xii enancib, brasilia, october 23, 2011 xii enancib, brasília, 23 de outubro de 2011 © copyright...

XII ENANCIB, Brasilia, October 23, 2011

XII ENANCIB, Brasília, 23 de outubro de 2011

© Copyright Dr. Chaim Zins, Jerusalem, 2011. All rights reservedPermission granted to use only for activities directly related to Chaim Zins’ visit in Brazil in 10/11.2011.

Photographs and illustrations are copyright protected by their respective owners. To the best of my knowledge I have the right to use the images for this presentation, and is considered a fair use. If you

have any questions or claims regarding copyright issues, please contact me in person and we will sort it out. Chaim Zins, Ph.D

WWW.success.co.il / [email protected] / Tel: 972-2-5816705

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The Wanderer above the Mist, Caspar David Friedrich 1817-18; Kunsthalle Hamburg, Hamburg

FIGURA PROTEGIDA POR DIREITOS AUTORAIS

Dear Friends, I invite you to join me on an intellectual journey aimed at mapping human knowledge.

PrologProlog

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Human knowledge is growing as we invent new technologies, improve scientific methods, and conquer new worlds.

PrologProlog

Astronaut in Space, 1984, Courtesy of NASA


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PrologProlog

The Copernican model, the Harmonia Macrocosmica by Andreas Cellarius, 1661.


Yet we want to see "the whole picture" and the logical relations among the main fields.

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PrologProlog

On our journey we will map human knowledge, define basic concepts that underlie science and culture, and look at the core fields of contemporary knowledge.

Cabinet of Curiosities, Domenico Remps, ca. 1690, Opificio delle Pietre Dure, Florence.


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"Knowledge" is a common word. We intuitively use it in daily life. We discover and create, communicate and receive, store and retrieve, use and abuse knowledge.

Human Knowledge / Conhecimento HumanoHuman Knowledge / Conhecimento Humano

The School of Athens (detail), Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino), 1510-11; Stanza della Segnatura, Vatican.


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We focus on propositional knowledge.

Propositional knowledge is the content of what we know. It expressed in sentences (propositions). For example, "It is stormy weather," or "The boat might sink."

Christ in the Storm on the Sea of Galilee, Rembrandt van Rijn, 1633; Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston (stolen in 1990).



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Propositional knowledge is the basis of academic literature. Every publication is composed of sets of arguments. It starts with opening propositions and ends with final conclusions.


The Writing Master, Thomas Eakins, 1882; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York


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Propositional knowledge is the basis of academic disciplines. An academic discipline is the product of social construction. It is grounded in fundamental publications and is developed layer upon layer until it reaches its most recent state of the art.


The Writing Master, Thomas Eakins, 1882; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York


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Propositional knowledge has two faces, internal (subjective) and external (universal). It is a thought in the mind of the knowing person (subject), and it is an independent object published in book and digital libraries, and accessible to all.


The Librarian, Giuseppe Arcimboldo, 1566; Skokloster Castle, Stockholm.


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Mona Lisa (La Gioconda) (detail), Leonardo da Vinci, 1503-5; Musée du Louvre, Paris


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Subjective knowledge can be private or public.

Private knowledge is the individual's intimate thoughts that one keeps to oneself.


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Mona Lisa (La Gioconda) (detail), Leonardo da Vinci, 1503-5; Musée du Louvre, Paris


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Public knowledge is thoughts that the individual believes are known to other people as well, for example, "2+2=4,“ and "The Mona Lisa was painted by Leonardo da Vinci."


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Still, what is knowledge?

Knowledge is a justified true belief.

This classical definition was presented by the Greek philosopher Plato in the dialogue Theaetetus, and is generally accepted.


The Greek philosopher Plato in the School of Athens (detail), Raphael Sanzio, 1511; Vatican. Note that the image is of Leonardo da Vinci.


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Subjective knowledge is a thought that the knowing person justifiably believes is true. When this thought is expressed and documented it becomes universal. Universal knowledge mirrors subjective knowledge.


Louis Pasteur in his laboratory, Albert Edelfelt, 1885; Musée d'Orsay, Paris


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The knowing person is certain that his thought is true, but he might be wrong.

We are exposed to misinformation, manipulation, and illusions. Maybe we are dreaming while we are thinking that we know. Human knowledge is imperfect.


Landscape with the Dream of Jacob, Michael Lukas Leopold Willmann, ~1691Staatliche Museen zu Berlin (Gemäldegalerie), Berlin


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Propositions differ from their meanings.

Universal knowledge is the meaning that is represented by the written and spoken propositions.


Open Book, Scuola Tedesca, ca. 16th century; Uffizi Gallery, Florence.FIGURA PROTEGIDA POR DIREITOS AUTORAIS

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Since we cannot perceive with our senses the meaning itself, it is more useful to relate to the visible propositions that represent it.


Open Book, Scuola Tedesca, ca. 16th century; Uffizi Gallery, Florence.FIGURA PROTEGIDA POR DIREITOS AUTORAIS

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Human knowledge is embodied in the collection of books stored in the reader's library. But only the meaning formulated in his mind brings it to life again.


The Bookworm by Carl Spitzweg, 1850; Museum Georg Schäfer, Schweinfurt, Germany.


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Metaphorically, human knowledge is embodied in the collection of all publications stored in libraries worldwide: all types of libraries, physical and digital, public and private, well known and secret.


Biblioteca Nacional do Brasil, 2007


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Cognitive knowledge shape the way see the world and act in it. Published maps affect our cognitive maps and thus affect the way we learn and use knowledge.

World map, Gerard van Schagen, Amsterdam 1689


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Knowledge Maps / Mapas do ConhecimentoKnowledge Maps / Mapas do Conhecimento

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Knowledge maps are published in scientific books, textbooks, encyclopedias, educational posters, geographical maps, historical timelines, family trees, library classification systems, and the like. Knowledge maps map all fields of knowledge.

World map, Gerard van Schagen, Amsterdam 1689


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Knowledge Maps / Mapas do ConhecimentoKnowledge Maps / Mapas do Conhecimento

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This conception of the Milky Way is an exemplary knowledge map in astronomy.

Knowledge Mapping / Mapas do Conhecimento Knowledge Mapping / Mapas do Conhecimento

The Milky Way Galaxy, an artist conception, NASA/JPL-Caltech/R. Hurt, 2008.


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The Periodic table of the chemical elements is an example of a scientific knowledge map in chemistry. It was formulated by the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869, and has been revised over time, as new elements have been discovered, and new theoretical models have been developed.


The Periodic table of the chemical elements; inventor: Dmitri Mendeleev, 1869


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This modern phylogenetic tree of life is an exemplary knowledge map in evolutionary biology. It shows the relationship among species.


A phylogenetic tree of life, Author: Ivica Letunic, 2007. [The tree shows the relationship between species whose genomes have been mapped by humans. The very center represents the last universal ancestor of all life on earth. The different colors represent the three domains of life: pink represents eukaryota (animals and plants); blue represents bacteria; and green represents archaea. Note the presence of homo sapiens (humans) second from the rightmost edge of the pink segment.


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Blind Monks Examining an Elephant is a notable parable. It tells of a group of blind monks who examine an elephant. Each monk reaches a different conclusion based on which part of the elephant he has examined. They then compare their findings, and learn that they totally disagree on the shape and nature of elephants.


Blind monks examining an elephant“, Itcho Hanabusa, 1888; Library of Congress


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Human knowledge – like elephants – can be viewed from different perspectives. Very often what seems the absolute truth is incomplete and deceptive.


Blind monks examining an elephant“, Itcho Hanabusa, 1888; Library of Congress


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We need a systematic map that meets 3 conditions:

(1) Exclusivity.Exclusivity. The categories are mutually exclusive (meaning, they do not overlap).

(2) ExhaustivenessExhaustiveness. The categories are collectively exhaustive (meaning, together they include all the relevant categories).

(3) AdequacyAdequacy. The map can represent all the relevant fields without exception (meaning, every field can be placed in at least one category).

10 Pillars of Knowledge meets the 3 conditions.

Bookshelves, Giuseppe Maria Crespi, 1725; Civico Museo Bibliografico Musicale, Bologna


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There are different models for mapping knowledge. They differ in their structures and contents. They differ in their impacts on our cognitive maps. They differ by their rationales.

A systematic map has to meet the 3 conditions:its categories are (1) mutually exclusive,(2) collectively exhaustive, and (3) adequate.

10 Pillars of Knowledge meets the 3 conditions.

Bookshelves, Giuseppe Maria Crespi, 1725; Civico Museo Bibliografico Musicale, Bologna


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10 Pillars of Knowledge: Map of Human Knowledge; Chaim Zins, Scientific poster, 2008.

10 Pillars of Knowledge is a hierarchical, systematic and comprehensive map of human knowledge.

10 Pilares do Conhecimento10 Pilares do Conhecimento PrincípiosPrincípios

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10 Pillars of Knowledge: Map of Human Knowledge; Chaim Zins, Scientific poster, 2008.

The 10-pillar structure maps 200 core fields (e.g., medicine) that embody 600 main fields (e.g., surgery) that embody 2000 fields (e.g., neurosurgery). The 2000 fields were extracted from nearly 10,000 terms that were drawn from diversified resources, among them websites of national academies of sciences, notable universities, library classification schemes, and encyclopedias.


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The 200 fields are set in 10 groups. The grouping is based on the common general phenomenon that each group explores: foundations, supernatural, matter and energy, space and earth, non-human organisms, body and mind, society, thought and art, technology, and history.

10 Pilares do Conhecimento:10 Pilares do Conhecimento: PrincípiosPrincípios

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The 10 pillars are organized into four groups, which explore four super-phenomena: knowledge (pillar 1), supernatural (pillar 2), universe (pillars 3-4-5), and humans (pillars 6-7-8-9-10).

Knowledge Supernatural Universe Humans


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On top of the intersection between the universe and humans a fifth super-phenomenon emerges, the living world (pillars 5-6).

Living World



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The order of the 10 pillars makes it possible to represent the religious approach, which separates apes and humans, and the scientific approach, which treats both of them as part of the living world.

Living World



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10 Pillars is a hierarchical system.

The 10 pillars are the first-level categories of the hierarchical structure. They are divided into main sub-categories that are divided into sub-categories.

TechnologyTechnology1. Theory2. Professions3. Technologies 3.1 Sciences 3.2 Needs & Activities 3.3 Materials 3.4 Processes

Space & EarthSpace & Earth1. Theory2. Space3. Earth 3.1 Surface & Substance 3.2 Interrelations

SupernaturalSupernatural1. Theory2. Mysticism3. Religions 3.1 Ancient 3.2 Monotheist 3.3 Asian 3.4 Modern 3.5 Ethnic


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Metaknowledge – subject-based knowledge Human knowledge follows a metaknowledge – subject-based knowledge structure implemented on the map level, the pillar level, and the field level.


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Metaknowledge is knowledge about the body of knowledge itself. Subject-based knowledge is knowledge about the explored phenomena.


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On the map level, pillar 1 represents the metaknowledge of human knowledge. Pillars 2 – 10 represent the subject-based knowledge of human knowledge.


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The grouping of the phenomena that are subject to human exploration into three super-phenomena (supernatural, universe, and humans) is based on the distinction among God, the world, and man that goes back to Greek philosophy.

Images: (1) I The Creation of Adam, Michelangelo, 1511. (2) Geocentric Universe (the Copernican Model), Andreas Cellarius, 1708. (3) The Vitruvian Man, Leonardo da Vinci, 1487.


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The addition of the living world super-phenomenon arises from modern biology; especially the theory of evolution.

Images: (1) I The Creation of Adam, Michelangelo, 1511. (2) Geocentric Universe (the Copernican Model), Andreas Cellarius, 1708. (3) The Vitruvian Man, Leonardo da Vinci, 1487.


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Theory – embodiment

Human knowledge follows a theory – embodiment structure. It is implemented on the map level, the pillar level, and the field level.


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On the map level, pillar 1 is the "theory" part of human knowledge, and pillars 2 – 10 are the "embodiment" part.


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On the pillar level, the first category, theory, is the "theoretical" part of the pillar, which presents fields that focus on general theoretical issues of the explored phenomena.


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The other categories embody our knowledge of the explored phenomena.


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On the field level, the "theory" part is implemented in the theory of the field. In the example of medicine, it is philosophy of medicine.

Philosophy of Medicine

Internal Medicine Pediatrics Surgery

Images: (1) Greek Physician treating a patient, ca. 480-470 BC; Louvre Museum, Paris; (2) Self-Portrait with Doctor Arrieta (detail), Francisco Goya, 1820, Minneapolis Institute of Arts; (3) The Sick Child, Gabriel Metsu, 1660; Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. (4) The Agnew Clinic, Thomas Eakins, 1875.


http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Medicine_aryballos_Louvre_CA1989-2183.jpg

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The other parts embody our knowledge of the explored phenomena. In the example of medicine, these are internal medicine, pediatrics, and surgery.

Philosophy of Medicine

Internal Medicine Pediatrics Surgery

Images: (1) Greek Physician treating a patient, ca. 480-470 BC; Louvre Museum, Paris; (2) Self-Portrait with Doctor Arrieta (detail), Francisco Goya, 1820, Minneapolis Institute of Arts; (3) The Sick Child, Gabriel Metsu, 1660; Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. (4) The Agnew Clinic, Thomas Eakins, 1875.


http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Medicine_aryballos_Louvre_CA1989-2183.jpg

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Distinction between categories and fields

The fields are not part of the hierarchical structure. The distinction between categories and fields is essential. It is a central paradigm shift – "the Copernican Revolution" – of knowledge mapping.


Space & EarthSpace & Earth1. Theory - Cosmological Theory2. Space - Astronomy3. Earth 3.1 Surface & Substance - Physical Geography - Geology 3.2 Interrelations - Agriculture - Environmental Sciences - Natural Hazards

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10 Pillars is valid and adequate since every field can be placed in at least one category.


Space & EarthSpace & Earth1. Theory - Cosmological Theory2. Space - Astronomy3. Earth 3.1 Surface & Substance - Physical Geography - Geology 3.2 Interrelations - Agriculture - Environmental Sciences - Natural Hazards

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Imagine that the map mirrors a library. In the Library of Human Knowledge the pillars are bookcases, the categories are shelves, and the fields are books.


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The Library of Human Knowledge is composed of 10 bookcases that are divided into shelves, which store an impressive collection of books that establish our cultural and scientific heritage.

We continue our journey by zooming into the ten pillars.


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Pillar 1 studies the foundations of human knowledge.

It is composed of four categories:theory, context, methodology, and mediation.

Diderot and D'Alembert's Encyclopédie, Marie-Lan Nguyen, 2010, CC BY-SA 2.0

Pillar 1: Foundations / Pilar 1: FundamentosPillar 1: Foundations / Pilar 1: Fundamentos

Foundations1. Theory2. Context3. Methodology4. Mediation


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1.1 Theory

Theory is focused on the philosophical basis of knowledge and science.

It contains two fields: philosophy of knowledge (epistemology), and philosophy of science.

Plato, copy of portrait bust by Silanion, ca 370 BC; Capitoline Museums, RomePhotographer Marie-Lan Nguyen, 2009, CC BY-SA 2.5



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Science in the broadest sense refers to all fields. It is any body of knowledge achieved by systematic and justifiable methods.

Science in the narrowest sense refers to natural and life sciences. It is any body of knowledge that explores the physical phenomena, and is achieved by impartial empirical observation and systematic experimentation.

Bust of Aristotle. Marble, Roman copy of a Greek bronze by Lysippos from 330 BC (the alabaster mantle is a modern addition); National Museum of Rome, Palazzo Altemps, Rome.




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1.2 Context

The context category studies the historical and sociological perspectives of knowledge. It has two fields: history of science and sociology of knowledge. Science is progressive. It has been developed layer upon layer till reaching its current state.



Galileo Galilei, Justus Sustermans, 1636, National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London


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Science is affected by social conditions. Scientists live and work in specific societies and are bound by social limitations. They rely on research grants. Their publications and academic promotion depend on peer review. They are connected in social networks that affect their scientific ideologies.


Marie Skłodowska-Curie Nobel Prize Diploma in chemistry, 1911


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1.3 Methodology

Scientific exploration depends on reliable and valid scientific research methodologies.

Methodology has one field, methodology of science, which seeks to improve and develop reliable and valid research methodologies in all fields.

The Geographer, Johannes Vermeer, 1668-9; Städelsches Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt.




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1.4 Mediation

We live in the Information age. We widely use information resources and need efficient ways to connect resources and users.

Information science is placed in this category. It studies the mediating aspects of knowledge.

The library at Château de Chantilly Château de Chantilly, Tango7174, 2008 CC BY-AS 3.0




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Museology (museum studies) studies the organization and management of exhibitions and museums of all kinds.

Design for the Grande Galerie in the Louvre, Hubert Robert, 1796; Musée du Louvre, Paris.




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We encounter the supernatural in everyday life while we see the birth of a child, face the sudden death of a friend, witness the devastating power of nature, and stare at the sky on dark nights. The quest for the supernatural arises from the limitations of reason.

The Creation of Adam, Michelangelo Buonarroti, 1511; the Sistine Chapel ceiling, Vatican

Pillar 2: Supernatural / Pilar 2: SupernaturalPillar 2: Supernatural / Pilar 2: Supernatural


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We are curious to understand the "main events," and eager to answer the "big questions of life." The supernatural is embodied in the "main events" and in "the details." “The supernatural” is any “thing” that is beyond the empirical visible universe.

The Creation of Adam, Michelangelo Buonarroti, 1511; the Sistine Chapel ceiling, Vatican



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White Rose, an illustration by Gustave Doré, 1892, to the Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri (ca. 1308-21).

Pillar 2 studies the supernatural phenomena. Pillar 2 is composed of theory, mysticism, and religions.



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2.1 Theory

Theory studies the philosophical, religious, cultural, sociological, psychological, and historical aspects of the supernatural phenomena

Pieta, Michelangelo Buonarroti, 1499; Basilica di San Pietro, Vatican, Stanislav Traykov, 2008, CC BY-AS 3.0


SupernaturalSupernatural1. Theory2. Mysticism3. Religions 3.1 Ancient 3.2 Monotheism 3.3 Asian 3.4 Modern 3.5 Ethnic


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It is composed of religious studies; an academic field of multidisciplinary, secular study of religious beliefs, practices, and institutions.

Pieta, Michelangelo Buonarroti, 1499; Basilica di San Pietro, Vatican, Stanislav Traykov, 2008, CC BY-AS 3.0




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2.2 Mysticism

Mysticism studies the mystic phenomena. The term “mysticism” refers to beliefs and practices that ascribe meaning, power and qualities, which cannot be explained by empirical scientific exploration, to supernatural phenomena, natural objects, and human activities.

Zodiac Mosaic, 6th century, Beit Alpha Synagogue, Israel, courtesy of NASA.




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Praying Hands (Study of an Apostle's Hands), Albrecht Dürer, ca. 1508, Graphische Sammlung, Albertina, Vienna.



2.3 Religions

The term “religion” has diverse definitions but the established religions have common characteristics:


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Religions are systems of beliefs and practices. Theyshape the believers’ life stance by ground their binding power on the supernatural, generally through authoritative leaders and scriptures.

Still life with bible, Van Gogh, 1885, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam




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The religious experience can be entirely intimate: the intimate relations of a person with God through meditation and contemplation, or as a cry for help in times of deeply emotional stress.

In many cases the religious experience is organized by religious establishments. People join in collective activities and identify with the community that shares the same religious beliefs.

First Mass in Brazil, Victor Meirelles, 1860, Museu Nacional de Belas Artes, Rio de Janeiro,Brazil




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Moses, Michelangelo Buonarroti, 1515; San Pietro in Vincoli, Rome.



Religions differ from humanistic philosophies in the source of their authoritativeness.

While a humanistic life stance is based on human reason and emotion, a religious life stance is grounded in the supernatural (God).


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Religions strive to shape the believers’ life stance. Religious life tends to be total.

Nevertheless, religious people differ in the intensity of their piety and commitment.

Sacrifice of Isaac, Rembrandt van Rijn, 1635; Hermitage, St. Petersburg




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Pope John Paul II pray and inserting a prayer into the Western Wall in Jerusalem, Photographer: Avi Ohayon, 26.3.2000. National Photo Collection, Israel



Throughout history religion has been the main cause of human conflict and hatred. Anti-Semitism (hatred of Jews) is a typical example of religion-based hatred.

In March 2000 Pope John Paul II visited the Holy Land (Israel). During his visit he paid tribute to the Jewish people and prayed at the Western Wall in Jerusalem for reconciliation with the Jewish people:


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Religious symbols (from left to right): Bahism, Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, Judaism, Shinto, Sikhism, Taoism, Zoroastrianism.

Religions explores the world religions and spiritual systems. On our voyage we are focused on major and exemplary religions.



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2.3.1 Ancient

The ancient sub-category is composed of religions practiced in the past; among them are Mesopotamian mythology, Egyptian mythology, and Greek and Roman mythology.

Tuthankamen's burial mask, the Egyptian Museum, Cairo. Bjørn Christian Tørrissen, 2003, CC BY-AS 3.0




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2.3.2 Monotheism

The sub-category is composed of the three major historic monotheist religions, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam that are based on the belief in one God.

Ancient of Days, William Blake, 1794; British Museum, London..




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2.3.3 Asian

The Asian sub-category encompasses religions originated in Asia. Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism originated in India. Confucianism and Taoism originated in China. Shinto originated in Japan. Bahaism and Zoroastrianism originated in Persia (Iran).

Kala, a mythical creature, at the Banteay Srei Hindu temple in Angkor Cambodia. Photographer: Manfred Werner, 2001, CC BY-AS 3.0




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2.3.4 Modern

The modern sub-category is focused on new religions, cults, and spiritual movements; among them Cao Dai, New Age, and Scientology.

Cao Dai temple outside Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, Simon Gurney, 2004, CC BY-AS 3.0




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2.3.5 Ethnic

The ethnic sub-category represents ethnically based religions, among them Shamanism and Voodoo.

Shaman from an equatorial Amazonian forest, Brazil, Veton PICQ, 2006, CC BY-AS 3.0.




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Pillar 3 explores the basics of the physical universe.

It is divided into three categories: theory, principles, and substances.

The Sun. courtesy of NASA.

Pillar 3: Matter and Energy / Pillar 3: Matter and Energy / Pilar 3: Matéria e EnergiaPilar 3: Matéria e Energia

Matter & Energy1. Theory2. Principles3. Substances


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3.1 Theory

Theory has two interrelated and partially overlapping fields: philosophy of physics and philosophy of space and time.

Frontispiece of Eléments de la philosophie de Newton (Elements of Newton's Philosophy), Voltaire and Émilie du Châtelet, 1738




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Philosophy of physics explores the philosophical aspects of the physical universe and establishes the scientific foundations of modern physics.

Frontispiece of Eléments de la philosophie de Newton (Elements of Newton's Philosophy), Voltaire and Émilie du Châtelet, 1738




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The flow of sand in an hourglass demonstrates the elapsed time. The present is constantly changing and illusive. It is the intermediate state between the future – the sand in the upper chamber – and the past – the sand in the lower chamber.



An hourglass. Photograph: S. Sepp, 2007, CC BY-AS 3.0


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3.2 Principles

Principles deals with the principles and laws of the physical universe. Currently it represents a major discipline, physics.

The goal of physics is to discover and formulate the principles and laws that govern the material universe and explain the faces of the physical phenomena.

The Einstein's famous equation, E=mc2, on the background of the image of the sun, NASA.




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3.3 Substances

Substances is focused on the substances of the physical universe. It represents chemistry.

The Periodic Table on the background of the image of the sun, NASA.




83 Solar System Montage, NASA, 2001.

Pillar 4: Space and Earth / Pillar 4: Space and Earth / Pilar 4: Espaço e da TerraPilar 4: Espaço e da Terra

The outer space and the earth are represented in pillar 4, space and earth, which is divided into three main categories: theory, space, and earth.


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4.1 Theory

What is the nature and origin of the physical universe?

The theory category is focused on these questions. It includes the field of cosmological theory.


Space & Earth1. Theory2. Space3. Earth 3.1 Surface & Substance 3.2 Interrelations

Artist's view of a star birth in the Lynx Arc (NASA, ESA, and Robert A. E. Fosbury).


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Cosmological theory aimed at providing an overall explanation of the nature and origin of the physical universe based on scientific theories and evidence.





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The most recent theory is the Big-Bang model, which is supported by scientific evidence.

The universe emerged from a state of extremely high temperature and density around 13.7 billion years ago, and it continues to expand to this day.





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4.2 Space

The space category represents outer space. It contains the field of astronomy. Astronomy is the scientific study of the origin, evolution, composition, distance, and motion of all celestial bodies and scattered matter in the universe.

Hot Stuff (a sunspot), NASA/TRACE, September 2008



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4.3 Earth

The Earth category is divided into sub-categories: surface and substance and interrelations.

The “Blue Marble (The Earth) Photo taken by either Harrison Schmitt or Ron Evans (of the Apollo 17 crew), December 7, 1972, NASA.



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4.3.1 Surface and Substance

Surface and substance focus on the surface and the substance of the earth.

The category includes three fields: physical geography, geology, and soil sciences.

The Sea of Ice (Polar Sea) also known as The Wreck of Hope in reference to an early North Pole Expedition, Caspar David Friedrich, 1823-24; Kunsthalle, Hamburg.



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Geography is the study of the surface of the earth. It is composed of two main branches: Physical geography and human geography.

Physical geography studies the natural aspects of the earth. Human geography studies the human aspects of geography and is part of the social sciences.

The Sea of Ice (Polar Sea) also known as The Wreck of Hope in reference to an early North Pole Expedition, Caspar David Friedrich, 1823-24; Kunsthalle, Hamburg.



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Geology explores the composition, structure, physical properties, processes, and history of the earth

Old Faithful Geyser (Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, USA), Albert Bierstadt, c.1881.




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4.3.2 Interrelations

The relations between humans and the earth can best be described in terms of use, abuse and control. Humans use the earth, abuse it, or try to control its devastating powers, and face their devastating effects.

The Icebergs, Frederic Edwin Church, 1861; Dallas Museum of Arts, Dallas .



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Agriculture centers on using the earth. It explores the cultivation of the earth.

The Harvesters, Pieter Bruegel the Elder, 1565; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.



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Environmental sciences centers on protecting the earth from misuse and abuse.

Air pollution, global warming, soil and water contamination, protecting endangered species. These are some of the environmental problems and challenges that we face.

Trouée de soleil dans le brouillard, Houses of Parliament, London, Sun Breaking Through the Fog, Claude Monet, 1904; Musée d'Orsay, Paris.



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Natural hazards centers on facing the earth’s devastating power. It explores efficient ways to control the devastating power of nature and to survive catastrophes.

Behind the Great Wave off Kanagawa, 1829-1832, Katsushika Hokusai.



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Pillar 5 explores the non-human living world. It is composed of three main categories: theory, basic sciences, and health and wellbeing.

Koala and baby on back, Benjamint444, c. 2010, CC BY-AS 3.0

Pilar 5: não-humanos OrganismosPilar 5: não-humanos Organismos

OrganismsOrganisms1. Theory2. Basic Sciences3. Health & Wellbeing


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5.1 Theory

Theory explores the philosophical aspects of biological phenomena and the ethical issues that arise from human interactions with the non-human living world, especially the animal kingdom.

Olive Baboon, Gary M. Stolz, 2008. Courtesy of USFWS


Organisms1. Theory2. Basic Sciences3. Health & Wellbeing


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The category includes three interrelated and partially overlapping fields: philosophy of life, philosophy of biology, and bioethics.

Olive Baboon, Gary M. Stolz, 2008. Courtesy of USFWS




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What is life?

The concept of “life” has meanings that go beyond the realm of the biological sciences. It relates to epistemological, linguistic, metaphysical, religious, social, and the biological perspectives.

Currently, there is no a single definition of “life” acceptable to all scholars.

Grapevine snail (Helix pomatia), Jürgen Schoner, 2005, CC BY-AS 3.0




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Scholars disagree on life's basic properties. They disagree on its origin.

Scientists disagree on the beginning of life. They can describe the process, but they cannot fully explain why chemical substances turn into a living being.

They disagree about the end of life – death. They can describe the process, but they cannot fully explain why a living being turns into lifeless chemical substances.





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Still, what is life?

Life is a state of existence of an organism. Life is always associated with a specific organism, which demonstrates all or most of 7 conditions:cell-based structure, homeostasis, metabolism, growth, adaptation to environmental conditions, response to internal or external stimuli, and reproduction.

This conception of life is debatable, but currently it is the best we can get.





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5.2 Basic Sciences

Basic sciences explores the diversified non-human biological phenomena. It is composed of biology, or rather biological sciences.

Hummingbirds (a color plate illustration from Kunstformen der Natur (Art Forms of Nature)), Ernst Haeckel, 1899.




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Humans and chimpanzees share the same kingdom (Animalia), phylum (Chordata), class (Mammalia), order (Primates), family (Hominidae, sub-family: Homininae), and tribe (Hominini).

We differ in genus (chimpanzees: Pan; humans: Homo) and species (chimpanzees: Pan troglodytes; humans: Homo sapiens).

This is the big difference that makes us who we are.

Front: Biological Classification – Main classes, by Peter Halasz, 2007. Background: a phylogenetic tree of life, Author: Ivica Letunic, 2007.




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5.3 Health and Wellbeing

Health and wellbeing is focused on the welfare of animals. It contains the field of veterinary medicine.

Love Me, Love My Dog, Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792) (?)




105

Pillar 6 explores the human body and mind. It includes three categories: theory, basic sciences,and health and wellbeing.

Newborn infant, (girl) just seconds after delivery, Ernest F, 2006, CC BY-AS 3.0

Pillar 6: Body and Mind / Pillar 6: Body and Mind / Pilar 6: Corpo e MentePilar 6: Corpo e Mente

Body & MindBody & Mind1. Theory2. Basic Sciences3. Health & Wellbeing 3.1 Medical Sciences 3.2 Paramedical Studies 3.3 Complementary Medicine


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6.1 Theory

Theory explores the philosophical foundations of the human body and mind diversified phenomena. The category includes four interrelated and partially overlapping fields: philosophy of life, philosophy of mind, philosophy of biology, and bioethics.

The Girl with a Pearl Earring, Johannes Vermeer, ca. 1665,Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis The Hague.



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6.2 Basic Sciences

Basic sciences explores human biological and psychological phenomena. The category is composed of four interrelated fields: human biology, psychology, neuroscience, and cognitive science.

The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, Rembrandt van Rijn, 1632, Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis, the Hague



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6.3 Health and Wellbeing

Health and wellbeing explores the human physical and mental condition. The category is composed of three sub-categories: medical sciences, paramedical studies, and complementary medicine.

Care of the Sick, Domenico di Bartolo, 1441-42,Fresco, Spedale di Santa Maria della Scala, Siena.

3. Health & Wellbeing 3.1 Medical Sciences 3.2 Paramedical Studies 3.3 Complementary Medicine



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6.3.1 Medical Sciences

Medical sciences is composed of two fields:medicine and dentistry.

In universities worldwide dentistry and medicine are distinct fields. Nevertheless, in essence dentistry is a branch of medicine rather than an independent field.


The Dentist (detail), Gerrit van Honthorst, 1622; Gemäldegalerie, Dresden



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Medicine is the science and art aimed at promoting health, preventing illness, treating diseases, and relieving pain.

The Agnew Clinic by Thomas Eakins, 1889; Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia.



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Medicine embraces a wide range of sub-fields, which are grouped in two main fields: foundational fields, and medical fields.




112

The foundational fields study the philosophical, historical, social, and methodological foundations of medicine; among them philosophy of medicine, history of medicine, and medical ethics.




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Medicine is more than a profession – it is a way of life. Upon graduation medical students swear an oath that states their commitment to humanitarian goals.




114

An old joke says:What is the difference between God and a physician?- God knows that he is not a physician.

Hubris, greed, and quackery (fraudulent, unproven, and ignorant medical practices) lead to malpractice.




115

The medical fields explore the medical conditions and medical treatments and practices.

They cover the broad spectrums of conditions, organs and body systems, treatments and technologies.

Self-Portrait with Doctor Arrieta (detail), Francisco Goya, 1820; Minneapolis Institute of Arts, Minneapolis



116

The medical knowledge is constantly growing. New fields emerge, scientists conquer new horizons, and practitioners implement innovative treatments and technologies.




117

Internal medicine, neurology, pediatrics, surgery, gynecology and obstetrics, psychiatry, and pathology are the backbone of medicine.




118

6.3.2 Paramedical Studies

Paramedical studies represents fields and practices that support medicine, such as nursing, midwifery, pharmacy, physical therapy, and public health.

Hospital at Scutari, where the pioneer nurse, Florence Nightingale, worked, 1856, Library of Congress.3. Health & Wellbeing

3.1 Medical Sciences 3.2 Paramedical Studies 3.3 Complementary Medicine



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6.3.3 Complementary Medicine

The category represents non-standard medical practices that people use instead of standard ones (alternative medicine) or together with standard ones (complementary medicine)

Examples: Ayurvedic medicine, Chinese medicine, and homeopathy.

Traditional Chinese Medicine




120

Pillar 7 explores human social life. It is composed of four main categories: theory, society at large, domains, and social groups.

Rue Montorgueil, Claude Monet, 1878; Musée d'Orsay, Paris.

SocietySociety1. Theory2. Society at-Large 2.1. General 2.2 Area-Based3. Domains 3.1 Community 3.1.1 Communication 3.1.2 Contract 3.1.3 Codes 3.1.4 Conduct 3.2 Needs & Activity 3.3 Management4. Social Groups 4.1 Gender 4.2 Age 4.3 Ethnicity 4.4 Interest

Pillar 7: Society / Pilar 7: SociedadePillar 7: Society / Pilar 7: Sociedade


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7.1 Theory

Theory explores the philosophical perspectives of human social life and social sciences. It includes two fields: philosophy of social sciences and philosophy of social life.


Society1. TheoryTheory2. Society at-Large 2.1. General 2.2 Area-Based3. Domains 3.1 Community 3.1.1 Communication 3.1.2 Contract 3.1.3 Codes 3.1.4 Conduct 3.2 Needs & Activity 3.3 Management4. Social Groups 4.1 Gender 4.2 Age 4.3 Ethnicity 4.4 Interest

Gassed, John Singer Sargent, 1918; Imperial War Museum, London.


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Philosophy of social sciences studies the rationale and methodology of the social sciences.

It questions the validity of scientific laws in social sciences, and aims to establish solid foundations for the social sciences.

Society1. TheoryTheory2. Society at-Large 2.1. General 2.2 Area-Based3. Domains 3.1 Community 3.1.1 Communication 3.1.2 Contract 3.1.3 Codes 3.1.4 Conduct 3.2 Needs & Activity 3.3 Management4. Social Groups 4.1 Gender 4.2 Age 4.3 Ethnicity 4.4 Interest

Gassed, John Singer Sargent, 1918; Imperial War Museum, London.



123

Philosophy of social life studies the meaning of key concepts, and discusses the philosophical basis of social positions and ideologies.

Independence or Death (The Ipiranga Shout), Pedro Américo, 1888, Museu Paulista, Sao Paulo, Brazil



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What is a human society?– Any group of interrelated individuals.

What is the ‘glue’ of a unified society?– A common cultural heritage.

The strength of a society is tested by the commitment of its members to defend their common cultural heritage against cultural oppression.

Independence or Death (The Ipiranga Shout), Pedro Américo, 1888, Museu Paulista, Sao Paulo, Brazil



125

“Man was born free, and he is everywhere in chains.” Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract, 1762.

People worldwide are victims of tyranny, slavery, abuse, and extreme poverty.

Freedom is the state of not being imprisoned and enslaved, thinking without interference, and being able to choose among alternatives.

Memorial to Slavery in Zanzibar (the memorial is located near the old slave market), Photograph by Mila Zinkova, 2007, CC BY-SA 3.0.



126

People worldwide are victims of inequality.

Equality refers to human conditions, life conditions, legal conditions, and social conditions.

There are two basic approaches to defining “equality,” giving the same and having the same.

The Potato Eaters, Vincent van Gogh, 1885, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam



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Giving the same is focused on the action. Equality is giving the same to all, the poor and the rich.

Having the same is focused on the outcome. Equality is achieved by giving more to the poor.

Social theorists strive to achieve social equality. Yet they disagree on the meaning of the concept and how it should be implemented in practice.

The Potato Eaters, Vincent van Gogh, 1885, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam



128

Societies are expected to be fair and to implement the concept of social justice as a guiding principle.

Social justice is embodied in distributive justice, retributive justice, restorative justice, and procedural justice.

Shoemakers, Max Liebermann, 1881



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Distributive justice is the fair distribution of social resources, goods, rights, and duties.

Retributive justice is fair punishment for wrongdoing and fair reward for good doing.

Restorative justice is fair correction and compensation for damage done to victims.

Procedural justice is the fair and transparent processes for making social decisions.

Shoemakers, Max Liebermann, 1881



130

People worldwide are victims of exploitation and abuse, crime and violence; being treated as disposable means for others.

Mother, Honoré Daumier, ca. 1855; National Museum, Belgrade.



131

The concept of human dignity is based on the fundamental moral standpoint that every human is a free rational being; an end in oneself.

This status implies that the dignity of every human as an autonomous being must always be respected, in attitude and conduct, by all other people.

Mother, Honoré Daumier, ca. 1855; National Museum, Belgrade.



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Representation of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in 1789, France


The concept of human rights is based on the philosophical standpoint that all human beings are born free and equal and are entitled to certain social, political, and legal rights.


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Representation of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in 1789, France


These include the right to life, liberty and security, the right to freedom of movement, the right to a nationality, the right to own property, the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, the right to freedom of opinion and expression, the right to social security, the right to work, and the right to education.


134

Social life is complicated. People love and fight, build and destroy. The quest for a systematic social theory is crucial for better understanding the ever-changing world we live in.

The Intervention of the Sabine Women, Jacques-Louis David, 1799, Musée du Louvre, Paris.



135

Along the River During Qingming Festival (detail), Zhang Zeduan, 12th century (1736 reproduction); the National Palace Museum, Taiwan.

7.2 Society at-Large

Society at large represents social sciences that cover broad social aspects. The category has two sub-categories: general, and area-based.


Society1. Theory2. Society at-Large 2.1. General 2.2 Area-Based3. Domains 3.1 Community 3.1.1 Communication 3.1.2 Contract 3.1.3 Codes 3.1.4 Conduct 3.2 Needs & Activity 3.3 Management4. Social Groups 4.1 Gender 4.2 Age 4.3 Ethnicity 4.4 Interest


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Maslenitsa, Boris Kustodiyev, 1919; Isaak Brodsky Museum, Saint. Petersburg.

7.2.1 General

The general sub-category is composed of four fields: sociology, anthropology, human geography, and demography.



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Maslenitsa, Boris Kustodiyev, 1919; Isaak Brodsky Museum, Saint. Petersburg.

Culture is a central concept in social sciences and humanities with diversified meanings:

1. Culture = civilization2. Ethnographic meaning 3. Thought and the arts4. Social activities related to thought and the arts.



138

Pelé dribbling past a defender during Malmö-Brazil 1–7 in May, 1960. Pelé scored 2 goals..

Brazilian culture = Brazilian civilizationBroad meaning: civilization. “Culture” is all the abstract and physical products of human creativity and activity.

Exemplary fields: mysticism, religion, Medicine, Sociology, Philosophy, Technology, and History.



139

Carnival in Rio de Janeiro, Sergio Luiz, 2006, CC BY-SA 2.0

Brazilian culture = typical to Brazil2. Ethnographic meaning. “Culture” is all the shared knowledge, beliefs, values, codes (ethics and laws), activities, institutions, and objects typical to specific societies.

Exemplary fields: Anthropology.



140

Cultural Complex of the Republic, Roosewelt Pinheiro, Agência Brasil, 2006, CC BY 2.5

Brazilian culture = Brazilian thought and art3. “Culture” is an area of human creativity related to thought and art.

Exemplary fields: philosophy, literature, the arts.



141

Terena people, Valter Campanato, 2007 Agência Brasil, CC BY 3.0

Brazilian culture = social activityrelated to thought and art

4. “Culture” is an area of social activity related to thought and art.

Examples: cultural services (community theater).

(Above: a tourist attraction)


FIGURA PROTEGIDA POR DIREITOS AUTORAISFIGURA PROTEGIDA POR DIREITOS AUTORAIS

142

Tahitian Women on the Beach, Paul Gauguin, 1891; Musée d'Orsay, Paris.

7.2.2 Area-Based

The area-based category includes hundreds of fields that come under the umbrella title “Area studies.” These are multidisciplinary fields of research and scholarship relating to particular geographical areas.



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7.3 Domains

The domains category represents social sciences that focus on specific areas of social life. The category is composed of three main sub-categories: community, needs and activities, and management.

Boys Eating Grapes and Melon, Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, 1645-46; Alte Pinakothek, Munich




144

7.3.1 Community

The community category explores the basics of social life. It is composed of four main sub-categories: communication, contract, codes, and conduct.

Cliff Dwellers, George Bellows, 1913; Los Angeles County Museum of Art.



145

The Tower of Babel, Pieter Brueghel the Elder,1563; Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.

7.3.1.1 Communication

Communication is the essence of social interaction. The communication category explores the processes of transferring, receiving and understanding messages and meanings. It represents the fields of semiotics, linguistics, languages, and communication studies.



146

Banquet of the Officers of the St George Civic Guard, Frans Hals, ca. 1627, Frans-Hals-Museum, Haarlem.

7.3.1.2 Contract

Contract explores the theory and practice of political systems and the use and abuse of political power. The name of the category comes from the concept of social contract.



147

Banquet of the Officers of the St George Civic Guard, Frans Hals, ca. 1627, Frans-Hals-Museum, Haarlem.

“Social contract” is an abstract concept aimed at explaining the raison d'être of national states. The concept implies that the people give up sovereignty to a government or other authority in order to receive, maintain, or improve social order by the rule of law.



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Legitimate state authority must derive from the consent of the people, and it is bound by law to act on the people's behalf.

The Night Watch (The Company of Frans Banning Cocq and Willem van Ruytenburch), Rembrandt van Rijn, 1642 [Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam].



149

The Ambassadors (Jean de Dinteville and Georges de Selve), Hans Holbein the Younger, 1533; National Gallery, London.

The contract sub-category represents two fields: political science and international relations.



150

The frontispiece of Leviathan (detail) by Thomas Hobbes, 1651. (The Sovereign is a massive body wielding a sword and crozier and composed of many individual people.)

States are the heart of political science. There are three conceptions of “state” based on three conditions: power (who controls the territory?), administration (who runs it?), and services (does it provide basic services?).



151

The frontispiece of Leviathan (detail) by Thomas Hobbes, 1651. (The Sovereign is a massive body wielding a sword and crozier and composed of many individual people.)

The first conception stresses the power that controls the territory. The second conception adds the condition of administration, The third conception adds the condition of providing basic services.



152

Dance at Le Moulin de la Galette (Bal du moulin de la Galette), Pierre-Auguste Renoir, 1876; Musée d'Orsay, Paris.

States differ in their policies.

What is the right policy for your country?Should it meet only basic needs? Or should it maximize the quality of life to the highest possible level?



153

The Emperor, James Carroll Beckwith, 1912; Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, DC.

Governments are the backbone of the sovereign states. Governments take many forms, but democracy is the most progressive.



154

Brazilian National Congress (Architecture by Oscar Niemeyer), Eurico Zimbres, 2006 CC BY-SA 2.5

What is democracy?

Formal meaning. The government is elected by the majority of all the citizens by a formal procedure.

Normative meaning. The government is based on four moral guiding principles: freedom, equality, sanctity of life, and human dignity.



155

Moses Smashing the Tablets of the Law, Rembrandt van Rijn, 1659; Gemäldegalerie, Staatliche Museen, Berlin.

7.3.1.3 Codes

Codes studies the guiding principles and rules (codes) that establish the boundaries of human conduct and social interaction. It includes ethics and law.




156

7.3.1.4 Conduct

Conduct explores human social behavior. This is a broad subject explored by several fields, among them psychology, sociology, and law. The conduct category includes social psychology and criminology.


Judgment of Solomon (1 kings 3:16-3:28), Bible with engravings by Gustave Doré, 1866.


157

The Milkmaid (detail), Johannes Veromeer, ca.1660; Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

Pillar 7: Society: 7.3.2 Needs and Activities I

7.3.2 Needs and Activities

Needs and activities covers areas of human activity, among them: security, health, economics, education, welfare, transportation, housing, urban planning, recreation, sports, and the like.



158

Defense & Security

The innocent drummer boy leads the army.Remember the ‘boys and girls’ who march behind.

Front: The Drummer Boy, William Morris Hunt, ca. 1862; Museum of Fine Arts, BostonBack: Normandy Invasion, June 1944; Courtesy: US Army.



159

Health and WellbeingPublic Health & Health Education

Talita, aged 3, plays in a Wendy house at the Cefran centre in Sao Paulo. Her parents have HIV but Talita is HIV negative. Her mother attends Cefran for psycho-social support and to learn about treatments and her rights, Sarah Hodson, 2008, (© UNICEF UK/Sao Paulo 2008/Sarah Hodson), CC BY-SA 3.0



160 King Midas with his daughter, an illustration by Walter Crane, 1893 from A Wonder Book for Boys and Girls by Nathaniel Hawthorne, Library of Congress.

Economics

The legend says: King Midas was gifted with the golden touch.

Everything he touched turned into gold.He was the luckiest man on earthuntil he touched his daughter...



161

Kindergarten in Amsterdam, Max Liebermann, 1880; loaned to Alte Nationalgalerie Berlin.

Education



162

Welfare

The Soup Kitchen, Fedinand Georg Waldmuller, 1859; sterreichsche Galerie, Vienna.



163

Legal Services & Conflict Resolution

Village Lawyer, Pieter Brueghel the Younger, 1621; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.



164

Culture

Culture studies explores the social activities centered on thought, literature, and art.

Reading in the Salon of Madame Geoffrin, Anicet Charles Gabriel Lemonnier,1755; Châteaux de Malmaison et Bois-Préeau, Paris.



165

Newspaper Boy, Edward Mitchell Bannister, 1869, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington DC.

Communication and Media



166

Recreation

The Lunch of the Boating Party, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, 1881, Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland..



167

The Biglen Brothers Racing, Thomas Eakins, 1873; National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC.

Sports



168

Syndics of the Drapers' Guild, Rembrandt van Rijn, 1662; Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.

7.3.3 Management

Management studies the theory and practice of management and administration of social activities and organizations.

Exemplary fields: business management.



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7.4 Social Groups

Social groups represents group-based social sciences. It is composed of four sub-categories: gender, age, ethnicity, and interest.


Dance of Italian Villagers, Peter Paul Rubens, 1636; Museo del Prado, Madrid.

Society1. Theory2. Society at-Large 2.1. General 2.2 Area-Based3. Domains 3.1 Community 3.2 Needs & Activity 3.3 Management4. Social Groups 4.1 Gender 4.2 Age 4.3 Ethnicity 4.4 Interest


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The Birth of Venus, Sandro Botticelli, 1485; Uffizi Gallery, Florence.

7.4.1 Gender

The gender category is composed of two fields: women’s studies and men’s studies.



171

Portrait of an Old Man in Red (detail), Rembrandt van Rijn, 1652-54; Hermitage, Saint. Petersburg.

7.4.2 Age

The age category is composed of two main fields: youth studies and gerontology.



172

Gypsy Girl, Frans Hals, 1628-30; Musée du Louvre, Paris.

7.4.3 Ethnicity

The ethnicity sub-category focuses on ethnicity-based groups; among them, for example, Afro-American studies, and Gypsy studies.



173

The Fire, Alexandre Antigna, 1850-51; Musee des Beaux-Arts at Orleans.

7.4.4 Interest

The interest sub-category is focused on special interest-based groups, for example, family studies, gay and lesbian studies, and addiction-based fields.



174

Pillar 8 deals with the products of the human intellect, and the arts. It is composed of three categories: thought, literary arts, and the arts.

The Thinker (detail) Auguste Rodin, 1902; Musée Rodin, Paris. Photography: Innoxiuss

Though & ArtThough & Art1. Thought 1.1 Reason 1.2 Representation 1.3 Relations2. Literary Arts 2.1 Theory 2.2 Works3. The Arts 3.1 Theory 3.2 Forms 3.3 Time 3.4 Place 3.5 Ethnicity 3.6 Interest

Pillar 8: Thought and Art / Pillar 8: Thought and Art / Pilar 8: Pensamento e ArtePilar 8: Pensamento e Arte


175

8.1: Thought

Thought focuses on the products of the human intellect. It is composed of three sub-categories: reason, representation, and relations.

The School of Athens (detail), Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino), 1510-11;Stanza della Segnatura, Vatican.


Though & Art1. ThoughtThought 1.1 Reason 1.2 Representation 1.3 Relations2. Literary Arts 2.1 Theory 2.2 Works3. The Arts 3.1 Theory 3.2 Forms 3.3 Time 3.4 Place 3.5 Ethnicity 3.6 Interest


176

8.1.1 Reason

Reason is the "theory" part of the thought category. It is composed of philosophy.

The Death of Socrates, Jacques-Louis David, 1787; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.



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Philosophy is an academic discipline that seeks truth through reasoning. It studies the essence of human existence and the meaning of life, establishes the foundations of human thought, and discusses the fundamental issues underlying all fields of human knowledge, action and creativity.

The Death of Socrates, Jacques-Louis David, 1787; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.



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Philosophy is the most important of all disciplines.What is the meaning of life? is the most important of all explorations. The quest for the essence and meaning of life is universal, but the answer is personal.

The Scream, Edvard Munch, 1893; The National Gallery, Oslo.



179 Bridge Over a Pond of Water Lilies, Claude Monet 1899, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City


The essence of life is embodied in life. The meaning of life is embodied in the quest to know who you are, where you come from and where you are going, and to whom you are accountable for your deeds.


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8.1.2 Representation

The representation category is centered on the basics of languages. The category represents the fields of philosophy of language and philology.

The Rosetta Stone, displayed at the British Museum, is an ancient Egyptian stone bearing inscriptions in three different languages, Hieroglyphs (Egyptian), Demotic (Egyptian), and classical Greek. The three segments have the same meaning. Comparative analysis led to decoding the hieroglyph script.

Rosetta Stone, the British Museum. Hans Hillewaert, 2007, CC BY_AS 3.0


Though & Art1. Thought 1.1 Reason 1.2 RepresentationRepresentation 1.3 Relations2. Literary Arts 2.1 Theory 2.2 Works3. The Arts 3.1 Theory 3.2 Forms 3.3 Time 3.4 Place 3.5 Ethnicity 3.6 Interest


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8.1.3 Relations

Relations is composed of three relation-based fields: logic, mathematics, and statistics.

Vitruvian Man, Leonardo da Vinci, ca. 1487; stored in Gallerie dell'Accademia, Venice.


Though & Art1. Thought 1.1 Reason 1.2 Representation 1.3 RelationsRelations2. Literary Arts 2.1 Theory 2.2 Works3. The Arts 3.1 Theory 3.2 Forms 3.3 Time 3.4 Place 3.5 Ethnicity 3.6 Interest


182

In many universities worldwide mathematics is part of natural sciences. In others it is part of humanities.

God as Architect, Builder, and Geometer, The Frontispiece of Bible Moralisee, ca. 1250; the Österreichische Nationalbibliothek.



183

Viewing mathematics as a natural science rests on a tradition that goes back to medieval Christian Europe.

For most early medieval scholars, mathematics was the key to understanding the created order of the universe. It was embodied in the universe and reflected the divine order. Therefore, mathematics was a natural science.




184

However, for centuries the natural sciences have been grounded in empirical evidence, while mathematics is grounded in the human intellect, not in metaphysical and religious standpoints.

Mathematics is a construct of the human mind; as such it is part of humanities. Placing it under the umbrella of natural sciences rests on sociological reasons rather than philosophical foundations.




185

8.2 Literary Arts

An old saying tells that the earliest prehistoric poem starts: “What can we write that has not been written yet?”

Literary arts studies the diversified aspects of literary art. It is divided into two parts: theory, and works.

Theory represents the field of literary theory art that focuses on the theoretical foundations of literary arts.

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Joseph Karl Stieler, 1828.


Though & Art1. Thought 1.1 Reason 1.2 Representation 1.3 Relations2. Literary ArtsLiterary Arts 2.1 Theory 2.2 Works3. The Arts 3.1 Theory 3.2 Forms 3.3 Time 3.4 Place 3.5 Ethnicity 3.6 Interest


186

Works represents a generic field: literature. Literature is the study of written works of art. It covers all subjects, forms, genres, languages, eras, and places.

Illustration from The Pied Piper of Hamelin, Kate Greenaway (1846-1901), Library of Congress, USA



187

8.3 The Arts

The arts represents fields that study the manifold aspects of non-literary art. It covers all forms of non-literary art worldwide throughout human history.

The arts category is divided into two generic parts:art theory, (cat. 8.3.1) and art works (cats. 8.3.2-8.3.6).

Art works are classified by form, time, place, ethnicity, and interest.

Balinese Topeng (dance masks), Taman Mini Indonesia Indah, Jakarta, Gunawan Kartapranata, 2009, CC BY-SA 3.0


Though & Art1. Thought 1.1 Reason 1.2 Representation 1.3 Relations2. Literary Arts 2.1 Theory 2.2 Works3. The ArtsThe Arts 3.1 Theory 3.2 Forms 3.3 Time 3.4 Place 3.5 Ethnicity 3.6 Interest


188

Black Square, Kazimir Malevich, 1913; State Russian Museum, Saint Petersburg.


8.3.1: Theory

Theory studies the theoretical foundations of the arts. Its main field is philosophy of art.

Philosophy of art, or aesthetics, is the branch of philosophy that explores the philosophical foundations of art.

It studies the meaning of key concepts, discusses the criteria for evaluating the quality of art works, and establishes reliable research methodologies.

Is Black Square by Kazimir Malevich, which is presented at the State Russian Museum in Saint Petersburg, a work of art?


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What is art? Defining “art” is difficult since key characteristics have counter-examples that do not fit the common definition.

Art is human-based. Is it?

If art is human-based, animal painting is not art. Is it?

Congo (1954–1964) was a chimpanzee who had made 400 drawings and paintings that were sold on June 20, 2005 for over US$26,000.

Painting by Congo, a chimpanzee, ca. 1956-58.



190

Art is an activity and an artifact. It is the process of creating (e.g., painting) and the product of this activity (e.g., a painting).

The Art of Painting, Johannes Vermeer, ca. 1666-68, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria



191

Art is intentional. Is it?

If art is intentional, improvised music and painting, as well as computer graphics, are not art.

Still, if art can be unplanned, what differentiates art from other arbitrary processes and artifacts?

Computer-generated image, Chaim Zins, 2010.



192

Art is associated with emotions. Is it?

Art was traditionally perceived as aimed at expressing the artist’s emotions or causing emotional responses in the viewer/audience.

If this is the case, known artifacts designed to convey ideas rather than emotions (e.g., Melencolia I, by Albrecht Dürer, and the Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci) are not works of art.

Melencolia I, Albrecht Dürer, 1514; Kupferstichkabinett, Staatliche Kunsthalle, Karlsruhe



193

Art has an intrinsic value. Has it?

If art has an intrinsic value, rather than being driven by functional purposes architecture is not art.

Cathedral of Brasilia, Brazil, Claude Meisch, 2009, CC BY-SA 3.0



194

Art is affiliated to art institutions. Is it?

Marcel Duchamp argued that the context makes the difference. He took a urinal, titled it Fountain (1917). Fountain is a landmark in 20th-century art. Replicas are now on display in art museums.

Graffiti in Olinda, Pernambuco, Brazil, Bjørn Christian Tørrissen, 2008, CC BY-SA 3.0



195

Art, in a nutshell, is usually an intentional human-based activity and the products of this activity. It is meant to express the creator’s ideas and emotions and to affect the viewer emotionally and intellectually. Art has an intrinsic value but it can also be designed to achieve functional purposes. Art does not have to be affiliated with art institutions. The definition is imperfect, but it is the best that we can get.

The Painter's Atelier (Studio), Courbet, Gustave, 1855; Musée d'Orsay, Paris.



196

The Painter’s Studio: A Real Allegory of Seven Years in My Artistic and Moral Life is a masterpiece by the French artist Gustave Courbet. It is an allegory that symbolizes the life of artists. The artist is integrated into is art surrounded by his art works, subjects and models, friends and supporters (on the right), and the masses who do not understand his art (on the left).

The Painter's Atelier (Studio), Courbet, Gustave, 1855; Musée d'Orsay, Paris.



197

What is the value of a work of art?

There are three basic approaches to art evaluation: objective, universal, and relativist.

The objective position sees aesthetic quality as an absolute value independent of any human view.

Monkeys as Judges of Art, Gabriel Cornelius von Max, 1889; Neue Pinakothek, Munich.



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The universal position sees aesthetic quality as a universal value, dependent on general human experience, mainly scholars and experts.

The relativist approach sees aesthetic quality as dependent on the experience of different humans; the aesthetic value is in the eye of the beholder.

Monkeys as Judges of Art, Gabriel Cornelius von Max, 1889; Neue Pinakothek, Munich.



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8.3.2 Forms

Art works are usually classified by their forms (e.g., painting), media (e.g., fresco,), genres (e.g., landscape, still life), style (e.g., abstract), subjects, time, place, ethnicity, and interests. The art forms emerge as the best criterion and the most inclusive of all criteria.

An art form is a type of artistic activity and artifacts involving special materials or techniques.

On our journey we focuses on exemplary art forms.

The Tribuna of the Uffizi, Johann Zoffany, 1772-78; Royal Collection, Windsor.


Though & Art1. Thought 1.1 Reason 1.2 Representation 1.3 Relations2. Literary Arts 2.1 Theory 2.2 Works3. The Arts 3.1 Theory 3.2 FormsForms 3.3 Time 3.4 Place 3.5 Ethnicity 3.6 Interest FIGURA PROTEGIDA POR

DIREITOS AUTORAIS

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Music

Ludwig van Beethoven Composing the Missa Solemnis,

Joseph Karl Stieler, 1820; Beethoven-Haus, Bonn.



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DanceThe Star, Edgar Degas, 1871; Art Institute of Chicago.



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Theatre Hamlet and Horatio in the Graveyard, Eugène Delacroix, 1839; Musée du Louvre, Paris.



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Opera

Musical fête, Giovanni Paolo Pannini, 1747; Musיe du Louvre, Paris.



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Theatrical EntertainmentMiss La La at the Cirque Fernando, Edgar Degas, 1879; National Gallery, London.



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Self-Portrait as a Painter, Vincent Van Gogh, 1888, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam.

Painting and Drawing



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David, Michelangelo Buonarroti,1504; Accademia di Belle Arti, Florence, Rico Heil, 2005, CC BY-SA 3.0

Sculpture



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The Unicorn in Captivity, Unknown Flemish weaver, 1495-1505, The Cloisters,Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Shooting Brooklyn, 2009

Tapestry



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Migrant Mother, Dorothea Lange, 1936; Courtesy of US Government.(Portrait of Florence Owens Thompson with several of her children )

Photography and Printmaking



209

Architecture

Taj Mahal, Agra, India. Yann, 2010, CC BY-SA 3.0



210 Space Shuttle Columbia as it lifts off on mission STS-107, NASA, 2003.


Pillar 9: Technology / Pilar 9: TecnologiaPillar 9: Technology / Pilar 9: Tecnologia

The launch of the space shuttle Columbia on January 16th, 2003 proved that ‘the sky is the limit’. Its tragic loss on returning to the Earth on February 1st was a reminder that the sky is the limit.


211 Space Shuttle Columbia as it lifts off on mission STS-107, NASA, 2003.


Technology, in its broadest meaning, is the physical objects, methods, and processes created and used by humans for practical and functional purposes.

Pillar 9 includes three main categories: theory, professions, and technologies.



212Atomic bomb mushroom, nuclear weapon test, the Romero test, part of the Operation Castle, Bikini Island, March 26, 1954. Source: DOE/NNSA.


9.1: Theory

Most technologies can be wisely used, as well as catastrophically abused and misused. Nuclear power can be used for improving human life, and it can be used for mass destruction.

Theory explores the philosophy and history of technology.


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9.2: Professions

Professions focuses on technology-based professions, mainly engineering. Engineering is the study and practice of discovering, inventing, developing, designing, and utilizing technologies.

Horizontal & vertical: Itaipu hydroelectric dam, Brazil, Martin St-Amant, 2007, CC-BY-SA-3.0


Technology1. Theory2. ProfessionsProfessions3. Technologies 3.1 Sciences 3.2 Needs & Activities 3.3 Materials 3.4 Processes


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9.3: Technologies

Human-based technologies are divided into four main sub-categories: sciences, needs and activities, materials, and processes.

Astronaut in Space, 1984, NASA


Technology1. Theory2. Professions3. TechnologiesTechnologies 3.1 Sciences 3.2 Needs & Activities 3.3 Materials 3.4 Processes


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9.3.1: Sciences

Sciences explores technologies that are grounded in and centered on specific sciences.

These technologies are the technological counterparts of all the natural and life sciences presented in pillars 3-6, and mathematics.

An illustration of a modern desktop computer.



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9.3.2: Needs and Activities

Needs and activities explores technologies that center on specific human needs and activities.

These technologies are the technological counterparts of the social sciences and humanities presented in pillars 1, 2, 7, 8, and 10.

The Gutenberg Bible, Johann Gutenberg, ca. 1455, Mainz; the Lenox Library, New York Public Library, NYC Wanderer, 2009, CC BY-SA 2.0



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9.3.3: Materials

Not all that is gold glitters, and not all that glitters is gold.

Materials explores technologies centered on specific natural or human-made materials that are used for diverse purposes.

Golden Cup, treasure of the Cathedral of Reims, 12th century; Palais du Tau, Reims.



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9.3.4: Processes

Processes explores technologies centered on specific processes that are used for diverse purposes.

Cooling, heating, freezing, cutting melting, and vitrification technologies are exemplary fields.

Vitrification, Courtesy: Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.



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HistoryHistory1. Theory2. Universal Memory3. Relations

Pillar 10: History / Pilar 10: HistóriaPillar 10: History / Pilar 10: História

Liberty is the driving force of human existence. It is the essence of

the human spirit.

Pillar 10 covers recorded human history, which is the culmination of the human experience throughout the ages. The pillar contains three categories:theory, universal memory, and relations.


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10.1 Theory

The theory category contains philosophy of history.

Stone of the Sun, named Aztec Calendar Stone, National Museum of Anthropology and History, Mexico City, El Comandante, 2009, CC BY-SA 3.0


History1. TheoryTheory2. Universal Memory3. Relations


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Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.

George Santayana, The Life of Reason, Vol 1, Chapter 12, p. 284.

The Holocaust, the systematic murder of Jews by Nazi Germany (1933-1945) aimed at the total extermination of the Jewish people, was the worst crime in human history.

Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, a photo from Jürgen Stroop Report to Heinrich Himmler, May 1943



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The Holocaust is a warning signal for humankind: Beware – it can happen again.

The murderers were normal people who lost moral limitations and made wrong decisions. Everyone is a potential murderer and a potential victim. Beware.

A selection at Birkenau (Aushwitz II), 1944; source: The Auschwitz Album,Yad Vashem, Jerusalem.



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During the final stages of World War II in 1945, the United States intensively bombed 67 cities in Japan and gave the Japanese government an ultimatum to surrender. The ultimatum was rejected. As a result the United States conducted two atomic bombings against Japan on the cities of Hiroshima (August 6, 1945) and Nagasaki (August 9, 1945). On August 15, 1945 Japan surrendered.

Atomic bombing of Nagasaki on August 9, 1945.



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The two atomic bombing were devastating. The two cities were destroyed. Within six months 200,000–250,000 people died. Hundreds of thousands of people have suffered from long-term health effects and died from radiation-related diseases and injuries.The atomic bombing of Japan is a warning sign for mankind: Beware.


Atomic bombing of Nagasaki on August 9, 1945.


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Terror. The September 11, 2001 terrorist attack was a seminal event that warns the world: Beware – the terror is here.

September 11, 2001 – Aftermath, Jim Watson, September 13, 2001: U.S. Navy..



226 The Good Samaritan, François-Léon Sicard (1862–1934); the Tuileries Gardens, Paris. Photographer: Marie-Lan Nguyen, 2007.


You shall not stand by the blood of your neighbor You shall not stand by the blood of your neighbor (Leviticus 19:16)(Leviticus 19:16)

History provides numerous examples of people who History provides numerous examples of people who risked their lives to help strangers. These people risked their lives to help strangers. These people exemplify by their deeds the greatest achievement of exemplify by their deeds the greatest achievement of humanity.humanity.

During the dark days of the Holocaust righteous non-During the dark days of the Holocaust righteous non-Jews risked their lives to save Jews. They were Jews risked their lives to save Jews. They were honored with the title “Righteous among the Nations." honored with the title “Righteous among the Nations." By January 1, 2010, 23,226 people and organizations By January 1, 2010, 23,226 people and organizations had been recognized.had been recognized.


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10.2 Universal Memory

Universal memory explores the collective documented past of mankind, civilizations, nations, and societies. The category represents history and archaeology.

Declaration of Independence, the five-man drafting committee (John Adams, Roger Sherman, Robert R. Livingston, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Jefferson) presenting their work to the Congress, John Trumbull, 1819; Capitol rotunda, Washington, D.C.



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10.3 Relations

The relations category focuses on relations among people. The category includes genealogy, the study of families and their history.

The family tree of Herzog Ludwig I of Württemberg (ruled 1568-1593); source: Wikipedia.



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Open Book, Scuola Tedesca, ca. 16th century; Uffizi Gallery, Florence.

Human knowledge is grounded in education and reason and sensitivity and curiosity and vision and commitment and integrity.

ConclusãoConclusão


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10 Pillars of Knowledge frames contemporary human knowledge. Now we see the whole picture and the meaningful relations among its parts. Still, we cannot be bound by frames. This is the essence of the human existence.

Escaping Criticism, Pere Borrell del Caso, 1874; Banco de España, Madrid.


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The Gate in the Rocks, Karl Friedrich Schinkel, 1818; Staatliche Museen, Berlin.

Dear Friends,Our journey comes to an end. The time has come to move on...



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