x 009 chinese architecture

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Chinese architecture

Main article: Chinese architec

The Iron Pagoda of Kaifeng , b

From the Neolithic era Longrammed earth fortificationsruins of the palace at Yinxu historic China, architecturalconstruction of a heavy platfwalls not as well emphasized

height and depth. Chinesebuildings. The deviation frotradition, which began as a nBuddhist building for housiAncient Chinese tomb modwatchtowers date to the HBuddhist Chinese pagoda istower built in Henan provinbased structures become mofound in Han Dynasty tombs.

extant stone bridge, as wellbridge .

ture

uilt in 1049 during the Song Dynasty .

shan Culture and Bronze Age era Erlitou c exist, with evidence of timber architecture .

dates back to the Shang Dynasty (c. 160emphasis was laid upon the horizontal axirm and a large roof that floats over this bas. This contrasts Western architecture, whic

architecture stresses the visual impact ofm this standard is the tower architectutive tradition [citation needed ] and was eventuallg religious sutras the stupa which

el representations of multiple story residan Dynasty (202 BC220 AD). However,the Songyue Pagoda , a 40 m (131 ft) tall ce in the year 523 AD. From the 6th centure common, while the earliest are from stoThe Zhaozhou Bridge built from 595 to 605

s the world's oldest fully stone open-spand

1

ulture , the earliest The subterranean

0 BC1046 BC). In , in particular the

e, with the vertical h tends to grow in

the width of the e of the Chinese y influenced by the

came from India. ential towers and

he earliest extant ircular-based brick

ry onwards, stone- e and brick arches D is China's oldest

rel segmental arch


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Inside the Forbidden City - an example of Chinese architecture from the 15th century.

The vocational trade of architect, craftsman, and engineer was not as highly respected inpremodern Chinese society as the scholar-bureaucrats who were drafted into thegovernment by the civil service examination system . Much of the knowledge about earlyChinese architecture was passed on from one tradesman to his son or associativeapprentice. However, there were several early treatises on architecture in China, withencyclopedic information on architecture dating back to the Han Dynasty. The height of theclassical Chinese architectural tradition in writing and illustration can be found in theYingzao Fashi , a building manual written by 1100 and published by Lie Jie (10651110) in1103. In it there are numerous and meticulous illustrations and diagrams showing theassembly of halls and building components, as well as classifying structure types andbuilding components.

There were certain architectural features that were reserved solely for buildings built for the

Emperor of China. One example is the use of yellow roof tiles; yellow having been theImperial color, yellow roof tiles still adorn most of the buildings within the Forbidden City .The Temple of Heaven , however, uses blue roof tiles to symbolize the sky. The roofs arealmost invariably supported by brackets, a feature shared only with the largest of religiousbuildings. The wooden columns of the buildings, as well as the surface of the walls, tend tobe red in colour.

Many current Chinese architectural designs follow post-modern and western styles.

Chinese architecture refers to a style of architecture that has taken shape in East Asia over

many centuries. The structural principles of Chinese architecture have remained largelyunchanged, the main changes being only the decorative details. Since the Tang Dynasty ,Chinese architecture has had a major influence on the architectural styles of Korea ,Vietnam , and Japan .

The architecture of China is as old as Chinese civilization. From every source of informationliterary, graphic, exemplarythere is strong evidence testifying to the factthat the Chinese have always enjoyed an indigenous system of construction that hasretained its principal characteristics from prehistoric times to the present day. Over the vastarea from Chinese Turkistan to Japan, from Manchuria to the northern half of French

Indochina, the same system of construction is prevalent; and this was the area of Chinesecultural influence. That this system of construction could perpetuate itself for more thanfour thousand years over such a vast territory and still remain a living architecture, retainingits principal characteristics in spite of repeated foreign invasionsmilitary, intellectual, andspiritualis a phenomenon comparable only to the continuity of the civilization of which itis an integral part.Liang, Ssu-ch'eng, 1984 [1]

The following article gives a cursory explanation of traditional Chinese architecture, beforethe introduction of Western building methods during the early 20th century. Throughoutthe 20th Century, however, Western-trained Chinese architects have attempted to combinetraditional Chinese designs into modern architecture (usually government), with only limited


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success. Moreover, the pressure for urban development throughout contemporary Chinarequired higher speed of construction and higher floor area ratio , which means that in thegreat cities the demand for traditional Chinese buildings, which are normally less than 3levels, has declined in favor of modern architecture. However, the traditional skills of Chinese architecture, including major and minor carpentry , masonry , and stonemasonry , arestill applied to the construction of vernacular architecture in the vast rural area in China.

Architectural bilateral symmetry

An important feature in Chinese architecture is its emphasis on articulation and bilateralsymmetry, which signifies balance. Bilateral symmetry and the articulation of buildings arefound everywhere in Chinese architecture, from palace complexes to humble farmhouses.When possible, plans for renovation and extension of a house will often try to maintain thissymmetry provided that there is enough capital to do so. [2] Secondary elements arepositioned either side of main structures as two wings to maintain overall bilateralsymmetry. The buildings are typically planned to contain an even numbers of columns in astructure to produce odd numbers of bays ( ). With the inclusion of a main door to abuilding in the centre bay, symmetry is maintained

In contrast to the buildings, Chinese gardens are a notable exception which tends to beasymmetrical. The principle underlying the garden's composition is to create enduring flow.

Enclosure

Contemporary Western architectural practices typically involve surrounding a building by an

open yard on the property. This contrasts with much of traditional Chinese architecture,which involves constructing buildings or building complexes that take up an entire propertybut encloses open spaces within itself. These enclosed spaces come in two forms, the: [2]

Courtyard ( ): The use of open courtyards is a common feature in many types of Chinesearchitectures. This is best exemplified in the Siheyuan , which consists of an empty spacesurrounded by buildings connected with one another either directly or through verandas.

"Sky well" ( ): Although large open courtyards are less commonly found in southernChinese architecture, the concept of a "open space" surrounded by buildings, which is seenin northern courtyard complexes, can be seen in the southern building structure known asthe "sky well". This structure is essentially a relatively enclosed courtyard formed from theintersections of closely spaced buildings and offer small opening to the sky through the roof space from the floor up.

These enclosures serve in temperature regulation and in venting the building complexes.Northern courtyards are typically open and facing the south to allow the maximumexposure of the building windows and walls to the sun while keeping the cold northernwinds out. Southern sky wells are relatively small and serves to collect rain water from theroof tops; performing the same duties as Roman impluviums , while restricting the amountof sunlight that enters the building. Sky wells also serve as vents for rising hot air, whichdraws cool air from the lowers stories of the house and allows for exchange of cool air with

the outside.


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A skywell in a Fujian temple with enclosing hallsand bays on four sides

A tulou outer building encloses a smaller circularbuilding, which encloses an ancestral hall andcourtyard in the center


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A dugout dwelling enclosing an undergroundcourtyard.

An enclosing courtyard on four sides from theAstor Court in the Metropolitan Museum of Art

Hierarchical


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A stone-carved pillar-gate, or q Ya'an, Sichuan province, Easterroof tile eaves, despite the factomb entrances) lacked woodeceramic roof tiles). [4]

The projected hierarchy anarchitecture are based on thwith doors facing the front ofthe sides. Buildings facing aw

South-facing buildings in thexposure to sunlight are heldor ancestral plaques. Buildingthe family, while buildings ne

Front-facing buildings in thcelebratory rites and for thecomplexes, central courtyarperipheral ones, the latter ty

Horizontal emphasis

e ( ), 6 m (20 ft) in total height, located at tHan Dynasty (25-220 AD); [3] notice the stone-cthat Han Dynasty stone que (part of the wallor ceramic components (but often imitated w

d importance and uses of buildings in tstrict placement of buildings in a property

the property are considered more importanay from the front of the property are the lea

e rear and more private parts of the prin higher esteem and reserve for elder me

s facing east and west are generally for lessar the front are typically for servants and hir

e back of properties are used particullacement of ancestral halls and plaques. Ins and their buildings are considered moically being used as storage or servant's roo

6

e tomb of Gao Yi in arved decorations of

d structures around oden buildings with

raditional Chinese complex. Buildings

t than those facing st important.

perty with higher bers of the family

senior members of ed help. [5]

rly for rooms of multiple courtyard re important than

ms or kitchens. [2]


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Que towers along the wallsPrince Li Chongrun 's tomb at th

Classical Chinese buildings, ebreadth and less on height,base, with the vertical wallwhich tends to grow in heighthe width of the buildings.

The halls and palaces in the compared to equivalent stasuggest the all-embracing namodern Western architecturdoes not apply to pagodas , w

Cosmological concepts

Model of a Chinese Siheyuan ina large roof that floats over this

of Tang -era Chang'an , as depicted in this 8thQianling Mausoleum in Shaanxi

specially those of the wealthy are built wiith close heavy platform and a large roof tnot well emphasized. This contrasts We

t and depth. Chinese architecture stresses t

Forbidden City , for example, have rathertely buildings in the West, but their extture of imperial China. These ideas have fo, for example through the work of Jrn Utz

hich are limited to religious building comple

Beijing, which shows off the symmetry, enclosbase, with the vertical walls not as well emphasi

7

-century mural from

th an emphasis on hat floats over this

stern architecture, he visual impact of

low ceilings when ernal appearances und their way into n.[6] This of course

es.

heavy platform and zed.


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Chinese architecture from eashui (geomancy) and Taoism to imperial and religious stru

Screen walls to face th

things travel in straight lTalismans and imagery

o Door gods displfortune

o Three anthropoare prominentlpresent" (

o Animals and frpomegranates ,

Orienting the structurein the front. Consideratstructure faces the nortPonds, pools, wells, and

The use of certain colors,architecture reflected the belbe wholly contained in its owbody of architectural literatutext, the Kaogongji , was neorder of the city were usuall"ideal" city never existed. B

remains one of the best exam

Construction

Materials and history

Models of watchtowers and owhile these models were madeand have not survived.

Unlike other building constrbecause they are more vuln

rly times used concepts from Chinese cosm to organize construction and layout from ctures. [2] This includes the use of:

main entrance of the house, which stems fro

ines. f good fortune:

ayed on doorways to ward off evil and encour

morphic figures representing Fu Lu Shou ( displayed, sometimes with the proclamationsn-xng-zi)

its that symbolize good fortune and prosperirespectively. The association is often done throu

with its back to elevated landscape and ensurinions are also made such that the generally win, where the wind is coldest in the winter

other water sources are usually built into the st

numbers and the cardinal directions in tlief in a type of immanence , where the natun form. Although the Western tradition grare, little was written on the subject in Chiner disputed. However, ideas about cosmicinterpreted at their most basic level, so a rijing as reconstructed throughout the 15th

ples of traditional Chinese town planning .

her buildings made during the Eastern Han D of ceramics, the real versions were made of ea

ction materials, old wooden structures ofrable to weathering and fires and are nat

8

ology such as feng ommon residences

the belief that evil

ge the flow of good

f-l-shu) stars "the threes star are

y, such as bats and

gh rebuses . g that there is water

dowless back of the

ucture

raditional Chinese re of a thing could

dually developed a a, and the earliest harmony and the eproduction of the

and 16th century

ynasty (AD 25220); sily perishable wood

en do not survive urally subjected to


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rotting over time. Although npagodas predated it by cenpagoda in China ; its use ofthroughout the centuries. Farchitecture gradually becamthis transition can be seen i605 or the Xumi Pagoda builtused in subterranean tomb a

In the early 20th century,buildings that still existed; that Dule Monastery, dated 98Liang Sicheng (19011972),Yutang (1902c. 1960s) discWutai in Shanxi was reliabl

dimensions for this monasticthe discovery at Foguang, threliably dated to the year 78found by the 21st century. [1 intact is the Pagoda of FogonWhile the East Hall of Foguconstruction, the 11th centur

The earliest walls and platforbrick and stone became mor

Great Wall of China , while thMing Dynasty (13681644).

Structure

Main article: Ancient Chinese w

ow nonexistent wooden residential towers,uries, the Songyue Pagoda built in 523 isbrick instead of wood had much to do

rom the Tang Dynasty (618907) onwarde more common and replaced wooden edifi

building projects such as the Zhaozhou B in 636, yet stone and brick architecture is kchitecture of earlier dynasties.

here were no known fully wood-construoldest so far discovered was the 1931 find

4 during the Song. [7] This was until the archLin Huiyin (19041955), Mo Zongjiang (1vered that the Great East Hall of Foguang

ly dated to the year 857 in June 1937. [7

hall measures 34 by 17.66 m (111 ft by 5e main hall of nearby Nanchan Temple on2, [9] while a total of six Tang era wooden b0] The oldest existent fully wooden pagodag Temple of the Liao Dynasty , located in Yinng Temple features only seven types of

y Pagoda of Fogong Temple features a total

s in China were of rammed earth constructe frequently used. This can be seen in anci

e brick and stone Great Wall seen today is

oden architecture

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watchtowers, and the oldest extant

ith its endurance s, brick and stone ces. The earliest of

ridge completed in own to have been

ted Tang Dynasty f Guanyin Pavilion

itectural historians 9161999), and Ji

Temple on Mount ] The groundfloor

ft). [8] A year after Mount Wutai was

uildings have been that has survived g County of Shanxi. racket arms in its

of fifty-four. [11]

ion, and over time, ent sections of the

renovation of the


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Mortise and tenon work of tie beams and cross beams, from Li Jie's building manual Yingzao Fashi ,printed in 1103.

Foundations : Most buildings are typically erected on raised platforms ( ) as theirfoundations. Vertical structural beams may rest on a raised stone pedestals ( ) whichoccasionally rest on piles . In lower class construction, the platforms are constructed of rammed earth platforms that are unpaved or paved with brick or ceramics. In the simplestcases vertical structural beams are driven into the ground directly. Upper class constructiontypically have high raised stone paved rammed earth or stone foundations with ornatelycarved heavy stone pedestals for supporting large vertical structural beams. [5] The verticalbeams rest and remain on their pedestals solely by friction and the pressure exerted by thebuilding structure. [12]

Structural beams : Use of large structural timbers for primary support of the roof of abuilding. Wooden timber, usually large trimmed logs, are used as load-bearing columns andlateral beams for framing buildings and supporting the roofs. These beams are areconnected to each other directly or in larger and higher class structures, tied indirectlytogether through the use of brackets. These structural timbers are prominently displayed infinished structures. It is not definitively known how the ancient builders raised the hugewooden load bearing columns into position.

Structural connections : Timber frames are typically constructed with joinery and dowelingalone, seldom with the use of glue or nails. These types of semi-rigid structural joints allowthe timber structure to resist bending and torsion while under high compression. [5]

Structural stability is further ensured through the use of heavy beams and roofs, whichweighs the structure down. [12] The lack of glue or nails in joinery, the use of non-rigidsupport such as dougong , and the used of wood as structural members allow the thebuildings to slide, flex, and hinged while absorbing shock, vibration, and groundshift fromearthquakes without significant damage to its structure. [5]

Walls : The common use of curtain walls or door panels to delineate rooms or enclose abuilding, with the general deemphasis of load-bearing walls in most higher class construction

Roofs : Flat roofs are uncommon while gabled roofs are almost omnipresent in traditionalChinese architecture. Roofs are either built on roof cross-beams rests directly on verticalstructural beams. In higher class construction, roof supporting beams are support throughcomplex dougong bracketing systems that indirectly connect them to the primary structuralbeams. [5] Three main types of roofs are found:

1. Straight inclined : Roofs with a single incline. These are the most economical type of roofing and are most prevalent in commoner architectures

2. Multi-inclined : Roofs with 2 or more sections of incline. These roofs are used inhigher class constructions, from the dwellings of wealthy commoners to palaces.

3. Sweeping : Roofs with a sweeping curvature that rises at the corners of the roof. Thetypes of roof construction are usually reserved for temples and palaces although itmay also be found in the homes of the wealthy. In the former cases, the ridges of the roof are usually highly decorated with ceramic figurines.

Roof apex : The roof apex of a large hall is usually topped with a ridge of tiles and statues forboth decorative purposes but also to weight down the layers of roofing tiles for stability.These ridges are often well decorated, especially for religious or palatial structures. In someregions of China, the ridges are sometimes extended or incorporated from the walls of thebuilding to form matouqiang (horse-head walls), which serve as a fire deterrent from driftingembers.


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Classification by structure

A pavilion inside the ZhuozhenChina

The Zhaozhou Bridge , built frospandrel segmental arch bridge

Chinese classifications for arc

(Chinese : ; pinyin : (simplified Chinese : (simplified Chinese : (simplified Chinese :

( ) xuan (Verandas ta (Chinese pagodas ) xie (Pavilions or hous wu (Rooms along roo (Chinese : ; pin

clusters to support roof Caisson domed or

Architectural types

Commoner

g Garden in Suzhou , Jiangsu province , one of

595605 during the Sui Dynasty . It is the oldin the world.

hitecture include:

Tng ) ting (Chinese pavilions ) ; traditional Chinese : ; pinyin : Ta ) tai (terrac ; traditional Chinese : ; pinyin : Lu) lou (Mult

; traditional Chinese : ; pinyin : G ) ge (Two-s

ith windows)

es on terraces) fed corridors)

yin: Dugng ) dougong interlocking wooden br and add ornamentation.

coffered ceiling

11

he finest gardens in

est fully stone open-

es ) istory buildings) ory pavilions )

ackets , often used in


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The houses of commoners, be they bureaucrats, merchants or farmers, tended to follow aset pattern: the center of the building would be a shrine for the deities and the ancestors,which would also be used during festivities. On its two sides were bedrooms for the elders;the two wings of the building (known as "guardian dragons" by the Chinese) were for the

junior members of the family, as well as the living room, the dining room, and the kitchen,although sometimes the living room could be very close to the center.

Sometimes the extended families became so large that one or even two extra pairs of "wings" had to be built. This resulted in a U-shaped building, with a courtyard suitable forfarm work; merchants and bureaucrats, however, preferred to close off the front with animposing front gate. All buildings were legally regulated, and the law held that the numberof stories, the length of the building and the colours used depended on the owner's class.Some commoners living in areas plagued by bandits built communal fortresses called Tuloufor protection.

Imperial

There were certain architectural features that were reserved solely for buildings built for theEmperor of China . One example is the use of yellow roof tiles, yellow having been theImperial color; yellow roof tiles still adorn most of the buildings within the Forbidden City .The Temple of Heaven , however, uses blue roof tiles to symbolize the sky. The roofs arealmost invariably supported by brackets ("dougong "), a feature shared only with the largestof religious buildings. The wooden columns of the buildings, as well as the surface of thewalls, tend to be red in color. Black is also a famous color often used in pagodas. It wasbelieved that the gods are inspired by the black color to descend to the earth.

The Chinese five-clawed dragon, adopted by the first Ming emperor for his personal use,was used as decoration on the beams, pillars, and on the doors on Imperial architecture.Curiously, the dragon was never used on roofs of imperial buildings.

Only the buildings used by the imperial family were allowed to have nine jian ( , spacebetween two columns); only the gates used by the Emperor could have five arches, with thecentre one, of course, being reserved for the Emperor himself. The ancient Chinese favoredthe color red . The buildings faced south because the north had a cold wind.


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A vaulted tomb chamber in Luoyang , builtduring the Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 25220)

A tomb chamber of Luoyang , built duringthe Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 25220) withincised wall decorations


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The Great Red Gate at the Ming Tombsnear Beijing, built in the 15th century


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The yellow roof tiles and red walls in theForbidden City (Palace Museum) groundsin Beijing, built during the Yongle era(14021424) of the Ming Dynasty

Beijing became the capital of China after the Mongol invasion of the 13th century,completing the easterly migration of the Chinese capital begun since the Jin dynasty. TheMing uprising in 1368 reasserted Chinese authority and fixed Beijing as the seat of imperialpower for the next five centuries. The Emperor and the Empress lived in palaces on thecentral axis of the Forbidden City , the Crown Prince at the eastern side, and the concubinesat the back (therefore the numerous imperial concubines were often referred to as "TheBack Palace Three Thousand"). However, during the mid- Qing Dynasty , the Emperor'sresidence was moved to the western side of the complex. It is misleading to speak of an axisin the Western sense of a visual perspective ordering facades, rather the Chinese axis is aline of privilege, usually built upon, regulating accessthere are no vistas, but a series of gates and pavilions.

Numerology heavily influenced Imperial Architecture, hence the use of nine in much of construction (nine being the greatest single digit number) and the reason why theForbidden City in Beijing is said to have 9,999.9 roomsjust short of the mythical 10,000rooms in heaven. The importance of the East (the direction of the rising sun) in orientingand siting Imperial buildings is a form of solar worship found in many ancient cultures,where there is the notion of Ruler being affiliated with the Sun.

The tombs and mausoleums of imperial family members, such as the 8th century TangDynasty tombs at the Qianling Mausoleum , can also be counted as part of the imperialtradition in architecture. These above-ground earthen mounds and pyramids hadsubterranean shaft-and-vault structures that were lined with brick walls since at least theWarring States (481221 BC). [13]

Religious

See also: Temple (Chinese)

Generally speaking, Buddhist architecture follows the imperial style. A large Buddhistmonastery normally has a front hall, housing the statue of a Bodhisattva , followed by a greathall, housing the statues of the Buddhas . Accommodations for the monks and the nuns arelocated at the two sides. Some of the greatest examples of this come from the 18th centuryPuning Temple and Putuo Zongcheng Temple . Buddhist monasteries sometimes also havepagodas , which may house the relics of the Gautama Buddha ; older pagodas tend to be

four-sided, while later pagodas usually have eight sides.


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Daoist architecture, on the other hand, usually follows the commoners' style. The mainentrance is, however, usually at the side, out of superstition about demons which might tryto enter the premise (see feng shui .) In contrast to the Buddhists, in a Daoist temple themain deity is located in the main hall at the front, the lesser deities in the back hall and atthe sides.

A group of temples at the top of MountTaishan , where structures have been builtat the site since the 3rd century BC during

the Han Dynasty


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The Giant Wild Goose Pagoda in Xi'an,built in 652 during the Tang Dynasty

The Nine Pinnacle Pagoda , built in the 8thcentury during the Tang Dynasty


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A timber hall built in 857 during the TangDynasty ,[14] located at the BuddhistFoguang Temple in Mount Wutai , Shanxi

The Three Pagodas of Chong ShengTemple, Dali City, Yunnan , built in the 9thand 10th century


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The Fogong Temple Pagoda , located inYing county, Shanxi province, built in 1056during the Liao Dynasty , is the oldestexistent fully wooden pagoda in China

The Liuhe Pagoda of Hangzhou , China ,built in 1165 AD during the Song Dynasty


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The Temple of Heaven in Beijing, built inthe 15th century during the Ming Dynasty

The Putuo Zongcheng Temple , built from1767 to 1771 during the reign of Qianlong ,represents a fusion of Chinese and Tibetanarchitectural style


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Hua Si Gongbei (the mausoleum of MaLaichi) in Linxia City, Gansu

The tallest pre-modern building in China was built for both religious and martial purposes.The Liaodi Pagoda of 1055 AD stands at a height of 84 m (275 ft), and although it served asthe crowning pagoda of the Kaiyuan monastery in old Dingzhou, Hebei , it was also used as amilitary watchtower for Song Dynasty soldiers to observe potential Liao Dynasty enemymovements.

The architecture of the mosques and gongbei tomb shrines of China's Muslims often

combines traditional Chinese styles with Middle Eastern influences.

Urban planningMain article: Ancient Chinese urban planning

Chinese urban planning is based on fengshui geomancy and the well-field system of landdivision, both used since the Neolithic age. The basic well-field diagram is overlaid with theluoshu, a magic square divided into 9 sub-squares, and linked with Chinese numerology. [15]

Miniature models

Main article: Science and technology of the Han Dynasty#Structural engineering

Although mostly only ruins of brick and rammed earth walls and towers from ancient China(i.e. before the 6th century AD) have survived, information on ancient Chinese architecture(especially wooden architecture) can be discerned from more or less realistic clay models of buildings created by the ancient Chinese as funerary items. This is similar to the paper josshouses burned in some modern Chinese funerals. The following models were made duringthe Han Dynasty (202 BCE AD 220):


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A pottery palace from the Han Dynasty(202 BC AD 220)

Two residential towers joined by a bridge,pottery miniature, Han Dynasty (202 BC AD 220)


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A pottery tower from the Han Dynasty(202 BC AD 220)

A ceramic model of a house with acourtyard, from the Han Dynasty (202BC AD 220)


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A pottery gristmill from the Han Dynasty(202 BC AD 220)

A pottery tower from the Han Dynasty(202 BC AD 220)


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