world history notes - felix dumitrache's dungeon :...
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World History Notes Page 1Dumitrache
Overview of Greece
* Located on the Balkan Peninsula, surrounded by the Aegean, Adriatic and
Mediterranean seas.
* System of Government:
* Oligarchy- rule by a group of wealthy men.
* Democracy- (demo = people) government where men vote on every issue. This
government will end up with its own architecture (or style of buildings). Our
government’s buildings were styled after the Greek’s.
* City-state- each city will have its own government and customs. The fierce
independence, geography, climate and proximity to the sea all around Greece made it
hard to have one country all united together, so they developed many City-states.
* Hegemony- supremacy, ruling over. In a modern example, we have hegemony
over Puerto Rico/. Athens had hegemony over all of the other Greek city-states except
Sparta and they had to pay protection money to Athens.
* Myth- a story that isn’t quite true.
* The Greeks were polytheistic which means they worshipped many gods. They
used theater (such as drama and comedies) to make fun of their gods, 1st people to do
so.
* Epic- a really long poem or movie.
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* Homer- was a blind poet who wrote the Epics “the Iliad” and “the Odyssey”,
from stories told and retold over time.
* Iliad/Odyssey- epics about the Trojan War and then a 20-year journey home.
Homer gathered 1000 years of stories to make the Iliad.
* Phalanx- the Greek battle formation. The font rows of men have large shields and
carry 18’ long spears.
* Bireme / Trireme - the Athenian ships powered by 2 and 3 respectively sets of
oars.
* Acropolis- A fortified hilltop in a “polis.” This was the most important building
of the city-states.
* Helots- slaves of the Spartans. (had 2 rebellions , were put down by the women)
* Athens becomes the most powerful polis. It had a very large navy. It charged
protection money from all of the other weaker surrounding polises. It brought in lots
of money that way. Since it had more money, it could afford to hire more artists and
get better painters and sculptors. They had enough money to constantly be upgrading
and beautifying the city. Anyone who was important during the era lived in Athens.
Sparta however never paid protection money.
* Agora – city center in most Greek colonies where men gathered to vote and
discuss politics.
Athens vs. Sparta, a comparison 3
Athens Sparta
Education was given to rich boys only. Both males and females get an education.
Girls receive minimal education, just
enough to care for the family.
Boys and girls have a military oriented
education.
Met together to debate, draw, work on
geometry, create music, and watch theater.
Spend time in the Agora.
Kids don’t get “mother’s milk.” Until after
they have survived, 24 hours (girls) and 72
hours for boys. They are then named and
considered part of the population.
Women can not own property or run a
business, must be “seen but not heard”
Women allowed to own and operate farms,
business, have a voting voice in all but war
decisions.
Arranged marriages. Selective breeding ensured that only the
strongest survive.
Had the strongest navy, were able to get
protection $ from other city-states.
No navy, they didn’t need one until the
Athenians showed how strong theirs was.
* Spartan boys training: From 6-18 they train. From 18-60, they serve
as soldiers, which includes marrying and having kids. They live in the military compound
until the retirement age (60). 60 and older they serve on the advisory board called the
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Council of Elders. (Spartan army rarely had more than 500 soldiers). From the richest
most powerful families 2 kings ruled (Oligarchy).
Reasons for the Peloponnesian wars:
* The Persians were united as an empire. They kept expanding toward Greece.
Athens had been charging protection money for years and now it was called on to protect
the colonies on Asia Minor. The Greeks declare war. The Persians come in large
triremes (boats). The Greeks use Greek fire to burn them, and use their smaller boats to
outmaneuver the larger Persian ships in the tight sea passage.
Persians plan to land at Marathon,. Greek spies learn the Persian plans. Greeks
plan to attack while they are getting off of the boats. The leaders tell the surrounding
cities that if they don’t receive word of victory by sunset, they’ve lost and that they
should burn their cities and run rather than be subject to the Persians. The Greeks end
up winning the battle. They chose their best runner and send him to Athens, which is
23-24 miles away. Reaches the gates and yells “NIKE!” which means, “we’ve won”
or “victory” in Greek and then dies form exhaustion.
Thermopylae, Xerxes is the Persian King. He comes by land with an enormous
army. The Greeks got help from the Spartans. They decide to make a big stand in a
mountain pass. 7000 Greeks with 300 men form Sparta fight against 300,000
Persians. 4 days of fighting ensues. One man from Athens betrays the Spartans. He
makes a deal and the Persians are able to attack from both sides. King Leonidas from
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Sparta died also in the battle. Spartans are enraged at the Athenians and send their
remaining men and the trainees from 7-18 years old to attack Athens. This starts the
Peloponnesian war. The Spartans will attack Athens repeatedly. They want a Navy from
the Persians. They will let the Persians take Macedonia. The “kids” running the Navy
beat the entire Athenian Navy. 500 Spartans come and attack 50,000 Athenians. The
Spartans camp outside and cut the Athenians off form the world for 1-1/2 years. Still,
both sides continue on. Disease runs rampant and finally takes the Athenians ruler,
(Pericles). The people of Athens finally come out to battle. The Spartans win. They
forced those Athenians who survived to tear down their own wall. They were such a
fearsome people, that never again did anyone build a wall around Athens, even after the
kingdom of Sparta vanished.
Greek accomplishments;
In Science ;
Pytagoras, Euclid, Archimedes, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle. etc.
Alexander the Great: A Spartan General fell in love with an Athenian woman.
“Romeo and Juliet” elope to Macedonia they have a child named Philip II. He trains
as a Spartan warrior and receives Athenian schooling. He was a boxer who has lots
of cuts and bruises. He still keeps learning and getting smarter. He becomes the king
of Macedonia. He and his wife have a son named Alexander. Aristotle tutors him.
Becomes the Leader of Macedonian cavalry at the age of 16, wins his 1st battle. After
his father's death he becomes king and sets out to conquer Greece, unify it and then
conquer Persia. 1st battle against the city of Thebes, which he destroys for rebelling
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against him and to set an example for the other city-states. He invades Asia with about
50,000 men and fights the following battles Granicus, Miletus, Issus, Tyre, Gaza,
Gaugamela, Persian Gates, Maracanda in India, Hydaspes, Persepolis. He dies in Egypt
of disease, infection, and being weak from lack of sleep, proper food, and after being
wounded in almost every battle and not taking the time to recover.
Rome
The Latin Tribes inhabited the Italian peninsula for thousands of years. Eventually it was,
conquered by the Etruscans. From them, they learned or gained:
* An Alphabet.
* Bronze and other metalworking skills.
* The Toga
* The building of Arches. This made the building stronger so they could make 2nd
stories, bridges, and aqueducts.
* The Monarchy, the Etruscans pave the way for a long Dynasty to form.
A city formed around the 7 hills of Rome. This offered added defense and made the
people safer. It also had the Tiber River. This gave the city fresh water and a source to
transport goods to the sea.
* Eventually, they overthrow the Etruscans, to get rid of foreign rule and of the
Monarchy and establish their own form of government; the Republic. Roman society is
divided into two main classes. (although the Equestrian class will be added later).
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Plebeians Patricians
Included the less wealthy majority of the
population
Smaller more Wealthy part of the city.
They were ok with the Government
because they could vote on who make
decisions.
All men were expected to try to go through
the “Cursus Honorum”
* The Cursus Honorum
* In English it means the honorable way. A four stop program for wealthy men.
Step 1:Questor- 2 of them for one year. A taxman (IRS) you ran for 1 year and collected
taxes.
Step 2:Aedil- 2 of them for one year. Construction Civil Workers. You use your won
family’s money to build what is needed.
Step 3:Praetor- 2 of them for one year. The Generals. They had imperium (or the power
to give or take someone’s life) and were unpunishable. They weren’t subject to the law.
They were in office for one year, so, if they wanted o move to the next step, they wanted
to make a good impression for the people. Thus, they would attack form March to late
fall. They got 50%of the loot 40% went to the government, and 10% went to the
Plebeians.
Step 4: Consul- 2 of them for one year. They headed the Assembly and made executive
decisions. They also had imperium and were untouchable.
After:
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Ex-Consul- A sort of Mafia. You would come to them and pay them for a favor.
Rome Conquers Italy, Only people who lived in the city of Rome were counted as
citizens. They had Trouble with Carthage, another maritime power that controlled sailing
routes in the Middle area of the Mediterranean Sea.
Punic Wars: Rome vs. Carthage (big navy but small army)
#1.Over Sicily- A big bread island. They do a lot of farming. The Romans send
an army. 23 years of fighting ensues. Romans can outlast the Carthaginians. They
captured and kill the General. They send a message to Carthage “don’t try again.” The
General’s son is Hannibal.
#2.Hannibal grows up. He turns 19 and leads an army to Rome through Spain
and Gaul (France) and crosses (against all odds) the Alps. Half of his army dies along the
way. Northern Italy joins his cause. The Romans send 200,000 men to fight. Only 5
return. Then, they send 250,000men. The armies meet at Cannae. All of the Romans are
killed again. The Carthaginians let one man run back to Rome and tell them to “get
ready.” For ten years, Hannibal goes up and down the peninsula conquering all
#3. Gaius Scipio Africanus a Roman Dictator (elected to deal with Hannibal)
leads the Roman army into North Africa to destroy the city of Carthage. They are
victorious, and completely demolish the city. It is never rebuild. It’s often called a rich
man’s war a poor man’s fight. Expansion created many problems for Rome:
- They had gotten too big to be able to govern reasonably.
- There was a giant gap between the richer and poorer parts of the city.
- Slaves were forced to do most of the labor.
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- The Romans became corrupt form the power and money.
- They had a civil war and this collapsed the republic.
To stop it, they had to form the first triumvirate. This included Crassus (who was now
very rich), Pompey (a powerful Politician), and Caesar (who was the best general of
the time).
Mark Anthony married Crassus’ sister. Then, he fell in love with Cleopatra from
Egypt. He married her and Crassus got really mad.
Latin Quotes
Latin English
Civis Romanus Sum I am A Roman Citizen
Si Vis Pacem Para Belum If you Want Peace Prepare for War
Manum Manam Lavat One Hand Washes the Other
Semper Fidelis Always Faithful
Panem et Circenses Bread and Entertainment
Tempus Fugit Time Flies
E Plurbus Unum Out of Many one
Divide et Impera Divide and Rule
In Dubio Pro Reo When in Doubt the Doubt goes to the
Defendant
Status Quo Nothing Changes
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Per Ardua ad Astra With Hard Work the Stars are Possible
Cave Canem Beware of the Dog
Religions
Islam: (meaning submission to Allah) is the monotheistic religion, taught by
Mohammed. The followers called themselves Muslims, (meaning people who submit).
They had three holy cities: Mecca, because it was were Mohammed first stared teaching,
Medina, because that was the first city to accept him and his teachings, and Jerusalem,
because that was where Mohammed ascended to heaven to receive more instruction from
god. (Review five pillars of Islam and Hijrah).
* A caliph was a leader of the Islamic peoples after Mohammed died. Eventually,
the people had a schism over who they believed should rule them. The Shi’s believed
that one had to be a literal descendent of Mohammed to lead them. The Sunni believed
that anyone who lived righteously could lead them. Finally, the Sufi broke off and
became like monks, men and women who were deeply religious and devoted their lives
to Allah.
* The Muslims were great Scholars; they made many improvements in Math,
Chemistry, Medicine, Geography, Art and Philosophy. They soon spread form modern-
day Saudi-Arabia to cover the entire Arabian Peninsula and beyond.
* The Fertile Crescent, also known as Mesopotamia, or The Land between
Rivers. It was located right on the ilk road from China. This is where Islam originated.
The natives were known as Bedouins. Bedouins were nomads. They herded animals
from one oasis to another, grazing along the way.
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* Mecca was a crossroad for caravans. Also, it contained the Ka’aba. It had
statues of the local gods before Mohammed. Mohammed was born there. He became an
orphan at a young age. He married a rich older woman and becomes her businessman.
Eventually, he takes over the business. Then one day, the Angel Gabriel visited him.
The vision he receives tells him to fast and proclaim the word of God. It took 30 days for
him to receive the whole vision. This becomes Ramadan, the 1 month where Muslims
fast from sunrise until sunset.
* Mohammed preaches n Mecca. He’s mostly rejected there, and moves to Yathrib
in 622 AD. This was called The Hijrah. The Muslims count 622 AD as year 1 on their
calendar. The city of Yathrib is named Medina (city of the prophet) People there
convert to Islam because it makes sense to them. These are the reasons why:
A) It stopped infanticide- the killing of babies. Traditionally, they were to kill
girls, because boys were considered better. Murder was against Islam.
B) Islam prohibits Polygamy- more than four wives.
C) Appeals to the poor. Everyone was made equal and offered a promise of a
paradise in an afterlife to all those who were faithful.
* In 630 AD, Mohammed returns to Mecca victoriously. He and his followers destroy
all of the idols in the Ka’aba is located here, and Mohammed was buried here.
* Mecca- Mohammed was born here, the Ka’aba is located here, and Mohammed was
buried here.
* Medina- the 1st city to accept the teachings of Mohammed fully. The place where
year one of the calendar began, and it was the “city of the prophet.”
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* Jerusalem- contains the “Dome of the Rock.” This was a temple where Mohammed
ascended to Allah. He came back with messages of what they were supposed to do.
5 Pillars of Islam
Faith or “Affirmation”- they believed that “there is no God but Allah, and
Mohammed is his prophet. God =Allah = Yahweh in Islam.
Prayer- they pray 5 times a day (at dawn, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset, and evening)
Knelling towards Mecca (and the Ka’aba). The Mosque is their house of Worship.
Alms- they were told to give charity to the poor.
Fasting- during the month or Ramadan, they were expected to fast form dawn till
dusk.
Pilgrimage- everyone must make a “Hajj.” This is a religious journey to Mecca to
worship at the Ka’aba.
* The Muslims did not separate their personal life and their religion, but blended
them together. They had two types of laws: Secular (or laws of the land to obey) and
Religious (laws set forth by the church). There were other laws, morals, and customs
they followed such as they did not eat pork and they didn’t drink alcohol. For them,
Friday afternoon is communal prayer time. They meet together to socialize and pry.
Thee are no priest, nor central authority. To them, Allah is the original and final source
to authority. Their holy book, the Koran, only comes in Meccan Arabic. They have
secular (non-religious); leaders and Shari’a the religious law. Mohammed never had a
son, only one daughter. He had no male heir, and this would lead to big problems.
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* One of his disciples (married to Fatima his daughter) is elected to be the “caliph.”
The first caliphs were righteously guided because they followed the teaching of
Mohammed. “Some tribes on the Arabian Peninsula abandoned Islam. Others refused to
pay taxes and a few even declared they had their own prophet now.” “For 2 years, Abu-
Bakr used military forces to reassert the authority in the Muslim community.” “Because
the Qur’an forbade forced conversion.”
* By caliph #4, Islam had spread form the Atlantic to the Indus valley. Some
reasons for success were:
They took every victory as a sign form Allah they that they had won righteously.
They had a disciplined form of Military (Jihad)
The Byzantine and Persian Empires were weak and fell easily.
Treatment of Conquered Peoples:
* The Muslim government didn’t force religion on anyone. If you wanted to
practice your own religion in Muslim territory, you were free to do so, but had to pay to a
tax. Also, you were not allowed to go spread you religion, so no missionaries were
allowed.
* Caliph Uthman (#3) was killed in 656 AD. The forth Caliph, Ali was
assassinated 661. The Umayyad family takes overt the managing of Islam and forms it
into a type of Bureaucracy.
* The Battle of Tours in 732 AD. The Muslims that had taken over Portugal and
Spain were slowly advancing on Christian turf. They were eventually stopped at this
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battle 100 miles form Paris. Had they made it that day, Christianity would have
crumbled and then disappeared.
* As they developed their culture, urban centers arose. These provided an
opportunity for the whole people to gain more money and brought about free education
the cities continue to grow, and four classes arise:
* Those who were born into Islam.
* Those who were converted to Islam.
* Other religions, Christian, Jew, Zoroastrians.
* Slaves.
*Role of women- Men were the manager of affairs of woman, women are obedient.
Jainism:
* This religion was founded by Mahavira (599-527 Bc) in about 535 BC, they
taught that everything in the universe has a soul. They were nonviolent to the extreme.
They would always look for jobs without violence or something n Trade and Commerce.
Jains made up the wealthiest communities in India. They practiced tolerance (they
accepted all religions) but never had any missionaries.
Hinduism:
* The Focus of Hinduism is to achieve Moksha (a level of perfect understanding).
It takes many lives to achieve Moksa, and thus, they believed in Reincarnation. Each
Varna (social class) has sacred duties to do or Dahrmas. Doing these help you achieve
Moksha. They have 3 Main Gods- Vishnu, Brahman, and Shiva. The
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woman in Hinduism were treated as property only, they arranged child marriages, and
mutilated the women. Most Hindus make a pilgrimage to the Ganges River (considered
sacred). They get cremated after death, and believe that if they spread their ashes into the
Ganges they will enter Paradise. Their spiritual leaders are called Gurus. Sacred syllable
is “OM”, used in prayers, Vedas are the sacred texts, and among the most sacred is the
Rig-Veda, which contains the Laws of Manu. (see book on treatment of women).
Buddhism:
Saddartha Gautama founded Buddhism. He was a prince who had been locked
up in his castle all of his life. There, he was sheltered form the world never knowing
sorrow, pain, or grief. One day, he took a tour of what was to be his kingdom, and
saw all the horrors of life. It made him both angry and sorrowful. He wandered
around, looking for answers. He gets enlightenment. He then begins to call himself
Buddha- meaning enlightened one.
He teaches the 4 Noble truths:
* Life is all about suffering and sorrow
* Desire is the cause of suffering.
* The only way to end suffering is to stop desiring.
* Following the Eight-Fold path will lead to Nirvana.
8-fold path is in the book.
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* Buddha believed that there should be no social caste system. He says that all men
and woman should be equal. His teaching spread very easily into China.
Unfortunately, the caste system in India was so rigid that his teachings could never
come in. Buddhist monks are expected to live a life of poverty, meditation and study.
They learn humility by having to beg for their food, but are not allowed to make eye
contact with the donor.
* 3 Cardinal Faults; Greed (pig), Hatred (snake), Delusion (rooster ).
* Sacred writings; Sutras (perfection of wisdom) written about the teachings of
Buddha.
Confucianism:
* Confuzi (Confucius) started this. He was born very poor. He wanted to get a job
and work in the government. He had a strong belief in order and said that Ethics are
needed to stop bad dynasties. This all starts, he said with respect for family, the village,
the Clan then the country.
* There were, he said 5 basic relationships between people.
1) Ruler – Subject
2) Father – Son
3) Husband – Wife
4) Older person – Younger person
5) Friend – Friend
The government, he taught is supposed to be loyal and ethical. His views were
not accepted while he was alive. Confucianism focused on the here and now of life.
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Eventually, people were converted to what he said and became his disciples. They wrote
everything he said down. These became the Analects. He eventually becomes
considered by many as a god and temples are built to honor him.
Daoism:
* Laozi (laotzu) was called “The Old Master.” Unlike the beliefs of order and
bureaucracy taught by Confucius, Laozi taught that everything should follow a normal
harmony, like the ones you would find in nature. The trees don’t envy the clouds; the
birds do no hate the grass and so forth. He writes everything down in the Dao De Jing
and uses the Yin and Yang to symbolize good and evil in life. He believed not in a rigid
society, but a harmonious one.
Shintoism- (the way of the gods) Japan’s official religion. Japan was populated about
10,000 years ago but was repeatedly invaded in the 200’s-100’s BC. Asian invaders will
bring with them Confucianism, and Buddhist ideas among others. The Japanese
eventually formed tight knit family clans. Each clan worshiped its own “Kami” or family
spirit. They build shrines and gardens to achieve peace and tranquility necessary to
communicate with the spirits.
Judaism.
Abraham, father of the Jews was born around the area of Babylon. Received a covenant
(agreement between human and God), and moved from Babylon to Canaan (promised
land). Because of drought the Jews move to Egypt and became slaves for about 600 years
(because they lacked faith). Eventually Moses leads the Jews out of Egypt but does not
reach the Promised Land because of his sin. He also is credited with bringing the 10
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Commandments from Mt. Sinai. Joshua leads the Jews to Canaan where they retake
the land. David their King establishes Jerusalem as their capital. King Solomon builds
the Temple where God was to reside.
922 BC the kingdom was divided, making it weaker.
722 BC the Assyrians conquered the southern half (Judah)
586 BC the Chaldeans invaded the northern half (Israel) and scattered the Jews (and
destroy the Temple).
This will be called the “Babylonian Captivity” they build Synagogues to worship
because they had no temple.
539 BC the Persians invade and free the Jews, some return and rebuilt Jerusalem
some stay in Asia Minor (Diaspora).
They will be eventually scattered for good by the Romans after their second rebellion
132 AD. Israel is renamed Palestine, and the Jews will not be allowed to return
legally until 1947.
Christianity:
Jesus was born in Bethlehem in about 6-4 BC. Romans conquer Judah, not Judea.
In 6 AD. Then, they renamed it Judea, or “Land of the Jews,”
Jesus started teaching around 29 AD. The Jews of the time were looking for a savior
to come, kill all of their captors (the Romans) and free them. Just like Moses of old
did. Messiah means “Savior.” When he preached, he didn’t say to attack and kill
you enemies, but rather he preached peace. The Jews eventually sentenced him to
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death for blasphemy (claiming he was the Son of God). The Romans only carried
out the prescribed crucifixion.
He had followers whom he called “apostles.” Their writings about his life combined
with the various letters Paul wrote were complied and made into the New
Testament. He was believed to have returned to life. His followers became
“Christians” and were considered a semi-cult. Christians literally means “like
Christ.”
Peter and Paul were the most effective missionaries. Paul wrote epistles to the
early converts. Peter spread the message “Jesus is the Son of God. His atonement
pays for our sins.” He also compiled the New Testament.
In 66 AD, the Jews have their 1st rebellion. The Romans crush the Jewish army and
destroy the Temple of David. Only one wall is left standing (the Waling Wall). In
132 AD, the Jews have their 2nd rebellion. They fail yet again,
Thus begins the Diaspora. This is the scattering of the Jews. Basically, the Romans
told the Jews to leave he country and never ever come back. Jedea is named
“Palestine” the Palestinians have it for the next 1813 years.
Casca Ruffio Longinus was in charge of the Romans squad at Christ’s crucifixion.
His orders ere to make sure that Jesus did not last more than necessary (to avoid
possible rebellion). To ensure this, he sticks a spear in Christ’s side. He got blood in
his mouth and healed very quickly. Hizram, a 13th Apostle, keeps the spear.
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The Christians refused to honor the Romans custom of worshiping the Emperor as
God on Earth they were branded as the scapegoats for most of the problems, which
occurred in the Empire. Because they had been taught to love their enemies, they
would not serve in the Army, which irked the Romans even more.
Then the city of Rome caught fire. It burned for the next three days. Half of the city
is completely destroyed. Nero, the Roman Emperor, decided to use the Christians as
scapegoats for the disaster. He burned 250,000 of them to punish them.
Peter and Paul are crucified on the same day (but upside down). Eventually, people
begin to use the fish as a sign of Christianity (ICHTIUS Greek for Jesus Christ
Son of God Savior). It is an acronym that spells fish in Greek.
A Martyr is a person who dies for his cause. The early Christians would rather die
than renounce Christianity. The religion spreads like wildfire because:
* Everyone, man and woman, is embraced.
* It gave hope to the people who didn’t have any power.
* It appeals to all those who were repelled.
* It offered a very personal relationship with God.
* It promised Eternal Life.
* The western Church is organized into a Hierarchy. They call themselves
Catholics (meaning the Official Church). The Roman Church becomes the center of the
Catholics and is the most important.
Pope (originated from word papa meaning father)Catholic official, prescribed “different colors of each calling”:CardinalsArchbishops
21Bishops
Abbott / AbbessPriest/Monks/Nuns
* Emperor Constantine has a vision, It convinced him to “convert” to
Christianity. He then made it so that anyone can be Christian, who wants to. A freedom
of religion then followed, allowing everyone to be Christian if they wanted to. Later,
Emperor Theodosius (a Greek Emperor) made all people convert to Christianity.
* Then, Christianity had its first Schism, it is the split between the catholic church
and the orthodox church, split based on differences such as position of pope vs.
patriarch, church hierarchy, use of icons, transubstantiation and more.
Byzantium:
An off subject Blurb:
- The East Side of the Roman Empire divides off in 395 AD. The Romans
could really care less about what they are up to. Their attention is on the attacker
after their money (Rome was the richest at that time). In 527, Justinian becomes
the Emperor of Byzantine Empire. He was truly a mental Giant. Add to that the
fact that he was a good actor, and he became one of the best politicians. Within a
16 year span, Rome changed hands 6 times. Money that the people looted from
Rome was then used to finance other wars. The Emperors ruled with absolute
power. They ruled both the Church and the State. Emperors, were not invincible
though, and could always be assassinated. A total of 29 were butchered and 13
gave up the job and joined the church. Most of Byzantium spoke Greek, not Latin
like Rome. Eventually, the
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- Muslims will use cannons to breach the walls of Byzantium. Justinian built Hagia
Sophia, walls, and cities.
- In the Hipodrome around 532 AD, the people come to watch their favorite
competitors. They spilt into two sections of fans, each with a color to represent
them: the Blues and the Greens. They’re stirred up in anger against the
government. In previous rebellions, the people had been brutally slaughtered by
order of the mayor. They fire the mayor, but are still surging with anger. They all
pack into the Hippodrome, and decide to elect a new leader. When Justinian finds
out that they elected him, he considers running away. Luckily, his wife,
Theodora, convinces him not to. He lets his general, Belisarius, kill half of them.
- Justinian rules as one of the greatest Emperors ever, with Theodora at his
side. She succeeds in gaining more women’s rights that we have today. They
make education a very important part of life. He has lawyers rewrite the laws into
a code easy enough for people on the streets to understand. It is know as the
“Justinian Code.”
- They wanted Byzantium to be remembered as a “New Athens.” They
collect and learn Greek Philosophies, writing and mathematics. They “held the
torch of knowledge.” We owe them for saving and holding on to the Greek and
Roman knowledge when; the Catholics were burning most of it.
- Enemies that broke Byzantium down form within:
1) Street Riots (Niko)
1) Religious quarrels
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2) Palace intrigues.
3) The Plague. Byzantium is struck by a “justinian Plague.” It is the worst in 542AD.
That year, at least 10,000 people die every day. The Plague returns every 8-12 years.
Eventually, only people who have survived it and built up a resistance are left and the
Plague disappears.
Enemies that broke Byzantium down from without:
1) The Lombards, Avars, Slavs, Bulgars, Sassanid Persians, and Turks keep
attacking, trying to get the wealth.
1) The Crusaders sacked the city on the way to Jerusalem.
At first, the Byzantine people try to avoid ever going to war. They used Political
Marriages, Bribes, and Diplomacy for a while. Eventually, the other Nations just
keep attacking. In the 7th Century. Emperor Heaclius reorganizes the Empire. He
split it up into lots of Military Districts, but in 1453, the Ottoman Turks had been
attacking for so long that the city finally falls.
Feudalism
* AD 400’s the Franks emerge as the strongest Germanic group. Ruled by the Merovingian Dynasty (those who claimed to be descendants from Jesus and Mary Magdalene).* AD 481 Clovis became the king of the Franks. He was the 1st Germanic ruler to accept Catholicism.* AD 714 Charles Martel (the hammer) became their leader and defeated the Muslims at the Battle of Tours, stopping their conquest of Europe. Pepin the Short who helps the Pope, in order to solidify his rule over the Germans follows him. His son is Charlemagne a giant by the standards of the time. He protects the Pope, becomes the
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Holy Roman Emperor, doubles his empire, creates monasteries and schools, and saves priceless scrolls. Leaves behind the 1st Christian Empire.* His 3 grand sons (Louis the German, Charles the Bald and Lothair) divide the empire and eventually lose it to the outside invaders.
* Feudalism is a system of government based on fealty (land and titles for loyalty and service). 1. King and family. 2. High Nobles (barons, Dukes, Princes etc). 3. Lower Nobles (Earl, Count, and Viscount etc. 4 Knights. 5. Free peasants. 6. Serfs (like slaves they belong to the land, but unlike slaves could not be sold individually.* Chivalry was the code of conduct that governed the Knights. They had to be brave in battle, defend Christianity, and are courteous toward noble women. Manorialism is a system of agriculture where all needed by the village was made in
the village. War and invasions made trade almost impossible, created the need for castles. Improvements; heavy plow, 3 field system, annual fair.
The Church: Preached that all people were sinners and dependent on Gods grace for salvation. In
order to be saved they depended on the church for the Sacraments (baptism, communion, mass, confession, confirmation, weddings, funerals etc).
Although the primary mission was spiritual, the church provided the legal (birth certificate, death certificate, tithing, taxes etc.) services to bind a divided Europe.
The power and wealth grew to the point that the church became the most important organization, political, religious, and economic in Europe.
Benedict founded the Monte-Casino Monastery and created the Benedictine Rule (chastity, poverty and obedience) rules for monks and nuns. Used by subsequent Popes to spread Christianity.
Lay Investiture was the practice where lords and kings, gave the power of office to bishops.
Innocent III the most powerful Pope used the threat of Heresy (denial of church teachings) to aid the spread of Christianity.
Friars were traveling preachers, very good at what they did, benefited the church by drawing more people to mass. They had 2 orders;
Franciscans created by Francis of Assisi in 1210 AD. Dominicans created by Dominic in 1215 AD as learned defenders of the faith. Inquisition was a special court used to “assist” people to confess their sins. They
used torture and confiscation of property to “encourage” people to cooperate. More than 3 mill women were killed for witchcraft or other minor offences as well as 2-3 million men.
The Crusades Transformation of medieval society began with the series of holy wars over control of Jerusalem and other sites. Crusade comes from the Latin word crux meaning cross. When the Seljuc Turks conquered Arabia they brought with them a profound change in
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Islam. From a “peaceful” religion based on seeking knowledge, it became a theocracy with little tolerance toward infidels (other religions). They conquered Jerusalem and denied access to the city to any non-Muslim. This action will prompt the popes to call a series of wars to regain control of the area. 1st Crusade – 1095 AD called by Pope Urban II, 3 armies of knights converged out
of Europe and raped, plundered and burned their way to Constantinople. 1097 AD The armies arrive in Constantinople, where they will spend a year burning,
looting and robing the city. 1099 AD the armies arrive in Jerusalem and conquer the city killing most of the
Jewish and Muslim population. They also form some feudal states, but most of the knights left for their homelands leaving Jerusalem unprotected. The Muslims will eventually return and re conquer the city.
2nd Crusade- 1147 AD, Pope Eugenius IV called and Roman Emperor Conrad III and Louis VII respond. They fight each other on the way to Jerusalem and because of that the Turks defeat them.
3rd Crusade 1158 AD called the crusade of the kings, it was lead by King Richard I, Phillip of France, and Barbarossa of Germany. The French and German fought each other on the way and left Richard to fight the Turks by himself. He managed to fight to a truce, where the Turks will control the land but Christians would be allowed to visit w/out problems. While Richard is fighting the French invade England because its army was away. This will be the beginning of the long lasting bad feelings between England and France.
4th Crusade- 1204 AD, Called by Pope Innocent III and the army plundered Jerusalem instead.
5th Crusade – 1247 AD, children crusade failed in Venice some drowned and some were taken into slavery.
6th Crusade – 1260 AD, called by Peter the Hermit, he stopped in Constantinople but the rest of the unarmed group went on and were slaughtered.
Results of the Crusades. Serve to bring down feudalism Increased the authority of the kings. Some serfs were allowed to buy their freedom (nobles needed money). Agricultural advances (plow, horse instead of oxen) Growth of towns and their importance. Growth of the middle class (bourgeoisie) and its importance. Growth of trade, introduction of charters, money economy and guilds. New learning based on scrolls “rescued” from Jerusalem, leads to scholasticism. Use of the vernacular (every day language of the people) to increase literacy. Medieval art makes progress based on old knowledge create Gothic Art.
The 100 Year War 1337 AD- 1453 AD Was fought between England and France Most battles were won by the British, because of the long bow and hand held cannon.
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1429 AD Joan of Arc (a 16-year-old peasant girl) had a vision, managed to convince the king to let her lead the army and won 4 battles. Real reason was she led the charge so the soldiers could not retreat.
She will be captured by French nobles and handed over to the enemy for trial. She was convicted of sorcery and burned at the stake for wearing men’s clothing.
The Church in trouble:
Wars and the spread of plague, power of kings, corruption of church officials creates a weakening of the church’s influence.
People turn to the Church for guidance and direction. Church loose power because of strong kings and national governments.
Exile and Division:
1315- 1377 the Pope moved to Avignon France to escape civil war in Rome. There he builds a strong complex of cathedrals to serve as new headquarters. At the end of the civil war the Italians elect a new pope since the old one refused to
return. This is known as the Babylonian Captivity since they blamed the French for keeping
the Pope. The Holy Roman Emperor in Germany elects A 3rd Pope. All 3 Popes excommunicate each other and their supporters. 1414 a new council in Constance Germany elects a fourth Pope and convinces the
others to resign for the benefit of the church. This will be known as the Great Schism.
Beginning of Church Reform:* John Wycliffe in England criticizes the teachings of the church, its wealth and corruption. Claims the Bible not the Pope is the final authority of religious truth. He is excommunicated but the English refused to carry out the execution. Jan Hus in the Czech Republic calls for changes in the church based on Biblical
principles. He is burned at the stake for Heresy.
The Protestant Reformation
Martin Luther, born in 1483 is the son of middle class people. His father wanted him to be a lawyer, but Martin is inclined towards serving the
church. In 1505 he is returning from Grammar School thinking of a way to tell his father he
was going to disobey his wishes. Guilt and fear of going to Hell torture him for it. On the road he is nearly struck by lightening and his cart is overturned.
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His leg badly gashed and facing drowning in the ditch he pleads to St. Anne the saint protector of travelers, and vows to serve God if his life is spared.
He is rescued by another traveler and enters a monastery in Erfurth. While at the monastery he earns a reputation for piety, constantly praying, and going
to confession several times a day sometimes for hours at a time. While studying the Bible he reads St. Paul’s Epistle (letter) “He who through faith is
righteous shall live” and gets the idea of Justification by Faith. Based on 3 principles: 1) Sola Fide (only through faith), 2) Sola Scriptura (only
through scripture), and 3) Sola Gratie (only through God’s grace) can one be saved. He sets out to reform the church to bring this new idea to the masses. He accepts a position as a teacher at the University of Wittemburg while earning his
Doctorate (Ph.D.) in Theology and he also preaches there. Pope Leo X was rebuilding Rome to its former glory as well as building St Peter
Basilica and needed money. He raised money by selling Indulgences, which were pardons for past sins or future
sins, as well as for escaping Purgatory. Luther naturally did not agree with the Pope’s right to sell free passes to Heaven and
challenged the church with his famous 95 Theses (complains). Once news of this challenge reached Rome Luther was warned to take back his
criticism. He traveled to Rome to reason with the Pope who was not a known Biblical scholar
(his father had purchased his position with Medici money). While in Rome he learned of the huge abuses of power by the clergy such as
prostitution houses, married priests, illegitimate children, the Pope had build with indulgences money a palace for his 93 concubines and their children, and more.
In anger he tells the stories on his way back to Wittemburg to anyone who would listen.
For this and his refusal to recant he is excommunicated the 1st time (“Exurge Dominae) = wiped off from the face of God.
Luther burns the Papal Bull (excommunication order) in the middle of town cheered on by the town people.
He continues to preach and criticize the church. The Pope wants Luther to recant and admit he made up all of his accusations and
invites him to debate the church’s best scholars at the town of Wurms, (this is called The Diat of Wurms).
Luther received a safe passage promise and attended the meeting. He refused to recant, or debate, making his famous speech “ I am bound by the Sacred Scriptures I have cited… and my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I can not and will not recant anything… God help me, Here I Stand”. He walks out of the meeting.
His friend and protector Landgraff (prince) Frederick of Saxony has him kidnapped before the papal soldiers could and keeps him hidden for a year in the castle of Wartburg.
While in “captivity” Luther translates the Bible in German, writes the Lutheran Catechism (way the church holds services), and hymns.
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After a year, he returns to Wittenberg resumes preaching and marries Catarina Von Bora a nun and makes her a priest as well.
For translating the Bible into German, marring a nun and defiance of the Pope he is excommunicated a second time.
Papal Bull called “Ditat Romanum Pontificae” (ordered by the Roman in charge) is used by Luther as TP. and sent back to Rome. (Main reasons Catholic and Lutheran churches never reconciled.
Luther’s followers call themselves Lutheran after his death and most of Northern Europe will become protestant within a short time.
Luther’s legacy – Catholic Church lost power, German nobles use the religion to separate from the Holy Roman Empire ruled by Spain after a time. Bad: He spoke against the peasant revolt and caused the death of more than 100,000 peasants. He spoke against the Jews and his sermons caused organized repression of the Jewish communities as well as they will be used by Hitler to justify his persecutions of Jews.
Changes in the church are ; Lutherans believe only faith not good works = salvation, Bible is the only source of religious truth, services are center on Bible teaching not rituals, held in the language of the people not Latin, church is a community of believers not a hierarchy, priesthood is a vocation (calling), priests could marry, women could serve as priests.
Other Protesters:
Huldrych Zwingli a reformer in Switzerland started a new branch of Protestantism in the city of Zurich.
He wanted to break away from the Catholic Church and form a Theocracy (Gov. led by religion).
Because of hi missionary activities in Catholic areas an army of Catholic Italian, French, Swiss, and Spanish soldiers invaded and killed him and most of his followers.
John Calvin established a theocracy in the city of Geneva. Born in 1509 he grew up in France as a protestant (called a Huguenot in France).
Published the book “The institutes of the Christian Religion” and was forced to run to Geneva.
Believed in Predestination, or the notion that God knows what you will do and therefore it is known if you are to go to Heaven or Hell before you are even born. Nothing you did in your lifetime could change that. The people who had luck or were blessed believed they were chosen.
In 1541 he established the Consistory (a church council of 12 elders) who oversaw the daily life in Geneva.
All citizens were required to attend church several times a week. Homes were to be inspected to insure no one was breaking the laws. No fighting, swearing, drunkenness, gambling, card playing or dancing were allowed. John Knox was Calvin’s best follower and he spread this religion to Scotland. Calvinist believed to be their duty to overthrow ungodly rulers, but had to obey those
who were righteous (according to them).
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Radical Reformers: The Anabaptists initiated the practice of baptism to adult members who were ready
to lead a Christian life. No children allowed in church. Denied the authority of local governments. Refused to hold office, bear arms, swear oaths and some lived separate from the
sinful society. Some fanatics, took multiple wives, burned books, seized property and tried to rule
themselves. They were attacked and massacred or forced to flee, (most that escaped went to
America). Today they are the Mennonites, Baptists, and Amish. In England the church separates from the Catholic Church because of the desire of
Henry the VIII’s to divorce Catherine and marry Anne Bolein. (See Anne of 1000 days). It became the Anglican Church, similar to the Catholic church, but without a Pope.
The Catholic Reformation
Pope Paul the 3rd set out to reform the church in 1530’ s-1540. Started the Council of Trent in 1545. Salvation comes from faith and good works. Church traditions are equal with the Bible as a source of religious truth. The Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible the only acceptable version. Indulgences were forbidden. Clergy had to follow stricter rules of behavior. Created Seminary or religious school for the clergy. Created the Inquisition to deal with heretics. Inquisition created a list of forbidden books. Mass was to be in Latin only. Used the arts to reengage the people in religious rituals (Baroque) a style that stressed
emotion, complexity and exaggeration, (overly ornate). Example, Rubens, Diego Velasquez, Lorenzo Bernini.
Spreading Catholicism Ignatius of Loyola Born a Spanish noble he was injured in war (had knee crushed by a canon ball) Swore he would serve God if he could walk again. Had over 40 operations and regained the ability to walk. Renounced his title and wealth and went to Rome as a pilgrim to study religion. Formed the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) as a study group to get help in passing the
exams for his Masters in Theology. Convinced the Pope to grant him a charter, and change his approach. They were to concentrate their efforts in educating the rich and powerful and so
influence the masses. 30
The Jesuits were all well educated, fluent in several languages and known for their dedication.
Formed the best missionaries especially to Latin America, Africa and Asia.
Teresa of Avila Born in a noble family she chose to enter a convent. 1515 entered a Carmelite convent but found it to easy. Made the rules stricter, wrote devotionals, incorporated flagellation (self-wiping). Created strings of convents and got a charter from the Pope. Was made a Saint after her death in recognition for her services.
Early Explorations
Fueled by a desire for Gold, Glory and God, create the need for a large navy, army and the success provided create rivalries in Europe.
All European nations were looking for shorter trade routes with Asia; to bypass the old Silk Road controlled by the Persians, and the Italians. Fortunes were to be made by the nation that found other routes for the importation of silk, porcelain, spices etc.
The compass (a Chinese invention) enabled sailors to determine direction but most ships still followed the coastline (expensive and time consuming).
The astrolabe (an Arab invention) allowed the sailors to determine location north and South of the equator, enabling them to no longer have to hug the coast.
Cartographers (mapmakers) created accurate maps of the outline of Europe, Africa and parts of Asia.
Late 1400 the triangular (lateen Sails) were invented enabling sailors to sail against the wind.
Late 1400 the caravel (large, rounded, fast cargo ship) allowed sailors to transport large amounts of supplies, cargo and cannon to safely sail beyond the known ports.
Prince Henry the Navigator created the navigational school in Portugal training many sailors in the use of the best ships, latest instruments and maps, thus taking the lead in exploration.
In August 1487 Bartolomeu Dias left Portugal and rounded the Cape of Good Hope at the tip of South Africa.
In 1497, 4 ships lead by Vasco da Gama made it to India, proving that another route could be taken to the Spice Islands.
In Spain King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella conquered the Moors (Arab Muslims) and using the riches taken from them sponsored Christopher Columbus on his voyage to discover an even shorter route to India across the Atlantic.
August 1492 Columbus takes 3 ships on the voyage and makes it to the present day Caribbean Island of Haiti and Dominican Republic. Although he never steps foot on the mainland he is credited with the discovery of the New World, an area previously unknown.
1507 Amerigo Vespucci discovered South America and finally gave a name to Columbus’s discovery “America”.
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Due to the spreading rivalry between Spain and Portugal the Pope was asked to intervene and he solved the issue with the line of demarcation in 1493 (Treaty of Tortesillas) giving the Western half to the Spanish and the Eastern half to the Portuguese.
In 1519 Ferdinand Magellan took 5 ships for an attempt to circumnavigate the Earth (sail around). He does not make back alive being killed (possibly eaten) in the Philippines. 18 members of the original crew of 260 survived the trip but their names are not known being just crewmembers.
The Triangle Trade From Europe beads, mirrors, axes, trinkets to Africa where they were exchanged for
slaves, to America where the slaves were exchanged for rum, molasses, tobacco, sugar, etc back to Europe for the next trip.
Explain the middle passage (slave voyage) lasting around 90-120 days. Give essay homework detailing the time from capture, transit, to sale on a plantation. Story is to be told as if by survivor recollecting his/her voyage to America to a child around the age of 16.
The commercial revolution
By the 1600’s the nation has replaced the city and village as the basic economic unit in Europe.
Nations have to compete for markets and raw materials rather than rival businesses. New investment methods were created to speed the flow of money. Banking houses such as the Medici in Florence and the Fuggers in Augsburg
Germany loaned money as investment capital to ship owners until the ships returned from their voyage.
By the mid 1600’s these banking families were being replaced by governments (as the new big banks).
Governments issued money (banknotes) and coins as well as setting official exchange rates for foreign currency.
Joint-stock companies are organizations that sell stocks or shares in a venture to raise money, share profits or losses in a business.
As the gold and silver came in from the colonies the supply of money increased creating inflation (the devaluing of the existing gold). This increases prices. Eventually paper money will become the standard currency using gold and silver to back up the money in existence.
Entrepreneurs are individuals who combine money, ideas, raw materials, and labor to make goods and profits.
Mercantilism is a theory that the state’s power depends on the amount of wealth obtained through business.
Bullion is the gold and silver (in pure form and bars) that measured a nation’s wealth. Balance of trade is the difference between the goods sold versus goods imported.
Obviously it is better to have more sold than bought. 32
European daily life
The Commercial Revolution changed the social classes. It created wealth for the merchants, cities and governments, raising prices and the
cost of living. Farmers and nobles were the hardest hit since the price of agricultural goods did not
rise as well. Nobles raised rents, fees and taxes to raise cash, in order to keep up their lifestyles. Population grew rapidly doubling in less then 200 years (1475-1650). This demand for more products was met from the increasing number of colonies. Corn, potatoes, beans, squash, chocolate and more was introduced as daily foods.
Royal power and conflict; Absolutism
Absolutism or unlimited power created unified strong kingdoms that will dominate trade, war, and innovation.
Divine right, the belief that kings were ordained to rule and made no errors of judgement.
Philip II wanted to end Protestantism in his domain (he was Holly Roman Emperor). Came from the Habsburg Royal Family. He will involve Spain in a number of expensive wars spending fast the gold coming
from the New World. Made Madrid the center of Spain, introduced Castilian (literary) Spanish as the
official language. Drove out the Marranos (Jews who had converted to Christianity). Drove out the Moriscos (Muslims who had converted to Christianity). Wanted to impose Catholicism in the Netherlands. Defeated Turks at Lepanto of the coast of Greece. Planed to invade England used the Spanish Armada but lost. Huge amount of gold and silver coming from America created inflation in Europe
forcing other nations to colonize or be poor. Spanish Golden Age (1550-1650) Miguel Cervantes wrote Don Quixote.
England and the Tudor Kings See Anne of 1000 Days. Elizabeth became the long ruling monarch who drove England to prosperity and
away from the continent. W. Shakespeare became the bard of Europe.
France Henry of Navarre became Henry IV. In 1589 and started the Bourbon Dynasty,
(200 years). Was a Protestant but converted to Catholicism (Huguenot).
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Gave the Edict of Nantes in 1598 allowing Protestants to worship in towns where they had majority. Gave them same civil rights as Catholics in France.
Worked hard to restore France and create a strong king position. Assassinated in 1610. Louis XIII, his son became king at the age of 9. Marie de Medici was regent (while the boy grew up) 1617 Louis gained the throne by exiling his mother and appointed Cardinal
Richelieu as advisor. Richelieu starts to create absolute rule in France by reducing the power of the Nobles
and the Huguenots. Nobles; forbade fortified castles, took from them their right to be local administrators
or judges. Intendants were appointed to fulfil these functions. They were commoners and loyal
to the Cardinal. Huguenots; were not allowed in the military, were not allowed to carry weapons, and
could not fortify the cities where they were the majority. 1635 the French Academy is created, created the modern French Language, took the
country to a position of leadership in math, literature, and the sciences. Louis XV; most powerful Bourbon Monarch, became king in 1643 at the age of 5. Cardinal Mazzarin and his mother Anne of Austria ruled France. Louis XIV became King at 23 and ruled longest in European history (72 years). Most famous quote “I am the State or L’etat, c’est moi”. He is the famous builder of the Palace of Versailles. 10,000 people lived there full time, only one bathroom. He regarded the Huguenots as a threat and repealed the Treaty of Nantes in 1685. 200,000 Huguenots migrated to the Netherlands and the US colonies. Foreign policy was expansion, colonialization, and Catholicism. Legacy was, France was left poor, large, feared / hated by other countries had the
beautiful Versailles, but were left broke by the constant spending and fighting.
The German States
This will begin as a war between Protestants and Catholics with the building of absolute power by the 2 largest dynasties on the continent, (the Habsburgs of Austria and the Bourbons of France).
1618 the 30 year war began in Bohemia (present day Czech Republic) Rights of Protestants were curtailed; this leads to civil war and the invasion by
Catholic Armies. Over the next 10 years the revolts were crushed and the Czechs were forcibly
converted to Catholicism. Protestant Denmark joins in the war, is defeated, Sweden joins in and will be defeated
also but they win some important battles (Herman the German, Gustavus Adolphus).
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By the time the war ends with the Peace of Westphalia (in Prussia) France is the dominant power in Europe, and the Holy Roman Empire of which Germany was a part is divided into more than 300 provinces.
Germany is divided and can no longer pose a threat to France. Austria and Prussia do not have the control of the divided German states creating the situation, which will lead to WWI.
Prussia will be ruled by the Honhenzollern Family and became the main competition to Austria.
In 1740 Prince Frederick II (eventually known as Frederic the Great) became king. He will attack Silesia, starting a seven year war between Prussia, Austria, Russia,
England and France (French and Indian War in the US). The French also fought the British in India and lost to the East India Co.
Russia: Rise of Russia
From 1200’s to the 1700’s Russia was isolated from Europe missing out on both the Renaissance and the Reformation movements.
They were based on a strong ruler and the Russian Orthodox Church. The Ottoman Empire ruled over the Balkan nations of Serbia, Bosnia, Macedonia
(all Slavic peoples). Hungary ruled the Croats and Austria ruled the Slovenes (also Slavic). Ivan IV, one of the most powerful Czars (a.k.a. Ivan the Terrible or Ivan the
Awesome). He grew up in an atmosphere of cruelty and deceit, and will authorize the secret
police (oprichnki) to do whatever necessary to prevent treason during his rule (in a fit of rage he killed his own son).
He worked to weaken the Boyars (landed nobility) by dispersing them or replacing them with his own people.
He ends up controlling 1/2 of the land in the country . Increased lands by fighting the Mongols, Polish, Lithuanians and Sweden. After his death the country went into Civil War (Time of Troubles). In 1613 an assembly of nobles put Michael Romanov in charge. This dynasty will
continue to the Russian Revolution of 1917. Each Czar made the country more and more centralized, eliminating the influence of
the nobles, town people or farmers. Some of those farmers move to the south of Ukraine and became known as the
Cossacks (warrior peasants). Siberia also became a favorite destination because it was out of the reach of the Czar.
In 1689 Peter I, (Peter the Great) became Czar. He wanted to bring Russia on par with the other European nations. He orders mandatory education for the children of the nobility and clerics (they
could not marry until they passed their math and geometry classes). He took an 18-month tour of Europe, learned carpentry, and became a surgeon and
dentist.
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All members of the court had to wear western clothing, men had to shave their beards (religious mandate) or pay a fine, and women had to attend public functions.
He sent Russians to other countries to study, and created a brand new city of change (St Petersburg).
He expanded Russia’s control of Siberia by defeating China, occupied both sides of the Bering Strait. Started settlements in Alaska and as far south as California.
Fought Poland, Sweden or the Ottoman Empire. He modernized the army and navy. He introduced a central bureaucracy and created the Holy Synod responsible to him. He created the “dvorianie” a new class on nobles who could pass on their holdings in
exchange for fealty (like the Knights). Gave nobles full control over the serfs. Legacy: his reforms were incomplete, he broke the unity of the church, and some
nobles wanted to adopt European ways others did not. Catherine the Great took control of Russia from her weak husband in 1762. Was German by birth but learned Russian, considered freeing the serfs but ended up
being the last absolute ruler of Russia. Under her rule more peasants will became serfs and conditions of life became harder
but more Russian nobles accept European ways.
Scientific Revolution
Nicolaus Copernicus started at the University of Krakow in Poland in 1492. Challenges the Church’s belief by stating the world was round, and rotating around
the Sun although he still believed that the Sun was the center of the universe. He worked in privacy and his findings were not published until just before his death. Johannes Kepler used the data found by Tycho Brahe to provide a mathematical
proof to the theories of Copernicus of planetary movement (ellipses). Galileo Galilei built his own telescope and discovered that planets have moons, and
they circled their planets. He therefore reasoned that some planets must revolve around the Sun.
In 1632 he published his ideas and the church banned his book. Challenged by the church he recanted on several points, and was allowed to serve his life sentence at home.
He continues his work in secret; his friends will publish (his work shortly before his death).
Outside of the influence of Rome, in England and France, scientists like Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes incorporate the idea of scientific method and the idea that all discoveries must be based in truth and reason.
Isaac Newton born in 1642 discovered the mathematical proof of gravity, planetary movement, and other laws of physics in addition to calculus.
Andreas Vesalius published his book in 1543 and argues that Galen’s findings were wrong since ancient Greece forbade the dissection of humans.
William Harvey discovered the flow of blood and the function of arteries and veins. 36
Robert Hooke discovered the cell by observing onionskin through a microscope. Robert Boyle was primarily responsible for the creation of the science known as
chemistry. Alchemy was the science practiced prior to Boyle and it involved attempting to turn
base minerals into gold. Boyle also proved that air is not an element in itself because it is composed of
different gases. Joseph Priestly discovered the existence of oxygen, carbon monoxide and
carbonated drinks. Antoine Lavoisier discovered that organisms consume oxygen and release carbon
monoxide. Marie Lavoisier his wife learned Greek and Latin, translated manuscripts and drew
illustrated her husbands work. Science is applied to political and legal life. Royal Society of London was created in 1662, to promote scientifical advancement. French Academy of Science created in 1666 had the same goal. Natural Law was a universal moral law that, like physical laws could be reasoned. Thomas Hobbes believed that absolute monarchies are needed because violence and
disorder come natural to humans and a strong king must protect them. He believed that there should be a contract between the people and their king where the people give up their rights and agree to be obedient and the king agrees to be benevolent (understanding).
John Locke also believed in a social contract but he believed the people have natural rights, that belong to them from birth (life, liberty, property).
He believed that governments exist only to protect those rights not to control people and make them obey. If the government failed in those duties the people have the right to overthrow that government. We based our declaration of independence on that idea.
Thomas Jefferson based most of his writings on Locke’s views. Hugo Grotius called for an international code of law which should govern all people. In the American colonies William Penn founded the Quaker colony of Pennsylvania
based on the idea of pacifism (opposition to war or violence). Deism is the new religion sweeping through the world. People believed in God the
watchmaker, the universe is like a clock all things can me measured, reasoned and understood based on science and math.
Triumph of Reason
Age of Enlightenment Scientists studied the world no longer held back by tradition or the Church. They perceived the universe as a machine governed by fixed laws. They see God as the master mechanic/watchmaker (See above: Deism).
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Spreading Ideas
Philosophes = French for ‘philosopher’. Scientists gathered in Paris in Salons held in the homes of wealthy patrons. Most influential woman = Madame de Pompadour, mistress to Louis XV.
-She used his money to establish an informal academy of science in her house.The first encyclopedia was published in France in 1751; it had 28 volumes, covered everything known to humans at the time. Denis Diderot edited it.
-He devoted the rest of his life to updating the encyclopedia. He was imprisoned for life for his efforts, so he worked from prison. The biggest contributor to the encyclopedia was Baron de Montesquieu (he was a noble and did not go to jail for his writings).
-His book was called The Spirit of Laws -He wrote about his admiration for the English government, and was exiled for a while by the French.-He believed that political power should be equally divided among the branches of government, i.e. the legislative to make the laws, the executive to enforce them, and the judicial branch to interpret them.-His work constituted the bulk of the U.S. Constitution.
Voltaire a.k.a. Francois–Marie Arouet wrote satirical poetry, plays essays and -novels. He served two sentences in the Bastille (even though he wrote under the pen name ‘Voltaire’, they found him.)-Eventually, he moved to England, where he was free to criticize France.Famous Quote: “I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.”
Women and the Enlightenment
Enlightenment ideas did not apply to women; although some were famous and hosted Salons (like Madame de Pompadour) Most women were denied equality with men. British author Mary Wollstonecraft favored equal education for men and women, but was ridiculed for her views and ended up writing under various pen names. The Enlightened Despots are rulers who try to govern by enlightenment principles while maintaining their royal powers; these cannot function side by side – either the people are free, or they are not. Some of the famous ones are:
-Frederick II from Prussia became friends and later enemies with Voltaire;-Catherine II of Russia, and Empress Maria Theresa of Austria; she set up elementary schools and freed all serfs from her estates.
Her son, Joseph II, abolished serfdom completely made land taxes equal for peasants and nobles, gave freedom of the press, and
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took property from the Catholic Church to build schools and hospitals.- He is the first monarch to grant religious freedom to Protestants and Jews in a Catholic country. - He changed too much too fast; rebellion by his nobles forced him to repeal many of the reforms - After his death, all laws returned to pre-Maria Theresa changes.
Classical Movements
Classicism: Represents the ultimate order in reason; It is a revival of combined Greek and Roman thought and architectural knowledge.
-It is apparent in modern buildings that feature columns and arches, giving grace and strength.
Literature
The Oath of the Horatii done by Jacques David Moliere, English poets John Dryden, Alexander Pope The piano is introduced and the violin is perfected, changing the sound of music. Composers group similar instruments, laying the foundation for the modern orchestra:BachHandelHaydn andMozartAll took advantage of the newly created instruments.
Jean Jaques Rousseau, 1700s French philosopher, became a leading thinker of his day.
-Believed that human beings are naturally good, but that civilization and the institutions of government are the corrupting factors.-He wanted people to throw out civilization and return to nature, living on communes.-The Queen of France, Marie Antoinette, had a cottage built for herself at Versailles, where she pretended to be a milkmaid.-He called for a type of education that would preserve what he believed was a child’s natural goodness.-In 1762, he published his most famous work, The Social Contract: “Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains.”-He believed in a social contract where people would give their individual rights to the will of the majority.-This will shape British politics and eventually those of the U.S.
Immanuel Kant, German philosopher, believed that reason couldn't answer to metaphysics, a branch of philosophy that deals with the existence of God.
-He said, “Science can be understood, religion must be believed.”
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Religious Movements
Germany: Count von Zinzeendorf established the Moravian Brethren, which emphasized the emotional and mystical side of Christianity.Britain: John Wesley started Methodism, which stressed the value of the personal religious experience.
-This is a reaction of the cold formality of the Church of England.France: New schools are created to better train priests and bishops in order to maintain power and control in central Europe.Eastern Europe: Hasidism promotes mysticism and religious zeal; it spread among Jews.Romanticism: Cultural movements that celebrates emotion and individuals.
-This marks the end of the Age of Enlightenment.-The lower classes begin to demand more and more rights, and the nobles are forced either to give or face revolution.
The French Revolution
The Old Regime is based on 3 large social classes called 'estates'.-Two of the estates had privileges, one did not.
First estate: The Clergy (high and low Clergy)- About 1% of the population-Own 10% of the land- Contributed about 2% in taxes- Received money from everyone (called tithing) and free land grants from the nobles- In addition, serfs or peasants worked the Church lands for free as part of their 10% donation- They paid no labour cost
Second estate: The Nobles (high and low)-Made up 2% of the population-Owned 20% of the land-Paid no taxes (except the 10% to the Church)-Sources of income: rent from the peasants, and towns in their jurisdiction, free serf labour, and land grants from the king
Third estate: Everyone else -98% of the population
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- Pay high taxes to the king, the nobles, the municipalities, and the Church-Peasants were the largest group of the third estate-They paid taxes on everything, including salt
The Forces of Change-The rich/education portion of the third estate wants to lead the revolution; they
have nothing to lose-If they win, and remove the first and second estates, as the leaders of the third estate, they will rule France-If they lose, they will remain in the third estate
Economic Problems
-The population is expanding rapidly-High taxes make it impossible to have profitable small businesses; the big businesses benefit while the little ones dry out.-Three years of bad weather in the 1780's cause crop failures and famine.-At the same time, there was extravagant spending by the nobles and they royal family.-Louis XVI becomes king in 1774-He inherited debt and borrowed to help the American Revolution (against England)-When bankers refused to lend any more, he raised the taxes for the third estate-He also fought several wars, which cost the third estate more still.-All the wars he fought were lost- He was a weak leader, preferring to hunt or tinker with locks instead of running the country- He had married Marie Antoinette, member of the royal family of Austria- a long-time enemy of France-She was very unpopular because, for a long time, she did not speak French, and members of the court were forced to learn German.-She spent huge amounts of money on clothes and jewelry -As a result, she became known as Madame Deficit.-With France bankrupt and the third estate unable to pay any additional taxes, the king attempts to tax the nobility: they refuse.-He called for a meeting of the Estates General, an assembly of representatives from all three estates-It was the first time it had been summoned in 175 years.-This shows for how many generations the kings have ruled without consulting the legislature.-Each estate had one vote; the first and second estates always outvoted the third estate. -The third estate asked that each delegate have a vote; the king ignores them
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-They established the National Assembly and locked themselves in a tennis court pledging to not come out until they had written a new constitution.-This pledge is called The Tennis Court Oath.-The king tried to give in to the third estate and at the same time ordered his army into Paris.-Because of rumours, the citizens of Paris stormed the Bastille in order to gain
weapons, free prisoners (it was the king's private jail), and as a signal that they were in control of Paris, not the king.- July 14 is still a French national holiday today.
The Great Fear
-The rich third estate started a rumour that the nobles were hiring mercenaries to kill off peasants.- Responding to these rumours, the peasants gathered and killed off the nobles.-They burned estates, looted and generally caused chaos.-The king has to mobilise the army against the peasants, which leaves Paris unguarded.- This gives the third estate leaders a chance to seize power.October 1789: Approx. 6000 Parisian women rioted over the rising price of bread.-They marched to Versailles to demand that the king return to Paris and fix the economic crisis.-Women were sent because most people believed that the guards would not shoot them, since they could be their own mothers, sisters, wives, etc.-The king and his family comply and arrive in Paris; they would never see Versailles again.-They were beheaded.
The Revolution Brings Reform and Terror
August 4, 1789: The nobles made grand speeches about liberty and equality, mostly due to fear of the crowds.-They voted to sweep away the feudal privileges of the first and second estates-This would make commoners equal to the nobles and the clergy.
August 27, 1789: The National Assembly adopted the Declaration of the Right of Men and the Citizen-It stated that men are born and remain free, and are equal in rights-It also stated that the aim of all political associations should be to preserve these natural rights
Examples: Liberty, property, security and freedom from oppression-They guaranteed equal justice and freedom of speech and religion.-It was partially based on our own constitution.
THE DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF MAN DID NOT APPLY TO WOMEN; WHEN ONE OF THE LEADERS OF THE REVOLUTION NAMED OLYMPE DE GOUGES TRIED TO APPLY IT, SHE WAS BEHEADED.
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- During the 1790s, the National Assembly confiscated church lands in an effort to raise cash. -They declared that church officials should be elected by property owners and paid as state officials, and not should not belong to the Catholic hierarchy (although they would be of Catholic faith)-The Pope agrees to this because, although they took church lands, they also promised to pay church salaries (and the religion remained Catholic).-Louis XVI tried to escape to Austria disguised as a peasant.-However, he and his family were recognized at the border because they were travelling in the royal coach - which was piled with luggage – surrounded by guards.. (This did not sit well with their position as peasants.)-They also tried to pay for rooms at an inn with gold coins bearing their images (peasants do not sleep inside the inn, but rather in the stable because they cannot afford it).
A Limited Monarchy
The National Assembly created a limited constitutional monarchy, completed in September 1791.
* This gave the Legislative Assembly the power to create the French law* King Louis XVI handed the power of the National Assembly over to the Legislative Assembly; they can also approve or prevent any war the kind declared on another nation.
Despite the new government, food shortages, governmental debt and other problems remained.
* This caused the Legislative Assembly to split into three general groups, all of which disagreed with each other: The Radicals on the far left, the Moderates, and the Conservatives on the far right.
- The Émigrés, a radical group of nobles and other royalists who had fled during the peasant uprisings, hoped to restore the Old Regime.
War and Extreme Measures
When Austria and Prussia proposed that France put Louis back on the throne, the Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria in April 1792.* Prussia later joined the Austrians against the French. The war began badly for the French.
* Enemy armies were advancing toward Paris by summer 1792* On July 25, the Prussian commander threatened to destroy Paris if the revolutionaries harmed any one of the Royal Family.* On August 10, 20,000 men and women invaded the Tuileries (a royal palace), massacred the king’s Swiss guard of 900 men and imprisoned Louis, Marie Antoinette and their children in a stone tower.
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French soldiers heard rumours that the royalists imprisoned in Paris would seize control of the city in their absence.
* For several days in early September, Parisians raided the prisons and murdered over 1000 prisoners.* Many royalists, nobles and clergymen fell victim to angry mobs during these September Massacres.
Faced with the threat of Parisian radicals, the Legislative Assembly gave up the idea of a limited monarchy.
* They declared the king deposed and dissolved their assembly, calling for the election of a new legislature.- The National Convention was elected in September.
Radicals Execute the King
Though the mobs were comprised of peasants, their leaders came from the bourgeoisie. The National Convention, upon meeting in Paris on September 21, abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic.Adult male citizens were granted the right to vote and to hold office. Louis was tried for treason and found guilty by a very close vote.On January 21, 1793, the ex-king walked with calm dignity up the steps of the scaffold to the guillotine and was beheaded.
France’s Citizen Army
In 1793, Great Britain, Holland and Spain joined Prussia and Austria in an alliance known as the First Coalition. In February 1793, The National Convention decreed a draft of 300,000 French citizens between age 18-40.
- By 1794, the army grew to 800,000 and included women.
The Terror Grips France
Maximilien Robespiere and his followers set out to build a "republic of virtue".- Their goal was to wipe out every trace of France's monarchy and nobility- The radicals changed the calendar to be more scientific; it had no Sundays because they considered religion to be old-fashioned and dangerous.- They also closed every church in Paris, and soon towns all over France did the same.
Robespiere became the leader of the Committee of Public Safety in 1793, in which he decided who was an enemy of the new republic.
44- Robespiere's rule from July 1793 to July 1794 became known as the Reign of Terror.
- Robespiere justified his dictator-like reign in his speeches, explaining to the French people that the frequent beheadings helped them stay true to the ideals of the Revolution.- During the Reign, about 30,000 people (mostly peasants) were executed in Paris alone on often-absurd charges.- Marie Antoinette, the widowed queen, was the most famous victim of the Reign of Terror. She accidentally stepped on the executioner's foot, and apologized; "Monsieur, I beg your pardon. I did not do it on purpose." were her last words.
By July 1794, the members of the National Convention realized that no one was safe from Robespiere, so they turned on him to save themselves. He was executed by guillotine. In 1795, the National Convention concocted a new government (the third since 1789) which placed power in the hands of the upper-middle class.
- 5 directors, called the directory- Though this government, too, was corrupt, it brought a period of order to France.
- Napoleon: Born in 1769 in Corsica (a formerly Italian island, now French)- He was a French citizen from an Italian bloodline- Middle-class parents; was sent to a military school in northern France at the age of 9
- 1785: Graduated early at the age of 16, and became a lieutenant in the artillery (artillery was given only to the most gifted and mathematically trained students)
- Rose to fame during the attack on Italy; promoted to the rank of general and recalled to Paris.-He marries Josephine, a socialite (rich) who uses her influence to introduce him to the power brokers in France.
- October 1795: Asked to defend the National Convention from a riot in Paris.-Lines his artillery to cover the streets and opens fire with grapeshot on the mob, killing a few thousand-Became the hero of the hour, and called a savior of the Republic
-1796: Directory appoints him to lead the French army against Austria and Sardinia
-Napoleon crushes the Austrian troops and the Sardinian military-Afterwards, he leads an expedition to Egypt. There, he fared well against the British army-However, the British navy sinks the French navy in Alexandria, leaving the French army stranded and without supplies.-Napoleon managed to keep the reports out of the press, sneaked out of Egypt and returned to France, leaving his army to fend for itself.
45-November 9, 1799: Napoleon was put in charge of the entire military.
-The next day, he arrested the members of the National Convention and replaced them with three consuls, one of which was himself.-Within a month, he became the first consul, and within three months, he had eliminated the other two, becoming dictator.- In 1800, he organized a plebiscite, or popular vote, to approve a
new constitution, and at the same time to recognize him as dictator.
Accomplishments: Napoleon set up an efficient tax collection system Established the French National Bank Dismissed corrupt officials and replaced them with trained professionals Establishes the Lyces, or high schools Establishes the system of promotion by merit, instead of birthright He paid compensation for allowing their children to attend school, therefore enabling many poor/intelligent students to rise to powerful positions; He signed the Concordat with the Pope, spelling out a new relationship between Church and state: the state would pay Church officials, and the church would refrain from controlling national affairs; Established the Napoleonic Code, which gave the country a uniform set of laws but limited liberty and promoted order over individual rights.
Negative: The Napoleonic Code took away most of the rights won by women during the Revolution; freedom of speech and press ended, and slavery was reestablished.
-1804: He crowns himself emperor by taking the crown from the Pope and placing it on his own head (meaning the Pope did not give him the title).
Creating an Empire
-Napoleon sold the Louisiana Territory to the U.S. in 1803 for $15 million-He used the money to start the European wars- He annexed the Austrian Netherlands, parts of Italy, set up a puppet government in Switzerland and established peace treaties with Austria, Prussia and Russia.- He lost only one battle, the battle of Trafalgar:
This was a naval defeat against Admiral Nelson (the same guy who sunk his navy in Egypt and defeated him again in Spain)This showed that Napoleon was invincible on land, but vulnerable at sea.Nelson was killed in the battle.With the destruction of the French fleet, there could never be an invasion of England.By 1812, only England, the Ottoman Empire, Portugal and Sweden were free from Napoleon.
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- In the countries that he conquered (or forced to sign peace treaties), he would incorporate their armies into his, eventually raising and army of over 600,000 men: the largest land army at the time.
The Collapse
Napoleon’s victories lead to nationalism, and coalitions against France.First mistake: The Continental System.
November, 1806: Napoleon ordered a blockade of EnglandNo European country under his control was allowed to buy or sell any goods to/from England.This angered the Russians, who depended on trade with England, and the United States.
-Second mistake: The War of 1812 between the U.S. and England caused by British ships intercepting and confiscating U.S. ships bound for France.
-The French also did this, but since they had supported us in the revolution, we chose not to challenge them on it.-The Continental System and the War of 1812 will hurt Napoleon more than England; it was costly.
-Third mistake: The Peninsular WarIn 1808, Napoleon invades the Iberian Peninsula to punish Portugal for ignoring the Continental System.Because h marched his armies though Spain without their permission, the Spanish rioted.Napoleon arrested the Spanish king and put his brother, Joseph, on the throne.This outraged the Spanish people and started guerilla warfare. Which Napoleon’s army did not prepare for.The British helped the SpanishAlthough Napoleon conquered Spain and Portugal, he lost 300,000 men.
-Forth mistake: The invasion of Russia in 1812 -Caused by the Russians’ refusal to obey the continental system-Started in June of 1812; 2/3 of the army was not French, and therefore not loyal to Napoleon.-600,000 started the campaign, and less than 10,000 made it out.
Napoleon was defeated by three factors:1) The Russians ordered a scorched earth policy, destroying everything in their path.2) Napoleon is not prepared to bring everything (food, water, suplies) to the front for 600,000 men and some 3 million animals (logistical nightmare), as he planned on living off of Russian land.
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3) Russian winter: the temperature fell to –80 below zero (F), freezing entire sections of his army so fast, that they died and froze standing, marching in formation, and were found still standing in the spring.
- Within a few months of the defeat in Russia, a coalition forms: England, Russia, Prussia, Sweden and Austria attack France- By January, they were in Paris- Napoleon’s generals refused to fight- April 1814: Napoleon gave up his throne and surrendered.- He had failed to plan for the eventuality of a retreat. There were no supply stores or reserves (This could be considered his biggest mistake).He is exiled to Elba at the age of 45 He comes back March 1, 1815 and is restored to powerHe claims to want no more conflict; this period is known as the 100 days.Other European countries do not trust Napoleon, so Prussia, England and the Netherlands form an alliance under the command of the Duke of Wellington.They met Napoleon at Waterloo on June 1815 and defeated him.Reasons for defeat:- Napoleon did not have time to rebuild his great army- The soldiers did not have their fanatical trust in him as beforeNapoleon is placed under house arrest on the island of St. Helena in the south Atlantic (there are 11 St. Helena's)He dies there in 1821 at the age of 52.Legacy: Napoleon did not allow true democracy; the revolution was replaced by his absolute rule. He leaves behind standards for government, law, taxes, education, promotion by merit and made the metric system mandatory.Bad results: France was feared by its neighbours because of its potential to cause wars; they will always be seen as antagonists by the rest of Europe; France is broke; they lost most of their male generation.
Congress of Vienna: A series of meetings about how to keep peace in EuropeBegins in September 1814 – June 1815Almost every European nation sent delegatesHowever, it was dominated by the Big 4: Prince Clemens Von Metternich of Austria; Tsar Alexander I of Russia; Lord Robert Castlereigh of England and Prince Maurice de Talleyrand of France.Of all this Austria benefited the most for two reasons: They hosted the meeting, and Metternich was the smartest statesman in Europe at the time, convincing everyone to give Austria everything
The Congress of Vienna was run on 3 principles : Compensation (all nations had to be repaid for the expenses of the war by the French; this will leave France broke for the next 30 years)Legitimacy (Power had to be restored to all the royal families that had been displaced by Napoleon)Balance of Power (no country should ever be allowed to dominate Europe; the Big 4 agree to gang up on any newcomer, regardless of prior interests.)
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England had the biggest impact in defeating France; they only got a few islands in the Caribbean Russia had the second largest role; they got nothing, except a piece of Poland.The Italian states played a very small part and they got the Italian Alps.The German states were conquered and defeated 7 times by Napoleon; they received the rights to unify under the control of Prussia and Austria.Prussia received control over the Netherlands and the German states, as well as a part of Poland.Austria gains the most: they take some German states, some Italian state land, a slice of Poland, a slice of Prussia, Hungary, Transylvania, and a piece of Russia.So, in summary, Austria, who did the least, received the most.
- Buffer States: Neutral territories around France that make it harder to attack bigger countries without their prior knowledge.- Reactionaries: People who oppose change and want to return to the status quo.Liberalism: Political philosophy accepting the idea of the enlightenment (such as freedom of speech, press and religion).
The Concert of Europe: The quadruple alliance comprised of England, Austria, Prussia and Russia, and the Holy Alliance, comprised of only Austria, Prussia and Russia.
These two alliances were controlled by Austria for the next thirty years, and they kept the peace.
The Age of IndustryPrior to the 1750’s, the majority of the European population lived on farms; their lives revolved around agriculture and the seasons.This was a harsh way of lifeDrought, floods, high taxes and hard work; 1 in 3 babies died in the first year of life, 1 in 2 reached 21 and life expectancy was 40.Village LifeFamilies owned or rented small strips of landMost were sharecroppers (they were given a piece of land on which to live and work, and in exchange they had to provide a percentage of that land’s yield to the owner, plus collectively work on the rest of that owner’s land.)In most villages, the public lands – called the village commons – were used by all to graze animals or gather wood.Village economies were limited to the local areas because of poor transportation and lack of refrigeration.Advantages of farm life:Little pollutionLess crowding (although some families slept with the animals in the winter)Food was more plentifulDisadvantages of farm life:High taxes
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DiseaseLack of educationLack of opportunityHad to make everything themselvesBelonged to their nobles, as in the feudal times
-Most farmers participated in a domestic (system) as a way of making extra cash.
Domestic system: Business owners brought work to the peasants, usually in winter (kind of like advertisements for making $500 a week for stuffing envelopes ^_^ *brilliant analogy*).
Advantages : This kept a lot of families from poverty; most of the jobs involved making wool or cloth, you could choose your own hours, the family stayed together (provided unity).
Disadvantages : This put too much pressure on the women and small children (to do their daily chores on the farm and make wool)
The Enclosure Movements: A series of laws passed in the late 1700’s affirming life, liberty and property (the village landowners fenced off the commons to exploit the land).This forced peasants to keep a third or more of their land for hays, instead of other crops, and caused widespread famine.Capital: Money to invest in labor, machines, and raw materials; essential for the growth of industry.Industry provides the aristocracy and middle class with new investment opportunitiesBecause of the Enclosure Movement, huge numbers of peasants were forced to move to the city in search of work/foodThis will create a labor glut and reduce wages; these are extremely favorable conditions for factory ownersEngland had huge supplies of iron ore and coal, the principal raw materials, a huge labor supply and money to be investedEntrepreneurs: People who bring together capital labor, inventions and raw materials to create a product.
10 Steps to Becoming an Entrepreneur:* Research the market* Obtain a loan
* Choose a site* Build or lease* Bring in equipment * Raw materials* Bring in laborers* Train the laborers
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* Produce* Advertise* Sell
Inventors:- 1733: John Kay invented the flying shuttle- 1760’s: James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny- 1768: Richard Arkwrite developed the water frame- 1799: Samuel Crumpton combined the spinning jenny and the water frame into
the spinning mule; this will create muslin cloth.- 1787: Edmund Carwright developed the power loom, running on horse, water or
steam power.- 1793: Eli Whitney, a slave owner, had one of his slaves develop the cotton gin.
The name of its actual inventor is not known. Eli Whitney also pioneered work in interchangeable parts
The New Machinery Too large and Too Expensive to be Privately Owned
- The factory system is developed- This puts the strain of manual labor on the machines, and will replace the
domestic system, bringing the raw materials and machines to the laborer- 1760’s: James Watt designed the first efficient steam engine (Note: He did not
invent it, the first steam engine was invented by the Greeks approx. 3000 years ago.)
- Mid 1800’s: William Kelley and Henry Bessemer developed inexpensive steel by combining crushed coal formed into coke (soap bar –sized powdered coal).
- This enabled steel manufacturers to carefully measure the amount of carbon introduced into the iron.
- This made steel production cheap.- Thomas Tellford and John MacAdam advance road making by introducing
layers of crushed rock for better drainage; today those roads are called ‘macadam’ (gravel).
- 1807: Robert Fulton, American inventor, designed the first practical steamboat; it had side paddles
- These would become the Mississippi River boats- In Europe, these inventors, mostly not being noble, could never rise to super-rich
status or respectability, so they begin to escape to other countries where their talents would be appreciated as the sole reason for their fame
- This leads to the spread of industry- The British will eventually pass laws forbidding anyone with engineering
knowledge from leaving the country (the engineers were smart enough to figure ways around this).
- The French government encouraged industrialization; however, their pace was slow
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- Reason: The Napoleonic Wars had depleted the economy and workforce, and they were also lacking in raw materials.
- Germany was more successful; they bought machinery and inventors from any country they could
- They use the British capital to build railroads and factories- They have plentiful raw materials and a talented workforce
- The United States will be #3 in the world in steel production by 1870
The Growth of Big BusinessesCapitalism - Individual and private firms owned the means of production in order to
make a profit.- Factories and machines are more and more expensive, requiring more and more
money to start up businessesIndustrial Capitalism: You must continuously expand or be driven out of businessMass Production: A way of driving down cost while increasing productionBeginnings:
- Eli Whitney: interchangeable parts- Frederick Taylor: divided detailed tasks into easy step-by-step procedures- Henry Ford put all of these concepts together with the assembly line, eventually being able to produce one car every minute
Partnership: A business organization involving two or more entrepreneurs, to raise more money and take on more business; they share profits and risks.
Corporations: Business organizations owned by stockholders; usually controlled by the majority holder or a CEO.
Business Cycles: (1.) Boom: A period of expansion when industry is rapidly growing. (2.) Bust or Depression: Characterized by ban failure, unemployment, mostly selling and low production.
- A true depression has to be continuous for more than 3/4 of a yearCommunications:- 1830’s: Samuel Morse assembled a working telegraph- 1864: James Maxwell had the idea that electromagnetic waves travel through
space at the speed of light, but could not prove it- 1895: Gugliemo Marconi proved it by inventing the wireless telegraph; this
would later become the radio- 1876: Alexander Bell created the first telephone by trying to help the deaf- 1831: Michael Faraday discovered that moving a magnet through a copper coil
produces an electric current (this would become the alternator in cars)- 40 years later, the first electric motor was based on this principle
- 1877: Thomas Edison invented the phonograph, which reproduced sound- In 1899 he created the incandescent light bulb
- 1880’s: Gottlieb Daimler, a German engineer, redesigned the internal combustion engine to run on gasoline
- Rudolph Diesel developed an oil-burning internal combustion engine that will be known as the diesel engine
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- 1890’s: Count Zeppelin created the dirigible, a rigid oval balloon that could carry passengers
- 1903: The Wright brothers used gasoline engines for their first flight of 120 feet- 5 years later, due to advances in gasoline engines, they were able to fly 100 miles, nonstop- The petroleum and rubber industries skyrocketed
A New Society
* With the growth of industry came the growth of the middle class.* As more people joined this new class rigid roles for men and women appeared.* Men centered their lives around the workplace and women centered their lives
around the management of the household.* Women begin to hire servants in the following order:1) Washerwoman (because of the harshness of soap, doing laundry by hand was
devastating to skin and no wealthy woman wanted crude hands.2) Charwoman (person to come in early and start cooking / heating fires in the
house so women can sleep in and wake up in a warmer home).3) Cook (to avoid the tedious process of meal preparation, it gave the middle-class
woman more time to plan events and further her husband career).4) House maid (cleaning)5) Nurse (not medical but for feeding babies, some could not produce milk ,others
did not want to be tied down for meals, others were concerned with figure).6) Governess (educating children over the age of 3).7) Lady’s maid (personal maid, confidant, etc).8) Housekeeper (they were in charge of the other servants (domestics) freeing up
further time for the lady of the house).* As free time becomes available for the middle class women, a new industry appeared,
magazines for women and how to books and anything to fill the free time women now have
* middle-class parents send boys to school and girls to preparatory c lasses
The Working Class- Had none of the luxuries enjoyed by the upper or middle classes
* had to work more and more machines and a faster pace* in textile mills: 10-14 hour days* in coal mines, heavy machinery and coal dust brought in Black Lung Disease* women made half the wages of men, and children one quarter the wages of men* most children work a minimum of 12-hour shifts, because of the low wages* entire cities spring up as mill towns, employing thousands of women and offering
them higher-priced rent for places to stay, food and tools for rent* girls had hardly any money left at the end of the month* human and industrial waste contaminated water supplies, spreading diseases
such as cholera and typhoid 53
* whole families lived in one or two-room apartments* oftentimes, two families shared the same apartment, and lived in it in shifts* workers begin to unite as a way of getting better conditions; these will eventually
turn into labor unions in the 1800s* they grow up according to the old medieval guilds* they organize strikes, such as sit-down strikes, no show strikes, or break down
equipment strikes* in England, the parliament banned unions in the Combination Acts of 1799 and
1800* However, because of collective bargaining, they were reinstated in the 1820s.
Came to America in the 1880s, and by 1900 they were very influential.
Cultural Revolution* Laissez-Faire: A policy allowing businesses to operate without government interference (derived from a French term meaning “leave them alone”)* A natural way of thinking when a society develops from agriculture to industry* If too many government regulations occur, it becomes too difficult to open or maintain a business, so very few try; therefore, one must start with little regulation and increase regulations along the way* Adam Smith: A Scottish economist, published a book called The Wealth of Nations.* argued that supply and demand should operate without government interference* this will lead to free trade* Thomas Malthus: Wrote an essay "On the principle of population" in 1798 in which he stated that poverty, famine and misery were unavoidable because population is increasing faster than the food supply
- David Ricardo, a British economist, wrote the Iron Law of Wages, stating that rapid population growth leads only to fierce competition, low wages and starvation.
* they both opposed government aid to the poor* they believed that the poor should work hard, save their earnings and have fewer children* they were both proven wrong, because population does grow very fast, but as a result of the agricultural revolution, the food supply grew even faster* William Wilberforce, a member of the British parliament, passed a bill in 1807 that ended the British slave trade* In 1833, at his death, Parliament abolished slavery throughout the British empire and were instrumental in raiding slave ships from other nations and setting the slaves free* Lord Shaftesbury promoted laws to limit working hours for women and children, established a 10 hour day in textile factories, and there were no women or children working in underground mines.* Jeremy Benthan promoted utilitarianism., the idea that society should work for the greatest happiness of the greatest number of citizens
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* He wanted public health service and improved prisons* John Stewart Mill called on the government to distribute national wealth by taxing income* Promoted equal rights for women
Socialism: The belief that the means of production such as capital, land, raw materials and factories should be owned and controlled by societies, either directly or through the government
* Robert Owen believed that competition caused societies problems* He built a mill town in New Lanark* He built brand new living accommodations for the workers, free hospitals, a free retirement area, schools for the children, and did not impose a quota on the workers. (they could work as little or as much as they wanted)* All workers worked very hard, realizing that if they failed, they would have to go back to the dreary lives they once had in London or Manchester, and the harder they worked, the more money Owen made, and the more they would share in his fortune* In 1825, Owen bought New Harmony, Indiana and tried to set up a cooperative community* It did not work because the Americans did not have as much to lose as his British workers
Karl Marx* Son of a prosperous German lawyer* Received a Ph.D. in history from the University of Vienna* Refused to go to work; his father was paying him a luxurious amount of money to
stay in school* He got a Ph.D. in philosophy* He got into trouble with the Austrian government because of his views (he criticized the very government that allowed him a scholarship)* So he went to the University of Paris, where he got a Ph.D in journalism* His father refused to keep paying his way* In 1844 he met Friderich Engles , who would support him for the rest of his life * Engles was also a journalism student in Paris* 1845: They traveled to Manchester and toured Engles’ father’s factories* Horrified by what they saw, they wrote a book called The Conditions of the Working Class in England* With the money from the book, they purchased 7 additional factories.* The workers in their factories worked under worse conditions than in Engles’
father’s factories, and therefore they made money* Marx believed that history advances through conflict; economics is the major
force of change* He believed that humans are divided into classes because the classes have
different amounts of money, conflict between classes was inevitable
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* He argued that humans have moved through 4 stages of economic life: Primitive, where no one exploited anyone (he was wrong), the village chief exploited everyone else); Slaves, where the haves purchased the have-nots as property; Feudal, where everything was based on land ownership and obedience, and Capitalism, where everything is based on the ability to amass money by mass production* He believed that capitalism is a temporary phase, and that the working class was the only productive class* He believed that an economic crisis would give the proletariat a chance to take control from the middle class, or Bourgeoisie.* The next phase would be communism, the motto of which is: From each according to his ability, to each according to his need.* This would be Robert Owen’s experiment* Together, Marx and Engles published the Communist Manifesto in 1848* In 1867, they published Das Capital , a book in which they attacked owners of factories and bankers as the source of all evil ( they were both factory owners and bankers, and made money with both books. And gave none to the workers.)* They both believed that the ultimate stage of development is socialism; under socialism, there would be no classes in society, no need for a government, and no need for laws or a police force, since all workers would by then know what to do and where to take from (sort of like an ant nest)
The New Science1838: Theodore Schwann and Mathias Schleiden introduced the cell theory (all living things are made out of tiny units of matter called cells)* They discovered that all cells divide, multiply and die, (which the Greeks had written about 3000 years earlier).Evolution: The idea that plants and animals descended from a common ancestor over millions of years* In France, Doctor Lamarck observed similarities between fossils and living organisms, causing him to argue that animals may change slightly, but that that is called adaptation, and they are not brand new species* Charles Darwin, 1831: Made observations around the Galapagos Islands, and wrote a book called On The Origin of Species* In this book, he stated that animal groups increase faster than their food supply, and in their struggle for survival, they become better adapted to their environments, producing offspring that have the same newly -developed characteristics* In his other book, The Descent of Man, Darwin traced human evolution from animal species* This would create controversy, because it clashes with the theory of creation* In the 1860s, Gregor Mendel , an Austrian monk, experimented with pea plants and concluded that characteristics are passed from generation to generation by tiny particles called genes* This would become the basis for genetics, the science of heredity* In 1796, Edward Genner, an English doctor, noticed that dairy workers who had contracted cow pox never caught smallpox
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* He believed that he could prevent small pox by injecting people with cowpox* To prove his theory, he hired a boy and injected him with cowpox serum* When the boy did not die, he injected him with smallpox serum* The boy did not die from the dose of smallpox; this was the world’s first vaccination* 1850’s: Louis Pasteur discovered bacteria and proved that they cause infectious disease* he discovered that they are killed by heat* After him, most liquids became pasteurized or boiled and bottled (milk, wine beer, cheese, etc.)
New Approaches to Surgery* Before the 1840s, surgery was often fatal because it did not involve any pain medication, nor was it sterile* In the American civil war, more people died as a result of surgery than as a result of enemy gunfire* In 1845, a Boston dentist demonstrated surgery using ether* This worked, however: ether evaporates fast, oftentimes knocking out the doctor as well, so a secondary team of surgeons should be on standby* James Simpson, a British Doctor, investigated the use of chloroform; it was better than ether because it evaporated more slowly, allowing for less use , and it did not put the doctors to sleep* Joseph Lister, an English surgeon, discovered carbolic acid, used to sterilize medical instruments* Diluted carbolic acid is used today in Listerine, another of his inventions
Breakthrough in Physics
Atomic theory: the idea that all matter is made out of atoms (another belief of the Greeks)
* John Dalton provided proof of this theory by discovering that elements are made out of atoms, and that all atoms of the same element are identical* In 1895, German physicist, Wilhelm Roentgen discovered x-rays* Later, scientists showed that x-rays are made of electrons* In 1898, Marie Curie, a Polish scientist who had to get her education secretly (because in Poland women could not attend school belong 4th grade), married French chemist Pierre Curie and used his lab to discover radium. Pierre received the Nobel prize, though he admitted it was her work, and two years later, the scientific community allowed Marie Curie to receive her Nobel prize; she was the first woman to do so and the first scientist to get two.* She received the second one in physics, by proving that radium emits energy (radiation); she later died from this* In 1900, German physicist Max Planck theorized that energy is not continuous, but is released in small units called quanta
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* His quantum theory helped Albert Einstein develop the theory of relativity, leading to the nuclear age
Social SciencesSociology: The study of human behavior in groupsPsychology: The science of human behavior in individualsIvan Pavlov experiments with animals to prove that outside stimuli had effects on behaviorHis findings proved that human actions could be changed with trainingSigmund Freud studied psychoanalysis, a way of finding out the conflict between the conscious and subconscious mindHe suggested that women are irrational and emotional, and the reason for that are the ovaries; so, he suggested hysterectomies to limit emotional outbursts.
Popular CultureAs the population in Europe increases from 140 million in 1750, to 266 million by 1850 and the average life span goes from 40 to over 60, culture (refined) no longer is targeted only at the upper and middle classes. Popular culture is now targeted at the masses. They have better living conditions, more money to spend on entertainment and more free time because of the shorter work-days gained through the use of unions and strikes.* 1860 - London, Victoria Station opens giving people the opportunity to
leave the city at the end of the work week for a short vacation in the country away from the noise, pollution, and grime of the city.
* 1870- more than 25 million people leave Europe for the new colonies such as America, South Africa, Australia and South America. This will help spread culture, innovations, life styles, and alleviate crowded conditions in Europe.
* Emigration means leaving a country for another.* Immigration means coming to a country from somewhere else.* From the 1800's to the early 1900's vast numbers of people left villages
and moved to cities in search of jobs. This will be called urbanization.* Urbanization will create problems for most cities as they are not prepared
to deal with the massive growth. * City services such as fire departments are formed, police patrols, parks
and recreation, museums, theaters, are formed with tax money to deal with potentially dangerous crowded conditions.
* With the large numbers living in cities, education was addressed finally, followed by mass circulation newspapers, libraries, and books.
* Mary Lyon opened the 1st women college in the town of Mount Holyoke Mass.
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Revolution in the Arts* A growing middle class created a demanding audience for music, literature and poetry. Formerly artists had depended on the patronage of the rich, but were also bound to produce works that pleased the elite that paid. With a larger clientele, and varied tastes, they were able to just create, and actually start new trends in culture. Rebellious artists find themselves dominating the cultural scene and attracting large numbers of followers.The Romantic Movement* Romanticism, a movement in which artists will emphasize human emotion and imagination over reason. Artist tried to free themselves from the rigid rules of the past. They glorify nature, in its perfect state as a means to forget about the ugliness of mechanization and the industrialized world. * Used as subjects: perfect nature, simple peasants, ideal emotions.In music: Lieder a type of poems set to music.
- Beethoven created symphonies, Peter Tchaikovsky, Frederic Chopin, Frantz Schubert, Antonin Dvorak (used American spiritual or gospel music in his pieces).Romantic Literature* Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe (poetry), Friedrich Von Schiller (William Tell), Alexadre Dumas (The Three Musketeers), Aurore Dupin (writing under the pen name Georges Sand), Victor Hugo (The Hunchback of Notre Dam, Les Miserables), Sir Walter Scott (Ivanhoe, The Talisman), and the poets; Robert Burns, William Blake, John Keats, Percy Schelley and Lord Byron.Romantic PaintingEugene Delacroix (Liberty leading the People), Hans Dahl (Girl with Goats)RealismIn the mid 1800's French painter Gustave Courbet believed painting should be only of concrete things as they exist (Burial at Ornans), Honore Daumier, and Jean- Francois Millet.Realism in Literature* Honore de Balzac (The Human Comedy), Gustave Flaubert (Madame Bovary), Mary Ann Evans (wrote under the pen name George Elliot), Charles Dickens (Hard Times), Leo Tolstoy (War and Peace), Theodore Dreiser (The Human Tragedy)SymbolismTo escape the brutal reality presented by the realists, artists created a new style of shadowy images, focusing on the exotic, using imagery to suggest the world of the spirit. The average person found symbolism difficult to understand. Founded in France by poet Stephane Mallarme.Intense competition and rigid standards imposed by rulers create a body of judges to declare the new trends in art real or not. * In England we have the formation of the Royal Academy of Art who was responsible for admitting or dismissing any new piece of art work.
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* In France we have the School of Fine Arts (Ecole des Beaux Arts) who has the same role.* Within a few years this two bodies of judges have retained thousands of pieces of art, music, writing that they deemed not suitable. Eventually standards are relaxed and this allows artists that were on the banned lists to see the light of official recognition.
Impressionism* Painters abandoned rules about proper perspective, techniques of line, and studio light. Fascinated by outdoor light, they tried to capture the momentary impressions a subject made on their senses. They wanted to work outdoors, in theaters and cafes.* Renoir and Claude Monet were the most famous painters.
Postimpressionism* In the late 1880's some artists wanted to express their independence to the chaos and complexity around them and developed a new style.* Paul Cezanne "I do not want to reproduce nature I want to recreate it"* Georges Seurat applied science to his paintings and called it Pointillism by placing small dots of color close together to produce a 3 dimensional effect.* Paul Gauguin moved to the island of Tahiti where he produced the famous series "Where do we come from, What are we, and Where are we going"?* Vincent Van Gogh used distorted forms and brilliant color to create his famous paintings.* Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec used Paris nightlife as a major subject. His paintings of the Moulin Rouge nigh club attracted worldwide attention.
Latin American Independence* For 300 years Spain and Portugal had ruled the colonies in Latin America without facing serious threats. What caused millions of native-born Indians to accept foreign rule so completely?* In addition to mining the rich ore deposits of the New-World, the Penninsulares (as the Spanish and Portugese were called) imposed the growing of cash crops. These were corn, sugar cane, and cocoa. The natives became dependent on the cash crops, which they used to sell in order to pay the high taxes.* The Catholic Church played a critical role in helping the ruling class control the colonies. In return it was given large land possessions so by the 1800's the church owns about half of the arable land in Latin America in addition to taxing the population and tithing (10% tax all pay).* The colonial powers imposed a rigid social order in the colonies (this will contribute to the so-called "Spanish Curse".
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1. Penninsulares ; white born in Spain or Portugal, held all of the important governing and military positions.2. Creoles ; white born in the colonies, they were wealthy, well educated but being 2nd class citizens did not allow them top jobs in politics, military or government.3. Mestizos ; mixed white and Indian they worked as servants, unskilled labor and small managerial jobs.4. Mullato ; mixed black / Indian, or black / white, they were mostly low level servants and unskilled labor.5. Indians ; unskilled farm labor, mining, and forest cutting jobs, they had the highest taxes and no land rights. Could only be sharecroppers.* See social pyramid. The Creoles were the social group with nothing to lose and everything to gain if they staged a successful revolution. Like in the French Rev. the middle class was educated rich and had ambitions. If they succeed in removing the power of Spain and Portugal and the Penninsulares this will leave the Creoles in control. If they lose they will still be white, educated, rich and middle class. In addition since they were born in the colonies they were helped by the fact that the majority of the population could be convinced to see them as insiders not outsiders, color aside. The conditions are not favorable for revolution until the colonial countries are involved in a war so devastating that they can not pay attention or reinforce the armed forces controlling the colonies. Such an opportunity will present itself when Napoleon invades Spain and Portugal, takes over their army and navy and changes the ruling power in their governments.Uprising in Haiti* This is a French colony and it sees an opportunity because the French Revolution . It is led by Fracois Toussant-Louverture a former slave. There were more than 500.000 slaves in Haiti with a small minority of 60,000 white plantation owners. Conditions were harsh and the punishment for most "crimes" was being boiled alive in the sugar cane pots. * 1790's unrest begins, by 1902 Napoleon sends some reinforcements, but is defeated when the new arrivals get yellow fever. The leader of the revolution is lured to a meeting with government officials and arrested and sent to France. He will die in just a few months because of the cold damp conditions in the mountain dungeon he was kept. The revolution is continued with leadership from others and in 1804 Haiti declares its independence. It is the 1st Latin American country to be independent, and the 1st mostly black country to be free.
Mexican Independence Movement
* 1810 a Catholic priest named Miguel Hidalgo delivered a sermon dedicated to freedom, ending slavery and land ownership for Indians. It became known as "El Grito de Dolores" or the cry of Dolores. He called for Mexicans to fight for Independence and Liberty.
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* Hidalgo led an army of Mestizos and Indians toward Mexico City but he was defeated by the government forces in 1811 and he was captured and executed.* Another priest Jose Maria Morelos took charge of the revolution and gained power in southern Mexico. In 1813 he called for independence from Spain. He was also defeated, (1815) captured, and executed at the order of the National commander (Augustin de Iturbide).* Augustin de Iturbide led the freedom movement after the execution of Morelos and he declared independence from Spain in 1821.* In 1822 he declared himself Emperor, but was kicked out in 1823.* Mexico declares itself a Republic in 1823.Central American countries of Guatemala, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua, 1st established the United Provinces of Central America, but due to everyone wanting to rule the others eventually separated into individual but independent countries.Spanish South America* In 1808 Napoleon invaded Spain (and later Portugal). This allows the Creoles in South America to organize armies and defeat the local government forces without fear of reinforcements from Spain (home). Three leaders will take charge of the issue. They are Simon Bolivar (the most well-known), Jose de San Martin and Bernardo O'Higgins.* Simon Bolivar a Creole from Venezuela, he was called "the liberator" he believed in equality and saw liberty as "the only object worth a man's life." Bolivar had witnessed the reforms of the French Revolution.* In 1810 Bolivar started a revolt against the Spaniards in Caracas. After nine years of fighting Bolivar crushed Spain's power in the Battle of Boyaca in 1819. Over the next twenty years Bolivar won freedom for Venezuela, Columbia, Panama, Bolivia, and Ecuador.* Jose de San Martin from Argentina led Latin American armies over the Andes Mountains and into Chile, while in Chile he joined with Bernardo O'Higgins, together they successfully achieved independence for Chile in 1818. San Martin then set off to free Peru in 1820; within a year he captured Lima and declared Peru independent.* In July 1822 San Martin and Bolivar me in the Ecuadorian port of Guayaquil. San Martin finally decided to withdraw from the revolt and allowed Bolivar to take command. Bolivar and his armies had liberated all of South America by 1826. Brazil Gains Independence* In 1808 Napoleon’s French army had invaded Portugal, causing the Portuguese royal family to flee to Brazil.* The King (Joao)l brought Brazilians increasing opportunities by funding public education, including military academies, an art school, and medical schools. In 1815 Joao made Brazil a self-governing kingdom within the Portuguese Empire.
In 1820 liberals took over the Portuguese government.62
* King returned but left his son Don Pedro as the ruler of Brazil. * In September 1822 Brazil won full independence from Portugal, Brazil became
the only independent country in South America to freely choose a constitutional monarchy as its form of government. * In 1825 Portugal finally recognized Brazil’s Independence. Challenges to Growth* Simon Bolivar, who had dreamed of uniting all of northern South America into one large and powerful state, he once said “Those who have toiled for liberty in South America have plowed the sea.”
The main problem Central and South America had was their geography, this made transportation and communications difficult, hindering trade and economical growth. Vast areas of fertile land remained undeveloped, population centers, separated by physical barriers, and became rivals instead of allies.
The Spanish Curse:* Latin Americans had little practice in governing themselves, they were used to authoritarian government, this was not responsible to the people and demanded obedience from them.* The judicial branch was weak and limited, and legislative branch was practically nonexistent. Latin Americans had strong, well-educated leaders, but they had no experience in the legislative process. * Bolivar complained that the colonial system had kept his people in a state of “permanent childhood” with regard to knowledge of running a government. * Independence did not bring about much change in social conditions, catholicism remained the official religion, the church and the government continued. * The new countries also continued to maintain a separation between upper and lower classes, the dominant group was now the creoles instead of the peninsulares, their privileged position was resented, especially by the mestizos.* Liberals called for separation of Church and state, the breakup of large estates, higher taxes on land, public social services, and civilian control of the government* Most of the liberals were mestizos, intellectuals, or merchants who wanted free trade. Opposed to this group were the creoles, most of whom were rich landowners, church leaders, and military officers. * Creoles favored a strong central government and a powerful church and army.* Although many South American governments were republics in appearance, many actually were military dictatorships. As the president if you help the poor, the rich kill you. If you help the rich, the poor kill you. It is the reason for the strong central governments cruel army, secret police with absolute power, no human rights and the gap between the rich and the poor. It is normally the middle class that gives a country stability, by closing that gap.
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Empire of the Czars
Russia lived in an autocracy (a government in which a single person rules with absolute power).
After the Napoleonic wars Russian officers brought back with them ideas of freedom and enlightement.
Alexander I ruled from 1801- 1825 gave a constitution to Poland (a Russian colony) but not to Russia.
His Officers staged a revolt after his death. The government quickly put down the so-called Decembrist Revolt. Nicholas I, his son, wanted to strengthen the autocracy and suppress all opposition . Nicholas I had a secret police that had unlimited power to arrest and imprison
people without trial and to censor the press. After Nicholas I death in 1855, his son Nicholas II took on the task of saving the
autocracy and preventing a revolution. On March 3, 1861 Alexander II decreed the emancipation of the serfs. They were
freed and given land, but could not own it for 50 years (the duration of the mortgage), could not leave the lands for the cities until the 50 years were up or the mortgage paid. Had to pay ownership taxes on the land even though they did not owned it yet.
Zemstvos took charge of provincial matters such as schools and health care, only three groups of people could vote in the zemstvo elections: the nobility, the wealthy townspeople, and the peasants, the voting system was setup so that the nobleman and rich taxpayers dominated the local assemblies.
Michael Bakunin was a radical reformer that advocated anarchy, which is the absence of government, and called for complete destruction of the state and law.
Many reformers became active in a new movement known as populism, the populists believed that the peasants would lead a revolution, to overthrow the czar, and establish a socialist society.
Alexander III used Russification to promote a resurgence of nationalism, Russification later became the official policy of intolerance and persecution of non-Russian peoples.
Alexander III died in 1894 Nicholas II was easily influenced by those around him, mainly his wife, Empress
Alexandra, wanted their son to inherit an autocracy. The Mensheviks believed that Russia needed to develop into an industrial state
with a sizable working class before a socialist revolution could occur. The more radical Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov- commonly known
as Lenin- believed that a small party of professional revolutionaries could use force to bring about a socialist society in the near future.
War Between Russia and Japan, 1904 furthered the communist cause Russia’s humiliating military performance increased popular opposition to the Czar’s government* The war had caused higher food prices, low wages, and strikes
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* On Sunday, January 22, 1905, 200,000 workers marched to the Czar’s palace in St. Petersburg.On the Czar’s orders, palace soldiers opened fire on the crowd, killing thousands* This came to be known as Bloody Sunday* In the spring of 1905, the first Soviets, or workers’ counsels, formed to voice grievances. They wanted a representative government, elected by universal voting* October 1905: Angry workers seized control of the major cities* To stop the violence, Nicholas II allowed a national legislature, or Duma, to be created* Afterwards, he made it an advisory body (took away the ability to make laws as originally intended)* This would set off more nationwide strikes* Eventually, the Czar issued the October Manifesto, granting civil rights to citizens and allowing the Duma to make laws* Russia had become a constitutional monarchy.* Nicholas continued to rule as an absolute dictator, and when the Duma tried to act independently, he dissolved it.* This would play right into the hands of the communists.
To be continued with The Russian Revolution
The Age of Imperialism
Imperialism: To dominate the political, economical and social life of another country Due to the Industrial Revolution, the European countries were under enormous pressures for expansionThey were running out of natural resources within their own countries and felt they needed colonies in order to secure raw materials and a market for their goods.
1. Political Rivalries- Like in the game of Monopoly, the nation with the most colonies is considered the
most powerful nation.- Being able to secure cheap raw materials, a place to sell your goods keeps your
industry humming, the population content, and the military strong- Keeping other nations away from key raw materials or key strategic areas
becomes a race2. Desire for New Markets
- Africa, India and Asia, with plenty of raw materials, huge populations and dependency on Western goods became prime locations for imperialism.3. Seeking New Opportunities
- The new colonies created a huge demand for loyal citizens. - Inventors, businessmen, land speculators, etc. all rushed to the colonies in an
attempt to get rich quick.- The laws were easy to abide by, taxes were low and the opportunities limitless - Land grants were given for loyalty - Example: Cecil Rose – A British adventurer, made a fortune from free land
granted to him by the government. On the free land, he found the richest gold and - 65
diamond mines in South Africa. This is known today as the Kimberley Mine , named after his daughter.- He even founded a new country, Rhodesia , currently known as Zimbabwe . * Civilizing Mission- Western powers believed in Darwinism when it suited their needs, although they
did not believe in evolution, they believed that it is the duty of the strong to rule over the weak.
- In order to become civilized, the people of Asia and Africa would have to reject their old religions and convert to Christianity.
- Often, they were an integral part of imperialism (see the take over of India).
3 Forms of Imperialism1. Colony: A territory where the imperial power rules directly through colonial officials.2. Protectorate: Has its own government, but its foreign and domestic policies are guided by the imperial power. 3. Sphere of Influence: A region or country in which the imperial power has exclusive investments or trading rights.(The British usually allowed local rules to govern territories, so their colonies were more like protectorates, which explains why former British colonies, when given their independence, can usually survive on their own with minimal violence.)
The Partition of AfricaThe first and most famous of the European adventurers was David Livingstone. He is credited with opening Africa to colonialization.He explored in the area of Sudan and Ethiopia.His main goal was to find the source of the Nile (not as a geographical interest, but because the British were fascinated with the amount of gold found in Egypt even though Egypt does not possess any gold mines).He knew that the Egyptians had a surplus of food, and assumed that, somewhere, in the interior of Africa, lied a nation that was rich in gold but had poor soil. He was proven right in both aspects, and that aforementioned nation would prove to be Ethiopia.The publicity generated by his exploration as well as that of the American Henry Stanley (sent to find him) generated new interest in Africa.Reports about the abundance of resources set off a mad European scramble for African territory between 1880 and 1914.In 1885, 12 nations met in Berlin and agreed to partition, or divide, the African cake. This was called the Berlin Conference.By 1914, European nations controlled all but two African nations.
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North AfricaThe French took Algeria in the 1830s.The French took Tunisia in 1881.In 1904, Morocco.Late 1800s: France took Egypt.In 1859, A French businessman set up a company to build the Suez Canal to join the Mediterranean and Red seas.The British began loaning money to the Egyptian government, at very low rates; the Egyptian government begins to spend more than it makes.Within 10 years, they were so far in debt, that wen the British proposed swapping the Suez Canal for the debt, the Egyptians agreed.After all, it wasn’t theirs, they didn’t build it, and they hadn’t paid for it.In 1875, England took control of the canal.In 1882, British forces put down a revolt led by Egyptian nationalist leader Ahmed Arabi, and Egypt becomes a British protectorate.In the 1880s, the British also took Sudan, looking for the source of the gold.They allowed the French to keep Morocco in exchange for the French not fighting them for Egypt and Sudan (French = Losers).Italy took Libya (otherwise known as Tripoli) in 1911.West Africa had become weakened by the slave trade.It became an easy target for the French, Portugese, Spanish, Dutch, British, Italian, Norwegian, Swedish, and Greek imperialist forces (Western Europe).At first, the Europeans kept to the coast because of Malaria, the tsetse fly and other diseases, but with the discovery of Quinine to fight Malaria and the use of steam ships for inland transportation, the rest of Africa became colonized as well.In 1877, the Belgian king Leopold II claimed the Congo as his own private plantation.He organized huge hunts, killing thousands of elephants, cut down rubber trees, and generally ruled the country with an iron fist for 20 years.In 1908, he sold it to his own government for a huge sum.The only two African nations not colonized were Liberia, established in 1822
for free African Americans after the Civil War (it was off limits to European expansion), and Ethiopia, King Menelik II defeated the Italian army so soundly, no other European country dared attack.
Southern AfricaDutch settlers came to Africa in 1652For the next 150 years, they will be known as Afrikanners.The controlled land around the Southern tip of Africa; this became known as the Cape Colony.Sensing the strategic value of Cape Colony, the British seized it during the Napoleonic Wars.The Afrikanners resented British rule, particularly laws that fobade the enslavement of black AfricansThe British called them the Boers, a derogatory word that means “peasant”.
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In the 1830s, about 10,000 Afrikanners decided to leave Cape Colony rather than live under British Rule.This came to be known as the Great Trek.The established two independent republics: The Transvaal, and the Orange Free State (William of Orange was the prince of England).In their constitution: “There shall be no equality in state or church between white and black.” The Afrikanners were caught between two powerful forces: Zulu Nation to the south of them, lead by King Shaka, and the British to the south of them.In the 1880s, British settlers moved in to the Afrikanner colonies in search of gold and diamonds.Cecil Rose, now Prime minister of the Cape Colony, wanted all of South Africa to come under British rule.1899: The Anglo-Boer WarWon by the British after 3 years.The Union of South Africa became the country made up of the Travsvaal, the Orange-Free State, Cape Colony and Natal. The constitution made it nearly impossible for non-whites to win the right to vote.The union of South Africa was a union between the British and the Afrikanners; the Africans were excluded.This will become an issue fought against by Ghandi and Nelson Mandela, who eventually becomes the first black president of the country of South Africa in the 1980s.
The Division of Asia* When Africa was under complete European control, industrial nations turned their attention toward Asia as the next potential continent to carve up.* First nation to be targeted was India. It was large, rich, had a huge population, was not united, and military could not defend itself against Europe.* British gave the East India Trade Company a Charter (monopoly) over trade with India. This gives the company the necessary incentive to spend millions to conquer the country. *First appeared trading posts on the Western coast protected by the British Navy.*Eastern coast was taken by the French East India Company with a similar deal from their government but not as well protected by the weaker French Navy.*Once the trading posts were well formed, missionaries were sent forth into the interior to convert the locals or identify problem villages. These activities produced the necessary friction and the British Army was introduced to control the resisting natives.*Eventually Sepoys (Indian soldiers of Hindu or Muslim religion) were introduced to control the population.*The Sepoys rebelled against their British masters because of their resentment of the attempted Christianization and Westernization, as well as because of the "Greased Bullet" rumor. It was said that the British grease their bullets with pork and cow grease to protect cardboard cartriges from the humid climate. This would
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cause any one who was shot to go to hell because the last thing they touched was unclean.* The rebellion resulted in thousands of British civilians being killed and in retaliation the British killed thousands of Indian civilians.* The British government replaced the East India Trade Company with a Viceroy taking the power (mostly because of a stipulation of the Congress of Vienna which said that if a nation was unable to control its colonies other nation could intervene and take over).* This move leads to the birth of Indian Nationalism.* The British build canals, rail lines, schools hospitals and general infrastructure in India, not just because they were "helping out" but it made it easier to harvest Indian goods, produce more and facilitate the import of British goods into the interior of India.* The Indians were mandated to grow cotton and indigo instead of wheat which will lead to mass starvation from time to time.* In 1885 the Indians form the Indian National Congress and use peaceful means for non-cooperation with the British.
China* As soon as India was stabilized, and the French presence taken out, the British and the rest of Europe focused on China the next nation fit for colonialization. China had a large population, large mineral deposits, was not united and was behind on technology making it weak in comparison to the West.* In the early 1800's the British were trading silver (the preferred metal in China) for silk, porcelain, and other goods. This will create a currency crisis in England where the price of silver will rise creating inflation. To stop this the British begin to trade using opium (grown in India and Afganistan) which is smuggled into China and used as cash. * Soon the majority of the population is addicted to opium, the British were making money for its sale and from the fact that they were not paying money for Chinese goods. The opium was raised in the British colonies for little or no cost. It was transported by navy and merchant ships and the profits were so large the government did nothing to stop it, and were actually encouraging it.* In 1839 the Chinese tried to stop this activity but were defeated by British gun -boats and better-equipped army. This conflict was called the Opium War and resulted in the Treaty of Nanking in 1842.* This treaty gave the British 3 advantages;1) Extraterritoriality (British citizens were not subject to Chinese law, or they could trade in opium which was forbidden to the Chinese).2) The Chinese had to pay the British for war losses (including the cost of the ammo it took to kill Chinese and win the war).3) The British also received the island of Hong Kong for a period of 99 years as sovereign British territory.
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* By 1890's European powers had carved out large portions of China into Spheres of influence (like a colony but the natives govern themselves but the government is not free to make decisions on its own).* The US tried to open trade in Asia using the "Open Door Policy" (all nations were free to trade with the Chinese and the Europeans agreed in 1899 because they did not trust each other and feared England would get the lion share again).* The Chinese tried to modernize implemented some Western education and industrial methods, but were defeated by Japan in 1894, lost territory, lost influence in Indochina, Korea, Taiwan. * Emperor Guang Xu helped launch the Hundred Days of Reform, but was defeated by his mother CI Xi, he was arrested, and the reforms ended.* In the late 1890's secret societies were formed in China to remove foreign influence. One of the most notorious was the "Righteous and Harmonious Fists" also called the Boxers. They started a revolt in 1900 but lost due to a multinational war against them (the US also contributed troops).* In 1911 Sun Yat-Sen a Chinese doctor took control of the nationalist movement in China, formed the Guomidang (Nationalist Party).* Their goal was to modernize China based on 3 principles;1) Nationalism (China for the Chinese, foreign influence out)2) Democracy (elected government no longer the dynasty type of rulers)3) Livelihood (economic well being for all Chinese)* In Jan 1911 he became the 1st Chinese president and China became a republic.* This will not last because of WWI and Japanese, German, intervention.
Japan* Japan is made up of four main large islands Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and Hokkaido- along with many smaller islands.- Because of this island geography the Japanese were mostly isolated from everyone except China – where they adopted their writing system, forms of government and Buddhism.- The islands of Japan are mostly mountainous which leaves only 20% of the land for farming – which means they got most of their food from the sea.- At first the Japanese lived in separate clans based on family ties and regions however, eventually strong families came to power and after a decisive battle between the two strongest which occurred in AD 1185, Yoritomo Minamoto came to power under the title of “shogun”, which means “great general.”- The Shogunate became quite strong and during the 1200’s drove back invading Mongol warriors from China. The second time the Mongols attacked their entire fleet was destroyed by a typhoon which the Japanese called the kamikaze or “divine wind. The Japanese viewed this stroke of luck to mean that their islands were sacred.- The warriors that fought under the shogun were called samurai. The samurai followed a strict code to honor called Bushido, meaning “the way of the warrior.” Bushido stressed bravery, self-discipline, and loyalty. It demanded that the samurai endure suffering and defend his honor at all costs. If a samurai was dishonored or
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defeated, he was expected to commit suicide. (which is a theme we will see later during world war II.)
Contacts with the west- The first Europeans to make contact with the Japanese were the Portuguese in 1543. The Japanese thought the Europeans were barbarians but they thought that their weapons were powerful and purchased muskets and cannons to defeat their opponents.- The Portuguese also brought catholic missionaries with them and many Japanese converted to Christianity. However many Japanese thought that Christianity was harmful to Japan, and in 1587 was outlawed. Christians were forced to leave Japan and some Catholic priests were crucified.
Japan’s policy of isolationThe Japanese rulers decided that contact with outsiders posed too many dangers, and implemented the “Act of Seclusion of 1636.”- The act forbade any Japanese to leave the county and if the did they were to be executed when they returned home.- It banned the construction of ships large enough for ocean voyages.Bared all Europeans except the Dutch because they wee only interested in trade, not conquest or religious conversion like the Spanish and Portuguese.- In the 1870's Japan began to industrialize with little outside help, fearing takeovers if loans were not paid.- Government revised the tax structure raised $ for development - In 1854 Japans Shogun decided to sign the Open Door Policy with American Matthew C. Perry- Later leaders called the Enlightened Leaders (Meji) adopted the slogan "rich country, strong military" added forms of parliamentary government to Japan included universal education, started the industrialization process and envisioned an imperial Japan.- By 1911 Japan ranked in the top 5 industrialized nations but this was fueled by the need to expand colonies due to the absence of mineral resources in Japan, resources crucial to industrialization.- In 1894 Japan intervened in Korea starting the 1st Sino-Japanese war.- In 1904 Japan launched a surprise attack against Port Arthur and surprised and wiped out the Russian Navy. By 1905 the Japanese had defeated Russia and negotiated with the aid of the US a favorable peace settlement. - Other Non-Western nations realized that European powers could be defeated and this will lead to series of uprisings throughout the colonies.
WWI
The Seeds of War
1) European Rivalries71
- As Western Nations industrialized each sought the most favorable conditions for economic growth. This leads to competition for raw materials, cheap labor and markets (colonies).- Friction points: - France wanted mineral rich Morocco.- Russia wanted the Bosforus and the Dardanelles (2 straits which controlled entry and exit from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea . - Austro-Hungary wanted those same straits .- Ottoman Empire had the straits and intended to keep them - England wanted to control the straits in order to control the economies of the Eastern European Nations- England and France both wanted Egypt (cotton and wheat) and Sudan (gold and other minerals)- Germany built the Berlin-Baghdad rail-line that created resentment from the Russians (who saw the Middle East as theirs) and England (who controlled the region)
Nationalism
- Nationalism had unified Germany and Italy .- French Nationalist wanted revenge for the loss of Alsace-Lorraine a province
lost to Germany in a previous war (1870-1871 Franco- Prussian War).- Italy wanted colonies and the return to her former empire glory.- The fragmented Balkan countries wanted independence from the various empires
that controlled them.
Slavic Nationalism- Pan-Slavism was the idea of a united Slavic race under the protection of Russia.- This would give Russia access to the much-wanted warm water sea-ports.- The Russians supported liberation movements of the Slavic peoples such as
Serbians, Croats, Slovaks, Poles etc.- In 1908 Austria-Hungary took the Slavic territories of Bosnia-Herzegovina from
the weak Ottoman Empire.- Serbia appealed to Russia for help, but just defeated by Japan, Russia was not able
to help.- Russia had made a deal with A/ H to get free passage through the Bosforus and
Dardanelle Straights but A/H took Bosnia- Herzegovina before the Russians could seal the pact. This leaves them bitter.
Balkan Wars - The first one in 1912 was between the Balkan countries and the Ottoman Empire. - Serbia wanted Albania as an exchange for fighting on the Russian side. After the
war they did not get Albania. - In 1913 Albania was made independent making it off limits to Serbia. Once
again Russia was not able to influence or help out Serbia. The Serbians were angry and the Russians were humiliated because as a big nation they found out
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they had no power in Europe. The Russians wowed never again to be humiliated this way to the point they were ready for a bad war in order to save their honor.
Militarism
- Is the glorification of war and of the military. - European powers assessed each other's military power. - Compared military programs and levels of spending. - Looked at levels of industrialization and how fast a nation could mobilize. - After 1870 all of the powers introduced conscription (the draft). - Population size comes into play because the larger population the larger the size
of the possible army. - England believed that in order to feel safe they had to have a Navy equal in size
and power to the combined Navies of their 2 nearest rivals (France and Germany).
Alliances
- Alliance systems are defense agreements among nations.
WWII NotesEastern Campaign WWIIDumitrache World History
1939August
31. Hitler’s “ directive #1 on the conduct of the war” declares that at 04:45 on the 1st of September 1939, the German Armed Forces will invade Poland.
September1. 3 German Army Groups begin the invasion of Poland at 4:45 am. Massive strikes by the Luftwaffe destroy communications and assembly areas and destroy the Polish Air Force on the ground. This tactic will become known as “Blitzkrieg”. Officially the 1st shots of the war come from the battleship Schleswig- Holstein. The small island it attacked proved to be a formidable fortress costing large numbers dead on both sides and 2 days of continuous bombardment.
2. The Luftwaffe raids Warsaw, Mussolini fails to find a last minute peaceful solution to the German Polish conflict. The world is still hopeful that further aggression can be averted.
5. The Polish army is forced to withdraw behind the Vistula River with the German Army close in pursuit.
8. Westerplatte, Krakow and Danzig surrender to the German 10th Army. The Polish government leaves Warsaw.
9. 4th Army captures Lodz and Radon, 4th Panzer Division reaches the suburbs of Warsaw.
13. 60,000 Polish soldiers trapped in the Radom area surrender and are executed.
17. Red Army invades Poland from the East. The Polish government runs to Romania and it is imprisoned.
19. The battle for the Vistula area is over, the German army takes 170,000 prisoners who are either executed on the spot or transferred to labor camps.
21. 60,000 Poles the remains of the Polish Army in the Western area surrender at Zamosz and Tomaszov.
22. Germany and Russia agree on the division of Poland. 217,000 Polish soldiers who were fighting against the Russians surrender at Lvov. The NKVD (KGB) rounds up the officers to be executed near Smolensk. The rest of the soldiers are taken to work camps in Siberia.27. Warsaw surrenders after 2 weeks of continuous artillery and air (1,150 planes) attack.29. Poland formally surrenders; Warsaw’s final garrison of 35,000 soldiers is shot.
October5. Hitler enters Warsaw in triumph. The Soviet Union forces a treaty on Latvia that allows the Red Navy to establish bases in her Baltic harbors.
11. The Soviet Union and Finland begin negotiations concerning the establishment of Soviet air bases on Finnish soil.
31. Soviet Foreign Minister accuses the British of aggression.
November12. Negotiations between Russia and Finland over dispute reach deadlock.
30. After breaking off diplomatic relations, the Soviet Union attacks Finland by land and air without declaring war, thus causing hundreds of avoidable civilian casualties during a Red Air Force first raid on the capital, Helsinki, Stalin alleges provocation.This will be known as the “Winter War”.
December5. Heavy fighting in Karelia, Finland.
14. Because of its brutal aggression against Finland, the Soviet Union is expelled from the League of Nations.
31. Finnish troops destroy yet another division.__________________________________________________________________
1940
February2. Big Russian offensive on the Karelia front.
12. Germany and Russia agree on new trade pact, that provides for the delivery of vital war materials (grains, oil, and strategic minerals) by the Russians.
March12. Treaty concluded between Russia and Finland that formally ends the Winter War and forces the Finns to give land to Russia.
April27. Himmler orders construction of Auschwitz concentration camp in Poland.
June12. Russia gives an ultimatum to Lithuania demanding the Red Army be allowed to occupy the country.
15. The Red army crosses the Lithuanian border. New Russo- German border agreement announced. Auschwitz is officially open for business to provide workers for I.B. Farben factory.
16. The Red Army takes Latvia and Estonia. The KGB for deportation rounds up patriots to Siberia.
28. Following an ultimatum the Red Army occupies eastern part of Romania.
July5. Romania announces that it has become allied with the Axis Powers.
September22. Moscow Radio reports that RAF bombing has largely destroyed the German invasion fleet along the Channel.
October7. German troops enter Romania to ‘help restrain the Army’.
November20. Hungarian Premier and Foreign Minister in Vienna agrees to join Axis Powers.
24. Slovakian Prime Minister joins Tripartite Pact in Berlin, (Axis Powers).
December18. Hitler issues Directive No. 21, ordering plans for the preparation of Operation ‘Barbarossa’, the attack against the Soviet Union, to be submitted by the 15th May 1941.__________________________________________________________________
1941
March1. Bulgaria joins the Tripartite Pact of Germany, Italy and Japan, following Slovakia, Romania and Hungary.
25. Yugoslavia signs the Tripartite Pact.
April6(Sunday) German, Italian and Hungarian forces begin the invasion of Yugoslavia. The Luftwaffe carries out several devastating bombing raids against Belgrade.
12. The Yugoslav capital Belgrade, surrenders.
17. Capitulation of the Yugoslav Army, with the German Army taking 345,000 prisoners. (Sent to various concentration camps for extermination)
June22. Operation ‘Barbarossa’ begins at 3:15 a.m. with German and Axis forces comprising 183 divisions (3,500,000 men), 3,350 tanks, 7,184 guns and 1,945 aircraft launching the biggest military operation in history on an 1,800-mile front from ‘Finland to the Black Sea’. Three Army Groups supported by powerful Panzer armies and Luftwaffe bomber fleets, Heeresgruppe Sud (von Rundstedt) with Panzergruppe 1 (von Kleist), Heeressgruppe Mitte (von Bock) with panzergruppe 2 (Guderian) and 3 (Hoth), and Heeresgruppe nord (von Leeb) with Panzergruppe 4 (Hoepner) go into action against 132 Soviet divisions (2,500,000 men), 20,000 tanks and 7,700 aircraft. The overall objective of the campaign is to destroy the Soviet forces in western Russia by fall and to occupy the European part of the Soviet Union up to the line Archangelsk- Urals- Volga- Astrakhan. In the first few hours of the attack, the Luftwaffe destroys 1,500 Soviet aircraft on the ground at 60 airfields and 300 in the air. The Red Army forces along the border seem unprepared for the assault and offer only limited resistance, which allows the Panzer Divisions to advance up to 50 miles and maul 12 Soviet divisions.
24. Germans sweep west into Lithuania and White Russia, taking Vilna and Kaunas. Hungary breaks off diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union.
26. Finland declares war on Russia. Heavy fighting in the Minsk area as the German Panzer’s meet. German forces of Heeresgruppe Nord capture Dunaburg in Latvia. The Luftwaffe carries out raids on Leningrad.
27. German forces encircle several Soviet divisions near Minsk and capture Riga, Bobruisk and Przemysl.Hungary declares war on the Soviet Union.
29. Russian Defense Committee is formed with Stalin, Molotov, Voroshilov, Malenkov and Beria. 27 Soviet divisions trapped in three pockets west of Minsk. On the Arctic front in northern Finland, the German 20th Mountain Army launches Operation ‘silver Fox’, an offensive to capture the Soviet port of Murmansk.
July2. Troops of the German 11th, Rumanian 3rd and 4th Armies begin an offensive from Moldavia toward Vinnitsa and the Black Sea port of Odessa.
3. For the first time since the beginning of the German attack on the Soviet Union, Stalin speaks to the Russian people over the radio. Demanding utmost resistance ‘in our patriotic war against German Fascism’, he calls for a policy of scorched earth if the Red Army is forced to yield ground and the formation of ‘people’s partisan’ groups behind enemy lines, as well as the summary execution of all cowards and shirkers.
9. Germans defeat Russians at Minsk and capture Vitebsk. Army Group Centre claims the capture of 300,000 prisoners, 2,500 tanks, 1,400 guns and 250 aircraft to date.
11. Armored units of Panzergruppe 1 advance within 10 miles of Kiev. Stalin replaces 3 major Soviet commanders appointing Voroshilov for the northern, Timoshenko for the central and Budjenny for the southern fronts.
12. The Soviet Union and Great Britain sign a mutual assistance pact declaring that neither state will make a separate peace with the axis powers. The Luftwaffe launches its first bombing raid on Moscow, but with minimal results.
14. Army Group Northonly 80 miles from Leningrad.
22. German onslaught stopped at Lake Ilmen, south of Novgorod by fatigue and marshes. First German air raid on Moscow.
27. Hitler orders Guderian’s Panzer’s to turn South, away from Moscow in order to conquer Russia’s economic centers. Further, his Army Group is no longer subordinate to Von Kluge, but answers directly to Bock, Commander of Armeegruppe Mitte. German forces encircle Smolensk, while fierce battles continue to rage 25 miles east of the city. Tallin, the capital of Estonia, is liberated by German troops.
August7. Joseph Stalin appoints himself Generalissimo of the Red Army.
8. Uman pocket eliminated. 103,000 Russian prisoners took by the Germans.
12. War ‘Directive No.34, temporarily abandons Moscow as an objective in favor of the Ukraine. Soviet forces counterattack at Staraja Russia south of Lake Ilmen.This is Hitler’s 1st big Blunder.
20. German 11th Army captures Kherson on the Black Sea and opens the gate to the Crimea.
21. Marshal Voroshilov tells the people of Leningrad to defend their city to the last. Hitler orders the investment, not capture, of Leningrad, and the transfer of several divisions from the North and Centre to capture the Crimea and the Donets Basin, an industrial region vital to the Soviet war effort.
26. German losses on Russian Front reach 440,000, more than in the entire war before the 22nd June 1941. Heeresgruppe Nord surrounds and destroys Soviet forces in the area of Velikije Luki.
29. Russians evacuate Karelian Isthmus to Leningrad. The Finnish troops capture Vyborg and are now only 30 miles north of Leningrad.
September3. Gas chambers at Auschwitz used for first time.4. Finns refuse to advance on Leningrad.
6. Hitler’s War Directive no.35 orders the capture of Moscow after the Ukraine operation has been completed.
8. The Russians announce gains near Smolensk and claim eight German Divisions beaten. Leningrad is now completely surrounded after German troops close the land bridge at Schluesselburg.
11. German order of the day says Leningrad must be taken quickly, regardless of cost. Zhukov takes command of city. Hitler’s 2nd big Blunder.
15. Siege of Leningrad begins.
18. The Russians evacuate Kiev, but the ‘fight to the death’ continues in the area for a week. Russians conscript all men aged 16-50. Units of Heeresgruppe Sud capture Poltava in the Ukraine.
25. Hitler orders all attacks by Heeresgruppe Nord on Leningrad stopped and the city to be besieged and starved-out. After its foreseen surrender, the city is to be leveled.
29. The attacks by Heeresgruppe Sud (von Rundstedt) to force an entry into the Crimea are halted. Germans massacre Jews in Kiev.
30. Guderian opens the final offensive against Moscow with a 50-mile advance towards Orel.
October1. Conclusion of a conference at Moscow between the Soviet Union, Britain and the U.S. with promises of aid to the Soviet war effort, in return for raw materials.
2. Army Group Centre launches operation ‘Typhoon’, the main offensive towards Moscow. Hitler tells his troops: ‘Today is the beginning of the last great battle of the year.’ Heeresgruppe Sud sets out to advance against Kursk and Kharkov.
7. German advance on Moscow continues with the capture of Wjasma. Stalin lifts ban on religion in Russia to boost morale. Finland rejects a British demand to cease fighting the Soviet Union.
9. Hitler announces that the war in the East, for all intents and purposes, has already been decided in favor of the Reich.
11(Saturday) Rumors of an impending capture of Moscow by the German Army cause thousands of civilians to flee the city.
12. Heeresgruppe Mitte captures Kaluga and Byransk. Women and children evacuated from Moscow.
16. Moscow now considered in real jeopardy. Following the evacuation of the Soviet government and diplomatic corpse from Moscow to Kuibyshev, to spread among the civilian population, with thousands fleeing the city to places further east, but Stalin decides to stay. Odessa falls to the Romanians after a Soviet evacuation by sea.
18. Germans only 65 miles from Moscow.
19. Stalin declares state of siege in capital, orders defense to the last. Army Group Centre records the capture of 673,000 Russian prisoners in the dual battles of encirclement at Vjasma and Bryansk.
21. Units of 6th Army capture Stalino (a city) in the industrial Donets Basin.
24. Army Group South takes Kharkov and Belgorod.
27. Russians counter-attacks around Moscow. Further German victories in the South as the 11th Army forces a breakthrough at Perekop, thus opening the gate to the Crimea.
29. German troops advance in strength, down in to the Crimea.
November1. German troops of the 11th Army take Simferopol, the capital of the Crimea and close in on Sevastopol.
3. German troops capture Kursk.
4. Units of 11th Army capture Fedosia in the Crimea. Finnish forces capture the Baltic naval base of Hango that Finland was compelled to lease to the Soviets in 1940.
6. Stalin claims Axis casualties on Eastern Front now 4.5 million, when actually less that 700,000. Finnish advance halted on the Northern Front. First cases of frostbite in the German Army recorded.
7. Speaking from Red Square in Moscow, with the spearheads of the Wehrmacht less than 100 miles from the capital, Stalin predicts that “the Fascist German invaders are facing disaster.”
8. Hitler claims Russian losses 8-10 million perhaps double the truth. Heeresgruppe Nord advances across the Volkhov River and captures Tikhivin.
13. Temperature near Moscow drops to -80 degrees F (-22 degrees C).
15. Heeresgruppe Mitte begins the second phase of the battle for Moscow, employing the forces of three Panzergruppen, 2nd (Guderian), 3rd (Reinhardt), and 4th (Hoepner), as well as three infantry armies, 2nd Army (Von Weichs), 4th Army (Von Kluge), and 9th Army (Von Kuchler).
16. Germans take Kerch in the eastern Crimea. Moscow offensive resumes in temperature of -20 degrees C.
17. Siberia troops heavily engaged in front of Moscow. The 11th Army captures the eastern Crimean port of Kerch.
19. Times report on Occupied Europe estimates 82,000 Poles shot or hanged since occupation by the Germans.
22. The III Panzerkorps captures Rostov.
25. Germans launch a new all-out attack on Moscow.
27. German Panzer’s only 19 miles from Moscow. Some armed patrols have penetrated in to the western suburbs of the city and managed to get a good look at the Kremlin.
29. Depleted by continuous savage fighting and extreme weather conditions in below-zero temperatures, the forces of Heeresgruppe Mitte, which is less than 50 miles from Moscow suspended all offensive operations.
December2. German patrols are just five miles from the Kremlin. Soviet troops evacuate the last territory in Karelia, taken from Finland in the 1939-1940 war.
5. Hitler abandons Moscow offensive for winter. Start of a Soviet counter-offensive in the area of Kalinin, to the Northwest of Moscow.
6. Russian counter-offensive under Zhukov extends to whole Central Front as three Soviet armies, including some 18 divisions from the Russian Far East, with 1,700 tanks and 1,500 aircraft begin a massive counter-offensive to throw back and destroy the German forces of Heeresgruppe Mitte before Moscow.
8. The Soviet offensive against Heeresgruppe Mitte succeeds in breaking through the German lines in many places, causing hasty withdraws by ill-prepared and frost-bitten troops that are forced to abandon much heavy equipment that was immobilized by the below-zero weather.12. Bulgaria, Hungary, Yugoslavia and Romania declare war on the United States.14. German forces evacuate Kalinin, 100 miles to the Northwest of Moscow.
18. Field Marshal Von Brauchitsch resigns as head of OKH. Hitler himself assumes personal command of the Army, especially its operations on the eastern front.
19. Hitler takes over personal command of the German Army, ordering ‘No withdrawal’. This means the end for soldiers surrounded (Stalingrad).
20. German forces of Heeresgruppe Mitte retreating from before Moscow reach a new defensive line more than 100km to the west, where, following strict orders by Hitler, they are to stand and fight off any further Soviet advances.
21. (Sunday) Typhus reported to be sweeping through the German forces along the Russian front. The reason for experiments at Dachau.
25. Over 30,000 starve to death in Leningrad.
26. The Russians land on the Kerch Peninsula to relieve the siege of Sevastopol in Crimea.
30. The Russian success in the Crimea continues.
31. All further attacks against the Crimean fortress of Sevastopol are halted for the winter.__________________________________________________________________
1942 January
20. ‘Wannsee Conference’ under Heydrich decides on the ‘Final solution of the Jewish problem’.
February13. The Russians advance in to White Russia, but meet strong German resistance.
14. The Russians introduce universal labor conscription.
March 19. Operation ‘Munich’ is launched. Joined by a new air detachment, German troops attack partisan bases around Yelnya and Dorogubuzh. Operation ‘Bamberg’ kicks off near Bobruisk, with SS Police troops attacking Russian villages. The German security forces burn many villages and kill 3,500 people, which only infuriate the Russian civilians more, which encourages many of them join the partisans, making the whole exercise very counter-productive. The Third Panzer Army diaries says “There are indications that the partisan movement in the region of Velikye Luki, Vitebsk, Rudnya, Velizh, is now being organized on a large scale. The fighting strength of the partisans hitherto active, is being bolstered by individual units of regular red army troops.”
April 5. Hitler issues Directive 40, relating to a new German general offensive.
12. Both German and Russian forces pauses for breath after an extremely difficult winter (temperatures dropped to a nippy Minus 30c). The Russians have outrun their supply lines and exhausted their supply store of tanks and guns, which has allowed the initiative to slip back to the Germans. However, the Germans are aware that they can no longer take Moscow with a knockout blow and so choose another alternative. They intend to drive southward as part of a “grand pincer” movement through the Caucasus to link up with Rommel’s Africa Korps, which will solve their oil problems, disable the Russian economy, and menace the Middle East.
22. Furher, Directive 41 rolls off the mimeograph machines in Rastenberg and the Wehrmacht has its marching orders for 1942. Leningrad is to finally be captured, but that’s a secondary objective. The big plan is in the South, which involves 2nd Army and 4th panzer Army to Voronezh on the Don. 6th Army will break out South of Kharkov and combine with the 4th Panzer Army to surround the enemy. After that, the 4th Panzer Army and 6th Army Group B and surround Stalingrad from the North, while Army Group A’s 17th Army and 1st Panzer Army will do so from the South. Once Stalingrad is taken, the 6th Army will hold the flank defense line of a grand pincer movement (the southern half being Rommel) to seize Suez, the Nile Delta, the Middle East and its officials.
May10. The German open up a new death camp just outside Minsk, near the village of Maly Trostenets. Russian POW’s and Jews have been forced to build the barracks for 600
slave laborers and their German and Ukrainian guards. Tens of thousands of Austrian, German, and Czech Jews are shipped there and driven towards the village in mobile gas chambers. When the vans reach the camp, all inside them are dead. At the camp, the slave laborers bury the bodies in deep pits. Maly Trostenets remains a tight German secret. The battle for Sevastopol rumbles on, with the Russian Coastal Army fielding 106,000 men, 600 guns, 100 mortars, 38 tanks and 55 planes. The Germans hurl 204,000 men, 670 guns, 450 mortars, 720 tanks, and 600 aircraft at Sevastopol. The Germans also move in 19 motor torpedo boats, 30 patrol boats, eight ASW boats, and a unit of 150 bombers trained in anti-shipping operations. German artillery ranges from 76mm field guns to mammoth 800-mm railway-mounted super-heavy siege mortars. Winston Churchill warns that Britain will use poison gas on Germany if the Germans do so on Russia.
17. German forces finally halt the Russian summer offensive just short of Kharkov and let loose Group Von Kleist’s with a strength of 15 Divisions (1st Panzer Army and 17th Army), of which two are Panzer and one Motorized. The Germans aim for Izyum to the South of Kharkov in order to pinch off the Russian salient. The Germans attack with their usual skill, technology, and ferocity and drive trough the Russian defenses. The Germans have a 4.4:1 edge in tanks, 1.7:1 edge n artillery and 1.3:1 edge in infantry on the battlefield. Russian co-ordination is poor and the Germans quickly gain local air superiority. Russian officers lack adequate combat experience to handle the fast pace of the German blitzkrieg, and their divisions literally came apart. The Russians continue to evacuate their forces across the Kerch Straits and leaving behind vast amounts of artillery and heavy equipment, which the Germans them turn upon the besieged fort of Sevastopol.
20. The Crimea is finally cleared of the Red Army. 170,000 Russians taken prisoner. Manstein’s gaze now turns Sevastopol.
24. The Germans decide they’ve had quite enough of the partisan harassment in Russia and launch operation “Hanover”, to clear the Bryansk-Vyazma railway. For six days, 45,000 German troops, including panzer and SS-police units, search for and estimated 20,000 partisans, catching or killing many of them. In the Barvenkovo salient, General Ewald Von Kleist’s Panzer's started to chop up the Russian 6th and 9th Armies. Moscow admits the loss of 5,000 dead, 70,000 missing, and 300 tanks destroyed, but the Germans claim 24,000 POW’s and 1,200 tanks. The Russians began the offensive with only 845 tanks.
27. Czech patriots shoot Heydrich in the suburbs of Prague. His condition is described as critical. The siege of Sevastopol rages on, becoming the only incident of a formal siege of a modern fortress being pushed through to final reduction. Sevastopol is the premier port on the Black Sea, and its defenses include three zones of trenches, pillboxes, and batteries. The strongest defenses lie in the middle zone, which includes the heights and the south bank of the Belbek River. Among these hills is “Fort Stalin” on the East and the massive western anchor of “Fort Maxim Gorki I,” with its turret of twin 305-mm (12-inch) guns sweeping the length of the Belbek valley. 105,000 men defend this port. Against this the Germans and Rumanians, range 203,000 men and some of the most
powerful siege artillery eve disposed by any army in World War II. Field Marshal Erich Von Manstein aims 305 mm, 350 mm, and 420-mm howitzers at the Russians, along with two of the new, stubby “Karl” and “Thor” 600-mm mortars. Also on hand is the 800 mm (31.5-inch) “Big Dora” from Krupp, which has to be transported to position by 60 railway wagons. “Big Dora” is commanded by a major general and a colonel, protected by two flak regiments and periodically fed with a 10,500-lb. shell.
June4. Heydrich dies of his wounds.
5. Operation ‘Birdsong’ kicks off between Roslavl and Bryansk, as 5,000 German troops pursue 2,500 partisans. In four weeks, 1,198 partisans are killed, for the loss of 58 Germans dead. Even so, the Germans are not happy as “The partisans,” a German officer reports, “continued their old tactic of evading, withdrawing into the forests, or moving in larger groups into the areas South and Southwest of the Roslavl-Bryansk highway and into the Klenya area.” Although no further partisan attacks are reported in the area, “mines continued to be planted” and several German vehicles damaged.
7. General Erich Von Manstein hurls his troops in the grand assault on the besieged port of Sevastopol in a two-pronged assault. The Soviets resist fanatically in excellent fortifications. The Germans gain ground but take heavy casualties, and have to bring in reinforcements to take the city. However, the continuous German attacks wear down the defenders ammunition supplies, which must be brought in by sea through a tight German blockade maintained by the Luftwaffe, E-boats, and Italian midget submarines.
9. Heydrich lies in state in Berlin, Himmler calls him. ‘A noble, honest and decent human being’.
10. Prague radio announces the extermination of Lidice, a village of about 2,000. All the men were shot and women sent to concentration camps. All buildings are razed to the ground as a reprisal for Heydrich killing. Another German offensive in the East begins as two armies of 33 division, five of them Panzer, attack from Kharkov on the Volchansk Front, a massive assault that will roll on until the 26th, scattering the Russian forces ahead of them.
11. The court-martial of a German army captain Michael Kitzelmann ends in Orel. Kitzelmann, who won an Iron Cross Second Class for bravery, has spoken out against atrocities being committed on the eastern front. “If these criminals should win,” he has told his fellow officers, “I would have no wish to live any longer.” Kitzelmann’s wish is granted. He is shot by a firing squad that day.
14. German troops of the 16th Regiment of the 22nd Air landing Division take Fort Stalin in Sevastopol.
18. Germans announce the killing of Heydrich’s assassins; just two hours after ultimatum demanding information expired. German troops seize Fort Maxim Gorky in
Sevastopol, digging out Russian naval infantry (in their black Sailor hats) with flame-throwers.
27. Dr. Heinisch, the German administrator in the Przemysl area, issues a public instruction. “Every Ukrainian or Pole who attempts by any means whatsoever to impede the campaign for the deportation of Jews, will be shot. Every Ukrainian or Pole found in a Jewish quarter looting Jewish homes will be shot. Every Ukrainian or Pole attempting to conceal a Jew will be shot.” In the next month, 24,000 Jews from western Galicia, Heinisch’s district, pass through Przemysl. All are taken to Belzec and killed.
28. Low clouds cover the skies over the Ukraine, providing a suitably ominous overture to Operation ‘Blau’, the German summer offensive. Field Marshal Fedor Von Bock (“The Preacher of Death”) hurls three armies and 11 Panzer divisions east in a massive assault whose objective is nothing short of the Caucuses Mountains and oil fields. In classic blitzkrieg style, the Germans fan out across open steppe and grassland, crushing the 40th Army, folding the 13th Army northward and disintegrating the reeling 21st and 28th Armies.Russian troop command crumbles under the drive. Russian logistics, exhausted by the Moscow counteroffensive, cannot keep up with the demand. A German sergeant tells Propaganda Kompanie men: “It’s quite different from last year, it’s more like Poland. The Russians aren’t nearly so thick on the ground. They fire their guns like madmen, but they don’t hurt us!” That evening, in Sevastopol, German troops cross-North Bay Bay under a smoke screen and seizes the southern shore, capturing Inkerman in the process.
30. As the Panzer’s roll eastward in Russia, they haul in hordes of Russian POW’s. Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel, chief of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht, telegraphs his troops, “In line with the prestige and dignity of the German Army, every German soldier must maintain distance and such an attitude with regard to Russian POW’s as takes account of the bitterness and inhuman brutality of the Russians in battle.” Prestige and dignity will be maintained, Keitel continues, as follows: “Fleeing prisoners of war are to be shot without preliminary warning to stop. All resistance of POW’s, even passive, must be entirely eliminated immediately by the use of arms.” Russian POW’s are placed into camps where the dead lies undisturbed for weeks on end. German guards periodically enter the camps to get rid of bodies with flame-throwers. Meanwhile, Army Group South rumbles on, with five German armies (two panzer), two Rumanian, one Italian (including a number of mountain divisions) and one Hungarian Army in the van, all tolled 89 divisions on the offensive. While the Panzer’ s are fully motorized, the bulk of the remaining forces depend on horses for transport and supply. As the advance lengthens, so do the supply lines, and shortages soon begin to appear at the sharp end.
July15. The Germans continue to advance in southern Russia, taking Boguchar and Millerovo, less than 200 miles from Stalingrad. However, they have only captured 80,000 Russian’s since the 28th June.
22. Treblinka concentration camp is opened.
August12. Churchill arrives in Moscow.
25. Communist Party Committee of Stalingrad proclaims a state of siege. September
3. The Sixth Army and Fourth Panzer Army pincers meet to the west of Stalingrad. The defenders of Leningrad launch an attack in a vain attempt to meet the relief forces.
17. Bitter street fighting in the north west suburbs of Stalingrad.
October25. Germans capture two more streets in Stalingrad with severe losses, (100,000) dead. The last German offensive in the Caucasus begins.
November1. Winter comes to the Stalingrad region. (-60f)
23. Russian pincers meet to the west of Stalingrad, cutting off Paulus’s 250,000 strong Sixth Army and claim 24,000 prisoners.
December12. Manstein launches his counter-attack with 230 tanks to try and relieve Sixth Army at Stalingrad.
14. Three-day tank battle begins south of Stalingrad.
24. The Russian counter-attack Manstein
26. The Russians continue their advance on the southern front and claim 56,000 prisoners taken in middle Don region.________________________________________________________________________
1943 January
8. Paulus rejects a Russian demand for surrender.
12. The Russian offensive to relieve Leningrad begins. The Germans abandon a 300 miles salient in Caucasus. The Red Army gains several more streets in the bloody battle for Stalingrad.
18. The Russians break through the German stranglehold on Leningrad to relieve the city from the East. In the Caucasus, the Russian advance continues. The Red Army, who is now less than 250 miles south east of Rostov, captures Cheressk.
19. Russians claim further victories during a 75-mile advance towards Kharkov on the Voronezh front, with the Russians claiming 52,000 axis prisoners on this front alone.
21. The Russians claim the capture of the Caucasian railway town of Voroshilovsk and say that 500,000 Germans have been killed and 200,000 captured in the last two months of fighting.23. The last German airfield in the Stalingrad pocket falls.
24. (Sunday) Russians take Starobelsk, neat the Donets River in the eastern Ukraine, more than 250 miles to the West of Stalingrad. Hitler orders no surrender in Stalingrad.
25. The last German bridgehead East of the Din at Voronezh, falls to the Russian onslaught. Stalin's Order of the day says that the Red Army has routed 102 German divisions in the last two months.
February2. The remainder of the German forces in Stalingrad surrender. The total number of prisoners claimed by the Russians is 91,000, of which barely 5,000 will live to see Germany again.
21. The 25th Anniversary of the creation of the Red Army is celebrated in all allied countries.
April14. Stalin’s son Jacob dies at a POW camp. The Russian 14th Army repulses a German attack to the Southeast of Leningrad.
17. Germans find buried Polish officers at Katyn Wood.
20. A month long massacre of the 60,000 Jews in the Warsaw ghetto begins.
May4. Hitler decides to postpone Operation ‘Citadel’ in order that more Tiger and Panther tanks can be deployed in the offensive. This is against the advice of a number of leading Generals who fear that the Russian defenses will become too strong if the offensive is delayed any further.16. The Germans finally clear the Warsaw ghetto of Jews.
17. The Germans launch a fifth offensive to destroy Tito’s partisans in Yugoslavia.
27. The first British ‘liaison’ team is dropped into Yugoslavia to join up with Tito’s partisans.
June14. A German report shows that 100,000 cases of typhus were reported on the Russian front during 1942, with a fatality rate of 15%.
July5. The Germans launch operation ‘Zitadelle’, their last major offensive on Russian Front. Very heavy fighting, but only small gains reported.
9. The Russians say that the German attack has been held and claim that 2,000 tanks have been destroyed in four days.13(Tuesday) Hitler calls off operation ‘Zitadelle’ and orders the transfer of various divisions to the West.
August1. Hitler orders the immediate evacuation of the Orel salient. Lydia Litvak, the top scoring Russian female fighter pilot of the way (12 kills), is shot down and killed. The USAF loses 54 b-24 out of 178 in disastrous raid (the longest yet attempted) on the Ploesti oil fields in Rumania. Only superficial damage is caused.
2. Hitler orders the German armies to hold fast in Russia, but Manstein ignores him and uses a ‘flexible defense’ in the Kharkov sector. The Russians gains around Orel continue.
4. The Russians capture Orel.
5. The Russians take Belgorod.
19. The Russians breach the German defense line on the Mius River in the Ukraine.
22. The Germans evacuate Kharkov.25. The Russians continue their advance to the West of Kharkov.
31. Hitler allows Manstein to make limited withdraws in Ukraine.
September2. A special order of the day from Stalin announces the Russian victories on Voronezh, Bryansk, Donets and Sea of Azov fronts.
7. Himmler and Goering order evacuation of their rear area forces from the eastern Ukraine.14. The Germans begin to evacuate Bryansk, some 200 miles southwest of Moscow.
16. Tito’s partisans are reported to have captured Split on Yugoslavian coast. The Black Sea port of Novorossiysk is captured by the Russians after a week of amphibious and land operations.
17. Stalin announces the capture of Bryanks.
21. The Russians reach the Dnieper River.
25. The Russians capture Smolensk and Roslavl, over 200 miles to the west of Moscow.
27. Russians take the last German held port of on the Black Sea, Temyruk.
28. German anti-partisan forces retake Split from Tito’s partisans.30. the Russians make Dnieper River crossing on a 300-mile front.
October6. Two Russian armies take Nevel on the boundary between Army Groups North and Centre.
9. The Russians now control the Kuban peninsula on the Black Sea, after the successful evacuation of all German and Rumanian troops into the Crimea.
13. The Russians reach Melitopol in southern Ukraine.
16. Vatutin launches a 4-day breakout attempt from the Bukrin bridgehead south of Kiev. Koniev launches an offensive to cut off the First Panzer Army on Dnieper River.
20. The Russians attack from Bukrin bridgehead is heavily repulsed.
23. Russians take Melitopol after 10-days of fighting; Dnepropetrovosk falls to Malinovsky, while tank army reaches Krivov Rog.
27. Von Kluge is invalidated from command of Army Group Centre as result of car crash.
November1. Russians cut all German links with Crimea
3. A massive Russian offensive from Dnieper bridgehead north of Kiev erupts.
4. A Russian breakout is achieved with their tank army’s driving throughout the night
6. The Russians take Zhitomir in Ukraine. The Kiev bridgehead is now 95 miles deep and 150 miles wide.
17. The Russian Sixtieth Army takes Korosten, 100 miles west of Kiev.
18. A German counter offensive recaptures Zhitomir.
20. Russian POW losses for war now totaled over five million. Hitler does not allow Army Group North to Withdraw to Panther line.
December1. Russian forces isolate the Germans in Crimea and control the northern half of the Dnieper bend.
4. Tito’s Partisans set up a provisional government in the liberated part of Yugoslavia.
12. A Czech-Soviet treaty of friendship is signed in Moscow
13. A war criminals trial in Kharkov accuses four Germans of murdering thousands of Russians, is specially equipped carbon-monoxide murder vans.
14. German strength on eastern Front is now only 2,086,000 with 188,000 allied and satellite troops. Germans casualties for 1943 were 900,000.
15. The war crimes trial at Kharkov of the four captured Germans opens with all plead the defendants pleading guilty. One of the defendants says that more than 30,000 Russians were exterminated at Kiev.
18. The Kharkov four are sentenced to death
19. 50,00 people turn out to watch the hanging of the four Germans in Kharkov City square.
21. Russian forces smash the German bridgehead over Dnieper River at Kherson.
22. The allies announce that Tito is to be allied commander in Yugoslavia as his partisans now estimated at 250,00 men.
24. The Russians commence a third offensive, with Vatutin’s 63 divisions in the Ukraine.
30. The Russians report 30-60 miles advances from the Kiev Salient along a 180-mile front.
31. Russians retake Zhitomir, 80 miles east of Kiev.__________________________________________________________________
1944January
5. Koniev’s 2nd Ukrainian front extends the Russian general offensive in temperatures of - 80 F.
6. The Red Army crosses the 1939 Polish frontier after a 170-mile advance in just 2 weeks.
27. The people of Leningrad are told the blockade has been lifted after 900 days. Hitler lectures all of his eastern front commanders on National Socialism (Nazi political party) as the Russians cut off and kill the 60,000 men in the Korsun Pocket, 100 miles from Kiev.
February1. The Polish underground executes Major Fritz Kurschera the chief of the Gestapo in Poland.2. Stalin agrees to USAF use of Russian air bases.
March3. It is announced that at the end of the war Russia will get 1/3rd of the Italian fleet or equivalent in British and US warships.
13. The Russian announces the capture of Kherson in southern Ukraine.
20. The Russians recapture Vinnitsa in the Ukraine , the site of Hitler’s Headquarters during 1943.
28. The Russians recapture Nicolaev on the Black Sea and enter Romanian territory.
30. Kleist and Manstain are fired by Hitler and replaced by Schorner and Model.
April2. The Russians announce their entry into Romania and threaten to shoot 1/3rd of all German POW. if the 18 divisions of the trapped 1st Panzer Army do not surrender.
8. The Russians reach the Czech border, and continue their advance through Romania. RAF and USAF conduct the 1st round the clock raid on the Ploiesti oil fields in Romania. The final offensive of the Russian Army into Crimea to destroy the German 17th Army begins .
12. Hitler authorizes a withdrawal of 230,000 German and Rumanian troops to the fortress of Sevastopol. However, this is four days too late and the delay results in many unnecessary losses. Finland rejects the heavy Russian demands for the ending of the war.
May12. The remains of German Seventeenth Army in Crimea are destroyed., with the Russians taking 36,000 Axis troops prisoner.
25. German airborne troops attack Tito’s Partisan HQ at Drvar in Bosnia on Tito’s 52nd birthday. Tito and Churchill’s son Randolph, both manage to escape in to the mountains.
31. The Russians repel a heavy German counter attack North of Jassy, in Rumania. Stalin gives the go-head to Operation ‘Bagration’ (the Russian summer offensive) which is to destroy Army Group Centre in Belorussia.
June21. A new Russians assault against the Finns opens in eastern Karelia. The Russian summer offensive, operation ‘Bagration’ begins against Army Group Centre in
Belorussia with six assaults over a 450-mile front involving 124 divisions, 1,200,000 men, 5,200 tanks and 6,000 aircraft.
24. The Russians report major advances against Army Group Centre. Hitler orders all but one of the five German divisions of the 53rd Corps that are encircled at Vitebsk to fight their way out.
28. The Russians take Mogilev and cross the Berezina River surrounding most of German Ninth Army.
July3. Minsk, the capital of Belorussia is captured by the Russians, trapping 100,000 Germans in a pocket to the East.
8. The Russians capture Baranovicho, 80 miles South West of Minsk. Lieutenant General Muller, the commander of German 12th Corps surrenders with 57,000 men. Street fighting is reported as the Russians enter Vilna. Army Group Centre’s losses have now reached 300,000 men (28 divisions) in less then three weeks.
16. The Brody pocket begins to form in the northern Ukraine, trapping 40,000 German troops.
17. The Germans say they will hold Baltic States ‘at all costs’, as the Russian advance approached the Latvian border.
19. The Russians claim to have crossed into Latvia.
23. The Russians take Pskov, 150 miles to the South West of Leningrad on Estonian border.
August1. The Russians take Kaunas and cut all roads from Germany to Baltic States. Bor-Komorowski leads the Warsaw Uprising by the 38,000 strong Polish Underground Army.
5. The Polish Home Army goes onto the defensive in Warsaw, as 60% of the city now in control.
7. The Russians advance into the foothills of the Carpathian Mountains, near the Slovak, Hungarian, Russian borders.
20. The Russians launch an offensive into Rumania with 900,000 men (96 divisions), 1,400 tanks and 1,700 aircraft. Advances up to 12 miles are reported as the Russian plan to surround 23 German divisions (360,000 men), takes shape.
29. The Russians capture the Rumanian oil fields at Ploesti and enter Hungarian occupied Transylvania.31. The Russians enter Bucharest.
September4. The Russian and Finnish governments agree on and implement a cease-fire. The Germans have to leave Finland by the 15th September. Allied air forces start operation ‘Ratweek’ to hinder the German retreat from Balkans.
5. The Russians declare war in Bulgaria.
16. The Russians enter Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria.
23. Russian offensive in Baltic States ceases.
28. An agreement between Tito and Stalin is reached in Moscow, which allows the Red Army to be entering Yugoslavia.
October2. Warsaw falls to the Germans after 63-day siege, with the Polish Home Army surrendering only after all its food and ammunition had run out.
4. The Russian 46th Army is within 10 miles of Belgrade.
9. The 1st Bulgarian Army attacks towards Nis in Yugoslavia.
28. The Germans begin to evacuate Albania.
30. The Debreen counter-attacks end with the Germans claiming that they have inflicted 25,000 casualties and destroyed 600 tanks. The last extermination gassing at Auschwitz Concentration Camp is carried out.
November19. The RAF’s destruction of Drina Bridge at Visegrad, causes an 85-mile German traffic in Yugoslavia.
December9. The Russians reach the Danube north of Budapest. Budapest is surrounded by the Russians, trapping five German and Hungarian divisions.__________________________________________________________________
1945
January26. Himmler is put in command of Army Group Vistula by Hitler. The Russians isolate three German armies in East Prussia. Auschwitz concentration camp is capture by the Russians.
27. Russians troops capture Memel on Baltic Coast after the German evacuation, which now leaves the whole of Lithuania in Russian hands.
31. Two of Zhukov’s armies establish a bridgehead on the Oder, to the North of Kustrin and less than 40 miles.
February4. A Summit Conference between Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin opens at Yalta in Crimea.
11. The Yalta Conference ends.
13. Budapest is reported as fully captured by the Russians.
March6. The second Panzer and Sixth SS Panzer Armies launch a major counter-attack from Lake Balaton towards Budapest.
16. Two fresh Soviet armies counter attack the German offensive towards Budapest.
26. The Russians take Papa and Devecder, both German strong points covering the approaches to the Austrian border. The Reichsfuhrer-SS is captured by General Heinrich as Commander in Chief of Army Group Weichsel.
30. Russians troops finally capture Danzig, capturing 45 U-boats and taking 10,000 prisoners. Breslau and Glogau are surrounded, 180 miles South East of Berlin. Russian troops cross the Austrian border to the North of Koszeg. German troops of Army Group Weichsel evacuate their last remaining bridgehead at Wollin to the North of Stettin.
April2. The 3rd Ukrainian Front and Bulgarian forces take Nagykanizsa, thereby gaining control of the main Hungarian oil production region. 2nd Ukrainian front under Malinovsky conquers the industrial area of Mosonmagyarovar and reaches the Austrian border between Dounau and the Neusiedler Lake.
5. The Russians reach the railway North West of Vienna, cutting rail link with Linz.
12. A German war communiqué confesses that Konigsberg did surrender and announces that death penalty for the fortress comander, General Lasch. In Yugoslavia the Germans evacuate Zenica.
16. Hitler issues the last Order of the Day to the Eastern Front, saying ‘He who gives orders to retreat...is to be shot on the spot’. Zhukov and Koniev start the final offensive on Berlin along the Oder-Neiss line.
20. Russian artillery begins to shell Berlin. the Germans desperately counter-attack both North and South of Frankfurt an der Oder. A Furious battle takes place at Sternbeck and Protzel. In Czechoslovakia the Russian pressure increases at Moravska-Ostrava and Brno.
21. The Russians make successful pincer movement around Berlin and penetrate into the suburbs. They also manage to defeat all the German counter-attacks aimed at preventing this.
22. Hitler decides to stay in Berlin to the end.
25. Russian and U.S. troops meet at Torgau on Elbe, 60 miles West of Berlin. Russian units of Zhukov’s and Koniev’s armies meet at Kietzen west of Berlin, meaning those eight Russian armies have now surrounded Berlin in a vice like grip. The suburbs Tegel and Reinickendorf fall into Russian hands.
27. The Russians take Wittemberge on Elbe. Russian troops reach the Alexanderplatz in Berlin and Spandau is taken. The 2nd Belorussian front advances in Promerania seizes Prenzlau and Angermunde. The German 9th Army tries to reach Berlin from the Southeast and even counter-attacks at Zossen.
29. During the night Hitler marries Eva Brown, his mistress, writes a will and appoints Admiral Donitz (well-respected U-boat fleet commander) as his successor. In Berlin furious fighting takes place around the Reichstag (congress bldg.),Chancellery (White House), and nearby streets. South of Berlin German troops are still holding the Russians back.
30. Hitler commits suicide with Eva Brown-Hitler in the Reich Chancellery bunker at 1530 hours. A Sargent of the Russian Army plants the Red Flag on the bunker at 2;30 PM. German soldiers fight towards the western part of Berlin so they can surrender to the US Army instead of the Russians.
May2. The garrison in Berlin surrenders to 1st Russian and 1st Ukrainian Armies at 3:00 p.m. local time. During the 2-week battle for Berlin the Russians loose 300,000 soldiers, with Germany loosing 400,000 dead, 35,000 children brigade dead, and 480,000 prisoners.
6. Breslau surrenders 30,000 dead and 40,000 prisoners.
7. German chief of staff General Jodl signs the unconditional surrender to the Russians and Allies at 2;41 am. All fighting is to stop at 12 p.m. May 8th.
8. V.E. Day (victory in Europe day) is declared. Stalin announces the end of the war and all countries in Europe begin the exchange of POW (prisoners of war).
The Pacific CampaignBackground Information
JAPANESE HISTORY
* Japan is made up of four main large islands Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and Hokkaido- along with many smaller islands.- Because of this island geography the Japanese were mostly isolated from everyone except China – where they adopted their writing system, forms of government and Buddhism.- The islands of Japan are mostly mountainous which leaves only 20% of the land for farming – which means they got most of their food from the sea.- At first the Japanese lived in separate clans based on family ties and regions however, eventually strong families came to power and after a decisive battle between the two strongest which occurred in AD 1185, Yoritomo Minamoto came to power under the title of “shogun”, which means “great general.”- The Shogunate became quite strong and during the 1200’s drove back invading Mongol warriors from China. The second time the Mongols attacked their entire fleet was destroyed by a typhoon which the Japanese called the kamikaze or “divine wind. The Japanese viewed this stroke of luck to mean that their islands were sacred.- The warriors that fought under the shogun were called samurai. The samurai followed a strict code to honor called Bushido, meaning “the way of the warrior.” Bushido stressed bravery, self-discipline, and loyalty. It demanded that the samurai endure suffering and defend his honor at all costs. If a samurai was dishonored or defeated, he was expected to commit suicide. (which is a theme we will see later during world war II.)
Contacts with the west- The first Europeans to make contact with the Japanese were the Portuguese in 1543. The Japanese thought the Europeans were barbarians but they thought that their weapons were powerful and purchased muskets and cannons to defeat their opponents.- The Portuguese also brought catholic missionaries with them and many Japanese converted to Christianity. However many Japanese thought that Christianity was harmful to Japan, and in 1587 was outlawed. Christians were forced to leave Japan and some Catholic priests were crucified.
Japan’s policy of isolationThe Japanese rulers decided that contact with outsiders posed too many dangers, and implemented the “Act of Seclusion of 1636.”The act forbade any Japanese to leave the county and if the did they were to be executed
when they returned home.It banned the construction of ships large enough for ocean voyages.Bared all Europeans except the Dutch because they wee only interested in trade, not
conquest or religious conversion like the Spanish and Portuguese.
- During the 1700’s and 1800’s the population grew and the ban on foreign contacts began to relax.
- During World War I, t he Japanese fought on the side of the Allies and after the war received Germanys pacific island s north of the equator as mandates form the League of Nations.- The Japanese also attended disarmament conference help in Washington D.C., in 1922, along with the U.S., Great Britain, Italy, and France (the 5-5-3 Treaty). The Japanese were allowed to become the third-largest naval power after Great Britain and the United States. Yet in spite of this and other gains, the Japanese were bitter towards the West.- Japan did not feel that the West accepted it as an equal. (Hubris)- In 1919. The League of Nations, dominated by western powers, refused to accept Japan’s demand for a statement of racial equality in the Leagues charter. - And in 1924 the United States banned further Japanese immigration to the its shores.
Social an Political Tensions
After World War I, Japan faced many social and economic challenges at home.
- Japan had a huge population explosion. Its population had increased from 35 million people in 1872 to about 60 million in 1925 (doubled in about 50 years)- Japan’s industries also began to grow rapidly, which meant goods began to flood the world market. This increased manufacturing, however, stimulated the desire for raw materials. Japan had few mineral resources of its own, and was forced to look overseas for them.- The great depression also devastated Japan’s silk factories and other industries- Millions of workers lost their jobs.- Many began to starve and children went begging in the streets.- Farmers and workers looked to strong-minded military leaders such as Hashimoto Kingoro who was credited for saying:
“We are all like a great crowed of people packed into a small and narrow room, and there are only three doors through which we might escape, namely emigration, advance into world markets, and expansion of territory. The first door has been barred to us by the anti-Japanese immigration policies of other countries. The second door is being pushed shut by tariff barriers Japan should rush upon the last door (expansion of territory).”
This I exactly what happened and in September 1931 the military invaded the northeastern region of China known as Manchuria.
- China protested in the League of Nations about Japan’s actions and the League ordered an investigation.- The League voted overwhelmingly for Japan to return Manchuria to China.3. What do you think Japan’s response was? They withdrew from the League of
Nations in March 1933
Japan needs to expand its empire3. Japan needed more land for its growing population
4. Japan also wanted to be strong and self-sufficient but lacked resources and raw materials: especially steel, rubber, bauxite (aluminum), and the most important of all, oil.
5. The Japanese wanted to acquire the rich oil reserves of the East Indies, but to control the East Indies, Japan needed Chinese ports.
6. In 1937 Japan invaded China for its ports and what ever oil reserves they might have.
7. In the capital of Nanjing, the Japanese tried to break the Chinese people’s will to fight by killing over 200,000 civilians.
8. This didn’t break the will of the Chinese , and form 1937 to 1945, the Chinese Nationalists, Chinese Communists, and the Japanese all fought each other for control of China.
The Japanese knowing that with the collapse of France by the Germans, French, Indochina, and the Dutch East Indies were virtually defenseless.
In July 1940 the Japanese government established the “greater East Asia Coprosperity Sphere”, which stated that Asia was for the Asians and not European rule.
3. Basically this meant that everything in Asia was Japanese and in July 1940 invaded Northern Indochina.
4. United States responded by embargoing scrap metal to Japan .5. Japan responded to this by signing the Triparite pact with Germany and Italy in
September 1940. Under this pact, the three powers affirmed the right of every nation to "receive the space to which it is entitled", and pledged to cooperate to reach that goal as well as to one another's aid if attacked.
By this tie Japan could see that war was getting closer and in April 1941, signed a neutrality treaty with the Soviet Union.
8 Japan wanted this treaty in case they went to war with the United States and Britain, and didn't want to be attacked from behind.
9 When Germany attacked the Soviet Union in June 1941, Japan considered breaking the treaty and joining in form the east, however, they made one of the most fateful decisions of the war and decided to push southeast instead.
10 By July 1941, Japan had control of all of Indochina.11 The United States, Britain, and Netherlands responded this time by freezing
Japanese assets, and prohibiting the exportation of scrap metal, steel, and aviation grade gasoline, unless Japan withdrew from Indochina and China.
Negotiations went on for awhile between the U.S. and Japan the United States still wanted to avoid the war and didn't know if Germany was going to be victorious to Europe and that they would inevitably have to face the Germans.But Japan made the decision for the United States by striking at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on December 7,1941.
- On December 1st, 6 aircraft carriers along with battle-ships, cruisers, destroyers, and tankers to fuel the ships while crossing the Pacific are parked roughly 250
miles north of Hawaii.- The Japanese launched two waves of attacks: the first hit its target at 7:53 A.M.
and the second at 8:55 A.M.
The Japanese air attacks Consisted of fighter's aircraft (Zero), torpedo bombers, high-level bombers, and dive-bombers, 183 aircraft in first wave and 170 in the second wave.
183 aircraft of the first attack wave were lunched from the six imperial Japanese Navy carriers, Akohi, Kaga, Soryu, Hiru, Zuikaku and Shokaku. 230 miles north of Oahu at 6:00 A.M. they were ordered to attack at 7:00 A.M. by Lt. commander Mitsuo Fuchida
At approximately 7:15 A.M. the second wave of Aircraft was launched and 170 more aircraft were on the way to Pearl Harbor.(See page 7 for map) DECLORATION OF WAR ON JAPAN(See page 9)
After Pearl Harbor the Japanese's seemed to be everywhere at once.Before the end of December the Japanese captured:
12 British Hong Kong 13 Gilbert island (now Kiribati) N.E. of Australia 14 Guam - S.E. of Japan between Japan and New Guinea
They had invaded- British Burma - south of China - Borneo - East of Singapore - American - held Philippines
In early 1942:Singapore - Tip of MalaysiaEast Indies - most of Indonesia
This is where the Japanese planned to set up their defensive position and dig in to let the Allies come and wear themselves out. However, the Japanese were doing so well that they decided to extend their defensive perimeter.
North to the Aleutian Islands - Alaska East to Midway Island - N.W. of HawaiiSouth to the Solomon Islands and New Guinea - GuadalCanal
The Japanese attacked at Pearl Harbor:"battleship Row"Hickman, Wheeler, and Bellows air fieldsEwa Marine Corp Air StationKaneohe bay Naval Air Station
Schoefield Barracks
The attack lasted until 9:55 A.M.
- 20 Japanese planes were shot down- 188 American planes destroyed- Battleship Arizona, Oklahoma was sunk for good.- California, Nevada and West Virginia were sunk but were later raised to the
surface and recomissioned for service in 1943.- Pennsylvania was damaged but was in dry dock so it was easily repaired.- Utah was suck but it was being used a target ship for practice. The Japanese pilots were told not to waste their ordinance on the Utah but they sunk her any ways. - A total of 2,403 Americans were dead including 1300 that went down with the USS Arizona and are still there today.
All four off our aircraft carriers were out at sea.Roosevelt called Pearl Harbor a "day that will live in infamy"On Dec 8, 1941 congress declared war on Japan (read war declaration)Than on December 11, 1941 Italy and Germany declared war on the United StatesU.S. was now fighting a multi-theatre war (Europe and Pacific)
By early 1942 the Japanese had taken over much of Southeast Asia and the Pacific.
When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, they also conducted simultaneous invasions in many Southeast Asian countries, among them, the American controlled Philippines.
- General Mac Arthur who commander of the USAFFE (United States Armed Forces Far East), was ordered to retreat to Australia, and claimed that "I shall return", meaning to the Philippines, however not everybody was able to escape. - Approximately 70,000 U.S. and Filipino soldiers surrendered to Japanese forces on April 9, 1942, on Bataan peninsula of the Philippines.- The captives were forced to march about 100 kilometers North to Camp O'Donnell prison camp with no food or water. Many of the captives died on the way form malaria, heat, dehydration, and dysentery. Those who fell behind ere shot, bayoneted, and even beheaded. "Code of the warrior."- The march is to become known as the Bataan Death March, and the Japanese commander of the march, Masaharu Homma, was convicted by the U.S. military commission of war crimes, and executed on April 3, 1946 outside Manila.
After Pearl Harbor the Americans reacted in a few different ways.
First, the Americans quickly went from a state of isolationism, to a state of anger and Paranoia.
- because of fear of a west coast attack- Inflammatory rhetoric of nest papers and local politicians- and fueled mounting demands that the region be rid of supposed Japanese spies.
In early 1942, in Executive order 9066, President Roosevelt approved a war department plan to intern Japanese Americans in relocation camps for the duration of the war.
15 Around 120,000 Japanese American were placed in intern camps in California, Arizona, Utah, Colorado, Wyoming, Idaho, and Arkansas.
Ways out were:- Work furlough to do agricultural work.- If in college at time at intern, they could go back to school if they transferred out
of the West Coast military zone.- to join military services- However many Japanese Americans were forced to sell their property and
possessions (for nest to nothing) and report to the camps.- When the war was over they had nothing left.
The camps in Arizona were:Poston 12 southwest of ParkerGila River south of phoenix
Second, they hit the Japanese mainland with B-25 bombers in what is called the Doolittle Raid after the man who led the raid, James Harold Doolittle.
Bombers had never been flown off of aircraft carriers before however:- On April 18, sixteen B-25's left the USS Hornet and dropped bombs on oil stores, factory areas, and military installations, in Tokyo, Yokohama, and Nagoya.- The raid didn't really do much damage but it was a great morale booster for the American, and forced the Japanese to transfer back home fighter units that could have been used against the allies in ocean battles.
Then in May 1942 the United States caught a break- The Americans broke the Japanese code that they were planning on taking Port Moresby on the southeastern tip of New Guinea.- The Americans sent a naval force to the scene and the Battles of the Coral Sea ensued.
The battle of the Coral Sea- lasted five days- Japanese lost small carriers- Americans lost Lexington (large Carrier)- Even though this was a tactical Victory for the Japanese, it was a strategic victory to the allies, because they saved Port Moresby and maybe ultimately Australia
Just as significant was that prior to the battles of the Coral Sea, Japanese naval aviation was unchangeable in two oceans. Long years of hard peacetime training and real life exercises against the Chinese had made some of the best naval pilots in the world.
The Americans were optimistic because although Japan could Manufacture plenty of replacement air crafts, and maybe a few replacement carriers, they could not replace their expert pilots, from this time on Japanese naval aviation began to decline.
Then one month later in June 1942, the Japanese and Americans fought the battle of Midway
- the battle lasted for three days and was a huge turning point for the war- this was a decisive victory for the Americans- The Japanese lost four carriers and this stopped the expansion of the Japanese Empire in the pacific- from now on the Japanese would be put on the defensive
Battle of Guadalcanal
The invasion of Guadalcanal, Operation Watchtower, by sixteen thousand United States troops began on August 7, 1942 and was the first American offensive of the Pacific Campaign. Additional amphibious attacks simultaneously assaulted the island of Florida, Tulagi, Gavutu, and Tanambogo.Initially, only unarmed Japanese construction and support personnel occupied Guadalcanal itself, allowing the Americans to come ashore almost unhindered. But Japanese reinfceorments arrived on the island from Rabaul to destroy the Americans (Operation Ka-Go)These convoys and the land battle on Guadalcanal became magnets for naval activity on both sides. This resulted in seven naval battles:
- Savo Island on 9 August- Battle of the Eastern Solomons on 24 August- Battle of Cape Experance on 11 & 12 October- Battle of Santa Cruz Island on 26 & 27 October- First battle of Guadalcanal on 11 and 12 November- Second Battle of Guadalcanal on 14 & 15 November and finally- Battle of Tassafaronga on 30 November
These naval battles did not produce a victor, but the Japanese were unable to replace their losses.The land battle hinged around the airfield, which the Americans named Henderson Field, a muddy airstrip hanging onto the edge of the island, and was considered "an unsinkable aircraft carrier". The Japanese suffered 24,000 casualties the Americans 6,000
Extreme desperation characterized the ground fighting; only three of the defenders surrendered. Americans authorities declared Guadalcanal secure on 9 February 1943, after more than six months of combat.
- the battle of Guadalcanal was the first in a series of "island hopping" or "leapfrogging" by the U.S. to Japan- The strategy was to capture some islands and bypass other. those bypasses would be cut of from supplies and made to "wither on the vine"
- The Navy Seabees would be brought in to construct airstrips, bridges, roads, warehouses, hospitals, gasoline storage tanks, and housing.- They used a special runway made out of metal and could be connected. replacement was easy because they were in strips "looks like brown cafeteria mats"- Once they had as island secure they would move onto the next
It was around this time that: Australian forces and US then strove to retake the occupied parts of New Guinea and
the Dutch East Indies. The rest of the Solomon Islands were retaken in 1943. The Philippines were attacked in late 1944 following the Battle of Leyte Gulf.
The battle of Leyte Gulf was between October 23 and October 26, 1944 and was the largest air-sea battle in history.
it was here that the Japanese first used the Kamikaze as weapon The Americans sunk the last of the six carriers that helped attack Pearl Harbor and the
door was open for the re-conquest of Leyte by the land forces under the commander of General Douglas MacArthur who indeed returned like he said.
It was after this battle that the Japanese decided to form and use Kamikaze units to devastate the U.S. on a regular basis.
Battle of Iwo JimaThe nest battle came February 1945 and lasted until the end of March at Iwo Jima Iwo Jima was one of the bloodiest battles of the war The Allied forces finally secured Iwo Jima on March 26, with 25,000 casualties 7,000
of the dead.* Nearly 1/4 of the medals of honor awarded to the Marines went to those who fought at Iwo Jima* The Japanese soldiers fought with all the intensity and bravery of the Samurai, meaning most of the soldiers fought to the death. Of the 20,000 Japanese defenders, only 1000 were taken prisoner.
Navajo Code Talkersone of the reasons for the Allies success among the island battles were the Navajo Code Talkers.
16 The Navajo Code Talkers were men from the Navaho Nation who went to the Marine Cops and went through code training. The code talkers Primary jmob was to talk, transmitting information on tactics and troop movements, orders and other vital battlefield communications over telephones and radios.
17 The Japanese were never able to break the Code, and it is said that without the Code Talkers, the Allies would have never been able to take places like Iwo Jima.
18 The code worked by saying a Navajo word and whatever that word means in English - you take the first letter. for example, "wol-la-chee" (ant)=a
It was around this time that the Japanese started sending fire balloons into the jet stream. (See Packet)
Finally the battle of Okinawa occurred from April to June, 1945.At some battles such as Iwo Jima, there had been no civilians, but Okinawa had a large indigenous civilian population, and the civilian loss in the Typhoon of Steel was at least 130,000. American losses were over 72,000casualties, of whom 12,000 were killed or missing, over twice Iwo Jima and Guadalcanal combined. There were about 100,000 Japanese killed or captured; many preferred suicide to the disgrace of capture.
Fighting in the south was hardest, the skillful Japanese soldiers hiding in caves, but the Americans advance was unstoppable. The island fell on about June 21, thought some Japanese continued fighting, including the future governor of Okinawa prefecture, Masahide Ota.
The End of the WarThe Americans now were planning for the invasion of the main Japanese islands
- They came up with "Operation Downfall" in which the invasion starts in Kyushu.- The Americans knew that it was going to produce many casualties and fate took
over.
The Kyushu landing was never made. Throughout the war, the U.S. calculated the ratio of prisoners versus soldiers who surrendered and that ratio indicated the Japanese would fight to the last man to defend their home islands. It was estimated that 2-3 million Marines would die or be seriously injured as well as 5-10 million Japanese soldiers and civilians (the firebombing of Japan would have continued to the end).
Truman therefore decided on the use of the Atomic Bomb, to shorten the war before the Soviets get any land gains in Asia, and reduce the number of casualties. For maximum effect the bombs were dropped at the 3-day interval (August 6th on Hiroshima and August 9th on Nagasaki). The Japanese decided to accept the unconditional surrender, since it did allow them to keep the Emperor. MacArthur became the 1st military governor of post-war Japan.
The battle of Leyte Gulf was between October 23 and October 26, 1944 and was the largest air-sea battle in history.
it was here that the Japanese first used the Kamikaze as weapon The Americans sunk the last of the six carriers that helped attack Pearl Harbor and the
door was open for the re-conquest of Leyte by the land forces under the commander of General Douglas MacArthur who indeed returned like he said.
It was after this battle that the Japanese decided to form and use Kamikaze units to devastate the U.S. on a regular basis.
Battle of Iwo JimaThe nest battle came February 1945 and lasted until the end of March at Iwo Jima Iwo Jima was one of the bloodiest battles of the war The Allied forces finally secured Iwo Jima on March 26, with 25,000 casualties 7,000
of the dead.
nearly 1/4 of the medals of honor awarded to the Marines went to those who fought at Iwo Jima