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Writing for Science and Engineering:Papers, Presentations and Reports

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Writing for Science and Engineering:Papers, Presentations and Reports

Heather Silyn-Roberts

OXFORD AUCKLAND BOSTON JOHANNESBURG MELBOURNE NEW DELHI

Butterworth-HeinemannLinacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP225 Wildwood Avenue, Woburn, MA 01801–2041A division of Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd

A member of the Reed Elsevier plc group

First published 2000

© Heather Silyn-Roberts 2000

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced inany material form (including photocopying or storing in any medium byelectronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to someother use of this publication) without the written permission of thecopyright holder except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright,Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by theCopyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London,England W1P 9HE. Applications for the copyright holder’s writtenpermission to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressedto the publishers

British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

ISBN 0 7506 4636 5

Composition by Genesis Typesetting, Rochester, KentPrinted in Great Britain

Contents

Acknowledgements vii

Introduction ix

1 The general structure of a document 12 The core chapter: sections and elements of a document 143 Abstract/Summary/Executive summary 644 A literature review 785 A research proposal 926 A journal paper 997 Progress reports 1078 Consulting or Management report and Recommendation report 1139 Engineering design report 118

10 A formal letter 12311 Emails, faxes and memos 13412 A thesis 14113 A conference poster 15114 Referencing 16715 Editorial conventions 18916 Revising and proofreading: strategies 19917 Problems of style 21018 A seminar or conference presentation 23519 Presentation to a small group 263

Appendix 1 SI units 268Appendix 2 The parts of speech and verb forms 271Appendix 3 Style manuals for specific disciplines 274

Index 275

Acknowledgements

This book has come about as a result of working with hundreds of graduatestudents and staff. I would particularly like to thank those in the followinginstitutions: the University of Auckland, in particular the School ofEngineering, and those attending courses at the Centre for ProfessionalDevelopment; the University of Tübingen, Germany – the GraduateSchools of Neurobiology, Interphase Chemistry, and Cell Biology; theInterdisciplinary Clinical Research Centre; the Department of General andEnvironmental Hygiene; the faculties of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy,and Biology; and the Max Planck Institutes of Biological Cybernetics,Tübingen, and Immunobiology, Freiburg, Germany.

For their support and organization of the programmes at the University ofTübingen and Max Planck Institutes, Germany, I am very grateful to JuttaBachmann, Konrad Botzenhart, Susanne Braum, Heinrich Bülthoff, GerdDöring, Klaus Eichele, Hans-Dieter Frey, Wolf Frommer, Friedrich Gönnen-wein, Sabine Hirsch, Wulf Krüger, Peter Pilz, Davor Solter, ThomasTritschler, and Friederike Wolf-Oberhollenzer.

For contributing ideas or commenting on specific points: Keith Bailey,Simon Bickerton, Martyn Bowis, Richard Christie, Stewart Forsyth and thestaff at Worley Consultants Ltd, Mike Johnston, Liz Godfrey, Stas Gorb,Enrico Hämmerle, Patsy Hulse, Peter Jackson (for allowing me to adaptmaterial for Chapter 9), Keith Jones, Sharlene Peterson, staff at the PurdueOnline Writing Lab, and Fiona Stevens-McFadden.

And, as ever, Siân and Gretel Silyn-Roberts, for their knowledge andediting skills, their humour, and keeping me buoyant.

Introduction

This book has been designed with the needs of science and engineeringgraduate students and junior professionals in mind. It is the result of workingwith hundreds of you in Europe and Australasia – how you accessinformation, the type of information you want, and the kinds of books youdon’t like. These are the sorts of things that many students have said:

� You appreciate prescriptions. This book is prescriptive; it’s almost a recipebook. Some people may criticize it for that reason. But science andtechnical writing can be guided to a great extent by prescriptions. You maynot achieve high style but you’ll get professional competency.

� You don’t like black text. I’ve had many disparaging comments aboutbooks with ‘too many words’.

� You need to be able to read any chapter in isolation. In this book, youdon’t have to have read the previous parts of the book to understand thelater ones.

� Looking things up and cross-referring is second nature to scientists andengineers. This book has lots of cross-references within it to other parts ofthe book.

� You appreciate knowing the mistakes to avoid, and that you are not alonein your difficulties. This book lists the common difficulties and errors.

� Many of you have not had enough guidelines on the requirements oftechnical writing and presentation during your undergraduate years. Thisbook assumes no basic knowledge, but it is not simplistic.

The basic structure of the bookChapter 1 The General Structure

of a DocumentHow to decide on a structurefor a document.

Chapter 2 The Core Chapter:Sections and Elementsof a Document

The requirements for all thesections likely to be found ina graduate document.

Chapters 3–13 Specific Types ofDocuments

The requirements for eachtype of document. Extensivelycross-referred to Chapter 2:The Core Chapter.

Chapter 14 Referencing The conventions forreferencing within the textand for the List of References.

Chapter 15 Editorial Conventions The conventions for suchthings as formattingequations, rules forcapitalization, etc.

Chapter 16 Revising andProofreading: Strategies

The techniques for revising adocument and proofreadingthe final version or editor’spage proofs.

Chapter 17 Problems of Style Recognizing and correctingcommon problems of writingstyle.

Chapter 18 A Seminar orConferencePresentation

The techniques for a formaloral presentation.

Chapter 19 Presentation to a SmallGroup

The techniques for apresentation to a small panelof people, e.g. PhD oral or adesign presentation.

Appendix 1 SI Units

Appendix 2 The Parts of SpeechTenses and Forms ofthe Verb

Appendix 3 Style Manuals forSpecific Disciplines

INTRODUCTION xi

How to use this bookIf you need the primary information about:

� the basic skeleton of headings of a technical document� how to choose sections for a document� how to guide a reader through a document

go to Chapter 1: The General Structure of a Document.

If you need to write a specific type of document, or an oral presentationgo straight to that chapter. It will be extensively cross-referred to the detailyou need in other parts of the book.

The other chapters give the supporting information on the conventions oftechnical documentation: referencing, editorial style etc.

Chapter 1

The general structure of adocument

This chapter covers:

� AIMRAD: the classic structure of an experimental report.� When AIMRAD isn’t an appropriate structure for your

document.� The basic skeleton of section headings.� Building an extended skeleton of section headings.� Using the Outline mode of Microsoft Word® to help organize

your document.� The importance of overview information: building a navigational

pathway through your document.� Deliberate repetition of information in the basic skeleton.

The basic skeleton of section headings for atechnical document

This section covers:

� The classic AIMRAD structure for an experimental report.� When AIMRAD isn’t suitable: choosing section headings.� The basic set of headings forming the skeleton of a document,

whatever its topic or length.

AIMRAD: the classic structure of an experimental reportThe classic, traditional structure for an experimental report, particularly ajournal paper, is the AIMRAD structure: Abstract, Introduction, Methods,Results and Discussion.

2 WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: PAPERS, PRESENTATION AND REPORTS

When AIMRAD isn’t an appropriate structure for yourdocumentThe classic AIMRAD structure may not be suitable if you are reporting on:

� Experimental work, but the structure needs to be expanded from therestrictive AIMRAD form.

� Work that is not of an experimental nature.

In this case, you will need to construct your own set of headings.There is no single structure that can be applied to all reports. The

following sections give guidelines for this.

Choosing a set of main headingsThe basic skeleton of all professional technical documents is made up of a setof main headings. The headings don’t depend on the topic or length of the

Table 1.1. A basic, general skeleton for a generalized short and a long documentto show the similarities

A short document A more complex document (Note: Youmay not need all of these sections).

Title Title pageSummary Abstract or Summary or Executive

SummaryRecommendations (if needed)AcknowledgementsTable of ContentsList of Illustrations

Glossary of Terms andAbbreviations or List ofSymbols (may not be needed)

Glossary of Terms andAbbreviations or List of SymbolsTheory (if needed)

Introduction or Background Introduction or Background(Middle part of text – yourchoice of headings)

(Middle part of text – your choiceof headings)Discussion

Conclusions ConclusionsRecommendations (if needed)Alternatively, placed immediatelyafter the Summary.

Recommendations (alternativeposition) or merged asConclusions and RecommendationsAcknowledgements (alternativeposition)References and/or Bibliography

Appendices (may not be needed) Appendices

THE GENERAL STRUCTURING OF A DOCUMENT 3

report, or whether it presents experimental or investigational work thatyou’ve done, or material that you’ve researched only from the literature (e.g.a generalized project report).

Documents tend to start and end with the same sections; the middle partwill depend on the subject matter of your document. To show this, Table 1.1compares the basic format for a generalized short and a long document.

Choosing section headings: building an extendedskeleton

This section describes how to:

� Build up the general skeleton into an appropriate extended skeletonof sections for your document. This covers every type of documentthat is not of a strictly AIMRAD structure.

� Use the standard sections frequently used in longer documents.

Steps to takeStep 1: Working from the basic skeleton, plan an enlarged skeletonfor your document

Use Table 1.2 to help: it does the following:

� It lists many standard sections used in postgraduate science andtechnological documents, in the approximate order in which they wouldoccur in the document.

� It gives the purpose of each section.� It cross-refers you to the pages of this book that give guidelines on how to

write each section.

Step 2: Work out your own headings for the central part of thedocument

Think about what the reader needs.

� Ask yourself: What does the reader need to be able to assess my material mostreadily? How can I best tell this story for the reader?

� Don’t ask: How do I want to present this material? This is quite different; itis looking at it from your point of view, not the reader’s. Documents thatare written from the writer’s point of view run the risk of being difficultfor a reader to readily understand.


Table 1.2. Use this table to determine what sections you will need for adocument. It shows: (1) the possible standard sections of a graduate technicaldocument, (2) the purpose of each section, (3) how often the section is used, and(4) the relevant cross-reference to guidelines in this book

Section heading Purpose of section Frequency of use Cross-reference.Unless otherwisestated, the material isin Chapter 2: TheCore Chapter

Title To adequately describe thecontents of your documentin the fewest possible words.

Necessary See ‘Title’, page 16

The Title Page This is usually the coveringpage (first page) of adocument, giving the title ofyour document, informationabout yourself and yourinstitution, and anydeclaration that you mayneed to make.

Longer documents See ‘Title Page’,page 19.

Abstract or Summary orExecutive Summary

� To give the reader aminiaturized version ofthe document, so thatthey can identify thebasic content quickly andaccurately.

� To give the reader a briefoverview of all of the keyinformation. Vitallyimportant to help thereader assess theinformation in the rest ofthe document.

� To help readers decidewhether they need toread the whole document.

Necessary See Chapter 3:Abstract/Summary/Executive Summary,page 64.

Keywords A brief list of keywordsrelevant to your documentthat will be used byelectronic indexing andabstracting services.

Usually only for ajournal paper

See ‘Keywords’, page23.

Acknowledgements To thank the people whohave given you help in yourwork and in the preparationof your document.

If needed See ‘Acknowledge-ments’, page 23.

Table of Contents Gives the overall structureof the document. Lists theheadings and subheadings,together with theircorresponding page numbers.

Longer documents See ‘Table ofContents’, page 24.

List of Illustrations To give a listing – separatefrom the Table of Contents– of the numbers, titles andcorresponding page numbersof all your figures and tables.

Longer documents See ‘List ofIllustrations’, page26.

Glossary of Terms andAbbreviations (or List ofSymbols)

To define the specialistterms and abbreviations(including acronyms) thatyou use in the main text ofthe document.

If needed See ‘Glossary ofTerms andAbbreviations’, page27.


Section heading Purpose of section Frequency of use Cross-reference.Unless otherwisestated, the material isin Chapter 2: TheCore chapter

Introduction � To clearly state thepurpose of the study.

� To allow readers tounderstand thebackground to the study,without needing toconsult the literaturethemselves.

� To indicate the authorswho have worked or areworking in this area, andto describe their chiefcontributions.

� To indicate correlations,contradictions, anomaliesand gaps in theknowledge.

� To outline the approachyou will take.

� To provide a context forthe later discussion ofyour material.

� In longer documents todescribe the structure ofthe document.

Common See ‘Introduction,’page 28.

Background Often used as an alternativeheading to Introduction.But where a document needsboth an Introduction and aBackground:

Introduction: usually arestatement of the brief anda description of the structureof the document.

Background: gives thehistory of the subject matterand the objectives of thestudy. Alternatively, theobjectives can be stated in aseparate Objectives section.

If needed See ‘Background’,page 32.

Objectives To describe the aims of yourstudy.

If clear statementneeded

See ‘Objectives’page 32.

Purpose Statement To state the purpose of thedocument (equivalent of theObjectives section).

See ‘Purposestatement, page 33.

Scoping Statement orScope

To describe the topicscovered in the document.

See ‘Scopestatement’, page 34.

Procedure Statement To describe the processesyou followed in investigatingthe topic of the document.

See ‘Procedurestatement’, page 34.

Problem Statement To describe the problem andits significance.

See ‘Problemstatement’, page 34.

These four sections aresometimes found inmanagement reports.



Literature Review To review the literature inyour field of work. Showsthat you have a goodunderstanding of thehistorical development andcurrent state of your topic.

Research document See Chapter 4: ALiterature Review,page 78

A section covering yourplanning of tasks(suggested headings:Schedule of Tasks orTime Management)

To describe how you proposeto schedule the various tasksthat you will have to do.

Often in managementreports

See ‘Schedule ofTasks or TimeManagement’, page35.

Allocation ofResponsibilities

To describe the person(s)who will be responsible foreach task.

May be needed in areport from a projectteam

See ‘Allocation ofResponsibilities’,page 37.

Ownership/Confidentiality

An agreement between youand the commercialorganization funding youthat gives you some right ofpublication of your results,while assuring theorganization that you willnot divulge commerciallysensitive information.

May be needed in aresearch proposal

See ‘Ownership.Confidentiality, page37.

Requirements To describe what you expectto need from your fundingorganization.

If needed See ‘Requirements’,page 38.

Costs To describe the expectedcosts that you are asking thefunding organization tocover.

If needed See ‘Costs’, page 38.

Materials and Methodsor Procedure

To describe yourexperimental procedures.Aim: repeatability byanother competent scientist.

Research reports See ‘Materials andMethods’, page 39.

Results To present your results, butnot to discuss them.

Research reports See ‘Results’, page41.

Discussion To show the relationshipsamong the observed factsthat you have presented inyour document, and to drawconclusions.

Common See ‘Discussion’,page 45.

Conclusions To give an overview of theconclusions that you havealready stated previously inthe document, most likely inthe Discussion section.

Necessary See ‘Conclusions’,page 48.

Recommendations To propose a series ofrecommendations for action.

If needed See‘Recommendations’,page 50.

Suggestions for FutureResearch

To propose directions forfurther development of yourwork.

If needed See ‘Suggestions forFuture Research’,page 51.



References or List ofReferences

A list of the works that youhave cited in the text. Strictconventions govern thisprocess.

If your sources havebeen cited in the text

For full details ofthe conventions forciting references inthe text andcompiling the ‘Listof References’, seeChapter 14:Referencing, page167.

Bibliography A list of works that youhave not cited in the text,which you think will be ofinterest to the reader.

If your sources have notbeen cited in the text

See ‘Bibliography’,Chapter 14:Referencing, page186.

Appendices At the end of a document –for complex material thatwould interrupt the flow ofyour document if it were tobe inserted into the mainbody. For example: raw data,detailed illustrations ofequipment, coding,specifications, productdescriptions, charts, etc.

When complexsupporting materialneeded.

See ‘Appendices’,page 52.

Index Used in long documents: atthe end of the document, alist in alphabetical ordergiving topics mentioned inthe book and the pageswhere they occur.

Longer documents See ‘Index’, page 54.

The Outline mode of Microsoft Word®: organizinga document

This section very briefly describes the Outline mode of MicrosoftWord®. This mode helps organize a document, revise it, and produce adocument that looks professional.

The Outline mode of Microsoft Word® will:

1 Help organize a set of headings and subheadings of various levels.This is useful for the first stage of organizing a document. You decide onyour headings, the subheadings and their divisions, and then assign themto their various levels (level 1 for a main heading, level 2 for a subheading,etc). They can be easily reassigned to different levels at any time in thewriting process.


The text is then inserted under the headings to produce the fulldocument.

2 Collapse the document to display only selected levels of headings.This gives an overview of the whole document. You can select the levelof overview. By collapsing the document and selecting to display only thelevel 1 headings, you can check the overall structure of the document interms of only its main headings. By progressively displaying greater levelsof subheadings, you can obtain an increasingly more detailed view of thestructure of the document.This also helps in revising the first draft of the document.

3 Enable a heading to be dragged and dropped to a different place in the document,or to a different level.This helps to organize and revise the document. When a heading isdragged and dropped, the corresponding text is also moved.

4 Automatically produce a Table of Contents with the corresponding pagenumbers.

The importance of overview information: buildinga navigational pathway through the document

This section describes how to help readers navigate their way throughyour document. In this way they will understand and assess theinformation much more readily.

This is done by using (1) the basic skeleton and (2) sectionsummaries to provide overview information.

Even though technical documents have side headings, they are very oftendifficult to assess and extract information from. This can be because thereaders can’t see a pathway through it, something to help them to navigatetheir way.

You can construct a navigational guide through your document by usingthe basic skeleton and building on it. Your readers should then be able to usethis – probably unconsciously – to gain a much readier understanding of yourmaterial.

Building a guide by giving overview informationthroughout

Psychological studies have shown that our brain needs initial overviewsto better assess the full information that follows.


To use this concept, think of structuring information in the shape of adiamond (see Figure 1.1).

1 First, think of the whole document as being diamond shaped. At thenarrow ends, the information is brief, focused and concise.� The Summary or Abstract at the beginning and the Conclusions at the

end each give overview information.� The Summary prepares the reader for the whole document, the

Conclusions confirms the findings.2 Next, think of each section of a long document as also being diamond

shaped. It will also have two narrow ends: a Summary or Abstract at thebeginning and a Conclusions section at the end.

To get an undetailed understanding of the key information in the document– the rule of thumb is: read the Title, Summary/Abstract, Recommendationsand Conclusions. These sections – together with the section summaries –should form a navigational aid that orientates the readers and guides themthrough the document. They also give the non-expert reader a means ofobtaining an undetailed overview. (For an explanation of the varying levelsof detail delivered by certain sections, see Table 1.3).

Let the non-expert readers know that they can obtain an overview of thedocument by reading these particular sections. Suggested wording (placedimmediately before or after the main Summary):

Title

Abstract/Summary/Executive Summary

Body of information

Conclusions

Figure 1.1 Diagrammatic representation of the structure of a completedocument or a section of a longer document. The level of detail is low at the twonarrow ends – the initial and final overview information (Title, Abstract orSummary or Executive Summary, and Conclusions)


For overview information about this document, please read the Summary,Recommendations, and Conclusions together with the section summa-ries at the beginning of each section.

Deliberate repetition of information in adocument

This section describes how information is deliberately repeated in thevarious sections of the basic skeleton.

Table 1.3. Explanation of how the sections of the basic skeleton deliver overviewinformation at increasing levels of detail

Section Level of detail:increases from firstto fourth

What the section does forthe reader

Title First level Gives instant access tothe main point.

Summary or Abstract Second level Gives an undetailedoverview of the wholedocument.

Recommendations andConclusions

Third level Gives succinct overviewinformation about yourrecommendations andconclusions.

For each section:Section SummarySection Conclusions

Fourth level For the middle sections(the sections where youchoose appropriatesection headings). Giveoverviews of thematerial in eachsection.

If the material in thesection does not lenditself to beingsummarized: substitute aScope Statement, whichdescribes the topicscovered in the section.


People are sometimes concerned because they see information repeatedthroughout a report. But it has to be remembered that this repetition isdeliberate and controlled – the basic skeleton calls for it. The repeatedinformation forms part of the navigational pathway described above andguides the reader through the document. Table 1.4 shows the informationthat is repeated, and the sections where it occurs.

This deliberate restatement of undetailed information in the basicskeleton is a feature of a professional document. But information that isrepeated because the document has been sloppily assembled is anothermatter.

Table 1.4. The deliberate repetition of material throughout a document

The section of thebasic skeleton

The information The places in the rest of thedocument where theinformation is repeated

Abstract or Summaryor ExecutiveSummary

Undetailed overview ofthe whole document

The main conclusion(s)

Possibly: the mainrecommendation

Throughout the document

Conclusions

Recommendations

Conclusions Overview of theconclusions you drawthroughout the document

Elsewhere in thedocument. Probably in theDiscussion.

The main conclusion(s)will also be repeated inthe Abstract or Summaryor Executive Summary.

Recommendations A list of yourrecommended actions

The mainrecommendation(s) mightbe repeated in theAbstract or Summary orExecutive Summary.

Appendices Summaries of theAppendix material mightappear in the main bodyof the document.


Specific types of documents: using this book

This section describes how to use this book if you are writing a specifictype of document.

Specific types of documents are dealt with in Chapters 3–13. Each of thesechapters gives extra material relevant to the type of document (including asuggested structure), and is cross-referred to the material in Chapter 2: TheCore Chapter. Table 1.5 lists the various specific types of documents coveredin these chapters, and additional appendix material that may be helpful.

Table 1.5. Specific types of documents dealt with in this book, and the relevantchapter and page number

Type of document Relevant chapterand page number

Abstract or Summary or Executive Summary: Chapter 3, pages 64–77� A short Abstract/Summary (200–300 words)� A journal paper Abstract� A conference Abstract (about two pages)� An Executive Summary (10–25% of the

whole document)

Literature review Chapter 4, pages 78–91

Research proposal Chapter 5, pages 92–98

Journal paper Chapter 6, pages 99–106

Progress report Chapter 7, pages 107–112

Consulting or management report Chapter 8, pages 113–117A project team’s progress reportsA recommendation report

Engineering design report Chapter 9, pages 118–122

Formal letters Chapter 10, pages 123–133

Emails, faxes and memos Chapter 11, pages 134–140

Thesis Chapter 12, pages 141–150

Conference poster Chapter 13, pages 151–166

Additional material:SI units Appendix 1, page 268The parts of speech and verb forms Appendix 2, page 271Style manuals for various disciplines Appendix 3, page 274


Checklist for the structuring of a document� Are you using the necessary headings of the basic skeleton?� Are the headings of your expanded skeleton appropriate to your topic?� Are your headings in a logical order?� Have you built a navigational pathway for the reader by giving overview

information throughout your document: an Abstract or Summary orExecutive Summary, Recommendations, and Conclusions, and in a longreport, section summaries?

� Have you deliberately controlled the repetition of information through-out the document?

Chapter 2

The core chapter: sections andelements of a document

This chapter covers the requirements for each of the sections andelements required in the various types of documents you may have toprepare as a postgraduate. Any one document will not need all of thefollowing sections. Note: It is essential to check whether yourinstitution has specific requirements for the sections and formatting ofthe document.

� Each document section is described under most or all of the followingheadings:– Purpose– Difficulties– How to write it– Common mistakes– Tense of the verb– Checklist

� For a specific type of document, use the relevant chapter for thatdocument type in combination with this chapter.

� The sections are listed in the approximate order in which they areusually found in a document.

The following sections and elements of a document are covered in thischapter. Some elements are cross-referred to other chapters that give adetailed treatment:

Letter of Transmittal or Covering Letter (see Chapter 10: Formal Letters)TitleTitle PageAuthorship and Affiliation (particularly in a journal paper)Abstract/Summary/Executive Summary (see Chapter 3: Abstract/Summary/Executive Summary)KeywordsAcknowledgementsTable of Contents

THE CORE CHAPTER: SECTIONS AND ELEMENTS OF A DOCUMENT 15

List of IllustrationsGlossary of Terms and Abbreviations or List of SymbolsIntroductionBackgroundTheoryObjectivesPurpose StatementScope StatementProcedure StatementProblem StatementLiterature Review (see Chapter 4: A Literature Review)Schedule of Tasks or Time Management or similarAllocation of ResponsibilitiesOwnership/ConfidentialityRequirementsCostsMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionConclusionsRecommendationsSuggestions for Future ResearchReferences or List of References (see Chapter 14: Referencing)List of Personal Communications (see Chapter 14: Referencing)Bibliography (see Chapter 14: Referencing)AppendicesIndexIllustrations: figures and tables

Many sections are described under most or all of the following headings:

1 Purpose: the aim of each of the sections.2 Difficulties when writing the section.3 How to write the section.4 Common mistakes to avoid.5 The tense of the verb to use. See Appendix 2 for guidelines for using tense

in technical documents, and definitions and examples of the varioustenses of the verb.

6 Checklist.

Letter of transmittal, covering letterLetters that accompany a document. See Chapter 10: A Formal Letter, pages123–133.


The titlePurpose1 To adequately describe the contents of your document in the fewest

possible words.2 To give the reader immediate access to the main subject matter.

DifficultiesDevising a title that is:

� short enough� contains all the key information� makes sense (i.e. is not ambiguous, is not syntactically problematic)

How to write it

For the rules of capitalization in a title, see ‘Titles of journal articles’,page 193. Chapter 15: Editorial Conventions.

� Work out the information that a reader would need to gain immediateaccess to the main point of your document.

� It should be not too general, not too detailed, and should contain thenecessary key information.

� After your efforts to make it short, make sure that it makes sense. Thestructure can be lost during the quest for the minimum number of words,making it muddled and ambiguous.

A journal paper title

� Think along the lines: ‘How would I look for this kind of information ina database?’

� It is a mistake to believe that a general title will suffice for a journal paper,and that the list of keywords that you supply will indicate the specifics ofyour document. Many papers are selected for reading from the titles asthey appear in a List of References. An inadequate title may not befollowed up.

� Avoid a general title. Make sure that it contains all the information thatyou would look for when deciding whether or not to read a paper. Inascending order of usefulness:

Genetic control of changes in root architecture. (Too general, but suitablefor a review paper.)


Genetic control of nutrient-induced changes in root architecture.

An Arabidopsis MADS gene that controls nutrient-induced changes inroot architecture. (Gives very specific information.)

� A journal may allow a declarative title: this gives the key conclusion of thestudy.

Herbivore-infested plants selectively attract parasitoids.

However, some journals prefer indicative titles: titles that state what thestudy is about, but do not give the key conclusion. This may be consideredscientifically more acceptable; the readers’ own conclusions as to thesignificance of the work will not have been preempted.

� A sentence as a title. Some journals do not allow a title to be a sentence(i.e. there must not be a verb).

Herbivore-infested plants selectively attract parasitoids would not beallowed by some journals.

� A hanging title. A colon or dash joins parts of the title. This is a usefulway of avoiding a long, grammatically difficult title. Either the first or thesecond part of the title can be used to describe the overall area; the otherpart gives more specific material.

TiCl, TiH and TiH + bond energies: a test of a correlation-consistent Tibasis set.

A biomechanical profile across the patellar groove articular cartilage:implications for defining matrix health.

� A question as a title. Some journals allow the use of questions in the title(see below, ‘A conference poster title’, page 18.)

Does the southern dominance of solar activity really exist in solar cycle21?

Questions can also be used as the second part of a hanging title.

Replenishment of populations of Caribbean reef fishes: are spatialpatterns of recruitment consistent through time?

� Series titles. Some journal editors do not like series titles. If the variouspapers appear in different journals, there are problems with the timing ofpublication, with the result that papers can get out of sequence. However,they are still sometimes used.

Small-scale topology of solar atmosphere dynamics. IV. On the relation ofphotospheric oscillations to meso-scale flows.

� Abbreviations in the main title. Any abbreviations that you use should bewidely known in your discipline. Many journals have a list of theabbreviations they will accept.


� Running titles (running heads). These are the short titles required byjournals for the tops of the pages. In contrast to the main title, runningtitles can use abbreviations.

Full title: Separation and identification of growth hormone variants withhigh-performance liquid chromatography techniques.Running title: HPLC separation of GH variants.

A conference poster title

� A poster title needs to contain the key information but also draw theattention of the poster viewers. For this reason it can be shorter, morepunchy and possibly more querying or controversial than a title for ajournal paper. Questions as titles can be provocative; but they can alsoimply that your results are in question. If it’s too long it will take up toomuch space and overwhelm the poster, since the letters will be large.

Long; informative; suitable for a journal paper:Dropping rates of elaiosome-bearing seeds during transportation by ants(Formica polyctena Foerst.): Implications for distance dispersal.

Gives the conclusion; shorter; more direct:Dispersal distance of elaiosome-bearing seeds is determined by ants’dropping rates.

A question; attracts the viewers’ attention; but it could imply that yourresults are ambiguous:Do ants’ dropping rates determine the distance dispersal of elaiosome-bearing seeds?

Too short to contain the required information:Do ants affect the dispersal of seeds?

� Many people who attend conferences are interested in new methodology.If you have used a novel method, show it in the title.

A new method for detoxification of mycotoxin-contaminated food.

� Place the title at the top of your poster. Don’t be tempted to try a trendyconfiguration such as placing it vertically along one side.

Common mistakes1 Uninformative. Too general or too catchy: no good indication of the

content.2 Too long and clumsy.3 Misleading: do not accurately reflect the content.4 Too much information crammed in, leading to ambiguity.


Checklist for the title� Does it give the reader immediate access to the main point of your

work?� Does it adequately describe the significant features of your document?� Does it use the fewest possible words and still make sense?� Is it too long?� Is it too general?� Is it too detailed?� Does it make sense?

The title pagePurposeThis is usually the covering page (first page) of a longer document, giving thetitle and information about yourself and your institution, and anydeclaration that you may need to make.

How to write itIt should in general state:

� the title of your document� your name and department, university or institution. (For guidelines on

multiple authorship, see ‘Authorship and affiliation’, page 21)� the date of submission� the name of the relevant person, organization or tertiary level course to

which it is being submitted.� Other possible elements:

– a declaration that it is your own work may be needed.

Typical wording:

I declare that this report is my own unaided work and was not copied fromor written in collaboration with any other person. Signed . . .

– For a thesis: the degree for which the thesis is being submitted, and theinstitution.

Typical wording:

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for thedegree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of Middletown

� Layout:– Graduate courses will often have specific instructions about how to lay

out the title page.– It should make a pleasing arrangement, with plenty of white space.– It should be free of gimmicks such as ClipArt pictures.


Example of how to lay out a title page

55.593 Technology and Society

Development of the Rail Systemin the Nineteenth Century

Nicholas A. AshfordDepartment of the History of Science

University of Middletown

This report is my own unaidedwork and was not copied from orwritten in collaboration with anyother person

Signed

Date


Checklist for the title pageDoes the title page show:� an informative title?� your name?� the name of your department/faculty/organization?� the date of submission?� possibly, a declaration that it is your own work?� for a thesis, the degree for which the thesis is being submitted and the

name of the institution to which the thesis is being submitted?

Authorship and Affiliation (particularly in ajournal paper)PurposeTo show the people who did the work presented in the paper, the institutionswhere it was done and, if necessary, the present addresses of the authors.

How to write itThe journal’s Instructions to Authors will define how to present the author/affiliation information.

DifficultiesThere are two delicate aspects here, either of which can lead tomisunderstandings if not handled well.

1 The name(s) that should appear on the manuscript in addition toyours:

Prestige In the eyes of the scientific and technological community,the authors of a paper become identified with its work. A paper is veryrarely known by its title; it is always referred to – in conversation as wellas in texts – by the surnames of its authors, or as ‘Smith et al.’, if thereare several authors. The quality and number of papers a person haspublished are the major determiners of respect in this community.

The anxiety to be included People can often, therefore, be eager to beincluded as one of a paper’s authors. This can lead to uneasyrelationships, if you feel that their contribution doesn’t merit inclusionin a paper where you think you have done all or most of the mainwork.


Author or acknowledged? A difficult problem can be to decidewhether to include a person as an author or whether instead to mentionhim or her in an Acknowledgements section.

Sole or co-authorship? Some universities and departments state thatsupervisors must appear as co-authors. Others will allow the graduatestudent to be sole author. This must be resolved with your supervisor.You should also discuss whether other people, such as other staffmembers, students or technical staff should also be co-authors.

2 The order in which the names should appear:Author sensitivities When a paper has several authors, the order in

which they appear under the title is very important. The sensitivities ofauthors run high. But there are no ground rules for deciding the order,and arguments are by no means unknown among co-authors for eachone’s place in the hierarchy. A neutral way of approaching this issue isto place all authors after the first author in alphabetical order.

First name position The first name carries the most prestige. This isthe person who has written the paper, and who has generally done mostor all of the work. As a graduate student, you are likely to take this firstposition with your supervisor(s) succeeding you.

Group leader or senior professor If there are a number of authors, oneof whom is being included because of his or her rank in the organization– and who may not have been very directly connected with theprogressing of the work – this person’s name is often included as the lastauthor.

Abstract (can also be called a Summary)The Abstract or Summary is important for the understanding of the wholedocument. It is often poorly written and does not give adequate information.See Chapter 3: Abstract/Summary/Executive Summary. This gives informa-tion on the following:

� The different types of content in a Summary or Abstract: descriptive,informative and descriptive/informative.

� The short type of Summary or Abstract that is part of a larger document.It is generally from 200 words to half a page, but will be longer in a thesisor large document.

� Material specific to a journal paper Abstract (usually about 300 words)and to a longer Abstract for a conference paper (usually about twopages).

� An Executive Summary.


KeywordsThis is a short list of words relevant to your work – usually required only by ajournal – that will be used by electronic indexing and abstracting services.

It is important to work out the keywords that a potential reader might use tosearch for information. They should include both general and specific items.

AcknowledgementsPurposeTo thank your supervisor(s) and other people who have given you help by:

� sending you material (experimental or literature)� giving you technical help in your laboratory work� discussing your work with you� putting you in touch with other people� giving you emotional support, particularly members of your family etc.

How to write it� State very simply that you would like to thank the following people, and

state also the type of help they gave you.

I would like to thank the following people:

� If you feel particularly grateful to someone, start by saying I am particularlygrateful to . . . for . . . I would also like to thank . . . then list their names andstate what they did.

� Make sure that you include:– not only the surname of a person you are thanking but also the first name

or the initials– the person’s correct title (Dr, Associate-Professor, Ms, Mr, etc.). If you

don’t know it, make a point of finding it out, if necessary by telephoningtheir institution

– their department/institution/organization

Common mistakes1 Using flippant wording. It is possible to sound patronizing or silly.2 Not including (1) people’s first names or initials, (2) their department and

institution.

Wrong: I would particularly like to thank Dr Stevens for giving me samplesof . . .

Corrected: I would particularly like to thank Dr. A.J. Stevens, Department ofEvolutionary Biology, University of Middletown, for giving me samplesof . . .


Table of Contents (or Contents Page)PurposeTo give a listing of the headings and subheadings, together with theircorresponding page numbers.

Difficulties1 Deciding on an appropriate layout.2 Formatting it correctly so that the indentations are consistent.3 Making sure that the page numbers in the text correspond with those on the

Table of Contents.

All these problems can be eliminated by using the facility on your wordprocessor that automatically constructs and formats your Table of Contents.See ‘The Outline mode of Microsoft Word®: organizing a document’ page 7,Chapter 1: The General Structure of a Document.

How to write itIf you are not using the word processor’s facility, use the following guidelines:

� Decide the lowest level of heading to display on the Table of Contents (e.g.,whether you want to go down to subheading level or to subsubheadinglevel).

� List all the sections and all their subheadings down to your chosen leveldown the left-hand side of the page.– Number the sections and their subheadings by the accepted conven-

tions, using the decimal point numbering system (see page 195).– If you are indenting for subheadings, make sure that the indentations are

consistent for each level of heading.� Place the corresponding page numbers at the right-hand side of the page.

– Use the accepted conventions for numbering the pages (see page 198).� Don’t list individual figures on the Table of Contents. If you have a lot of

illustrations (as in a thesis, for example), you need a section called List ofIllustrations, which immediately follows the Table of Contents (see List ofIllustrations, this chapter).

� Conventionally, the Abstract or Summary is not listed on the Table ofContents. However, it may help the reader to do so, even though it is placedimmediately after the Title Page and is therefore easily found. This has beendone in the example below.

Common mistakes1 Mismatches between the text and Table of Contents in the wording and

numbering of the various headings, together with their corresponding pagenumbers.

2 Inconsistent formatting and indenting of the various levels of headings.


Example: Table of Contents

Table of Contents

Abstract iiAcknowledgements iiiList of Figures vGlossary of Terms vi

1.0 Introduction 1

2.0 Theory2.1 Flow visualization 22.2 Volume data sets 32.3 Flow visualization techniques

2.3.1 Scalar fields 62.3.2 Vector fields 8

2.4 The IBM RISC System/6000 8

3.0 Direct volume rendering techniques3.1 Ray tracing 93.2 Point clouds 113.3 Scan conversion of volume primitives 123.4 Polygonal approximation to scan conversion 14

4.0 Use of colour in volume rendering4.1 24-bit RGB colour 164.2 Assigning colours to fluid variables 17

4.2.1 Accumulating colours 174.2.2 Threshold colours 19

5.0 A new method for faster volume rendering 20

6.0 The Render3D program 21

7.0 Results7.1 The continuous casting process 227.2 Velocity fields in the continuous caster model 237.3 Dye concentration fields 267.4 Isosurfaces 27

8.0 Discussion8.1 Validity of new method for volume rendering 288.2 Usefulness of volume rendering 318.3 Further development 34

9.0 Conclusions 36

10.0 References 37

AppendicesAppendix 1 Source code: Ray tracing A-1Appendix 2 Interpolation and error A-2Appendix 3 Input file formats A-3

(a) Data files A-3a(b) Palette files A-3b


Checklist for the Table of Contents� Does it list the preliminary pages, and give their page numbers in Roman

numerals?� Does it list the:

� chapter headings?� section and subsection headings?� the References section?� each appendix?

� Does it give the correct section number of the sections, subsections, theReferences section and each appendix?

� Does each appendix have a title?� Do the page numbers match up with those in the text?� Is it consistently formatted? Are the indentations of the sections and

subsections consistent?� In the main text: does each chapter heading and subheading match the

sequence and numbering of those given in the Table of Contents?

List of IllustrationsPurposeTo list – separate from the Table of Contents – the numbers, titles andcorresponding page numbers of all your tables and figures.

How to write it� The term illustrations includes tables and figures (graphs, line drawings,

photographs, maps, etc). Use the title List of Illustrations if yourdocument contains both tables and figures. If it contains only tables, callit List of Tables; if only figures, List of Figures.

� If you are using List of Illustrations, list all the figures first, and then listall the tables.

� List the number, title and page of each illustration.� Place the List of Illustrations immediately after the Table of Contents. If

both of them are brief, put them on the same page with the Table ofContents first.

Common mistakesMismatches between the features of the text figures and tables and the waythey are listed in the List of Illustrations.


Checklist for the List of Illustrations� Are all the figures listed first, then the tables?� Is the number, title and page of each illustration given?� Do the page numbers match up with those in the text?� Conversely, in the main text, do the illustration numbers in the text

match those in the List of Illustrations?

Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations (or List ofSymbols, when dealing with only mathematicalsymbols)PurposeTo define the specialist terms, symbols and abbreviations (includingacronyms) that you use in the main text of the document.

How to write it� Decide the terms that need definition. Remember that a term self-evident

to you may not be as generally well known as you think. Even when youare writing a specialist document that will be read only by experts – suchas a thesis – your referees will appreciate a list of clearly defined terms.Make sure, though, that you don’t include terms that are generally verywell known; to define them would look silly.

� Terms that need to be dealt with include:– specific technical terms– Greek or other symbols– abbreviations (usually called acronyms). These are often in the form of

the initial letters in capitals of a series of words, e.g. PCR: polymerasechain reaction; PLC: programmable logic controller. For the conven-tions for also defining these in the text, see Chapter 15: EditorialConventions.

� Before you list the terms and abbreviations, it may be appropriate tostate:

S.I. (Système International d’Unités) abbreviations for units and standardnotations for chemical elements, formulae and chemical abbreviations areused in this work. Other abbreviations are listed below.

Where to put itThe Glossary of Terms can be placed either at the beginning of thedocument immediately after the Table of Contents or the List of Illustrations(this is the optimal position for the reader), or at the end, immediatelybefore the Appendices.


If the glossary is large and you feel that it needs to be at the end of thedocument, readers would appreciate a note placed immediately before theIntroduction, referring them to the page number of the glossary. Suggestedwording:

Explanations of terms and abbreviations used in this document are givenin the Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations, page x.

IntroductionPurpose� To clearly state the purpose of the study.� To allow readers to understand the background to the study, without

needing to consult the literature themselves.� To indicate the authors who have worked or are working in this area, and

to describe their chief contributions.� To point out the relationships between the various authors’ works – the

correlations and contradictions.� To indicate correlations, contradictions, ambiguities and gaps in the

knowledge.� To outline the approach you will take with respect to the correlations,

contradictions, ambiguities and gaps that you intend to address.� To provide a context for the later discussion of the results.� In a longer document: to describe the structure of the document.

DifficultiesThis can sometimes be a difficult section to write. The most commonproblems are:

1 Deciding how much background detail to include. This is especiallydifficult when your readers are made up of both specialists and non-specialists.� For specialists: a thorough introduction to the topic may sound

patronizing.� For the less knowledgeable: too little information may leave them

puzzled about what you are trying to achieve.� Graduate students trying to gain familiarity with the subject often find

Introductions too short and uninformative.2. Deciding how many references to include.3 Writing a good first sentence. The first sentence shouldn’t be a banal

statement of general knowledge. It needs to provide an overallintroduction, but be specific to your particular problem. It can be difficultto think up, and people can resort to a trite statement of the obvious. Forexample:


Toxic waste is a very serious problem in the world today.Even pompously dressing it up can’t disguise a banality:

The quantity of toxic waste currently generated in the world is a problem ofthe utmost seriousness.

How to write it1 Clearly show the main purpose of the work.2 The way you write it, and the particular focus that you take, will depend

on the type of document and the readers you are expecting. TheIntroduction is one section in particular that needs to be tailored to yourspecific audience, because the interest of each type of audience in yourwork will come from a different viewpoint. For instance, the Introduc-tion in a thesis will be different from that in a document for generalreadership, or a report to your funding body. (See the chapters on thevarious types of documents for more specialist information.)

3 Review the literature and show the relationships between the variousareas of work. Show the background of the previous work in this area.Show the contributions of others, with correct reference citations oftheir work. The references that you cite should be carefully chosen toprovide the most important background information. Show the correla-tions and the contradictions.

For guidelines for writing a self-standing literature review see Chapter4: A Literature Review. This is often required as a chapter in a thesis oras a separate assignment.

4 Use only references that are really relevant. You don’t need to prove howbroadly read you are. This can be a problem when you are writing up apaper from a thesis.

5 Show where there are correlations, contradictions, ambiguities and gapsin the knowledge.� Show the scope of the problem.� Show how your work will address them.

6 Make it simple and brief. But keep your reader adequately informed.7 Define the specialist terms used in the document.8 Structuring the Introduction. The Introduction tells a story – it should

have a logical flow:� Show the logic by using signalling words and phrases such as:

It was previously believed that . . .However, recent studies have shown . . .Thus, it appears that . . .

The beginning: Briefly summarize relevant current knowledge, support-ing your statements with references as necessary.

The middle. Move on to what is not known (or a problem with theknown). Having summarized the established facts, move on to areas


where there is less or no knowledge, or where the evidence isconflicting.

The end. In the final paragraphs: (a) clearly state the purpose of yourwork. Then (b) briefly summarize your approach, if this is appropriateand, possibly, your results.(a) State the purpose of your work.

Every study sets out to answer a specific research question. Thisshould be stated explicitly in the final paragraph of theIntroduction. Make sure it follows logically from the precedingsentences; these should have been structured so that the gaps orcontroversies in the knowledge are obvious.� Use a new paragraph to state why the study is being done.

Don’t state it clumsily, for example: The reason for doing thisstudy was . . .

� Instead, use signalling words and phrases to highlight thequestion:

However, it is not known whether . . .To answer this question (such-and-such) was investigated . . .To clarify the role of X in Y, we . . .To determine whether . . .To compare the properties of A and B . . .

(b) Summarize your approach (if appropriate). Having stated theresearch question, it may be appropriate to state how you set outto answer it. Mention the experimental method and the materialor species. If appropriate, briefly state your results.

9 Long documents: final paragraphs. After stating your purpose andapproach, in a fresh set of paragraphs briefly describe the structure of thedocument.

Section 4 gives the historical background... Section 5 reviews the currenttechniques . . . etc.

10 For a document that contains both an Introduction and a LiteratureReview. The Introduction in this case will be made up of a description ofthe general background to the study, with only a few references, togetherwith a description of the structure of the document.

Tense of the verbSee Appendix 2 for guidelines for using tense in technical documents, anddefinitions and examples of the various tenses of the verb.

The example below shows a mixture of present and past tenses, since youare describing both the established body of knowledge and what people havediscovered.


Example:

It has been previously shown (past) that plants flower (present, becauseit’s established knowledge) under environmental conditions that maxi-mize seed set and development . . . Much work has been done (past)towards understanding the environmental, physiological and geneticregulation of flowering in the species under study . . . Brown (1998)showed that the mutants flowered (past) later than wild-type plants; GIwas therefore proposed (past) to be a floral promotion gene. This workdescribes (present) research undertaken to verify the isolation of . . .

Common mistakes1 The main point is not clearly obvious – the reason for doing the study isn’t

clear.2 The literature has not been adequately reviewed. For example, the pivotal

references may not have been cited; only a few references may have beencited for a thoroughly researched area of work; the correlations andcontradictions may not have been pointed out etc.

3 Too long, rambling, unspecific, unstructured, with irrelevant material.4 Conversely, much too short and general.5 Does not summarize the approach taken.6 Specialist terms are not defined.7 For a journal paper:

� indistinguishable from other papers in terms of material and thereferences cited

� sentences split by large numbers of references.

Checklist for the IntroductionDoes the Introduction:� adequately review other people’s work?� identify the correlations, contradictions, ambiguities and gaps in the

knowledge in this area of research?� If appropriate, give a historical account of the area’s development?� put your study into the context of other people’s work?� in the final paragraphs, clearly state the purpose of your study?� then follow by briefly summarizing your approach?� In a long document, briefly describe the structure of the document?


BackgroundYou may prefer to call your section Background instead of Introduction. If so,all the guidelines given above for an Introduction apply also to a Backgroundsection.

Some organizations, in particular consulting engineers, may require bothan Introduction and a Background. In this case, the differences are:

� In the Introduction there is usually a restatement of the brief and adescription of the structure of the report.

� The Background gives the history of the subject matter and the objectivesof the study. Alternatively, the objectives can be stated in a separateObjectives section.

TheoryIf a description is needed of the theoretical background of your work, itshould be written for a busy professional in your discipline who has a good,broad understanding of the area but no detailed knowledge. This means thatthe description of the theory should not start at an elementary level, shouldinclude the material that you think such a person would need, and be nolonger than needed.

ObjectivesPurposeTo describe the aims of your study.

How to write it� This section should be very brief and concisely stated.� The objectives can be listed:

The objectives of this study were:1. To (establish the . . .)2. To (determine the . . .) etc.

� In a longer document such as a thesis or a research proposal, it iseffective to first state the broad purpose and then follow with the specificobjectives:

Aims of this studyThe purpose of this study was to investigate the development and structureof bacterial biofilms grown on different specific substrata in a subsurface-flow wetland.


The specific objectives of the research were to:� develop methods for investigating biofilms grown on different substrata in a

constructed wastewater treatment wetland� investigate the initial adsorption of bacteria to different wetland substrata,

namely. . .� study the early development of biofilms and their population structures

etc.

Purpose StatementScoping Statement or ScopeProcedure StatementProblem StatementSome documents, particularly consulting/management documents, requireone or more of these four sections. They present material that is in otherreports covered in sections such as the Introduction, Background orProcedure/Methods. They answer the following questions:

Question Section that answers the question

What is the purpose of thisreport?

Purpose Statement

What are the sections of thisreport?

Scope Statement

What procedures were used toinvestigate the problem?

Procedure Statement

What is the problem? What isits significance?Who or what caused the writerto write about the problem?

Problem Statement

Purpose StatementPurposeTo state the purpose of the document (the equivalent of the Objectivessection).


How to write it1 State the purpose clearly. The purpose of this report is . . . (to solve

whatever problem made the report necessary, or to make whateverrecommendation).

2 Name the alternatives if necessary.

Scope StatementPurposeTo describe the topics covered in a report.

How to write it� For a feasibility study or recommendation report: name the criteria you

used to formulate the requirements.� For other types of reports: identify the main sections or topics of the

report.� Specify the boundaries or limits of your investigation.

Procedure StatementPurposeTo describe the processes you followed in investigating the topic of thereport. This statement establishes your credibility by showing that youtook all the proper steps. In a standard experimental report, this materialwould be covered in the Procedure/Materials and Methods/Methodologysection.

How to write itExplain all the actions you took – the people you interviewed, researchperformed etc.

Problem StatementPurposeTo describe the problem and its significance.


How to write itProbably in this order:

� Describe the problem, giving the basic facts about it.� Explain what has gone wrong.� Specify the causes or the origin of the problem.� Describe the significance of the problem (short term and long term).� Give the appropriate data and state their sources.� Specify who is involved and in what capacity.� Discuss who initiated action on the problem, or what caused you to write

the report.

Literature ReviewPurpose� To review the literature in your field of work.� To show that you have a good understanding of the history and current

state of your topic.

See Chapter 4: A Literature Review.

A section covering your planning of tasksSuggested headings for this section: Schedule of Tasks or TimeManagement.

PurposeTo describe how you propose to schedule the various tasks that you will haveto do.

How to write itThis will involve intelligent and informed guesswork. The most convenientway of showing a time schedule is to use a Gannt chart. This subdivides yourproposal into tasks together with the dates when you propose to begin andend each one. It is a version of a bar chart (see Figure 2.1).

Points to remember when compiling a Gannt chart1 You need to assess:

� The number of tasks.� How long each task is going to take.� How you can fit each task with another.

PLANNING SCHEDULE – 2000

Research Project: Modification of a pulsatile pump for an isolated heart

No. Activity Feb Mar Apr May June Estimated no. of hours

1. Literature search 20

2 Test and assess the current pumping system 40

3 Design the modifications to the current system 20

4 Build components 40

5 Assemble, test and evaluate the rig 60

6 Modify and retest the rig if necessary 50

7 Evaluation of the final results 40

8 Write the final report 60

Total Time (hours) 330

Figure 2.1 Example of a Gannt chart for time scheduling


2 Most tasks will overlap with each other. For instance, if your first task isto get a preliminary understanding of the literature, this is likely to overlapwith the first stage of your experimental process.

Allocation of responsibilitiesThis section may be needed in a report from a project team.

� In a preliminary report, describe the person(s) who will be responsible foreach task, and the roles of the subsidiary individuals.

� In a final report, you may need to give a more detailed account of thevarious roles that each person has played in the progress of the work andthe writing of the report. In addition, you may be asked for a peer reviewof each person. This calls for an objective assessment of the effectivenesswith which each person fulfilled his or her roles.

Ownership/confidentialityPurposeAn agreement between you and the commercial organization funding youthat gives you some right of publication of your results, while assuring theorganization that you will not divulge commercially sensitive information.

When neededThis section may be needed in a research proposal.

For academic projects it is essential that the rights to publish scientificpapers and theses are retained. On the other hand, many commercialorganizations will want to own the rights to the outcomes of your researchso that they can commercialize them. Moreover, all commercial organiza-tions will expect you to maintain in confidence any commercially sensitiveinformation that they provide to help the research, or that results from theproject.

How to write itThe wording of the proposal should be tailored to the specific circumstances.Terms for ownership should be agreed before any work starts but at theproposal stage it may be sufficient to state that these are to be negotiated.


RequirementsPurposeTo describe what you expect to need from your funding organization duringyour research.

How to write itPossible wording:

To complete this work we will need the following from (name of theorganization):

Then give a list of your requirements. The types of things that you may haveto request are:

� Guaranteed access to the field site/the organization’s laboratories/test halletc.

� Access to specified items of the organization’s equipment.� Assistance with the preparation and/or installation of specified items of

equipment.� A laboratory base with access to power, water, bench space, etc.

CostsPurposeTo describe your expected costs during the course of your research that youare asking the funding organization to cover.

How to write itIt needs to be an itemized list of the various costs. You may need to includesuch things as:

� student stipend� supervisory costs� materials and equipment� travel costs� overheads

State the total final cost (the so-called bottom line).


Materials and Methods (can also be calledProcedure)

Purpose1 To describe your experimental procedures.2 To give enough detail for a competent worker to repeat your work.3 To describe your experimental design.4 To enable readers to judge the validity of your results in the context of the

methods you used.

Difficulties� Not many. This section is often the easiest part of a document to write.

Describing experimental methods is usually very straightforward.� Therefore it is often the best place to start writing. Writing a document

is often difficult, and there is absolutely no need to write it in sequencefrom beginning to end. Start with the section that is going to give you thefewest problems.

How to write it� Logically describe the series of experimental steps so that the whole

procedure could be repeated by a competent worker in your field. Youhave to tread a fine line between giving the right amount of detail for acolleague, and giving the sort of trivial detail that such a person would notneed. Think in terms of describing only the essentials.

� Ask yourself whether you might be too familiar with the techniques. Youmight make the mistake of leaving out descriptions of procedures that areessential but which you take for granted. If you think this is the case, giveyour description to a colleague to read.

� You also need to give the rationale behind your experimental design. Thissection should not just be a list of the experimental steps you took. Areader must be able to understand from the Introduction and theMaterials and Methods sections why you chose to do it this way.

� Make sure that you don’t introduce some of the results. It is quite easy toaccidentally do this when you are describing a particular set-up orprocedure. The Materials and Methods section and the Results sectionneed to be very strongly separated from each other in their contents.


� However, if you need the results of one experiment to justify using thesubsequent methods, it should be acceptable to say so, briefly.

� This section is often presented chronologically. However, we often dothings in a certain order simply for convenience. The Methods sectionshould not be a diary of what you did; it should have a logical flow.Related methods should be described together.

� How much detail? Established techniques: don’t describe in detail. Noveltechniques or variations on an old one: give detail.

� Tables can also be used in the Materials and Methods; they don’t justbelong in the Results. A table is often the best way to describe a complexprocedure.

� Headings: if you are writing to the conventional AIMRAD (Abstract,Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results and Discussion) format, theMaterials and Methods is the first section where subheadings can be used.When possible, use headings that match those that will be used in theResults. The reader can then correlate a particular method with therelated results.

� We is usually acceptable. I is rarely acceptable. Most academic assessorsand journal editors will allow you the occasional use of We in an activeconstruction. Beware, however, of using We too often: it will sound like achild’s description of a day out. ‘We did this, then we did that.’

� Referencing in the Materials and Methods section:– If you have to refer to literature to explain a technique, give enough

information for the reader to get an outline of the technique.

Good: Cells were broken by ultrasonic treatment as previously described(Smith, 1999).Poor: Cells were broken as previously described (Smith, 1999).

– When you cite a technique, which reference do you give? The originalone, or the most recent? Cite the earliest reference in which this formof the technique was used.


� For experimental work, use the past tense. You are describing work thatyou did.

Correct: Seeds were placed on damp non-sterile filter paper . . .Incorrect: Seeds are placed on damp non-sterile filter paper . . .

� For description of morphological, geographical or geological features, usethe present tense.


The eucervical sclerites are connected to the postcervical sclerites, each ofwhich is differentiated into a relatively hard sclerotized base and a flexibledistal part.

All three paleosols show a greater degree of development than the surfacesoils. Better development is displayed in terms of greater clay accumula-tion, higher structural grade, harder consistency and thicker profiles.

Common mistakes1 Not enough critical detail to enable someone unfamiliar with the

method to repeat it. It happens probably because the techniques are toofamiliar.

2 Conversely, too much trivial detail.3 Detailed text, where an illustration would be more appropriate.4 Illogical description. This can happen when several procedures are

described together.5 Being referred back to the literature with not enough summarized

information to be able to understand the method. For example,

. . . as described previously (Brown, 1998).

6 Introducing some of the results.

Checklist for the Materials and Methods/ProcedureDoes the Materials and Methods section:� give enough information to allow another competent worker in your

field to repeat your work?� give the necessary detail about the equipment used, e.g. the model

number of an instrument?� avoid detailed description of standard instrumentation and

techniques?� give the necessary details of:

� modifications to standard instrumentation and techniques?� new techniques?� any organisms used, e.g. species, variety, age, weight?

� State precise treatment/drug regimens?


Purpose� To present your results, but not to discuss them.� To give readers enough data to draw their own conclusions about the

meaning of your work.

Difficulties� Deciding how much detail to include.

How to write itGeneral comments

� It is the core section of the document – the new knowledge you arepresenting.

� Your results need to be clearly and simply stated.� It needs to be presented as a story. If it is interrupted by material that is

too detailed or is not directly relevant, your readers are going to becomedisorientated and lose the thread.

� It is often the first place that readers familiar with the topic will look(after first, the title and then, the Abstract). Studies of the way in whichexperimental reports are read show that many readers, after first readingthe Abstract, then look at the illustrations. (This highlights the need forillustrations to be as self-explanatory as possible, by means of informativetitles and captions).

Compiling it� In the text, highlight the most important aspects of the results. You need

to guide the reader what to look for in the tables and figures. A Resultssection is not just made up of a series of graphs and tables; there must beexplanatory text linking the illustrations.

After the fourth day, the number of cells increased exponentially(Figure 2).

� Amount of detail. You do not need to include every item of data youobtained, even though you worked hard to get it. It should not be a blow-by-blow diary of your data. In any piece of research there will inevitablybe results that are not worth presenting.

� Dealing with repetitive data. Do not be tempted to give them all. Presentrepresentative data, and state that they are representative. In a thesis youwill probably be expected to present all the repetitive data in an appendix(see ‘Appendices’, this chapter). In a report you can state that the data areavailable if required.


� Make sure that data are presented in only one way: don’t repeat in thetext what has already been presented in a table or graph (see‘Illustrations’, this chapter). However, the most important results andtrends should be pointed out in the text.

� It is important to include anomalous results that do not support yourhypothesis.

� Subheadings: if possible, they should be matched with those that you usedin the Materials and Methods. See next section, ‘Structuring ofcorresponding headings for Materials and Methods and Results sections’,page 43.

� Tables and figures should be carefully chosen to illustrate the points youare trying to make.

� Tables and figures should be as self-explanatory as possible, by means ofgood titles and captions (see also ‘Illustrations’, this chapter).

� Do not discuss the results.� The Results section is the next easiest section to write, after the Methods

section. It is efficient to be able to write the Results as soon as you havefinished the Methods.

Common mistakes1 Inadequate textual description: the trends are not pointed out and readers

are left to deduce the results from the illustrations.2 Too much detail. Readers do not need every item of data collected.3 Illustrations that are not self-explanatory. Inadequate subtitling and

captioning.4 Repetition in the text of large amounts of material that is already shown

in the figures and tables. Only key material should be pointed out in thetext.

5 Being wordy in citing figures and tables.

Incorrect: It is clearly shown in Table 2 that the highest tensile stress occursin the third phalanx of Pteranodon ingens.Correct: The highest tensile stress occurs in the third phalanx of Pteranodoningens (Table 2).

Structuring of corresponding headings for Materials andMethods and Results sectionsIf your work has a number of separate experimental elements to it, group theprocedures and the results for each element together. Don’t describe all theprocedures in sequence, and then follow with all the results in sequence.This will result in a poorly structured document – one that is very difficultfor your assessor to read. If it is appropriate, you can include a short


Discussion section for each separate part, and follow up with an overall mainDiscussion.

Schematic

Efficient structure Poor structure

First experiment Procedure:Procedure First experimentResults Second experimentDiscussion Third experiment

Fourth experiment

Second experiment Results:Procedure First experimentResults Second experimentDiscussion Third experiment

Fourth experiment

etc. Discussion�

�

�

Overall Discussion


Use the past tense. You are describing the results you obtained.

High numbers of the subgroup were found in areas with limited nutrientsand dissolved oxygen.

Checklist for the results� Are your illustrations well chosen?� Are the illustrations well presented and self-explanatory?� Is there an explanatory text pointing out the key results and trends?� Have you avoided giving a blow-by-blow account of the data?� If you have a lot of repetitive data, have you given only representative

data in the Results?� Have you avoided discussing the results?� Have you included the results that do not support your hypothesis?� Have you avoided citing references?


DiscussionPurposeThis section is hard to define, and is therefore one of the most difficultsections to write.

1 To give the answer to the research question that was stated in theIntroduction.

2 To explain how your results support the answer.3 To show the relationships among your observations, and also to place

them into the context of other people’s work.4 To draw conclusions.

DifficultiesNot knowing where to start or what to put in it.

How to write it1 In a Discussion, you present the significance of the work described

in the rest of the document – the principles, relationships, andgeneralizations.

2 Your conclusions need to be stated as clearly as possible.3 In a good Discussion, you discuss – you do not just restate the

material.4 You need to point out in your own work any exceptions, or any lack of

correlation, and define unsettled points.5 Show how your results and interpretations agree – or contrast – with

previously published work.6 Never try to cover up data that do not quite fit. It will be obvious to an

expert reader that you are fudging. Do not avoid mentioning them either.Be open and honest about inconsistencies or gaps in the data.

7 Summarize your evidence for each conclusion. Never assume anything.8 Avoid any far-fetched hypotheses: keep all your speculation within

reasonable bounds.9 Don’t be afraid to defend your conclusion. But in doing this, treat other

studies with respect.10 State any limitations of your methods or study design.11 State any important implications.12 Overall structure for the discussion:

(a) Beginning. State the aim again. Then briefly summarize theresults.

(b) Then make the main point. Do not work up to the main point at theend. State the strongest conclusions and arguments at thebeginning.


(c) Then work down to the subsidiary points. Many people make themistake of making the reader wait until the end for the main point(see ‘Common mistakes’, page 43).

(d) If possible, present the main conclusion again in the last paragraph.This rounds off the document effectively.

13. Choice of wordsProve is too strong a word. Your assessors will prefer you to state yourconclusions less equivocally.

In descending order of strength:

These results show/demonstrate . . . Very positive.These results indicate . . . Slightly less strong.These results support . . . Useful if you need to demonstrate agreementwith a hypothesis or someone else’s work.These results suggest . . . Useful as a politeness if your results contradicta body of evidence.These results imply . . .

Appear is also a useful word.

Thus, CD9 appears to be essential for sperm–egg fusion.

sounds positive, but much less dogmatic than:

Thus, CD9 is essential for sperm–egg fusion.

It is acceptable to use hedging words; science is rarely cut-and-dried.

May beMight beCould beProbablyPossibly

But don’t go to extremes of hedging.

Acceptable:These results suggest that A is the cause of B.Acceptable:These results suggest that A may be the cause of B.Too cautious:These results suggest the possibility that A may be thecause of B.


As in the Introduction (see page 30), a mixture of past and present tenses.Use the past tense for results (yours and those of others), but use the presenttense for established fact, to describe existing situations, and for your answersto the research question

THE CORE CHAPTER: SECTIONS AND ELEMENTS OF A DOCUM