466 BOOK REVIEWS

HARING, NORRIS G., & PHILLIPS, E. LAKIN. Analysis and Modification of Classroom Behavior. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1972. xii + 196 Pp. $7.95.

According to the preface, this book is an at tempt "to introduce new scientific skills to teachers. The procedures it offers can easily be adapted to any classroom. They entail no dras:ic changes in classroom organization or teaching methods, but require merely that the teacher be aware of basic principles of human behavior and utiiize them in a consistent manner . . . there has also emerged an increasing regard for the teacher as a systematic observer and modifier of children's behavior. This book is addressed to both the novice and the experienced teacher, who will, we hope, find in behavior modification a way to make their teaching more meaningful and more effective ( p. viii ) ."

It is difficult to see how the authors meet their stated goals. The vast majority of the techniques described were carried out with an array of personnel, apparatus, and reinforcers which exceeds all but the most unusual classroom situations. Virtually no mention is made of the means whereby teachers themselves can record behavior without disrupting their classroom routine. Too many of their explanations of princi- ples and procedures serve only to confuse the novice and too much reliance is placed upon authoritative quotations from such authors as Skinner and Sidman to explain complex concepts which Haring and Phillips themselves should have clarified.

Chapter One describes basic principles, defines such terms as stimulus, response, conditioning, reinforcement, and contingency management, and discusses the impor- tance of measurement and shaping in behavior modification. Unfortunately, the authors provided several statements which are of dubious accuracy, arbitrary, or written in esoteric language which is bound to confuse the novice. This is particularly regrettable and may well discourage some readers from reaching many of the favor- able aspects of the book which appeared in later chapters. Thus, the authors state that "operant behavior is learned behavior" (p. 5), which is not always true; they claim that "learning may be considered an example of responses conditioned to stimuli" (p. 4 ), bu t do not define "conditioned" or "conditioning"; "they sometimes use mentalistic expressions to describe positive reinforcement as "the presentation of a pleasurable or desirable consequence of behavior" (p. 11), without stressing that a consequence must increase the future rate of the behavior which produced it, in order to be considered a positive reinforcer; and they indicate that behavior modification "'can be considered scientific because a basic law of behavior is followed and the conditions under which the law functions are structured" (p. 2 ) - - w h o s e criteria for science they are using is unclear. Throughout, the authors abruptly introduce such processes as adventitious reinforcement, the Premack principle, and schedules of reinforcement in insufficient detail to be meaningful to those not al- ready familiar with the terms.

The second chapter is much better. A variety of pert inent classroom studies is presented in sufficient detail that a reader unfamiliar with the original reports is able to follow them. Anecdotes and information not available in the published articles are introduced in a manner that is a delight to read. A linguistic problem which occurred in this chapter, and elsewhere in the book is that the authors used the term "extinguished" for the elimination of a punished response (p. 25). The term should be reserved for a behavior whose rate has been reduced through an "extinction" process.

The third chapter is entitled Behavior Analysis and the Design o/ Programs,

BOOK REVIEWS 467

behavior analysis being defined as "'the process of evaluating the relationship between classroom conditions (stimuli) and a child's behavior (responses)" (p. 40). It would have been helpful if the authors had clarified the fact flaat the term "behavior analysis," as used by Hating and Phillips, implies different criteria from those of the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. Their indication of when it is preferable to use duration recording rather than frequency measurement is thorough, as is their description of the process of taking baseline data and of evaluating the effectiveness of certain techniques. However, although they give general principles for using behavior modification procedures in classroom settings, they fail to provide enough detail to make the information useful in practice.

Chapter Four discusses the physical enviromnent of the classroom, the instructional process, different types of reinforcement systems, and extinction. The measurement of academic progress, the diflqculties of traditional classroom procedures, the de- scription of important token reinforcement studies, the problems with extinction procedures, and the need for taking continuous data are well documented. For some reason, they discuss negative reinforcement in some detail, but devote only two sentences to punishment and it is possible that the novice would develop the mistaken impression that the two processes are the same. The authors state that response recording should be graphed on six-cycle log paper but provide little reason for this conclusion. (In fact, 11 of the 13 graphs which Haring and Phillips present were done on standard graph paper.) The authors contradict themselves by stating that teachers should verify the effectiveness of their procedures with a reversal or multiple- baseline design (p. 56), but later state that "a return to baseline conditions is usually not necessary" (p. 81). In the latter part of the chapter the authors finally suggest a data sheet which teachers might use to record behavior, but it would appear to be too cumbersome for an unassisted teacher to employ and Haring and Phillips do not provide information as to whether teachers have found the sheet convenient to use.

The second half of the book is a vast improvement over the first. The chapter on programmed instruction and cybernetics is highly informative, the importance of feedback in the learning process is lucidly described, and there is an excellent over- view of the use of teaching machines in education.

In the sixth chapter the authors argue convincingly for changing the traditional roles of some of the school personnel. The resource teacher is seen as first helping the special student in the resource room and later teaching the regular classroom teacher how to use the effective procedures. The school psychologist, it is suggested, should diminish his testing activities and become involved in data taking and acting as a change agent directly in the classroom setting; the social worker and visiting nurse should visit the home and show parents how to work with their children, rather than merely advising the parents. The final chapter lists four factors which are considered critical components of a case study, and presents four case studies involv- ing either social or academic problems and the means by which the difficulties were remediated.

In smnmary, Analysis and Modification of Classroom Behavior is probably a use- ful overview of classroom practices in behavior modification for individuals already familiar with behavioral principles; the novice and classroom teacher will probably have to look elsewhere for assistance.

SAUL AXELROD Department of Special Education Temple University Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19122