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INCEPTION REPORT

E4085v4

Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock

Zambia Agriculture Research Institute

Private Bag 7 Chilanga, Zambia

Agricultural Productivity Program

for Southern Africa

Study Report on

ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL MANAGEMENT SAFEGUARD INSTRUMENTS

For

The Food Legumes Regional Centre Of Leadership Program

Pest Management Plan

DRAFT

December 2012

ii

Table of Contents

Table of Contentsii

List of Tablesiii

List of Acronyms and Abbreviationsiv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSvi

1.INTRODUCTION1

1.1The APPSA Program1

1.2Pests and Crop Productivity3

1.3Purpose and Objectives of the PMP3

2.Common Pests in Food Legumes Cropping System4

2.1Insects4

2.2Diseases5

2.3Seed borne Diseases7

2.4Weeds8

3.Pest Management9

3.1Physical and Mechanical Pest Control9

3.2Chemical Pest Control10

3.3Biological Pest Control26

3.4Integrated Approach to Pest Control26

3.5Status Review of Pest Management in Zambia27

4.Pest Management Plan30

4.1World Bank Requirements30

4.2Applicable Guidelines for Pest Management in Zambia31

4.3Pest Management Plan32

4.3.1Implementation Plan32

4.3.2Institutional Roles and Responsibilities35

4.3.3Training and Capacity Building36

4.3.4Monitoring and Reporting40

4.3.5Proposed Budget44

References46

Appendices47

Appendix 1: Precautions for Using Pesticides47

Appendix 2: Pesticides Banned under the Stockholm Convention49

Appendix 3: Pesticides Hazard Warning and Toxicity Colour Coding50

Appendix 4: Guidelines for Transportation of Pesticides51

Appendix 5: Warehousing and Storage Requirements52

Appendix 6: Protective Clothing and Cleaning Equipment54

Appendix 7: Disposal Options55

Appendix 8: Instructions for cleaning up spills and leaked pesticides58

Appendix 9: Banned pesticides under SAN, EPA, EU, POPs, PIC and PAN59

Appendix 10: List of People Interviewed64

List of Tables

Table 1: Some important seed borne organisms of relevance to Zambia Remove maize, sorghum and rice7

Table 2: Insecticides recommended and used by different stakeholders 12

Table 3: Herbicides recommended and used by different stakeholders17

Table 4: Fungicides recommended and used by different stakeholders20

Table 5: Insecticides Phased out, Banned, or Restricted23

Table 6: Banned , Restricted Or No Longer In Use Pesticides That Are Still In Recommendation In Zambia25

Table 7: Institutional Roles and Responsibilities35

Table 8: PMP Action Plan and Budget38

Table 9: PMP Monitoring Plan41

Table 10: Cost of Implementing the PMP45

List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

ADSP-Agricultural Development Support Programme

APPSA-Agricultural Productivity Programme for Southern Africa

CCARDESACentre for Coordination of Agricultural Research and Development for Southern Africa

RCoL-Regional Centre of Leadership

EA-Environmental Assessment

EIA-Environmental Impact Assessment

EIS-Environmental Impact Statement

EMA-Environmental Management Act

EMP-Environmental Management Plan

EPA -Environmental Protection Agency

EU-European Union

ESMF-Environment and Social Management Framework

FLRCoL-Food Legumes Regional Centre of Leadership

FOREX-Foreign Exchange

GART-Golden Valley Agricultural Research Trust

IDA-International Development Agency

IPM-Integrated Pest Management

LC-Lethal Concentration

LD-Lethal Dose

MAL-Ministry Of Agriculture and Livestock

MSc-Master of Science

MSDS-Material Safety Data Sheet

NAIS-National Agricultural Information Services

NGOs-Non Governmental Organisations

NISIR-National Institute for Scientific Research

NPE-National Policy on Environment

OP-Operational Policy

PAN-Pesticide Action Network

PhD-Doctor of Philosophy

PIC-Prior Informed Consent

POP-Persistent Organic Pollutants

PPE-Personal Protective Equipment

PMP-Pest Management Plan

PDO-Project Development Objective

RAP-Resettlement Action Plan

RCoL-Regional Centre of Leadership

R&D-Research and Development

SADC-Southern Africa Development Community

SAN-Sustainable Agriculture Network

SCCI-Seed Control and Certification Institute

SCCI-Seed Control and Certification Institute

TA-Technical Assistance

UNZA-University of Zambia

WB-World Bank

WHO-World health Organisation

ZARI- Zambia Agriculture Research Institute

ZEMA-Zambia Environmental Management Agency

ZNBC-Zambia National Broadcasting Corporation

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author of this report, Shadreck Yona Nsongela, contracted as an independent Consultant wishes to express gratitude to the Zambia Agricultural Research Institute (ZARI), the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (MAL) and the World Bank (WB) for entrusting the task of preparing this report to him. Particular appreciation is expressed to Dr. Moses Mwale, Director of ZARI, Dr Indira Janaki Ekanayake, Senior Agriculturist at the WB and Ms.Thandi Gxaba, Senior Environmental Specialist also from the WB for their valuable support and untiring guidance in the course of preparing the report.

Successful accomplishment of this work would not have been possible without the support of many other stakeholders including commodity research team members from research institutions across the country for their support in information provision.. To all these people too numerous to mention I remain indebted and express my heartfelt gratitude.

1. INTRODUCTION

This Pest Management Plan (PMP) has been prepared in compliance with the provisions of the World Bank Operational Policy 4.09 triggered by some activities proposed under the Agricultural Productivity Program for Southern Africa (APPSA). Relevant activities under the APPSA program include those to do with technology generation and dissemination covering breeding and production of seed, treatment as well as storage of seeds. These activities together with farming activities (Demonstration plots) are all vulnerable to pest attack and involve the management of pests in one way or another. In view of the above there is need for effective management of pests in a manner that does not pose health and safety risks to the farmer, users of products, the public and the enviornment – water, soils and biodiversity inclusive of which this PMP addresses.

The report which was prepared through literature review and interviews with experts and other stakeholders (Appendix 10) is made up of an Introductory Chapter, a review of common pests which may be relevant to the APPSA program, a review of applicable pest management options and finally a management plan presenting recommendations on pest management under the APPSA project.

Key study limitations included inability to conduct widespread field consultations with farmers and observations due to time limitations and logistical problems encountered. Limited availability of literature on the subject in the local context was another limitation faced.

1.1The APPSA Program

The Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (MAL), is seeking funding from the World Bank for the implementation of the Agricultural Productivity Program for Southern Africa (APPSA). The Project Development Objective (PDO) is to improve the availability of agricultural technologies within and across SADC countries. Realisation of this objective will be through:

· Establishing Regional Centers of Leadership (RCoLs) on commodities of regional importance, thereby allowing regional specialization around priority farming systems and more strategic investment in agricultural research capacity;

· Supporting regional collaboration in agricultural training and dissemination; and

· Facilitating increased sharing of agricultural information, knowledge, and technology among participating countries.

The program has three components:

1) Technology generation and dissemination: This component will support collaborative Research and Development (R&D) projects involving the participation of at least two countries with a focus on regional priorities. Technology generation will cover the full range including germplasm collection and characterization, germplasm improvement (plant breeding), crop management, and post-harvest activities including processing and storage. Beyond research APPSA will support the expansion of seed multiplication capacity by RCoLs to increase the availability of seed for further scaling up (e.g., by farmer-producers, seed marketing companies, farmers associations, NGOs, or private firms). APPSA will also support production of innovative farm implements or machinery to be used or tested in pilot schemes.

Funding will also include activities which will ensure that technologies generated are made available to farmers and other end users. This will be done by leveraging existing dissemination systems by addressing limitations in the system such as weak research-extension linkages; low human capacity within extension; inadequate technology reference manuals, bulletins, information leaflets at extension level; lack of harmonization of information packaging; inappropriate packaging of extension messages; limited information flow and feedback within the system; limited use of mass communication channels; and inadequate training. Apart from building dissemination capacity in research and associated institutions within MAL such as the Agricultural Information Services (NAIS) other institutions will include NGOs, private firms and learning institutions.

2) Strengthening Regional Centers of Leadership: Coordinated by ZARI at its Kabwe Research Station, Component 2 will support activities to strengthen the core capacity of RCoLs through: (i) upgrading of research infrastructure including physical infrastructure; farm, laboratory, and office equipment; and information technology and knowledge management systems; (ii)improving administration and performance management systems; (iii) developing human capital including by providing scientific training at the post graduate level and by upgrading skills through short courses or targeted training; and (iv) strengthening seed production capacity, seed regulatory functions, and related services. Apart from ZARI, other institutions to benefit will include the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (MAL) through strengthened technology dissemination capacity and to the Golden Valley Agricultural Research Trust (GART) whose capacity will be built for research on cereals such as rice, and maize that are grown as part of the food legume - -based farming systems. Other areas of support will include addressing gaps in scientific capacity that have been identified in breeding, agronomy, pathology, entomology, biometrics, soil fertility, farming systems, genetic conservation, extension, and information management. APPSA will finance short- and long-term training at the MSc and PhD levels.

3) Coordination and Facilitation: This component will focus on ensuring that all essential project coordination functions are effectively carried out including planning, implementation of project activities, management and administration, monitoring and evaluation, safeguards compliance, and regional engagement.

At the regional level APPSA will finance regional facilitation activities including: (i) planning, monitoring and evaluation activities related regional collaboration; (ii) regional exchange of information, knowledge and technologies; and (iii) technical assistance and capacity building. This will be done through CCARDESA who will play an important role in facilitating the development of R&D projects, including facilitating peer review and quality control.

Another area of focus under component 3 is R&D policy analysis and dialogue: APPSA financing will support analytical work, needs assessments, and policy dialogue or policy harmonization activities in key areas that affect R&D at national and regional level. Work will focus on clarification of intellectual property rights, operationalization of the SADC harmonized seed regulatory system, implementation of biosafety regulations, and similar topics.

1.2Pests and Crop Productivity

The term pest in crop production refers to an external biological agent which competes with and interferes with the proper growth and development of a target crop. Examples include weeds, insects and disease pathogens such as viruses and bacteria. Damage to the crop may arise from competition for available nutrients, water, light or space or may manifest by way of harm where a particular pest subsists and feeds on the plant or transmits disease pathogens. Pests can thus either directly harm the plant or may pave way for secondary infestation by disease or other pests. Arising from this damage the crop may not be able to realise its full productive potential or may even die. Interviews with ZARI field staff showed that crop damage can be as high as 100% if for example the bean stem maggot is not controlled (Muimui, 2012, pers com). The current invasion of army worms in Chongwe District and other parts of the country are also reported to have wiped out some maize fields (ZNBC TV documentary, 15 December 2012). Pest management is thus vital for sustained agricultural productivity because without proper pest management a farmer’s effort can be of no benefit.

1.3Purpose and Objectives of the PMP

This Pest Management Plan (PMP) has been prepared as a supplement to the Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF). It is meant to be used as a guide to pest management in the food legume crops technology development and dissemination activities of the APPSA program. The Plan has been prepared in compliance with the WB’s Operational Policy 4.09, the Pesticides and Toxic Substances Regulations (Statutory Instrument no. 20 of 1994 under the EMA (CAP 204 of the Laws of Zambia), the Plant Pests and Diseases Regulation Act (CAP 231 of the Laws of Zambia). Specific objectives of the PMP are:

· To review the relationship between pests and crop productivity

· To identify common pests likely to affect implementation of the APPSA program on food legumes technology generation and dissemination

· To explore alternative ways of managing pests and recommend environmentally friendly and socially acceptable approaches to pest management in the APPSA program

· To identify issues of concern in pesticide use and recommend measures for enhanced public and occupational health and safety.

2.Common Pests in Food Legumes Cropping System

Four food legume crops are targeted under the RCoL program namely common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), groundnuts (Arachis hypogeae), soybeans (Glycine max) and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata). Non legume crops to be covered include maize (Zea mays), Sorghum (Sorghum bicolour) and rice (Oryza sativa). All these crops are vulnerable to pest attack. The table below present common pests and diseases that affect production of the above named crops in Zambia.

2.1Insects

American bollworm: (Helliothis armigera) larvae feed on bud, flowers and bolls of cotton, on tomato, on bud and pods of beans and peas, on the milky-ripe grain of maize cobs, sorghum and wheat. Also sunflower and groundnuts may be severely attacked. The larvae bore into and feed on the inner parts of the fruits or plant, often with the hind part of the body exposed.

Aphids (aphididae) are small, soft bodied, more or less pear shaped polyphagus insects. They live in colonies on different parts of the plant, mostly on young shooters and leaves. They pierce and suck the plants and also produce a sugary extract which encourages the development of “sooty mould”. They also transmit viruses.

Army –worm (spodoptera sp.) Feed on plants of numerous families including, groundnuts, maize, beans, sorghum, wheat, tobacco, tomato, rice and okra. The older stages of the caterpillars devours the leaves of their hosts completely or leave only the midrib, while young caterpillars crap off the tissue on one side of the leaves so that they dry up.

Bean fly or bean stem maggot (Ophiomyia phaseoli) it is the significant pest on beans. The small, black flies insert their eggs into the primary leaves of the seedlings. They attack the petiole and main stem to the base of the stem, where the feeding cause the swelling and cracking of the stem. Young plants when attacked start wilting and eventually die.

Beetles Feed on various parts of many crops. They cause damage to the leaves and they can also destroy the flowers so that fruit and seed setting is affected. For example, lady birds (epilachna sp.) may skeletonise the leaves of maize, wheat and cucurbits, and may cause them to shrivel dry up. Blister beetles, or pollen beetles (mylabris sp.), black with red orange or yellow transverse bands, feed on the flowers of crops such as groundnuts, cowpea, beans, pasture legumes and okra, and are able to completely destroy the fruit and prevent seed setting.

Bugs (heteroptera sp.) are very destructive pests which may cause great damage to many crops and are found sucking on leaves, stems, petioles, flowers and buds causing whole plants to wilt, dry up and eventually die. The grains and seeds of cereals, especially rice, wheat, sorghum and sunflower, are important sources of food for a number of bug species.

Cutworms (agritos sp.) may cause considerable damage in nurseries and newly planted fields by cutting the roots and lower stems of seedlings. During the day they remain hidden in the soil, near their host.

Grass hoppers (acridoidea) Chews the leaves of plants and will attack a wide range of crops. They can also be transmitters of virus.

Leaf hoppers (cicadellidae jassidae) generally live in scattered colonies on the underside of leaves where they suck the sap, and damage the plants through their feeding and toxic salivary. They are probably more damaging as vectors of virus diseases. Their main hosts are maize, cotton, rice and groundnuts.

Mites (tetranychidae) are tiny, yellow or cream coloured and feed on the underside of the leaves and also produce a speckling of very small, white or yellowish spots on the leaves. The spider mites attack numerous plants for including beans, cotton, groundnuts, tomatoes, egg - plant and cucurbits.

Nematodes or eel worms (meloidogyne sp., Heterodera sp., Phatylenchus sp.) Are whitish transparent microscopic, cylindrical worms and spend some of their time in the soil, penetrating the roots of the plants forming galls (root knot nematodes.).The root system is eventually stunted and reduced. Nematodes attack a great number of plant species, including beans, potatoes, sunflower, etc.

Stem- or Stalk borers (busseola fusca, sesamia, calamistris, chilo partellus) Feed as young larvae on the leaves while the older larvae bore into stems and inflorescences, and cause so called dead heart effect. Stalk borers are severe pests on maize, sorghum and wheat.

Thrips (thripidae) are small slender insects, 1-2mm long that pierces and suck the leaves of onions, tobacco, groundnuts, Lucerne and green legumes.

White fly (bemisia tabaci) Is a tiny white insect with about 1mm in length, they live in colonies on the underside of the leaves where they suck the sup and cause leaf fall etc. direct injury is caused to many including cowpeas. They also transmit viruses.

2.2Diseases

Crops targeted under the program are susceptible to many diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses, micro plasma and nematodes. These organisms survive and propagate in various ways and may survive on plant residue, in soil, in alternate host and in or on the seed of plants. Key diseases of the target crops are as listed below:

Angular leaf spot (Isariopsis griseola) causes angular, dark brown lesions on bean leaves, which can be so numerous that the leaf is given a checker board appearance. A characteristic symptom is a production of black spore-masses on the underside of the leaf.

Anthracnose (colletotrichum sp.) is common on many hosts such as beans, soya beans, cucumber, sorghum, tobacco and wheat. It causes seed destruction, cotyledon spotting and foliage browning. On leaves it often starts as dark green, water soaked spots, which enlarge and become brown with darker borders. Dead portions of veins may be seen on the underside. On bean pods, the sunken, pink coloured cankers are conspicuous.

Bacterial blight (xanthonomus oryzae) appears only on rice leaves first as watery, dark green stripes, which latter become light brown.

Common blight (xanthomonus phaseoli) and Halo bright (pseudomonas phaseolicola) are both bacterial diseases of beans which may be seed borne and share many similarities in the symptoms and action. First, small water soaked spots appear on the leaves, and then the lesions turn brown and increase. In halo blights the spots can be surrounded by broad yellow circles. Spots also appear on stems where they turn into a reddish colour. On pods, small water soaked spots appear and grow larger. The tissue around each spot is reddish-brown. Finally the spots dry and form sunken areas covered with dry bacterial ooze. All kind of beans from soya beans to French beans are affected.

Damping off (pythium sp., Rhizoctania sp ) are soils inhabiting fungi affecting near the soil line and thereby killing vary young seedlings before or just after emergence.

Downy mildew (Peronospora sp., plasmopora sp., pseudoperonospora sp.)Downy mildews attack Lucerne, and soya beans. First symptom is a mottling with pale green areas all over the leaf. The spots soon become yellow and angular in contrast to the otherwise green blade. The entire leaf dies quickly.

Leaf blight on sorghum, maize, wheat and rice caused by helminthopsorium sp., develops long pale brown spots on leaves which may spread and kill the leaves. The ears and stems may also be infected.

Leaf spots are caused by many different pathogens and appear on many crops sometimes very severely. In general these lesions first appear on the older and lower leaves and then move upwards. They usually start as small, mostly brown, round spots which increase in number and size causing withering and premature defoliation.

Leaf spot of groundnuts (cercopora sp.) are small, round, brown spots increasing in numbers causing defoliation of the leaves. The yield and quality of nuts may be drastically reduced. Long pale brown spots with reddish edges on sorghum are caused by cercospora sp.

Leaf spots of various shapes and colours on sunflower, tomato, soya bean, sweet potato and wheat are caused by septoria sp.

Loose smut (ustilago nuda) is a seed borne disease of wheat and other cereals where the infection is carried inside the seed. When infected seed is planted, the mycelium of the pathogen keeps pace with the growing point of the host plant and at flowering the ear is almost completely replaced by a mass of dark brown spores. These spores are dispersed by the wind and may infect the ovary of florets on neighbouring plants. The germinating spores penetrate the ovary wall and complete the infection cycle. Control is by use of systemic fungicides capable of penetrating the seed and controlling the internal infection, or resistant varieties and certified seed.

Mosaic virus Cause a mottling of light green areas and dark green patches of affected leaves. The leaves develop irregularly. The leaf edges are usually curled downwards and sometimes become very narrow. Fruits may have odd shapes and yield is reduced. The disease may be seed borne and attacks a wide range of host plants.

Powdery mildew (odium sp., erysiphe sp) Symptoms are first seen as white powdery pustules on either upper or lower leaf surfaces, soon covering the whole leaf which turns necrotic. Powdery mildew is very destructive during the dry season, particularly on tobacco, wheat, peas, cucurbits and okra.

Rust (uromyces sp., puccinia sp.) causes yellowish, orange, red or brown, slightly raised pustules, appearing on the leaf surfaces. Rusts are particularly important pathogens of members of the graminae family i.e. cereals and pasture grasses, but also many other crops, such as beans, peas, tobacco, sunflower, Lucerne, eggplant and sweet potatoes may be attacked, sometimes severely. They have complex life cycles frequently involving alternate hosts.

Wilt Can be caused either by fungal (e.g. fusarium spp., verticillium spp.), or bacterial organisms (e.g. xanthomonas spp.pseudomonas spp.,erwinia spp.).Infected plants appear generally unhealthy, chlorotic, and wilt. The initial symptoms are a yellowing of the foliage and a gradual wilting and withering, and ultimately the plant becomes permanently wilted and dies. Wilts cause very serious losses in cotton, tobacco, potatoes, groundnut, sunflower, maize, cucumber, eggplant, cassava, etc., particularly under wet conditions.

Common rust (puccinia sorgi) is a fungus which produces small powdery pustules on the leaves of maize and other plants. Alternative host is oxalis sp. Other diseases of significant effect on maize include Southern rust (puccinia polysora) which is a fungus producing small pustules, lighter in colour than puccinia polysora). Others are Leaf blight (helminthosporium turcicum), a fungal disease producing slightly oval small spots on the leaves, later increasing in size as well as Stalk rot (diplodia maydis) a fungus causing browning of the pith of internodes which are easily broken,. The cobs may also be affected. One viral disease of significant importance to maize is Maize streak virus which is transmitted by leaf hoppers and causes yellow streaks along the veins and stunted growth.

2.3Seed borne Diseases

Pathogens carried on or in seeds has an opportunity for early infection of the crop and act as a centre from which a disease can spread. Infected seed can be the means of introducing the disease into areas previously free, if special measures are not taken to control the importation.

Table1 presents a list of some important seed borne organisms. The list is not exhaustive.

Table 1: Some important seed borne organisms of relevance to Zambia

Crop

Organism

Disease

maize

Fusarium spp

Diplodia spp

Erwinia stewartii

Scleropthora microspora

Cob rot

Cob rot

Bacterial leaf blight

Downy mildew

sorghum

Spacelotheca spp

Claviceps microcephala

Claviceps purpureum

Fusarium moniliform

Smut

Ergot

Ergot

Seed rot

groundnuts

Aspegillus spp

Fusarium spp

Seed rot

Seed rot

beans

Colletotrihum

Lindermuthianum

Pseudomonas phaseseolicola

Xanthomonus phaseoli

Bean common mosaic virus

Anthracnose

Halo blight

Common blight

Soya beans

Peronospora manshuria

Sclerotinia sclerotorium

Phomoosis sp

Colletotrichum sp

Downy mildew

Stem rot

Seed rot leaf and stem blight

pea

Ascochyta pisi

Mycosphaerella pisi

Leaf spot

Leaf spot

2.4Weeds

Apart from insects and diseases, weeds are quite a significant pest which can significantly reduce crop yield if not properly managed. Weeds compete with crops for nutrients, water, and light and impair the efficiency of field machinery. Yield losses due to weed competition occur mainly during the initial stages of growth and early weed control gives the greatest increase in the yield.

3.Pest Management

Ensuring sustained crop production require effective and timely control of pests which can cause crop damage or interfere with its growth either directly e.g. insects or indirectly by disease pathogens which spread diseases. Only then will the crop grow well to realise its full yielding potential. There are four common approaches to pest control namely physical or mechanical, chemical control, biological control and integrated encompassing a range of interventions.

3.1Physical and Mechanical Pest Control

This option entails use of physical or mechanical means to destroy or control the target pest. This option include examples such as

· Weeding using hands or a hoe

· Weeding using a harrow

· Handpicking of pests e.g. removal of caterpillars or grasshoppers by hand

· Scaring away or trapping of birds

· Burning of crop residue

· Trapping of pests e.g. use of rodents or bird traps

· Putting up physical barriers e.g. a wire mesh or net to prevent pests from attacking the crop

The advantages associated with this option are:

· Reduced risk of harm to Non Target Plant Species due to high precision in the selection of target pest species provided the workers are well trained and committed.

· Reduced risk of harm to Fauna species due to high precision in the selection of target species provided the workers are well trained and committed.

· Reduced pollution risks (soil, water and air) in that the activity does not involve the discharge of polluting substances nor are residuals pollutants expected.

· Immediate results as the pest factor is immediately removed leaving the crop free and without interference to its growth:

· Reduced cost of monitoring compared to chemical or biological control methods

· Lesser demand on expertise as activities such as hand pulling/picking, burning and digging/uprooting can be done by anyone with minimal training provided they are physically fit.

· Less demand on sophisticated equipment as simple tools which can easily be used compared to chemical or biological means which may require relatively sophisticated equipment and technology transfer.

· Employment creation as more people will be required to implement a physical/mechanical pest control program compared to use of chemicals and or biological means.

Key disadvantages include:

· Labour Intensive as it requires a lot of people to accomplish and make any meaningful impact.

· Increased Occupational Health and Safety Risks e.g. injury from snake bites, pricks and injury from use of sharp tools.

· Slow and takes long to accomplish thereby making the methods less efficient and best suited for targeting control in small areas.

· Require repeated action to eliminate or stabilise populations below injury level as the seed bank (weeds).

· Very difficult if not impossible to directly address disease infestation.

· May in itself contribute to more infestation e.g. when hand or mechanical weeding is done when the grass seed has matured and the action acts to enhance dispersal.

3.2Chemical Pest Control

The chemical control option involves use of herbicides for weed control, insecticides for insect control or fungicides for disease control. These chemicals may be applied using aerial spray, tractor drawn boom spray or by knapsack sprayer targeting foliage or soil depending on nature of chemical action, level of infestation, age of the plant and size of the target area to be controlled. Table 2-4 is a list of pesticides identified to be in use during the study for preparation of the ADSP Pest Management Plan in 2011 while tables 5 and 6 is a listing of banned pesticides still in use.

Amongst the key advantages of chemical control include:

· Ability to control large areas with ease as pesticide application can be done covering a large area with ease within a short period of time.

· Effective control potential due to high potent formulations readily available on the market thereby making pest control programs effective.

· Relatively less labour intensive as pesticide applications require less labour per unit area controlled compared to physical or manual control. This makes it easy to implement on a large scale with less labour.

· Quick manifestation of control results in comparison to biological control thereby allowing for quick restoration of plant growth and productivity.

The key disadvantage of the chemical approach to pest control is pollution and health considerations together with uncertainty on the chemical’s effect on valued non target plant and animal species. Other disadvantages include:

· Increased Occupational health and Safety Risks e.g. chemical poisoning if not properly handled.

· Soil and water contamination thereby limiting the use to which the available water and land can effectively be put to.

· Long term residual effects as some chemicals have potential to remain potent in the environment for a long time thereby limiting other land use activities.

· Public Health concerns equally count among the disadvantages of pesticide use as many pesticides have been discovered to have carcinogenic effects apart from causing reproductive and growth problems as these chemicals ate taken up by humans through the food chain.

· Chemical resistance can also be triggered where chemicals are continuously used for specific target species thereby rendering the chemical ineffective in the long run.

Table 2: Insecticides recommended and used by different stakeholders[footnoteRef:1][footnoteRef:2][footnoteRef:3] [footnoteRef:4] [footnoteRef:5] [footnoteRef:6] [1: Crop Protection Handbook 2009 MEISTER PRO] [2: THE WHO RECOMMENDED CLASSIFICATION OF PESTICIDES BY HAZARD and GUIDELINES TO CLASSIFICATION 2009] [3: Major crop Diseases Manual of Zambia] [4: Zambia Seed Technology Handbook] [5: Agricultural Field insect Pest of Zambia and Their Management] [6: Improved Vegetable production Practices for Smallholder Farmer in Zambia]

Insecticide

Group #

Chemical Group

Item #

Insecticide Name

Trade Name

WHO Classification

Crops

Main insects Controlled

Official Use status

1

Avermectin

1

Abamectin

Dynamec

IV

Tomato, Cotton

Red Spider Mite,

2

Carbamate

2

Carbaryl,

Carbaryl, Sevin Carbax,

II

Tomato, Rice, Pearl Millet, Soybean

Tomato moth, Green Stink Bug, Spotted stem borer, African Pink Stem Borer, Epilachna beetle, Bollworm, Spotted stem borer, Cutworm, Epilachna beetle, Armoured Cricket

3

Carbofuran

Furadan

Ib, II

Cowpeas, Carrots

Black Beetle, sorghum Stem Fly, Sweet Potato weevils, nematodes

Banned or restricted in other countries

4

Ethiophencarb

Ethiophencarb

II

Cabbage

Aphids

5

Methomyl,

Methomex 90SP

Ib

Pearl Millet, sorghum,

Bollworm

6

Pirimicarb

Primor

II

Cotton, Cabbage, Rape, Okra, Pumpkin

Sucking, Aphids, Turnip Mosaic Virus,

3

Cyclodiene organochlorine

7

Endosulphan

Endosulfan, Thiodan, Thiokill

II

Cotton, Rice, Millet, Peas, Soybean, Maize

Bollworms, Sucking, Spotted stem borer, African Pink Stem Borer, Bollworm, Spotted stem borer, Pod moth, Epilachna beetle, Cutworm,

Use should be discouraged because it has human and environmental health hazards. Already

banned in 56 countries because of its high toxicity and environmental persistent, Endosulfan has been

Nominated by the EU for a global ban under the Stockholm Convent.

8

Lindane

Gamma BHC

II

Soybeans

Aphids

4

Neonicotinoid

9

Acetamiprid

Spear, Acetam

II

Cotton, Paprika

Sucking

10

Imidacloprid

Confidor

imidagold

II

Hot Pepper, Maize

White fly

Termites

11

Thiamethoxam

Renova

IV

Coffee

Antestia bug

5

Organophosphate

12

Acephate

Orthene

III

Irish Potatoes, Tobacco

Cutworm, Budworm, Aphids,

13

azamethiphos

Tilapia fish

parasites

14

Chlorpyrifos-methyl

Chlorban

III

Soybean

Epilachna beetle

15

Chlorpyrifos,

Dursban, Chlorpyrifos,

II

Cabbage, Tomato, Rice, Soybean , Cowpeas, Irish Potato, mushroom

Whitefly, Black beetles, Cutworm, Brown Leaf Beetle, Termites

16

Demeton- S- Methyl

Metasystox

Ib

Rice

Aphids

Believed to be obsolete or discontinued for use

17

Diazonon

Diazinon

II

Cowpeas

Coreid Bug

18

Dichlorvos,

Vapona 50EC

Ib

Tomato, tilapia fish

Tomato moth, parasites


19

Dicofol,

Dicofol

III

Tomato, mushroom

Red Spider Mite, mites

20

Dimethoate

Rogor, Nugor

II

Cotton , Soybean

Sucking, Aphids

21

Fenitrothion

Shumba

II

Cowpeas

Coreid Bug

22

Fenthion

Lebaycid 50EC

II

Cabbage, Pumpkins, Cowpeas

Leaf Minor, Melon Fly, Bean Fly


23

Quinalpos

kinalux

II

Cowpeas

Bean Fly

24

Malathion

Malathion

III

Tomato Soybean

Tomato moth, Epilachna beetle

25

Mercaptothion, Malathion

III

Soybean, mushroom,

Aphids, Phorid fly ( Megaselia)

Sciarid fly (Lycoriella, mites

26

Monocrotophos

Phoskil, Monocrotopo, Monocron, Azodrin

Ib

Cotton, Cabbage, Tomato, Rice, Soybean

Sucking, White Fly, Cabbage flea Beetle, Spotted stem borer, African Pink Stem Borer, Epilachna beetle, Spotted stem borer, Groundnut Caterpillar leaf minor

Banned or restricted in other countries. Possible alternatives are Malathion, Chlorophypos, Dimethoate, Fenitrothion, Diazinon Azamethiphos;

27

methamidophos

Metamidofos

Monitor

Ib

Paprika

Aphids


28

Phorate

Umet

Ia

Groundnut

Groundnut Thrips


29

Profenofos

Curacron

II

Cotton

Sucking

30

Terbufos

Hunter

Ia

Groundnut

Groundnut Thrips


31

Triazophos

Hostathion

Ib

Cotton

Sucking

32

Trichlorphon

Dipterex, Granules

II

Soybean Coffee, Tilapia fish

Cutworm , Antestia bug, parasites of fish

6

Organotin

33

Cyhexatin

cyhexatin

II

Tomato,

Tomato Russet mites

7

Organosulfite

34

Propargite,

Propargite 30 WP

III

Tomato

Red Spider Mite

8

Pyrethroid

35

Alpha cypermethrin

Fastac

II

Cotton, Cabbage, Rape, Tomato, Onion, Okra, Hot Pepper, Pumpkins, Pearl Millet, Soybean , Cowpeas, Cattle

Bollworms, Diamond back moth, Aphids, Bugrada bugs, Thrips, Red Cotton Bugs, White fly, Leaf Eating Beetles, Bollworm, Armoured Cricket , Pod moth, Tsetse fly

36

Cypermethrin

Cyrux, Ripcord,

II

Cotton, Cabbage, Rape, Tomato, Rice, Soybean, Cowpeas, mushroom

Bollworms, Diamond back moth, white fly, Tomato Moth, Spotted stem borer, African Pink Stem Borer, Bollworm, Spotted stem borer, Brown Leaf Beetle, Sweet Potato weevils, Coreid Bug , termites

37

Deltamethrin

Decis, Decitab

II

Cotton, Cabbage, Tomato, Rice, Pearl Millet, cattle

Bollworms, White fly, Bollworm, Spotted stem borer, tsetse fly

38

Fenvalerate

Fenkil

II

Cotton, mushroom

Bollworms, flies. Phorid fly ( Megaselia)

Sciarid fly (Lycoriellal termites

39

Permethrin,

Actellic, Insect Killer,

II

Rice, Cowpeas, mushroom

Black Beetle, Sweet Potato weevils, termites

40

Tralomethrin,

Scout

II

Pearl Millet

Bollworm

41

Apistan

Bees

mites

42

Amitraz

Bees

mites

43

Bayvarol,

Bees

mites

44

Lambda-Cyhalothrin

Karate, Kafu

II

Cotton, Cabbage, Rape, Tomato, Pumpkins, paprika

Bollworms, Diamond back moth, Harlequin bugs, Aphids, Bugrada bugs, Leaf Eating beetles

9

Tetranortriterpenoid/Insect growth regulator

45

Azadractin

neem extract

IV

Cabbage, Rape, poultry

Diamond back moth , Aphids,, mites, ticks lice

Source: ADSP Pest Management Plan

Table 3: Herbicides recommended and used by different stakeholders

Herbicides

Group #

Chemical Group

Item #

Chemical Name

Trade Name

WHO Classification

Crops

Main Weeds Controlled

Official Use status

1

Aryloxyphenoxy propionates

1

Fluazifop-p

Fulsilade Supper

III

Cotton

Butyl grass

2

Propaquizafop

Agil-100EC

Unlikely to present acute hazard in normal use

Cotton

Annual/Perenial (A/P)

2

Benzoic acid

3

Chlorthal or D.C.P.A

Dathal 75% w.p.


Many Vegetables and Lucerne

Many germinating grasses and some broadleaf weeds

3

Bipyridylium

4

Paraquat

Gramoxone (200g/l)

II

Potatoes, Cotton

All Types

Among the dirty dozen. Currently under intensive controversial discussion due to its toxicity to animals and its serious and irreversible effect if absorbed

4

Chloroacetamide

5

Acetochlor

Acetochlor 900

III

Cotton

Annual Grasses

6

Alachlor

Lasso 480g/l

III

Maize, Soya, Groundnuts

Most annual grasses and some broad leaves

7

Metolachlor

Dual magnum

III

Cotton

Annual broadleaf

5

Chloro-carbonic acid

8

Dalapon

Gramevin 85% w.p


Tree crops, Lucerne

Most annual and perennial grasses

Dalapon 80% w.p.

6

Dinitroanaline

9

Trifluralin

Treflan E.C (478g/l)

Unlikely to present acute hazard in normal use.

Cotton, Groundnuts, Soybeans, Sunflower, Some vegetables

Most annual grasses and some broadleaf weeds

10

Pendimethalin

Prowl

III

Cotton

Annual Grasses

7

Glycines

11

Glyphosate

Glyphosate360

Cycat


Cotton

All Types

8

Oxyacetamide

12

Flufenacet

Tiara

III

Cotton

Annual Grasses

9

Phenoxy-carboxylic acid

13

2, 4-D

Weedkiller D (70% 2, 4-D ester),

III

Maize, Wheat , Sorghum

Most Broadleaf weeds

Highly suspected to be an endocrine disruptor

Weedkiller D (48% 2, 4-D ester), 2, 4-D Amine (72%),

Shellamine (72% 2, 4-D Omine)

10

Thiocarbamate

14

Butylate

Suttan 720 g/l


Maize

Most grasses and some broadleaf weeds. At least partial control nutsedge

15

E.P.T.C

Eptam 6E (720g/l)

II

Potatoes, and some vegetables

Germinating grass and broadleaf weeds. Some control of nutsedge

11

Triazine

16

Atrazine

Atrazine 80% w.p. Gesaprim 80% w.p.


Maize, Sorghum

Most germinating broadleaf and grass weeds

Gesaprim 50% w.p.

19Gesaprim 10% granules

17

Atrazine + Cymazine

Brazine ,

Maize Weed Killer

II

Maize

Most germinating broadleaf and grass weeds

18

Ametryn

Ametryn 500SC

III

Cotton

Annual Grasses

19

Cyanazine

Bladex 50% W.P.

II

Maize

Most germinating broad leaf and grass weeds

20

Prometryne

Gesagard 80% w.p.


Cotton, Groundnuts

Most broadleaf weeds and some grasses

21

Simazine

Simazine 80% w.p.


Maize, Tree crops

Many broadleaf weeds and many annual grasses

Gesatop 50% w.p

22

Terbutryne

Igram 50%f.w.


sorghum


12

Urea

24

Diuron

Diuron 80% w.p.


Tree crops, Cotton

Most annual broadleaf weeds and grasses

25

Fluometuron

Cotoran 80% w.p.


Cotton

Most annu8al broadleaf weeds and many annual grasses

Cotoguard

Cottonex

26

Linuron

Afalon 50%


Potatoes, Onions

Most annual broadleaf weeds and some grasses


Table 4: Fungicides recommended and used by different stakeholders

Fungicides

Group

#

Chemical Group

Item

#

Fungicide Name

Trade Name

WHO Classification

Crops


Official Use status

1

2,6-dinitroaniline

1

Flumetralin

Prime


Tomato

Late blight

2

Acylalanine

2

Metalaxyl

Ridomil

III

Cabbage

Downy Mildew

3

Alkylenebis(dithiocarbamate)

3

Mancozeb,

Dithane M-45,

III

Tomato, Pumpkin, Carrot, Cabbage, Onion

Late blight, Anthracnose, Carrot leaf bright, Black rot, Purple Blotch, Mildews, Anthracnose

Evaluated by EPA as being carcinogenic

4

Azole

4

Difenoconazole,

Score250EC

III

Tomato

Late blight

5

Hexaconazole

Anvil

III

Okra, Pumpkins

Powdery Mildew

6

Tebuconazole

Folicur

II, III

Soyabeans

Soybean Rust

5

Benzimidazole

7

Benomyl

Benlate

III

Tomato, Onion, Okra, Carrot, Mango, paprika

Tomato powdery mildew, Late blight, Purple Blotch, Powdery Mildew, Carrot leaf bright, Mango Anthracnose

6

Benzimidazole

8

Carbendazim

Arrest, Assure, Carbendazim

III

Jatropha

Jatropha wilt

7

Dicarboximide

9

Iprodione

Roval Flo

III

Citrus

Leaf Spot of Rough Lemon

8

Dimethy ldithiocarbamate

10

Thiram

Thiram 80 WP

III

Cabbage

Black rot

9

Inorganic

11

Copper Hydroxide

Funaguran OH

II

Cabbage, Tomato, Bananas, Mango, Coffee, Citrus, Paprika

Downy Mildew, Leaf Spot and Head browning of Cabbage, Late Blight, Bacterial Spot on foliage and Tomato fruit, Sigatoka Disease of banana, Bacterial Black Spot of Mango, Coffee Berry Disease, Coffee leaf rust disease, Cercospora leaf and fruit spot of citrus, Orange Scab

10

Inorganic

12

Copper Ox chloride

Copper Ox chloride

II

11

Methoxyacrylate

13

Azoxystrobin

Ortiva

III

Soybeans

Soybean Rust

12

N-trihalomethylthio

14

Captan

Captan


Mango, seed treat for beans , Maize

Mango Anthracnose,

13

Triazine

15

Anilazine

Anilazine

II

Tobacco

Alternalia

14

Chloronitrile

16

Chlorothalonil

Bravo 500, Encor

Daconil

III

Cabbage, Rape Tomato, Onion, Okra, Carrot

Downy Mildew, Leaf Spot and Head browning of Cabbage , Late Blight, Purple Blotch, Powdery Mildew, Carrot leaf bright,

15

Sulphur

17

Sulphur

Dusting Sulphur


Tomato

Tomato powdery mildew

16

Triazole

18

Triadimenol

Baytan

III

Coffee

Coffee Leaf Rust

17

Triphyenyltin

19

Triphenyltin Acetate

Brestan,

II

Soybeans

Red leaf blotch


Table 5: Insecticides phased out, banned, or restricted

Banned, restricted or no longer in use pesticides that are still recommended in Zambia

Chemical Group

INSECTICIDES

Group

#

Item

#

Insecticide Name

Trade Name

Oral LD50 mg /kg

WHO Classification

Crops


Official Use status

1

Carbamate

1

Carbofuran

Furadan

14.4

Ib, II

Sorghum, Cowpeas, Carrots

Black Beetle, sorghum Stem Fly, Sweet Potato weevils, nematodes


2

Carbamate

2

Methomyl,

Methomex 90SP

17

Ib

Sorghum,

Bollworm


3

Organophosphate

3

Dichlorvos,

Vapona 50EC

56 -108

Ib

Tomato

Tomato moth,


4

Methamidophos

Metamidofos

Monitor

30

Ib

Paprika

Aphids


5

Monocrotophos

Phoskil, Monocrotopos, Monocron, Azodrin

14

Ib

Cotton, Cabbage, Tomato, Rice, Soybean

Sucking, White Fly, Cabbage flea Beetle, Spotted stem borer, African Pink Stem Borer, Epilachna beetle, Spotted stem borer, Groundnut Caterpillar leaf minor

Banned or restricted in other countries. Possible alternatives are Malathion, Chlorophypos, Dimethoate, Fenitrothion, Diazinon Azamethiphos;

5

Phorate

Umet

2-4

Ia

Groundnut

Groundnut Thrips


6

Terbufos

Hunter

1.6

Ia

Groundnut

Groundnut Thrips


7

Triazophos

Hostathion

82

Ib

Cotton

Sucking

Banned in Zambia

8

Demeton- S- Methyl

Metasystox

30

Ib

Rice

Aphids


Table 6: Banned, restricted or no longer in use pesticides that are still being recommended in Zambia

Banned, restricted or no longer in use pesticides that are still recommended in Zambia

Herbicides

Chemical Group

Chemical Name

Trade Name

Oral LD50 mg /kg

WHO Classification

Crops

Main Weeds Controlled

1

Bipyridylium

Paraquat

Gramoxone (200g/l)

150

II

Potatoes, Cotton

All Types

Among the dirty dozen. Currently under intensive controversial discussion due to its toxicity to animals and its serious and irreversible effect if absorbed

2

dinitroaniline

Nitralin

Plaza in 75% w.p.

2000+

III

Cotton, Groundnuts, Soya


Believed to be obsolete or discontinued for use as pesticide


The above list of pesticides is a compilation of all products recommended for and are used in Zambia per responses of interviewed stakeholders during the ADSP Pest Management Plan 2011 study and current handbooks for crop management. Comparatively this list has a number of pesticides that are phased out, banned and or restricted in other countries as noted in the official use status of the tables and Appendix 9.

3.3Biological Pest Control

The biological control option involve use of animals, insects, bacteria or viral agents which can either be predators (e.g. predatory bugs and spiders), parasites (e.g. some type of wasps) or pathogens (e.g. types of bacteria, fungi, viruses, nematodes) to feed on or attack the target pest species with the aim of killing or suppressing their growth and development. For example Lady Beetles feed on aphids. In most cases control is achieved when the population level of the introduced biological agent has reached its peak to overwhelm the target pest species being controlled.

The advantages of biological control include:

· Cheap to run once established as there are no incremental costs and invasive control remain effective over time

· Pollution free as the control method does not present pollution risks to the environment even though the potential of the agent mutating to attack and contaminate other species cannot be ruled out.

Amongst the key disadvantages are:

· High capital investment in breeding the biological control agent to critical population levels for effective control

· Risk of the control agent attacking the non- target plant or animal species.

· The need for long term monitoring of after effects is another disadvantage as the behaviour and characteristics of a given biological control agent can change over time and become invasive thereby affective beneficial plant and animal species.

· Delayed manifestation of results as biological control takes long to reach equilibrium and may not be ideal where results are needed in a short period of time

3.4Integrated Approach to Pest Control

The Integrated Pest Management (IPM) option involve the systematic application of more than one option for enhanced effectiveness and is based on the principle of ecosystem management to create a conducive environment for the crop and less so for the pest. The approach is effective in that a health crop will have better resilience and ability to withstand pest attack or competition than a weak plant. Consequently, apart from proper and well measured integration of the physical/mechanical, chemical and biological it also embraces cultural practices aimed at manipulating environmental conditions such as proper provision of nutrients and water, crop rotation, intercropping, strip/alley cropping, use of natural pest repellents, use of resistant varieties, use of natural/plant based pesticides as opposed synthetic ones etc. This option is noted to be more effective than any single method because of the combined effect of the various control methods incorporated. It also focuses on pest specific interventions thereby limiting harm to non-target species, the environment and human life in general

The main disadvantage of this option is that it is more expensive than any single option due to incremental activities required. It also requires the based on a full understanding of each target pest’s life cycle in order to identify the best point of intervention and as such takes long to effectively develop. However, the approach can cost effective if well planned with constant monitoring of crop fields thereby allowing for selection of the best option or combination of options capitalising on more environmentally friendly and effective low cost interventions.

One major challenge in implementing the IPM approach to pest management is lack of knowledge about IPM, its practice and full benefits amongst the majority of farmers and service providers of the agricultural extension service inclusive. It should however be appreciated that aspects of IPM are unconsciously implemented as these constitute part of the traditional way of farming e.g. intercropping and crop rotations as well as shifting cultivation and fallowing. However, the practice is not applied to its full whether on the part of the commercial or subsistence farmers. Similarly at research level the practice does not receive the attention it deserves.

3.5Status Review of Pest Management in Zambia

Pests continue to present a major challenge in crop production in Zambia. Consequently pest management is one of the major aspects of crop management in Zambia. Whilst appreciating the benefits of adopting an IPM approach to pest management, knowledge about the full benefits and practice of IPM is generally lacking. It should however be appreciated that aspects of IPM are implemented as these constitute part of the traditional way of farming e.g. intercropping and crop rotations as well as shifting cultivation and fallowing. However, the practice is not applied to its full whether on the part of the commercial or subsistence farmers.

The most widely applied mode of pest control constitutes physical/mechanical mostly by resourced poor small scale farmers and chemical control (mostly by resource rich commercial farmers and moderate resource rich emergent farmers). Biological control is very limited in both cases. Unlike trends in chemical use where more and more farmers are adopting pesticide use including small scale farmers biological control remain static in its application even though aspects of its may be taking place in fields without the conscious knowledge of the farmers. However, trends are slowly changing especially with the promotion of conservation farming which is promoting use of herbicides for enhanced effectiveness.

Interviews with commodity research team members indicated similar trends at ZARI where pest control is mostly limited to physical/mechanical and chemical control with only limited application of IPM. The growing trend in pesticide use however raises concern regarding occupational, public and environmental health.

A survey conducted on some farmers and agro dealers during a project review exercise for the Conservation Agricultural Project implemented under the Conservation Farming Unit of the Zambia National Farmers Union showed that only basic information on pesticide use exists. It was further revealed that much of this information was limited to occupational health and little information was made available concerning public and environmental health such as the fate of herbicides in the soil, potential for surface and ground water contamination and the implications thereof. Information on the long term effects (e.g. mutagenic, carcinogenic and reproductive effects) was also not so much availed together with information on what to do in case of acute effects such as poisoning in direct ingestion cases. Other observations made included the following:

· Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) are not readily available. Most agro dealers, especially small scale dealers do not stock them and some do not even know them. Even large dealers too do not make these readily available.

· Information on MSDS is too detailed in some cases and may contain user unfriendly information and does not encourage many users to read. In other cases the information is scanty and does not contain all the important information about the product and its effects yet in other cases the information is contradictory from manufacturer to manufacturer

· Labels (which should ideally contain vital information from MSDS) on some products are not user friendly – too small to read and language too technical

· The different formulations of the same product e.g. Atrazine has 25%, 42%, 90% etc formulations by different manufacturers and this present a challenge to the user since he/she has to deal with one chemical bearing different product formulations whose degree of effects/effectiveness are different due to varying concentrations. This situation becomes more challenging when calibrating sprayers to ensure correct concentration of the chemical sprayed

· Information on herbicide use does not in most cases include the aspect of sprayer calibration yet this information has a strong bearing on correct dosage application.

· The tendency by agro dealers to offer an alternative where the farmer’s preferred or known product choice is unavailable presents a challenge to application of the acquired knowledge in that the new product may present knowledge requirements which are not yet possessed by the user thereby increasing the risk of poor handling/management and consequent risks.

· The hurried manner in which agro dealers provide the information on the use of agro chemicals in general is inadequate to facilitate adequate knowledge for effective use of the product. Practical demonstrations are vital in most cases for effective learning but agro-dealers are not readily available for this purpose.

In view of the above it is desirable that:

· The Zambia Environmental Management Agency (ZEMA) and other players such as the Zambia Agrochemical Association (ZAA) be brought on board in the implementation of the RCoL program to build capacity and put in place an effective monitoring system that ensure that only registered herbicides are being distributed to farmers and that formulations are maintained in their registered state (without re-formulation) and that farmers acquire appropriate knowledge in the use of pesticides.

· All dealers should have in possession Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for all chemicals being sold and this information should be explained to buyers. An MSDS is a source of information on likely hazards that may arise from the use of chemicals. Generally, an MSDS should contain information such as:

· Pesticide Identification (Name of the substance/trade name; preparation/other ingredients.

· Name, address and telephone of company/supplier

· Composition and information on ingredients

· Hazards identification

· First aid measures

· Fire-fighting measures

· Spillage, accident release measures

· Handling and storage

· Exposure controls and personal protection

· Physical and chemical properties

· Stability and reactivity

· Toxicological information

· Ecological information

· Disposal considerations

· Transportation information

· National regulations and references

· Other information deemed appropriate.

Further, a simplified sheet should be made available to target farmers in a language easily understood by them. Farmers interviewed and some dealers were unable to confirm availability of MSDSs.

4.Pest Management Plan

Preparation of the Pest Management Plan (PMP) to guide implementation of pest management interventions under the RCoL program will have to satisfy both the national and World Bank requirements.

4.1World Bank Requirements

World Bank requirements in relation to pest management are elaborated under Operational Policy (OP) 4.09. The policy places emphasis on pest management within the context of environmental management. To that effect it puts preference to use of biological or integrated approach and less so on synthetic chemical use. Projects qualifying under the program will have to consider this and make informed decisions aided by consideration of other factors during the project's environmental assessment process.

The Bank will only fund projects which do not involve use of pesticides or where use of such is included it should be justified and supported with demonstrated capacity starting at the country level covering the regulatory framework and institutional capacity for monitoring and enforcing safe, effective, and environmentally sound use of pesticides. It will also require demonstrated knowledge of IPM by the beneficiary institution or people implementing a subproject. As noted earlier, IPM approaches use a combination of biological control, physical and mechanical control, cultural practices, and the development and use of crop varieties that are resistant or tolerant to the pest and to some degree limited use of pesticides.

In endorsing use of pesticides the Bank will require evidence to the effect that the pesticides being used meet the following criteria:

· They must have negligible adverse human health effects.

· They must be shown to be effective against the target species.

· They must have minimal effect on non-target species and the natural environment. The methods, timing, and frequency of pesticide application are aimed to minimize damage to natural enemies. Pesticides used in public health programs must be demonstrated to be safe for inhabitants and domestic animals in the treated areas, as well as for personnel applying them.

· Their use must take into account the need to prevent the development of resistance in pests.

· Highly toxic or hazardous pesticides may not be used and these include formulated products that fall in WHO classes IA and IB, or formulations of products in Class II, if (a) the country lacks restrictions on their distribution and use; or (b) they are likely to be used by, or be accessible to, lay personnel, farmers, or others without training, equipment, and facilities to handle, store, and apply these products properly.

4.2Applicable Guidelines for Pest Management in Zambia

Like the World Bank, Zambia does not endorse indiscriminate use of pesticides and to that effect promotes an integrated pest management approaches. Although agricultural policies put emphasis on agricultural productivity including promotion of pesticide use to address the low productivity issue safe use of such chemicals is encouraged. Specifically, two pieces of legislation have direct relevance and give guidance on pest management.

The Plant Pests and Diseases Act, CAP231 provides for prevention of the introduction of pests and diseases into the country and the spread thereof. The Act further provides for designation of certain pests and disease vectors as requiring destruction. The Act is enforced by the Phyto-sanitary Services Department under the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.

The Pesticides and Toxic Substances Regulations (Statutory Instrument no. 20 of 1994): These Regulations enforced by the Zambia Environmental Management Agency (ZEMA) provides for the control of pesticide use through a licensing system. This ensures that only acceptable pesticides are allowed into the country and found on the Zambian market. Further, the Regulations provide guidance on transportation, packaging, use, and final disposal of containers. Appendices 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 are provisions of the PTS Regulations on toxicity and hazard warning; Transportation, Warehousing and Storage; Protective Clothing and Cleaning Equipment and, Disposal respectively. These requirements all need to be complied with as a matter of statutory requirement.

However, ZEMA’s enforcement capacity is inadequate and cases of non-compliant are rampant with dealers selling repackaged pesticides without proper labelling, some labels lacking vital information while the registration process rarely include testing and verification of the efficacy and hazard characteristics of the pesticides under consideration. Of serious concern is the fact that a list of banned or strictly restricted pesticides is non-existence thereby rendering the registration process to be porous. This therefore means that not all pesticides registered and allowed by ZEMA may necessarily be allowable under the APPSA program which does not sponsor pesticides category 1a and 1b of the WHO classification.

At the international level, Zambia is a signatory to both the Stockholm and the Rotterdam Conventions. The Stockholm convention restricts parties from production and use of pesticides classified as Persistent Organic Compounds (POPs). These chemicals are restricted because of their chemical characteristics of not only being toxic but equally persistent with high potential for bioaccumulation. The Rotterdam Convention on the other hand provides for Prior Informed Consent and requires that any country exporting the pesticides listed under the Convention notify the recipient country in writing and get their prior written consent before the chemicals are exported. Appendix 9 is a list of pesticides banned or severely restricted by the United States of America (Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the European Union (EU), the Stockholm Convention (for POPs) and the Rotterdam Convention (PIC), Pesticide Action Network (PAN) and the Sustainable Agriculture Network (SAN).

4.3Pest Management Plan4.3.1Implementation Plan

The preferred approach to pest management under the RCoL program is IPM. This chapter provides guidance on how best to maximise pest management interventions with minimal negative impacts on the environment and human health using the principles of IPM. The chapter is not meant to provide a detailed prescription of cultural practices required to raise each target crop as such information is very well appreciated by both research teams and farmers. Further, cultural practices differ widely depending on the characteristic of each particular crop species being grown and the agro-ecological and other environmental conditions prevailing at each particular site. Rather, the chapter is meant to bring to the fore vital IPM considerations for incorporation in prevailing cultural practices applicable at each project site. It should be noted that IPM cannot be applied as a cast transplant of interventions and practices, rather it is a set of interventions developed based on a good understanding of prevailing environmental and other conditions at a given field incorporating the most fitting aspects of IPM tools commensurate with resources at the farmer’s disposal. This can be achieved by following a stepwise process elaborated below:

Step 1: Monitoring and Pest Identification

The first step in IPM is crop or field monitoring involving observations of the field and immediate surroundings to identify the presence of pests or conditions which may be conducive for pest proliferation within the context of prevailing cultural practices. This exercise should be carried out at every stage of the crop calendar starting at harvest through field preparation up to harvest time again. This exercise may involve walking through each field randomly or following a transect pattern taking note of pest infestation, growth stage and rates of infestation for each pest species in a given crop. The information collected can then be recorded and ranked to give an indication of relative prevalence for each category of pest. Pests recording a higher level of infestation will in this way be prioritised for action while giving not losing site of the need to address the other pests too though prevailing at a relatively lower rate of infestation.

The importance of conducting an all year round monitoring of pests is to ensure collection of adequate information for planning purposes. This is because effective IPM requires timely planning. For example identification of pests prevailing at harvest time and their pattern of growth will help to plan the next crop with a view to controlling the identified weeds in a timely manner. The historical data collected through such monitoring will thus provide vital information in planning the best combination of IPM interventions.

Step 2: Threshold determination and Action Planning

Results of field monitoring conducted should lead to an assessment of whether or not action is needed to address the pest or condition prevailing as well as decision making on when to institute such action. Where a pest is present an assessment of the level of infestation is made and if it reaches a threshold of potential damage appropriate preventive action should be taken against that particular pest or a combination of pests using any or a combination of biological, cultural, physical/mechanical and chemical management tools. In this way, rather than having a fixed scheduled program of e.g. chemical spray, results of monitoring should help decide if or not action should be taken and the nature and level of action to be taken. Similarly, results of environmental conditions monitoring will be used to determine and assess if or not the prevailing conditions favour pest infestation or plant growth based on which action can be taken to manipulate the ecosystem or environmental conditions in favour of the crop.

Step 3: IPM Implementation

The implementation stage will involve application of one or a mix of IPM interventions identified as best suiting under prevailing circumstances. Below are a number of considerations to be borne in the implementation of choice interventions.

Considerations under Physical/Mechanical Control

· Develop and strictly enforce adherence to safety rules and codes of conduct;

· Provide training to all staff on occupational health and safety as well as on ensuring personal protection and safety;

· Provide appropriate safety gear;

· Reduce the harmful characteristics of impact sources by devising less harmful ways of effecting project activities

· Localise project impacts as much as possible by taking precautions in effecting project activities so as to limit effects on non-target elements of the environment

· Explore ways and means of enhancing the resilience and regenerative/recovery capacity of impacted elements of the environment deemed useful

· Streamline Better Management Practices as an integral part of project implementation.

Considerations under Biological Control

· Use proven host specific biological control agents,

· Conduct specificity tests in the host environment before release,

· Quarantine biological control agents undergoing specificity test.

· Develop and strictly enforce adherence to safety rules and codes of conduct; Provide training to all staff on occupational health and safety as well as on ensuring personal protection and safety; Provide appropriate safety gear; Provide First Aid medical facilities; Recruit qualified First Aid Attendants; Maintain emergency responsiveness





Considerations under Chemical Control

· Consider both human health and environmental effects of target pesticides before use

· Sensitise and train workers on pesticide management, calibration of sprayers,

· Develop and enforce protocols for safe use of pesticides

· Avoid direct spray on water bodies,

· Avoid washing sprayers in natural water bodies,

· Avoid spraying during windy conditions, wear personal protective gear (appropriate respirators), avoid spraying in areas close to settlements and other populated areas, use wetting agents to minimise dripping

· Use only recommended pesticides at recommended application rates. Do not overdose,

· Contain any spills and clean up (Appendix 6) to avoid contamination of the environment

· Dispose of chemical containers properly








· Store pesticides under lock and key on impermeable surface that is bundled

· Wash hands before eating, drinking or using the toilet.

· Remove clothing immediately if pesticide gets inside, wash thoroughly and put on clean clothing."

Appendix 1 and 8 further elaborates considerations needed in chemical control of pests.

Considerations under Cultural Practices

· Timely removal of weeds before they seed to reduce seed bank build up

· Cleaning of equipment to eliminate potential sources of infestation

· Use of clean seed free of pests and diseases

· Cleaning the field before planting. This can be done e.g. by allowing weeds to germinate before planting after which they can be controlled by a choice of appropriate herbicide or cultivation and planting thereafter

· Avoid clearing and burning non target plants

· Control erosion by limiting land clearing and setting up sediment traps along storm ways








4.3.2Institutional Roles and Responsibilities

Implementation of the PMP under the RCoL program will require effective participation of key players in a coordinated manner under the leadership of ZARI. Key players in this regard and their roles are presented in the table below

Table 7: Institutional roles and responsibilities

No.

Institution

Proposed Responsibility

1

Research teams

Providing leadership in the implementation of the PMP in all technology development and dissemination activities including germplasm management, breeding, production and storage of seeds and management of demonstration fields

Conduct research on pesticide toxicology and effects on human health and the environment in general.

Develop IPM based agronomic packages for use by themselves and the farming community in general

2

Extension staff under the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock

Provide training and other forms of knowledge transfer to farmers on the management of pests affecting their fields/crops including practical knowledge on IPM, knowledge on choice, safe use and disposal of pesticides

3

Participating farmers

Control pests in their fields in compliance with the provisions of this PMP and other applicable protocols

4

ZEMA, the regulatory agency in pesticide management

Effectively enforce the provisions of the PTS Regulations

Conduct awareness and sensitisation campaigns on pesticides not allowed in the country and safe usage

Conduct environmental monitoring for pesticide contamination and take corrective action were applicable.

5

Pesticide dealers

Ensure that only registered pesticides are sold

Comply with the provisions of the PTS Regulations on importation, transportation, storage and vending of pesticides

Fully understand the pesticides in their custody including pesticide toxicity, health and safety hazards and environmental risks

Provide information to farmers and other buyers on safe use and management of pesticides

6

Agro Chemical Association of Zambia

Promote the safe use of pesticides by ensuring that all their members comply with the provisions of the PTS Regulations and other protocols relating to agro-chemical management including those of FAO, WHO, Rotterdam Convention,

7

SCCI

Enforce compliance with protocols for safe breeding and production of seeds and ensure that only certified seed is on the market in compliance with the provisions of the Plant Variety and Seeds Act.

8

Phyto-sanitary Department

Enforce phyto-sanitary provisions under the Plant Pests and Diseases Act and prevent new introduction of pests and diseases

9

Zambia Bureau of Standards

Enforce pesticide product standards by actively monitoring the market and testing products to ensure quality in efficacy and other aspects of the product

4.3.3Training and Capacity Building

A number of capacity building interventions will be required under the program in order to ensure effective implementation of the PMP in an environmentally friendly and socially acceptable manner. The following interventions are hereby proposed:

· Building of infrastructure for proper storage of pesticides in participating institutions

· Building laboratory capacity for analysis of pesticides (efficacy, behaviour, fate, hazard, risk) and their effects on the environment

· Procurement of equipment for pesticide application including Personal protective Equipment (PPE) including chemical proof overalls, aprons, gum boots, chemical proof hand gloves, goggles and respirators, etc. Emergency equipment e.g. for cleaning up spills should also be procured.

· Training of staff in the life cycle management of pesticides covering selection, usage and safe disposal of containers as well as chemical formulation and dosing (dilution of chemicals for use), calibration of equipment, spraying procedures and other factors to consider, handling of sprayers as well as general equipment maintenance. Trainees should be sensitised enough to use only pesticides with authentic and clear labels showing all the necessary information including expiry dates, occupational/public health and safety as well as basic environmental safeguards. This will also help avoid adulteration and sale of expired herbicides.

· Building capacity in the Phyto-sanitary Department for enforcement of the Plant Pests and Diseases act for effective control of disease and pest introductions.

· Building capacity in ZEMA for enhanced monitoring of importation, production, distribution and use of pesticides

· Provision of training and sensitisation programs in IPM including demonstrations and preparation of IPM implementation Manuals and Guidelines

· Training/Sensitisation in the use of personal protective equipment, treatment of any pesticide poisoning, interpretation of material safety data sheets and labels on pesticide containers and safe storage of pesticides

· Training in First Aid and Emergency Response with a focus on treatment of chemical poisoning and pesticide spill management

· Sensitisation on weather and other environmental related considerations insecticide application e.g. avoiding spraying when it is about to rain, when it is windy, when it is too hot or when the soil is wet or in ponded areas or areas close to water sources (e.g. rivers, dambos, wells, etc) and populated areas.

Training will be provided in both formal and informal settings including Field Days as appropriate in meeting the specific training objectives. A training needs assessment would help in setting the training agenda and ensure that the training sessions area relevant and tailored to answer to farmers’ pressing information needs. Table 8 is a Capacity Building Implementation Plan for the proposed PMP.

Table 8: PMP action plan and budget

No.

Activity

Start Date

End Date

Responsibility

Proposed budget (US $)

1

Construction /rehabilitation of Pesticide storage facilities

Year 1

Year 2

Director/Contractor

50 000

2

Rehabilitation of labs and lab equipment /materials procurement

Year 1 M1

Y1 M8

Director/Contractor

100 000

3

Procurement of Chemical Spill Kits, First Aid Kits, and PPE

Y 1 M6

Y 1 M12

Commodity Research Teams Leaders

85 000

4

Training in safe and environmentally friendly pesticide use including (i) understanding and interpretation of labels and symbols on pesticides, (ii) formulation, dosing and calibration of equipment, (iii) transportation, storage and disposal of pesticides and pesticide containers and (iv) personal safety and hazard understanding for self health protection

Y 1 M4 (formal training)

Y 1 M4

(Awareness and sensitisation)

Y 3 M4

Y 5 M4

Director/Consultant

80 000

5

Training, sensitisation and Awareness in IPM and its implementation

Y 1 M4 (formal training)

Y 1 M4

(Awareness and sensitisation)

Y 3 M4

Y 5 M4

Director/Consultant

125 000

6

Development and enforcement of an occupational health and safety protocol covering (1) mechanical control, chemical (2) control and (3) biological control aspects of occupational health and safety.

Y 1 M4

Y 1 M7

Director/Consultant/ZEMA/MAL

20 000

7

Support to enforcement agencies

Y 1 M4

Y 5 M4

Director

30 000

Total

490 000

NB: Y – Year; M - Month

4.3.4Monitoring and Reporting

Effective implementation of the PMP will require regular monitoring of its implementation for timely corrective actions. Monitoring will cover all aspects of the PMP implementation starting at the field level where all participating institutions will monitor aspects such as:

· Implementation of proposed capacity building interventions

· Adoption and Effectiveness of the chosen combination of IPM interventions e.g. by monitoring the number of research and seed production programs implementing IPM and level of effectiveness

· Environmentally friendliness of applied IPM interventions e.g. by monitoring the prevalence/survival of non-target plant and animal species

· Soil and water contamination

· Public and occupational health and safety e.g. Incidences of poisoning or injury

Table 9 is a Plan for monitoring implementation of the PMP.

Table 9: PMP monitoring plan

PMP Activity

What parameter

is to be monitored?

Where

is the parameter to be monitored?

How is parameter to be monitored / type of monitoring equipment?

When is parameter to be monitored / frequency of measurement or continuous?

Annual Monitoring cost

Responsibility

Start date

End date

Capacity Building Interventions

Construction /rehabilitation of Pesticide storage facilities

Availability and conditions of storage facility

ZARI Research stations and demonstration farm sites

Physical inspection and Visual observation

Bi Annual

Included in project coordination and management costs

Commodity Research Team Leaders,

Farmers

Rehabilitation of labs and lab equipment /materials procurement

Availability of labs and capacity to do required tests

ZARI Research stations

Physical inspection, Visual observation and inventory of equipment and material requirements

Annual


ZARI Director

Procurement of Chemical Spill Kits, First Aid Kits, and PPE

Availability of Spill Kits, first Aid Kits and PPE

Storage facilities and points of pesticide use

Physical inspection, Visual observation and inventories

Annual


ZARI Director

Training in safe use of chemicals

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