossberg et al 2003 Ryanet al 2000) Furthermore touristsrsquo demands for an ecotourism aestheticcan directly conflict with conservation goals In Montego Bay Jamaicafor example tourists viewed local people fishing (legally) within a marinepark as detracting from the park landscape Park staff felt increasing


Geography Compass



pressure to remove the fishers from the park in order to satisfy the aestheticexpectations of ecotourists and had little time to devote to environmentalissues that they considered to be problematic such as decreased waterquality Because the latter did not interfere with touristsrsquo visual consumptionof the marine landscape it was difficult for park managers who wereunder pressure to ensure tourist satisfaction to prioritize (West and Carrier2004) Thus managing primarily for the ecotourism aesthetic and forfigurative consumption of landscapes can result in material consequencesfor the environment and animal species within it even if so-calledlsquoconsumptive usersquo (ie direct removal of species) is not occurring

A second consequence of focusing on the lsquodirect removal of the speciesrsquoin distinguishing between consumptive and non-consumptive use is thatit masks the ways in which ecotourism can consume resources and resultin broader negative environmental impacts beyond those that occuron-site in ecotourist destinations For example much ecotourism consistsof First World ecotourists or Third World elites traveling to remotedestinations abroad While negative environmental impacts associatedwith high energy consumption through jet travel are recognized (Goumlssling2000) these are typically left out of ecotourism impact assessmentsbecause such impacts occur extra-locally

beforeafter

the ecotourist is attheir destination Therefore the larger ecological footprint of ecotourismas a consumptive activity from doorstep to destination and back is notconsidered (Goumlssling et al 2002 Hall 1994 Rees and Wackernagel 1994)

On-site many eco-destinations include problematic contradictionsbetween touristsrsquo interests in lsquonaturersquo and their resource demands Forexample ecotourists might consume high amounts of energy andorwater in hotels and may demand imported goods that require extensivetransport andor packaging (Goumlssling and Oliver 2003) Despite theoreticalclaims regarding ecotourists being more environmentally aware there islittle empirical evidence to support such claims Ecotourists have beenknown to consume products such as unsustainable local (or imported)seafood and problematic lsquonaturalrsquo souvenirs such as shark jaws corals andornamental shells (Goumlssling and Oliver 2003) These observations have ledsome scholars to question the existence of the lsquoecotouristrsquo as a distincttourist type (eg Duffy 2002 Mowforth and Munt 1998 Weaver 1999Wheeler 1994)

Lastly the consumption of goods and services associated with ecotourismoften produces a suite of challenging environmental impacts such as wasteand sewage generation (Brown et al 1997 Carrier and Macleod 2005Garrett 2005 Goumlssling and Oliver 2003 Lee and Snepenger 1992 Smithand Duffy 2003 Stern et al 2003 Thrupp 1990 Young 1999) Suchimpacts are often complicated by the fact that many preferred ecotouristdestinations are in places that are located far from impact-related servicesand infrastructure and are therefore likely to have limited waste disposalor treatment options available to them (Hillery et al 2001)



Geography Compass


In Tortuguero Costa Rica a well-known ecotourism destinationefforts to manage a growing solid waste problem have been made sincethe 1990s (Lee and Snepenger 1992 Place 1991 Troeumlng and Drews 2004)Tortuguerorsquos ability to deal with this problem is arguably constrained byits very success as an ecotourism destination upward of 80000 touristsvisit Tortuguero each year (De Haro et al 2005 Harrison et al 2004)and access to the village and park is by boat or plane which contributesto the touristrsquos sense of geographic isolation and lsquowildernessrsquo This sameisolation makes solid waste management challenging as the logisticaldifficulty and expense of boating or flying garbage and recyclables out ofTortuguero are considerable That most of the region is protected in anational park also constrains on-site management of garbage Tortuguerorsquossolid waste management problem reflects an ongoing debate in the widertourism literature about whether or not the environmental impacts ofecotourism development are actually worse (or at least more difficult tomanage) than those associated with mass tourism (Ryan et al 2000Weaver 2001) For example some critics argue that ecotourism might bedispersing the impacts of tourism into more fragile environments wherecommunities lack the resources to manage them (similar to issues facedby small island destinations (Coccossis 2002)) In contrast mass tourismdevelopment has the potential for the concentration of impacts andrelated infrastructure and thus for improving environmental efficiency(Brown et al 1997 Pleumarom 1999 Wall and Long 1996 Weaver1998) While this debate is rarely reflected in the conservation literatureit illustrates the ways in which some of the original assumptions aboutecotourism are being questioned

Third by focusing on whether or not wildlife or other environmentalfeatures are consumed the role of ecotourism in consuming cultures isignored While definitions of ecotourism often reference both environmentand culture ecotourismrsquos overall focus on lsquopristine naturersquo (Akama 1996)means local people often end up being underemphasized or ignoredWhen they are included as part of the ecotourism attraction they areoften or portrayed as stereotypes (eg indigenous peoples as ecocentricnoble savages Bryant and Goodman 2004 Hinch 1998 Mowforth andMunt 1998 Urry 1995) and rich and complicated cultures are reducedto snapshots or themes for tourists to consume (eg Tibet as a theme inAteljevic and Doorne 2005) Considered to be part of the landscape bythe ecotourist gaze if they are seen at all local peoples must conform tothe images imposed on them through the ecotourism aesthetic andremain in a stage of suspended animation (eg not wearing overly moderndress) andor live as exaggerated versions of their culture that do notrepresent its current reality (Hinch 1998 Carrier and Macleod 2005)a process that Mowforth and Munt (1998) refer to as lsquozooificationrsquo ofculture This creation of a lsquostaged authenticityrsquo or an artificial versionof the destination in order to suit tourist needs expectations and desires


Geography Compass



(MacCannell 1973) can lead to the suppression (or segregation) of theiractual modern culture (Hinch 1998) andor to hostility and resistance toecotourism and the constraints it places on local culture and identities(Campbell et al forthcoming Doxey 1975 Meletis and Campbell forth-coming Smith and Duffy 2003) Furthermore locating consumptive use(hunting fishing) outside of acceptable on-site practices in an ecotourism-based community by the outright forbidding of such practices (egthrough park-related legislation) or by pushing them into the destinationrsquoslsquobackstagersquo (MacCannell 1999) could also drive lsquoan elusive wedge betweenhosts and guestsrsquo (Tremblay 2001 84)

On-site consumption of goods and services can also have undesirableimpacts on local culture and society Selling souvenirs for example mightbe linked to the commodification of local culture the re-enforcement oflocal stereotypes andor adversely affecting local culture or identities inother ways (Garrett 2005 Goss 2004 Mowforth and Munt 1998Nelson 2005) Local people are not simply passive victims of ecotourismdevelopment and the commodification of their culture that it may bringhowever and the consumptive relationship between host and guest isdialectical with the degree of local involvement in lsquoembodiments ofproduction and consumptionrsquo and the negotiation of local images varyingfrom place to place (Ateljevic and Doorne 2005) Local entrepreneurslearn from ecotourists for example in determining how to sell theirproductstours as being lsquomore authenticrsquo than others thus lsquoblurringrsquo theboundaries between consumption and production (Ateljevic and Doorne2005) and revealing the importance of figurative consumption and theaesthetics of ecotourism as forces that shape the industry Nonetheless theconsumption of culture identity and peoples is occurring on many levelsthrough ecotourism and this can have negative impacts on local peoples(discussed further below)

24

non-consumptive use via ecotourism is superior to consumptive use of wildlife for environments economies and peoples

Contrasts made between consumptive use of wildlife and non-consumptiveuse via ecotourism are typically employed to paint non-consumptive use asinherently more beneficial for both environments and people (Campbell2002a b c) For example a recent World Wildlife Fund publication

Money Talks

promotes sea turtle based ecotourism over consumptive useof turtles and makes the following claim

Non-consumptive use generates more revenue has greater economic multiplyingeffects greater potential for economic growth creates more support formanagement and generates proportionally more jobs social developmentand employment opportunities for women than consumptive use (Troeumlng andDrews 2004 9)



Geography Compass


Not only is non-consumptive use depicted as more valuable economicallybut as incompatible with consumptive use in both the World WildlifeFund and other studies

Non-consumptive economic values [of sea turtles] show the opportunity costsof consumptive uses (eg meat eggs) and incidental destruction (eg from boatstrikes entanglement in prawn trawls and crab pots) of sea turtles (Wilson andTisdell 2001 279)

Such claims may apply in some places but there are counter exampleswhere ecotourism and direct consumptive use of wildlife co-exist Forexample in the Ostional Wildlife Refuge Costa Rica a legalized harvestof sea turtle eggs co-exists with turtle-based ecotourism (Campbell 19981999) In this case consumptive use has emerged as the

preferred

economicoption for most community members The legalized egg harvest iscommunity-controlled and sale of sea turtle eggs has been on-going forover 20 years It provides substantial economic benefits that are widelydistributed in the community (Campbell 1998 Campbell et al 2007) Incontrast existing tourism development in Ostional while lucrative forthose involved benefits few local families and is increasingly dominatedby foreign investors (Campbell 1999) While local people see the benefitsof tourism and most are in favor of its expansion there is little to nodesire to replace the egg harvest with tourism and most local people donot see these activities as incompatible (Campbell et al 2007) Further-more whereas current management of the turtle egg harvest lies withcommunity members and the benefits are distributed in an agreed uponway there is no guarantee that the benefits from the expansion of localecotourism development would be distributed similarly and there isconcern among local people about the ability to capture and retainbenefits locally (Campbell et al forthcoming) In the case of Ostional theconsumptive use of wildlife is also believed to be environmentally sustainablewith no evidence of decreases in the numbers of nesting turtles over time(Ballestero et al 2000) despite the direct removal of the eggs of a speciesclassified as endangered by the IUCN

While labeling ecotourism non-consumptive implies that ecotourismis lsquonaturallyrsquo less damaging to the environment than consumptive uses ofwildlife there is nothing inherent in ecotourism that guarantees minimalor negligible environmental outcomes just as consumptive use will notalways lead to the depletion of the resources consumed The impacts(positive and negative) of ecotourism as a form of development depend ona host of factors such as the quality of planning and management involved(Nelson 1994 Wall 1996 Weaver 1998) the cultural appropriateness ofecotourism as a form of development (Boyd and Butler 1996 Charnley2005 Scheyvens 1999 2002) the level of impact management (Boyd andButler 1996 Ross and Wall 1999a) the volume and type of ecotourismvisitation to an area (Weaver 1999 Young 1999) and the resiliency of the


Geography Compass



local environment

vis-agrave-vis

ecotourismrsquos impacts (Bhattarai et al 2005Weaver 1998) Just like any other form of development ecotourism canbe well planned for and managed or poorly planned for and managed(Shepherd 2002) Case study literature details repeated examples ofecotourism development that has included negative impacts on wildlifeand the environment and of ecotourism acting lsquoas a double-edged swordwith its ldquosuccessrdquo causing the eventual destruction of the resources beingprotectedrsquo (Campbell 2002b 41)

Ecotourism can also change consumption patterns and preferences inlocal communities with impacts on economy society and environmentWhen ecotourists arrive in a destination they bring their level ofconsumption with them in their dress in their on-site demands and inrepresentations of their lifestyles found in their daily interactions withlocal people This can have profound impacts on local communitiesparticularly those that are more remote if local people then aspire toachieve the same material status as tourists a phenomenon long associatedwith tourism and known as the demonstration affect (Bhattarai et al2005 Carrier and Macleod 2005 Weaver 1998) The point here is not toquestion whether changing local demand for income and goods is a lsquogoodrsquoor lsquobadrsquo thing concern for the demonstration effect can be interpreted aspaternalistic and neo-colonial (ie as an effort to freeze local communities asa phase of (lesser) development) Rather we highlight the demonstrationeffect to point to the complex network of consumption-related relation-ships between ecotourism ecotourists and host communities that may beoverlooked when ecotourism is described as lsquonon-consumptiversquo a labelthat does not capture ecotourismrsquos role in the importation of First Worldlifestyles and consumption levels to ecotourism destinations

3 Situating Ecotourism in Wider Debates about Moralizing Consumption

In the above sections we interrogated some of the assumptions associatedwith popular definitions of ecotourism and its impacts on environmentsand communities to illustrate the ways in which the classification ofecotourism as non-consumptive is misleading and can mask the negativeconsequences of ecotourism for both environments and people Theseconsequences are well catalogued in the tourism literature (eg Cater2006 Duffy 2002 Honey 1999 Mowforth and Munt 1998 Weaver 1999Wheeler 1994) In this section we take a step back from ecotourism inpractice and its impacts to situate ecotourism in wider contemporarydebates about the nature of consumption and specifically about currenttrends in lsquomoralizingrsquo consumption and tourism (Bryant and Jarosz 2004Butcher 2003)

The world has been described as increasingly consumption-driven atrend that affords consumers power and that gives acts of consumptionpolitical meaning (Miller 1995) Consumption is identified as a new site



Geography Compass


for activism and a new locus for civil society (Bryant and Goodman 2004Butcher 2003) and this has inspired interest in alternative consumptionwith consumers expressing their moral preferences through their choiceto purchase for example fair trade coffee or ecotourism holidaysEcotourism is portrayed as a way to lsquosaversquo nature or particular componentsof it in several ways (Campbell et al forthcoming) First ecotourismprovides an alternative source of income to peoples who otherwise wouldat least partially focus their efforts on the consumptive use of wildlife andor other resource extraction (Bryant and Goodman 2004 Campbell2002a Clay 2004 Gray 2002 Mowforth and Munt 1998 Smith andDuffy 2003 Tisdell and Wilson 2002) Second in choosing an ecotourismholiday ecotourists believe they are reducing impacts on the environmentas ecotourism is also marketed as a more environmentally friendly form oftravel (Duffy 2002 Honey 1999 Mowforth and Munt 1998) A narrativeof lsquoecotourism as helpingrsquo is pervasive and can be found in touristaccounts of their travel experiences as the example below illustrates

Afterward as we stroll back to the village of Tortuguero I recall my mixedfeelings about the human impact on this environment Now Irsquom going homejoyous that my presence here helped an entire nest of baby turtles survive thefirst challenge of their lives (Clay 2004)

Thus through consumer choice acts of consumption are transformedinto acts of caring (Miller 1998 Popke 2006) and alternative consumptionbecomes a moral act (Bryant and Goodman 2004 Bryant and Jarosz 2004Butcher 2003)

Ecotourism is a particularly interesting form of alternative consumptionfor two main reasons First Bryant and Goodman (2004) identify two com-modity cultures that exist within alternative consumption (i) conservation-seeking (seeking to preserve the environment) and (ii) solidarity-seeking(seeking to support peoples and cultures) While Bryant and Goodman(2004) examine products that fit into one category or the other ecotourismat least in theory combines both due to its combined goals of wildlifepreservation and local economic development In practice howeverconservation-seeking culture often wins out over the solidarity-seeking andthe need to lsquotrade-off rsquo between these reveals some of the contradictionsinherent in alternative consumption (Campbell et al forthcoming) Secondunlike many alternative consumption products that face the problem ofconsumers lsquocaring-at-a-distancersquo (Popke 2006) with the object of their concernfar removed from them (eg regarding organic or fair trade coffees coffeepickers live far away from First World coffee drinkers) ecotourism bringsthe caregiverconsumer to the object of the of careconsumption throughtravel to the site (Barnett et al 2005) In theory this should allow forecotourists as consumers to surmount the challenge of caring-at-a-distance In practice however the ecotourist remains distanced from theend results of their act of consumption or lsquocaringrsquo because for the most


Geography Compass



part such impacts (eg environmental impacts) remain lsquobackstagersquo or areotherwise unobvious to the ecotourist (Edensor 2001 MacCannell 1999)

While some scholars view the trend toward alternative consumptionas positive others are more critical For example alternative forms ofconsumption such as ecotourism may only reaffirm the primacy of bothconsumption and capitalism and can be seen as products of neo-liberaleconomic policies (Campbell 2002b Campbell et al forthcoming) Ryanet al (2000) for example see ecotourism as a form of consumption firstand foremost and view attempts to portray it as a morally superior under-taking as suspect All travel for pleasure is form of conspicuous consumptionin that it is a function of privilege (eg the ability to get time off toaccrue disposable income to travel to a destination) and while ecotourismcomes in a variety of forms many ecotourism opportunities are eliteinvolving travel to remote and expensive destinations (Cater 2006 Hall1994 Mowforth and Munt 1998 Thrupp 1990) Some experts argue thatexclusive ecotourism is desirable precisely because it maximizes profitswhile minimizing the number of people participating (Akama 1996Goumlssling and Oliver 2003 Mowforth and Munt 1998) However highlyaffluent clients sometimes present correspondingly high demands forluxury services and these demands may place significant burdensenvironmental and otherwise on host communities (Bhattarai et al 2005)There is also a certain irony involved in labeling such an elite form ofconsumption as non-consumptive

The moralized discourse of ecotourists as lsquocaringrsquo also emphasizes whatecotourists put into their travel choices rather than what they get out ofthem such as the cultural capital associated with traveling to the lsquorightrsquoplace to do the lsquorightrsquo thing under lsquochallengingrsquo conditions that ecotouristsmust endure in order to be able to tell their post-trip tales (Ateljevicand Doorne 2005 Mowforth and Munt 1998 Ryan et al 2000) Highlyexclusive ecotourism opportunities further reinforce a sense of privilegethrough their limited accessibility they represent extreme demandsregarding location financing and social capital that only a lsquofewrsquo can fulfillThus ecotourism affords a certain cache to the ecotourist and builds theircultural capital just like drinking organic andor fair trade coffeedoes it serves to mark status and segregate within society while appealingto those within the same social class (eg other ecotourists) (Roseberry1996) In this light ecotourism is a product purchased to fulfill a varietyof complex consumer needs

4 Re-Conceptualizing Ecotourism

We have attempted to illustrate the ways in which labeling ecotourism asnon-consumptive is misleading Labeling is not just a matter of semanticshowever and ecotourismrsquos non-consumptive label limits its potential forsimultaneously preserving both environments and cultures down-plays its



Geography Compass


material impacts on both environments and people and masks its role inlarger systems of production and consumption In this final sectionwe discuss why the non-consumptive label persists and how we mightre-conceptualize ecotourism

Ecotourism is often closely associated with parks and protected areasand while the popularity of ecotourism means that it now takes place ina number of different environments both protected and non-protectedthe link between ecotourism and parks and protected areas helps toexplain the emphasis put on ecotourism as non-consumptive Campbell(2002ac) for example has argued that promoting ecotourism allowsconservationists interested in species preservation to speak the language ofa conservation counter-narrative This arose in opposition to a traditionalnarrative of exclusionary parks and protected areas that emphasizescommunity-based conservation and sustainable use of natural resourcesand is related to the more general rise of interest in sustainable develop-ment By promoting non-consumptive use and including goals of culturalconservation and local socio-economic development ecotourism allowsconservationists to adopt this counter-narrative However becauseecotourism often occurs to parks and protected areas (and can be usedto rationalize the creation of more parks) conservationists can speak thelanguage of a counter-narrative while retaining parks and protectedareas (the very thing the counter-narrative originally opposed) (Campbell2002a) By labeling ecotourism non-consumptive ecotourism lsquofitsrsquo withthe traditionally non-extractive policies of parks while other consumptiveuses do not More recently Campbell et al (forthcoming) have argued thatrather than being a mere outcome of the conservation counter-narrativeecotourism itself is a narrative one that persists because it meets the needsof a variety of interest groups (conservationists tourists tourism operatorsgovernments) regardless of their views on the best way to pursue con-servation and development

While there are case studies of ecotourism where its goals as currentlyconceived are realized in practice (eg Colvin 1996 Stronza 2000Wesche 1996 Wunder 2003) more common are those showing ecotourismrsquosdisappointments (eg Charnley 2005 Duffy 2002 Honey 1999 Kiss2004 Lindberg et al 1996) We suggest these disappointments arise atleast in part due to the non-consumptive conceptualization ofecotourism in the conservation literature and the related focus on thedirect interaction of tourists and wildlife (or other environmentalfeatures of interest) When focusing on such interactions other impacts arehidden and therefore unacknowledged unanticipated and unaddressedAs a result we argue that lsquothe project of ecotourismrsquo needs to be re-conceptualized This re-conceptualization should recognize ecotourismrsquos

consumptive

nature in all of the ways outlined in the first part of this articlewhile simultaneously seeing it as much more than just a product for saleor purchase


Geography Compass



First consumptive use should be considered as a possible componentof ecotourism when such use is biologically feasible socio-economicallybeneficial and culturally appropriate and desirable When consumptiveuse is possible and included in an ecotourism package ecotourism mightgo further in achieving its dual goals of environmental

and

cultural con-servation with benefits for both environments

and

people Furthermoreecotourism that includes consumptive use might make it more amenableto a wider variety of cultural views from around the world less Westernbiased and more compatible with existing and diverse humanndashenvironmentrelations in potential destinations Such a shift seems to be more in-linewith the wants and desires of many communities andor indigenousgroups interested in self-organized participation in ecotourism (Hinch1998 Johnston 2003 Wesche 1996) This would also help change ourconceptions of ecotourism as simply a service or product being boughtand sold to ecotourism as a process that is negotiated between lsquohosts andguestsrsquo and between different cultures worldviews and value systems

Second ecotourismrsquos wider consumptive impacts on the environmentboth figurative and literal should be explicitly recognized as critical toecotourism planning and management For example acknowledging thevisual consumption associated with ecotourism forces us to see ecotouristlandscapes not as lsquonaturalrsquo but as produced to satisfy an ecotourist aestheticSatisfying this has traditionally involved shieldingseparating ecotouristsfrom their impacts ecotourists are often presented with sanitized orlsquogreenwashedrsquo versions of destinations (Carrier and Macleod 2005 Scheyvens2002) rather than exposed to local environmental and conservationrealities A re-conceptualized ecotourism could include attention to issueslike site management as part of the ecotourism product ecotourists couldbe encouraged to look at not only nature but how it and its consumptionthrough ecotourism is managed This new approach could provide much-needed opportunities for directed fundraising andor tourist volunteerwork (eg for a local recycling program) targeted to specific tourism-associated environmental impacts (eg waste management shortcomings)and help to alleviate the environmental pressures felt in some ecotourismdestinations The rise of interest in so-called volunteer ecotourism suggeststhat this type of engagement is possible While volunteer ecotourism hasitself been critiqued (Campbell and Gray forthcoming) Wearing (2001)forwards it as the ecotourism lsquoidealrsquo At a more fundamental levelrecognizing ecotourism is a highly visual and aesthetically orientedform of tourism allows us to more fully contemplate authenticity or lackthereof the role of artifice in ecotourism management and marketingand how management and marketing practices perpetuate or challengethe notion that ecotourism is lsquonon-consumptiversquo

Third a re-conceptualized vision of ecotourism should give greateremphasis to the consumptive impacts figurative and literal of ecotourismon local communities their natural resources economies and cultures



Geography Compass


While cultural conservation and economic development are included asgoals in ecotourism definitions the assumed superiority of ecotourism toalternative forms of resource use means that impacts of ecotourism oncommunities are largely assumed to be positive As long as lsquonature trumpsculturersquo for ecotourists such assumptions are problematic A move topay more genuine attention to local people however might requireconcessions such as allowing the consumptive use of wildlife in someecotourism destinations and thus the first point of re-conceptualizationremains critical

We believe that re-conceptualizing ecotourism will open up possibilitiesfor improving it and that due to ecotourismrsquos popularity looking forpossibilities remains important First acknowledging the importance ofconsumption in ecotourism helps to break down the often over-stateddistinctions made between ecotourism and mass tourism and highlightsthe ways in which these are similar This provides opportunities forknowledge transfer conventional tourism its development and responsesto it have long been studied and there are lessons learned best practicesand strategies that could be used (both preventatively and responsively)to lessen undesirable consequences of ecotourism development Acknow-ledging the role of consumption in both ecotourism and mass tourismcreates conceptual space in which such information exchanges can occurand may lessen the need to lsquore-invent the wheelrsquo when thinking aboutand managing ecotourism

Second situating ecotourism in the larger trend of moralizing con-sumption allows us to evaluate it not simply as a form of development oras a leisure activity but as part of a larger socio-economic phenomenonthat involves consumers changing purchasing practices and producerscarving out new market niches As such ecotourism is similar to otherlsquoalternativersquo products developed to meet new consumer demands such asorganic andor fair trade foodstuffs sweatshop-free textiles and childlabor-free consumer goods Considering ecotourism in the context of awider consumer culture opens up new opportunities for making com-parisons between such products the socio-economic processes and industriesthat produce them and the people who buy and sell them looking atecotourism as consumption also forces us to consider its production Againlessons learned with other alternative products may be applied to ecotourism

Finally while re-conceptualizing ecotourism should increase thepossibilities for ecotourism to contribute to both conservation anddevelopment we also believe that it will allow for more informed decision-making about whether or not to undertake ecotourism at all If we continueto focus only on the lsquodirect removal of the speciesrsquo then ecotourism willcontinue to be by default the preferred conservation option if moreanimalsresources remain intact we must be lsquobetter off rsquo If however webroaden our analysis to include wider environmental economic culturaland social impacts of ecotourism from the beginning then all conservation


Geography Compass



and development options may be more realistically assessed for their realcosts and benefits

This article contributes to a growing critique of ecotourism that does notcall for an abandonment of ecotourism but rather for a re-conceptualizationof the ways in which we plan for discuss and evaluate ecotourism Thisre-conceptualization is required in order that ecotourism can achieve itsgoals in more than a few select cases Given the association of ecotourism withdominant conservation narratives and the persistence of narratives in spiteof challenges to their validity (Adams and Hulme 2001 Campbell 2002abRoe 1991) the re-conceptualization called for here will not be easily achievedHowever if we are to move beyond restricted visions of ecotourism thatconform to (and reconfirm) Western expectations of nature and culture thatcarry hidden environmental social and cultural costs and that contributeto an lsquoalternativersquo consumer culture that does little to challenge the statusquo then such re-conceptualization is necessary and long overdue

Short Biographies

Zoeuml A Meletis is a PhD candidate at the Nicholas School of the Environ-ment and Earth Sciences Duke University Although currently housed inan interdisciplinary environmental school she is a human geographerHer thesis compares ecotourism in practice with ecotourism in theoryusing the case study of Tortuguero Costa Rica She is currently writingup her dissertation It includes forthcoming manuscripts on local percep-tions of ecotourism and conservation in Tortuguero the solid waste crisisin Tortuguero as an environmental justice issue an interpretation of localresistance to ecotourism development in the village and a re-visiting ofSusan Placersquos (1991) assessment of ecotourism in Tortuguero She recentlycontributed to a co-authored article published in

The Geographical Review

on conducting fieldwork in international settings through the use ofgatekeepers and to a chapter (forthcoming) on the political ecologyof ecotourism to parks and protected areas She expects to graduate inDecember (2007)

Lisa M Campbell is a geographer and the Rachel Carson AssistantProfessor of Marine Affairs and Policy at the Nicholas School of Environ-ment and Earth Sciences Duke University Her work is broadly situatedat the intersection of environment and development in rural areas ofLatin American the Caribbean Southern Africa and more recentlyNorth Carolina and is informed by political ecology She has focused onconservation of endangered species and specifically of sea turtles and howconservation conflicts with or enhances local community developmentShe has authored and co-authored a variety of articles on conservationnarratives policy and practice and how these are informed by scienceand other values for both geography journals and interdisciplinaryenvironmental studies and development studies journals She has a recently



Geography Compass


published article in

The Annals of the Association of American Geographers

onthe political ecology of sea turtle conservation

Acknowledgements

In writing this article we draw on field research supported by a numberof agencies including the Social Sciences and Humanities ResearchCouncil of Canada the Nicholas School of the Environment and EarthSciences at Duke University Duke University Marine Laboratory theDuke University Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies theAndrew W Mellon Foundation and the University of Western OntarioWe would like to thank our lsquoCampbell labrsquo colleagues at Duke UniversityMarine Laboratory and our fieldwork communities and friendsGary Brierley and Helen Ashton at Geography COMPASS and the twoanonymous reviewers for their helpful comments

Note

Correspondence address Zoeuml A Meletis Nicholas School of the Environment and EarthSciences Duke University 135 Duke Marine Lab Road Beaufort NC 28516-9721 USAE-mail zamdukeedu

References

Adams W and Hulme D (2001) Conservation and community changing narratives policiesand practices in African conservation In Hulme D and Murphree M (eds)

African wildlifeand livelihoods the promise and performance of community conservation

Oxford UK James CurryLtd pp 9ndash23

Akama J S (1996) Western environmental values and nature-based tourism in Kenya

TourismManagement

17 pp 567ndash574Ateljevic I and Doorne S (2005) Dialectics of authentication performing lsquoexotic othernessrsquo

in a backpacker enclave of Dali China

Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change

3 pp 1ndash17Ballestero J Arauz R M and Rojas R (2000) Management conservation and sustained use of

olive ridley sea turtle eggs (

Lepidochelys olivacea

) in the Ostional Wildlife Refuge Costa Ricaan 11-year review In Abreu-Grobois F A et al (eds)

Proceedings of the eighteenth internationalsea turtle symposium

Mazatlaacuten Sinaloa Meacutexico US Department of Commerce pp 4ndash5Barnett C et al (2005) Consuming ethics articulating the subjects and spaces of ethical

consumption

Antipode

37 pp 23ndash45BBC News (2004) Sea turtle decline lsquocosts millionsrsquo [online] Retrieved 25 May 2004 from

httpnewsbbccouk1hiscitech3744661stmBhattarai K Conway D and Shrestha N (2005) Tourism terrorism and turmoil in Nepal

Annals of Tourism Research

32 pp 669ndash688Boyd S W and Butler R W (1996) Managing ecotourism an opportunity spectrum

approach

Tourism Management

17 pp 557ndash566Brown K et al (1997) Environmental carrying capacity and tourism development in the

Maldives and Nepal

Environmental Conservation

24 pp 316ndash325Bryant R L and Goodman M K (2004) Consuming narratives the political ecology of

lsquoalternativersquo consumption

Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers

29 pp 344ndash366Bryant R L and Jarosz L (2004) Ethics in political ecology a special issue of political

geography introduction thinking about ethics in political ecology (editorial)

Political Geography

23 pp 807ndash812


Geography Compass 14 (2007) 850ndash870 101111j1749-8198200700048xJournal Compilation copy 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd


Butcher J (2003) The moralisation of tourism London RoutledgeCampbell C L (1994) The effects of flash photography on nesting behavior of green turtles (Chelonia mydas)

at Tortuguero Costa Rica 14th Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and ConservationHilton Head Island North Carolina

Campbell L M (1998) Use them or lose them Conservation and the consumptive use ofmarine turtle eggs at Ostional Costa Rica Environmental Conservation 24 pp 305ndash319

mdashmdash (1999) Ecotourism in rural developing communities Annals of Tourism Research 26pp 534ndash553

mdashmdash (2002a) Conservation narratives and the received wisdom of ecotourism case studiesfrom Costa Rica International Journal of Sustainable Development 5 pp 300ndash325

mdashmdash (2002b) Conservation narratives in Costa Rica conflict and co-existence Developmentand Change 33 pp 29ndash56

mdashmdash (2002c) Science and sustainable use views of marine turtle conservation expertsEcological Applications 12 pp 1229ndash1246

Campbell L M and Gray N J (forthcoming 2007) A decommodified experience Exploringaesthetic economic and ethical values for volunteer ecotourism in Costa Rica Journal ofSustainable Tourism 15(5)

Campbell L M Gray N J and Meletis Z A (forthcoming 2007) Political ecology perspec-tives on ecotourism to parks and protected areas In Hanna K Clark D and SlocombeS (eds) Transforming parks and protected areas management and governance in a changing worldAbingdon UK Routledge and Taylor and Francis

Campbell L M Haalboom J and Trow J (2007) Sustainability of community based con-servation sea turtle egg harvesting in Ostional (Costa Rica) ten years later EnvironmentalConservation 34 Epub ahead of print 25 May 2007 doi 101017S0376892907003840

Caribbean Conservation Corporation (2003) Tortuguero national park Costa Rica-lsquoregion of theturtlesrsquo [online] Retrieved on 11 August 2006 from httpwwwcccturtleorgtortnphtm

Carrier J G and Macleod D V L (2005) Bursting the bubble the socio-cultural context ofecotourism Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 11 pp 315ndash334

Cater E (2006) Ecotourism as a Western construct Journal of Ecotourism 5 pp 23ndash39Ceballos-Lascuraacutein H (1996) Tourism ecotourism and protected areas Gland Switzerland IUCNCharnley S (2005) From nature tourism to ecotourism The case of the ngorogoro conservation

area Tanzania Human Organization 64 pp 75ndash88Clay K (2004) A night on the beach with some busy turtles [online] Retrieved on 28 August

2006 from httpwwwcsmonitorcom20041006p11s02-trgnhtmlCoccossis H (2002) Island tourism development and carrying capacity In Apostopoulos Y

and Gayle D J (eds) Island tourism and sustainable development London ContinuumColvin J G (1996) Indigenous ecotourism the Capirona programme in Napo Province

Ecuador [electronic version] Unasylva 187Conservation International (2004) Conservation international 2004 annual report Washington DC

Conservation International [online] httpwwwconservationorgImageCacheCIWEBcontentaboutci_5f04_5fannual_5freport_2epdfv1ci_5f04_5fannual_5freportpdf

Cuevas O and The Caribbean Conservation Corporation (2002) Tourism development alternativefor the turtle fisher community of Limon Costa Rica Feasibility Study and Master Plan

De Haro A Troeng S and Assistants A V O R (2005) Report on the 2005 green turtleprogram at Tortuguero Costa Rica San Pedro Costa Rica Gainsville FL Caribbean ConservationCorporation

Doxey G V (1975) A causation theory of visitor-resident irritants methodology and research inferencesProceedings of the 6th Travel and Tourism Research Association Conference ProceedingsSan Diego CA Travel Research Association pp 195ndash198

Duffy R (2002) A trip too far ecotourism politics and exploitation London Earthscan Publications LtdEdensor T (2001) Performing tourism staging tourism (Re)producing tourist space and

practice Tourist Studies 1 pp 59ndash81Evans S (1999) The green republic a conservation history of Costa Rica Austin TX University of

Texas PressFarrell T A and Marion J L (2001) Identifying and assessing ecotourism visitor impacts at

eight protected areas in Costa Rica and Belize Environmental Conservation 28 pp 215ndash225


copy 2007 The Authors Geography Compass 14 (2007) 850ndash870 101111j1749-8198200700048xJournal Compilation copy 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Freese C H (1998) Wild species as commodities managing markets and ecosystems for sustainabilityWashington DC Island Press

Garrett S (2005) Poppies and mangoes womenrsquos empowerment environmental conservationand ecotourism in Costa Rica Women and Environments International Magazine Fall 2004Winter 2005 pp 23ndash25

Goss J (2004) The souvenir conceptualizing the object(s) of tourist consumption In LewA A Hall M C and Wiliams A M (eds) A companion to tourism Malden MA BlackwellPublishing

Goumlssling S (2000) Sustainable tourism development in developing countries some aspects ofenergy use Journal of Sustainable Tourism 8 pp 410ndash425

Goumlssling S and Houmlrstmeier O (2003) lsquoHigh-value conservation tourismrsquo integrated tourismdevelopment in the Seychelles In Goumlssling S (ed) Tourism and development in tropical islandspolitical ecology perspectives Cheltenham UK Edward Elgar pp 203ndash221

Goumlssling S et al (2002) Ecological footprint analysis as a tool to assess tourism sustainabilityEcological Economics 43 pp 199ndash211

Gray N (2002) Unpacking the baggage of ecotourism nature science and local participationThe Great Lakes Geographer 9 pp 11ndash21

Gray N J and Campbell L M (forthcoming 2007) A decommodified experience Explor-ing aesthetic economic and ethical values for volunteer ecotourism in Costa Rica Journalof Sustainable Tourism 15(5)

Grossberg R Treves A and Naughton-Treves L (2003) The incidental ecotouristmeasuring visitor impacts on endangered howler monkeys at a Belizean archaeological siteEnvironmental Conservation 30 pp 40ndash51

Hall C M (1994) Tourism and politics policy power and place Chichester UK John Wiley amp SonsHarrison D E Troeumlng S and Assistants A V R (2004) Report on the 2004 green turtle

program at Tortuguero Costa Rica San Pedro Costa Rica Caribbean Conservation CoroporationHillery M et al (2001) Tourist perception of environmental impact Annals of Tourism Research

28 pp 853ndash867Hinch T (1998) Ecotourists and indigenous hosts diverging views on their relationship with

nature Current Issues in Tourism 1 pp 120ndash124Honey M (1999) Ecotourism and sustainable development who owns paradise Washington DC

Island PressHughes M and Morrison-Saunders A (2003) Visitor attitudes toward a modified natural

attraction Society and Natural Resources 16 pp 191ndash203Hvenegaard G T and Dearden P (1998) Ecotourism versus tourism in a Thai National Park

Annals of Tourism Research 25 pp 700ndash720Johnston A M (2003) Self-determination exercising indigenous rights in Tourism In Singh

S T Dallen J and Dowling Ross K (eds) Tourism in destination communities Wallingford UKCABI Publishing pp 115ndash134

Kalkadoon (2007) Cultural and eco-tourism [online] Retrieved on 01 May 2007 from httpwwwkalkadoonorgindexphpchannel-country-tourism

Kiss A (2004) Is community-based ecotourism a good use of biodiversity conservation fundsTRENDS in Ecology and Evolution 19 pp 233ndash237

Lee D N B and Snepenger D J (1992) An ecotourism assessment of Tortuguero CostaRica Annals of Tourism Research 19 pp 367ndash370

Lindberg K Enriquez J and Sproule K (1996) Ecotourism questioned case studies fromBelize Annals of Tourism Research 23 pp 543ndash562

Luck M (2003) Education on marine mammal tours as agent for conservation ndash but dotourists want to be educated Ocean and Coastal Management 46 pp 943ndash956

Maccannell D (1973) Staged authenticity arrangements of social space in tourist settingsAmerican Journal of Sociology 79 pp 589ndash603

mdashmdash (1999) The tourist a new theory of the leisure class Berkeley CA University of CaliforniaPress

Meletis Z A and Campbell L M (forthcoming) Appreciation apprehension and actionAn interpretation of resistance to ecotourism in Tortuguero Costa Rica ( for submission toGeoForum)



Miller D (1998) A theory of shopping Ithaca NY Cornell University Pressmdashmdash (ed) (1995) Acknowledging consumption London RoutledgeMowforth M and Munt I (1998) Tourism and sustainability new tourism in the Third World

London RoutledgeNauman T (2002) Reclaiming a territory and the culture that goes with it [online] Retrieved on

01 May 2007 from httpwwwchangemakersnetjournal02februarynaumancfrrNelson J G (1994) The spread of ecotourism some planning implications Environmental

Conservation 21 pp 248ndash255Nelson V (2005) Representation and images of people place and nature in Grenadarsquos tourism

Geografiska Annaler 87B pp 131ndash143Novelli M Barnes J I and Humavindu M (2006) The other side of the ecotourism coin

consumptive tourism in Southern Africa Journal of Ecotourism 5 pp 62ndash79Nygren A (2003) Nature as contested terrain conflicts over wilderness protection and local

livelihoods in Rio San Juan Nicaragua In Anderson D G and Berglund E (eds) Ethnographiesof conservation environmentalism and the distribution of privilege New York Berghan Books

Place S (1991) Nature tourism and rural development in Tortuguero Annals of TourismResearch 18 pp 186ndash201

Pleumarom A (1999) The hidden costs of the lsquonewrsquo tourisms ndash a focus on biopiracy Third WorldBriefing Paper for CSD7 No 1 [online] Retrieved on 27 March 2007 from httpwwwtwnsideorgsgtitlehiddenhtm

Popke J (2006) Geography and ethics everyday mediations through care and consumptionProgress in Human Geography 30 pp 504ndash512

Rees W and Wackernagel M (1994) Ecological footprints and appropriated carrying capacitymeasuring the natural capital requirements of the human economy In Jansson M H MFolke C and Costanza R (eds) Investing in natural capital the ecological economics approach tosustainability Washington DC Island Press pp 362ndash390

Roe E (1991) Development narratives or making the best of blueprint development WorldDevelopment 19 pp 287ndash300

Roseberry W (1996) The rise of yuppie coffees and the reimagination of class in the UnitedStates American Anthropologist 98 pp 762ndash775

Ross S and Wall G (1999) Ecotourism towards congruence between theory and practiceTourism Management 20 pp 123ndash132

Ryan C Hughes K and Chirgwin S (2000) The gaze spectacle and ecotourism Annalsof Tourism Research 27 pp 148ndash163

Scheyvens R (1999) Ecotourism and the empowerment of local communities TourismManagement 20 pp 245ndash249

mdashmdash (2002) Tourism for development empowering communities Essex UK Prentice Hall PearsonEducation Harlow

Sell S (2004) 10 great places to tread lightly on Earth USA Today 20 August 2004 p 3DShepherd N (2002) How ecotourism can go wrong the cases of SeaCanoe and Siam Safari

Thailand Current Issues in Tourism 5 pp 309ndash318Smith D (2005) La Comunidad Tortuguero Costa Rica Una pelicula sobre la gente y la

naturaleza de Tortuguero Costa Rica USA Associacion CAVUSmith M and Duffy R (2003) The ethics of tourism development London RoutledgeStern C J et al (2003) How lsquoecorsquo is ecotourism A comparative case study of ecotourism in

Costa Rica Journal of Sustainable Tourism 11 pp 322ndash347Stronza A (2000) Because it is ours community-based ecotourism in the Peruvian Amazon Gainsville

FL University of Floridamdashmdash (2001) Anthropology of tourism forging new ground for ecotourism and other

alternatives Annual Review of Anthropology 30 pp 261ndash283The International Ecotourism Society (no date given) Ecotourism-definitions and principles

[online] Retrieved on 12 January 2006 from httpwwwecotourismorgThrupp L A (1990) Environmental initiatives in Costa Rica a political ecology perspective

Society and Natural Resources 3 pp 243ndash256Tisdell C and Wilson C (2002) Ecotourism for the survival of sea turtles and other wildlife

Biodiversity and Conservation 11 pp 1521ndash1538



Tremblay P (2001) Wildlife tourism consumption consumptive or non-consumptiveInternational Journal of Tourism Research 3 pp 81ndash86

Troeumlng S (2004) Five decades of sea turtle conservation monitoring and research at TortugueroTortuguero Costa Rica Tortuga Lodge

Troeumlng S and Drews C (2004) Money talks economic aspects of marine turtle use and conservationGland Switzerland WWF-International

Urry J (1995) Consuming places London Routledgemdashmdash (2002) The tourist gaze Thousand Oaks CA SAGE Publications LondonWall G and Long V (1996) Balinese homestays an indigenous response to tourism oppor-

tunities In Butler R and Hinch T (eds) Tourism and indigenous peoples London InternationalThomson Business Press pp 27ndash48

Wall G (1996) Ecotourism change impacts and opportunities Yale School of Forestry andEnvironmental Studies Bulletin Series 99 pp 108ndash117

Wearing S (2001) Volunteer tourism experiences that make a difference New York CABI publishingWeaver D B (1998) Ecotourism in the less developed world Wallingford UK CAB Internationalmdashmdash (1999) Magnitude of ecotourism in Costa Rica and Kenya Annals of Tourism Research

26 pp 792ndash816mdashmdash (2001) Ecotourism as mass tourism contradiction or reality Cornell Hotel and Restaurant

Administration Quarterly 42 pp 104ndash112mdashmdash (2005) Comprehensive and minimalist dimensions of ecotourism Annals of Tourism

Research 32 pp 439ndash455Wesche R (1996) Developed country environmentalism and indigenous community controlled

ecotourism in the Ecuadorian Amazon Geographische Zeitschrift 84 pp 157ndash168West P and Carrier J G (2004) Ecotourism and authenticity getting away from it all

Current Anthropology 45 pp 483ndash498Wheeler B (1994) Egotourism sustainable tourism and the environment a symbiotic symbolic

or shambolic relationship In Seaton A V (ed) Tourism the state of the art Chichester UKJohn Wiley amp Sons pp 645ndash654

Wilson C and Tisdell C (2001) Sea turtles as a non-consumptive tourism resource especiallyin Australia Tourism Management 22 pp 279ndash288

mdashmdash (2003) Conservation and economic benefits of wildlife-based marine tourism sea turtlesand whales as case studies Human Dimensions of Wildlife 8 pp 49ndash58

Wunder S (2003) Native tourism natural forests and local incomes in Ilha Grande Brazil InGoumlssling S (ed) Tourism and development in tropical islands political ecology perspectivesCheltenham UK Edward Elgar Publishing pp 148ndash177

Young E H (1999) Balancing conservation with development in small-scale fisheries isecotourism an empty promise Human Ecology 27 pp 581ndash620


Geography Compass



socio-economic involvement of local populationsrsquo (Ceballos-Lascuraacutein 1993acited in Ceballos-Lascuraacutein 1996 20) The International Ecotourism Society(no date given) defines ecotourism as lsquoresponsible travel to natural areasthat conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local peoplersquoCombined these definitions highlight two common features of ecotourismdefinitions first that ecotourism can feature both natural and culturalattractions and second that it has both environmental conservation andsocio-economic development goals

In conservation literature ecotourism is often categorized as non-consumptive use of wildlife (and other environmental features) and contrastedwith consumptive use For example writing about sea turtle tourism andwhale watching Wilson and Tisdell (2003) write

[T]hese two resources have been increasingly used for nonconsumptivepurposes marking a significant shift away from previous consumptive usesMany countries previously using these resources for consumption are nowturning to nonconsumptive uses in the form of nature-based tourism (p 50)

Consumptive use is typically defined as the direct use or removal ofwildlife through activities such as hunting (Freese 1998) In contrastlsquoWhile ecotourism can impact negatively on species and ecosystems adefinition of consumptive use based strictly on ldquodeliberate removal of aspeciesrdquo excludes ecotourismrsquo (Campbell 2002b 31) Labeling ecotourismas non-consumptive is based on several assumptions however namely thatno direct consumption of wildlife occurs in ecotourism that the directconsumption of wildlife is incompatible with ecotourism and that the directconsumption of wildlife is the primary issue of concern Furthermorenon-consumptive use is often assumed to be a superior economic andenvironmental alternative to the consumptive use of wildlife Theseassumptions have been challenged by geographers and other social scientistsand we draw on their work and our own research to demonstratehow labeling ecotourism as non-consumptive is not only misleading butcarries potential consequences for both local peoples and environments inecotourism destinations We also situate ecotourism in wider contemporarydebates about the nature of consumption and specifically regardingalternative consumption and moralizing consumption

Prior to doing so several caveats are noted here First a vast literature onecotourism has emerged over the past two decades much of it increasinglycritical (eg Cater 2006 Duffy 2002 Honey 1999 Mowforth and Munt1998 Weaver 1999 Wheeler 1994) While the problems with ecotourismare widely recognized in the tourism literature enthusiasm for ecotourismremains in some of the major conservation organizations It is in thiscontext that we find assumptions about the non-consumptive nature ofecotourism particularly problematic Second debates about the meaningof ecotourism and the utility of term are also evident and some criticsoutline criteria that need to be met for ecotourism to succeed (Ross and



Geography Compass



is



21



USA Todayrsquos



Geography Compass



22






Geography Compass



per se


23






Geography Compass





beforeafter






Geography Compass





Geography Compass





24



Money Talks





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preferred




Geography Compass



local environment

vis-agrave-vis








Geography Compass







Geography Compass










Geography Compass





consumptive



Geography Compass




and


and






Geography Compass







Geography Compass





Short Biographies







Geography Compass





Acknowledgements


Note


References





TourismManagement










consumption

Antipode





approach

Tourism Management


Maldives and Nepal







Political Geography

23 pp 807ndash812









































































































Geography Compass



is



21



USA Todayrsquos



Geography Compass



22






Geography Compass



per se


23






Geography Compass





beforeafter






Geography Compass





Geography Compass





24



Money Talks





Geography Compass





preferred




Geography Compass



local environment

vis-agrave-vis








Geography Compass







Geography Compass










Geography Compass





consumptive



Geography Compass




and


and






Geography Compass







Geography Compass





Short Biographies







Geography Compass





Acknowledgements


Note


References





TourismManagement










consumption

Antipode





approach

Tourism Management


Maldives and Nepal







Political Geography

23 pp 807ndash812








































































































Geography Compass



22






Geography Compass



per se


23






Geography Compass





beforeafter






Geography Compass





Geography Compass





24



Money Talks





Geography Compass





preferred




Geography Compass



local environment

vis-agrave-vis








Geography Compass







Geography Compass










Geography Compass





consumptive



Geography Compass




and


and






Geography Compass







Geography Compass





Short Biographies







Geography Compass





Acknowledgements


Note


References





TourismManagement










consumption

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Tourism Management


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23 pp 807ndash812









































































































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Short Biographies







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Acknowledgements


Note


References





TourismManagement










consumption

Antipode





approach

Tourism Management


Maldives and Nepal







Political Geography

23 pp 807ndash812








































































































Geography Compass





beforeafter






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24



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preferred




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vis-agrave-vis








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and


and






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Short Biographies







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Acknowledgements


Note


References





TourismManagement










consumption

Antipode





approach

Tourism Management


Maldives and Nepal







Political Geography

23 pp 807ndash812









































































































Geography Compass





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24



Money Talks





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preferred




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vis-agrave-vis








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and


and






Geography Compass







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Short Biographies







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Acknowledgements


Note


References





TourismManagement










consumption

Antipode





approach

Tourism Management


Maldives and Nepal







Political Geography

23 pp 807ndash812








































































































Geography Compass





24



Money Talks





Geography Compass





preferred




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local environment

vis-agrave-vis








Geography Compass







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and


and






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Short Biographies







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Acknowledgements


Note


References





TourismManagement










consumption

Antipode





approach

Tourism Management


Maldives and Nepal







Political Geography

23 pp 807ndash812









































































































Geography Compass





preferred




Geography Compass



local environment

vis-agrave-vis








Geography Compass







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Geography Compass





consumptive



Geography Compass




and


and






Geography Compass







Geography Compass





Short Biographies







Geography Compass





Acknowledgements


Note


References





TourismManagement










consumption

Antipode





approach

Tourism Management


Maldives and Nepal







Political Geography

23 pp 807ndash812








































































































Geography Compass



local environment

vis-agrave-vis








Geography Compass







Geography Compass










Geography Compass





consumptive



Geography Compass




and


and






Geography Compass







Geography Compass





Short Biographies







Geography Compass





Acknowledgements


Note


References





TourismManagement










consumption

Antipode





approach

Tourism Management


Maldives and Nepal







Political Geography

23 pp 807ndash812









































































































Geography Compass







Geography Compass










Geography Compass





consumptive



Geography Compass




and


and






Geography Compass







Geography Compass





Short Biographies







Geography Compass





Acknowledgements


Note


References





TourismManagement










consumption

Antipode





approach

Tourism Management


Maldives and Nepal







Political Geography

23 pp 807ndash812








































































































Geography Compass










Geography Compass





consumptive



Geography Compass




and


and






Geography Compass







Geography Compass





Short Biographies







Geography Compass





Acknowledgements


Note


References





TourismManagement










consumption

Antipode





approach

Tourism Management


Maldives and Nepal







Political Geography

23 pp 807ndash812









































































































Geography Compass





consumptive



Geography Compass




and


and






Geography Compass







Geography Compass





Short Biographies







Geography Compass





Acknowledgements


Note


References





TourismManagement










consumption

Antipode





approach

Tourism Management


Maldives and Nepal







Political Geography

23 pp 807ndash812








































































































Geography Compass




and


and






Geography Compass







Geography Compass





Short Biographies







Geography Compass





Acknowledgements


Note


References





TourismManagement










consumption

Antipode





approach

Tourism Management


Maldives and Nepal







Political Geography

23 pp 807ndash812









































































































Geography Compass







Geography Compass





Short Biographies







Geography Compass





Acknowledgements


Note


References





TourismManagement










consumption

Antipode





approach

Tourism Management


Maldives and Nepal







Political Geography

23 pp 807ndash812








































































































Geography Compass





Short Biographies







Geography Compass





Acknowledgements


Note


References





TourismManagement










consumption

Antipode





approach

Tourism Management


Maldives and Nepal







Political Geography

23 pp 807ndash812









































































































Geography Compass





Acknowledgements


Note


References





TourismManagement










consumption

Antipode





approach

Tourism Management


Maldives and Nepal







Political Geography

23 pp 807ndash812







































































































zoë a. meletis* and lisa m. campbellpeople.duke.edu/~lcampbe/docs_lmc/meletis_campbell... ·...

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