WORLD GUIDE TO HIGHER EDUCATION A Comparative Survey of Systems, Degrees and Qualifications

Second edition

Unesco

Bowker Publishing Company / Unipub The Unesco Press

WORLD GUIDE TO HIGHER EDUCATION

Other books in the same series:

Glossaire international: Termes d'usage courant en matière de certQkats d'études secondaires et de diplômes et grades de l'enseignement supérieur dans quarante-cinq pays, by Marcel de Grandpré, 1969 (out of print).

International Association of Universities, 1970 (French, 1970). Methods of establishing equivalences between degrees and diplomas, prepared by the

International equivalences in access to higer education, by W. D. Halls, 1971. Comparability of degrees and diplomas in international law: A study on the structura[

and functional aspects, by René Jean Depuy and Gregory Tunkin, 1973 (French, 1972).

Comparability of engineering courses and degrees: A methodological study, by Anatoly I. Bogomolov, 1974 (French, 1974).

World guide to higher education: A comparative survey of systems, degrees and qualipcations, 1st edition, 1976 (French, 1973; Spanish, 1973; Russian and Arabic in preparation; new French version in preparation).

practices: New avenues, by Jean Guiton, 1977 (French, 1977).

Ricardo Marin Ibinez, 1981 (Spanish, 1980; French, 1981).

From equivalence of degrees to evaluation of competence: Present procedures and

The education of primary and secondary school teachers, by José Blat Gimeno and

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 7 place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris, France Bowker Publishing Company Erasmus House, High Street, Epping, Essex, England CM16 4BU Unipub, 345 Park Avenue South, New York, NY 10010, USA

First edition 1976 Second edition 1982

@ Copyright Unesco 1982

The designations employed in this volume do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of Unesco or of IAU concerning the legal status or political system of any country or territory or concerning the delimitations of its frontiers.

The publishers have used their best efforts in collecting and preparing material for inclusion in World Guide to Higher Education. They do not assume, and hereby disclaim, any liability to any party for any loss or damage caused by errors or omissions in this publication, whether such errors or omissions result from negligence, accident or any other cause.

All rights reserved. N o part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

British Library cataloguing in publication data World guide to higher education. - 2nd ed.

1. Education, Higher I. Unesco 378 LB2322

ISBN The Unesco Press 92-3-1019147 ISBN Bowker Publishing Company G85935-066.5 ISBN Unipub G89059-002-8

Printed in Great Britain by Thomson Litho Ltd, East Kilbride, Scotland

Contents

Preface page vii Introduction page ix A note on terminology page xvii

Afghanistan page 1 Albania page 2 Algeria page 4 Angola page 7 Argentina page 8 Australia page 12 Austria page 17 Bahrain page 20 Bangladesh page 21 Barbados page 24 Belgium page 24 Benin page 28 Bolivia page 30 Botswana page 32 Brazil page 33 Bulgaria page 35 Burma page 38 Burundi page 41 Canada page 43 Central African Republic page 47 Chad page 50 Chile page 51 China page 53 Colombia page 55 Congo page 57 Costa Rica page 58 Cuba page 60 Cyprus page 62 Czechoslovakia page 64 Democratic Kampuchea page 67 Democratic People’s Republic of Korea page 69 Democratic Yemen page 70 Denmark page 71 Dominican Republic page 73 Ecuador page 76

El Salvador page 81 Egypt page 78

Ethiopia page 83 Fiji page 85 Finland page 87 France page 91 Gabon page 97 Gambia page 100 German Democratic Republic page 100 Germany, Federal Republic of, page 103 Ghana page 107 Greece page 109 Guatemala page 112 Guinea page 1 13 Guyana page 115 Haiti page 117 Holy See page 119 Honduras page 121 Hungary page 124 Iceland page 126 India page 128 Indonesia page 132 Iran page 136 Iraq page 138 Ireland page 140 Israel page 143 Italy page 146 Ivory Coast page 150 Jamaica page 154 Japan page 156 Jordan page 159 Kenya page 161 Kuwait page 164 Lao People’s Democratic Republic page 165 Lebanon page 166 Lesotho page 170 Liberia page 172

vi CONTENTS

Luxemburg page 173 Madagascar page 175 Malawi page 178 Malaysia page 180 Mali page 182 Malta page 184 Mauritania page 186 Mauritius page 186 Mexico page 188 Mongolia page 192 Morocco page 193 Mozambique page 196 Nepal page 197 Netherlands page 199 New Zealand page 201 Nicaragua page 205 Niger page 208 Nigeria page 209 Norway page 212 Pakistan page 216 Panama page 218 Papua New Guinea page 220 Paraguay page 223 Peru page 225 Philippines page 228 Poland page 230 Portugal page 234 Qatar page 237 Republic of Korea page 239 Romania page 241 Rwanda page 244 Saudi Arabia page 245 Senegal page 248 Sierra Leone page 252 Singapore page 254 Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya page 256 Socialist Republic of Viet Nam page 257 Somalia page 260 Spain page 260 Sri Lanka page 264

Sudan page 267 Surinam page 270 Swaziland page 271 Sweden page 271 Switzerland page 274 Syrian Arab Republic page 278 Thailand page 281 Togo page 284 Trinidad and Tobago page 287 Tunisia page 288 Turkey page 291 Uganda page 294 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics page 296 United Arab Emirates page 300 United Kingdom page 301 United Republic of Cameroon page 307 United Republic of Tanzania page 310 United States of America page 312 Puerto Rico page 319 Upper Volta page 320 Uruguay page 322 Venezuela page 324 Yemen, Arab Republic of, page 327 Yugoslavia page 327 Zaire page 331 Zambia page 335 Zimbabwe page 337

Appendix 1: National bodies dealing with the application of conventions on the recognition of studies, diplomas and degrees in higher education under the auspices of Unesco page 340 Appendix 2: International conventions on the recognition of studies, diplomas and degrees in higher education adopted under the auspices of Unesco page 344

Preface The present volume forms part of the Unesco series of ‘Studies on the evaluation of qualifications at the higher education level’ (formerly ‘Studies on international equivalences of degrees’). This series, resulting from a resolution adopted by the General Conference at its thirteenth session (1964), is one of the facets of the Unescoproject on the increased mobility of students, teachers and research workers and on the recognition of studies and diplomas and degrees of higher education. The comparative studies presented here describe or analyse the conceptual basis of, and

fundamental elements involved in, the comparability of studies, diplomas and degrees at different steps of education. They suggest general criteria for the establishment of international recognition and validation of studies and degrees and diplomas. Conscious of the increasing mobility of those involved in higher education systems, Unesco

has undertaken a three-fold programme: systematic investigation of both the basic problems and the technical issues involved, preparation of international conventions and agreements, and action to promote the establishment or extension of bilateral or regional machinery so as to ensure that the relevant legal instruments are in fact applied. The first phase has given rise to specific studies in certain fields, such as international law,

engineering etc., to a regional Convention concerning the recognition of studies and degrees and diplomas signed in Mexico City in 1974 between the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean as well as bilateral and multi-lateral co-operation and, finally, to the creation or development of national or sub-regional machinery to promote the international mobility of students, teachers and research and professional personnel. During the second phase. Unesco is carrying out detailed surveys of studies and degrees and

diplomas as well as continuing to encourage the elaboration of regional and international juridical instruments on mutual recognition, such as the Convention adopted in Nice (France) in 1976. linking Arab States and European States bordering on the Mediterranean, the Convention adopted in Paris in 1978 linking the Arab States, the Convention adopted in 1979 linking the States of the European Region, or those in preparation. grouping respectively the African countries and the Asian and the Pacific States. In accordance with the explicity clauses of the Conventions, Unesco co-operates with the concerned States to establish viable instruments for the application of the principles set forth. The third phase of these activities will concentrate on the establishment of a system for co-

ordinating national and regional bodies and for applying the foreseen world Convention on the recognition of studies and diplomas and degrees. The present volume. which constitutes the second fully revised and enlarged edition of the

volume originally published in English under the same title in 1976, has been prepared by the International Association of Universities (IAU). The Secretanat of Unesco expresses its gratitude to the Secretary-General of IAU, Mr Douglas J Aitken, and to his colleagues, notably Mr Georges Daillant and Mrs Claudine Langlois. who were responsible for compiling and editing the manuscript. In most cases, the content of the country sections has been based on information specially

provided by the governmental and academic authorities of the relevant Member States. Unesco and IAU are indebted to those concerned for their readiness to respond to requests for assistance. Although in substance this work reflects the interest of Unesco and of IAU in the subject

treated, the facts and information given in the country sections must not be taken as expressing the views of Unesco or of IAU. Similarly, the opinions expressed by the editors should not necessarily be regarded as those of Unesco.

Introduction The approach to the compilation of this country by country guide to higher education throughout the world has been practical rather than scholarly. Its primary purpose is to present in concise and comparable form basic information about academic and professional qualifications. No attempt is made to establish ‘equivalences’ or to propose ready-made solutions to related problems of mobility between different countries or between professions. To do so might be more misleading than helpful. It is hoped, however, that the user will find the volume of service as a tool when evaluating degrees and diplomas awarded in different countries and when assessing acquired competences. Much has been written on the subject of what was until recently called the problem of

‘equivalences’ and, at times, it seemed that the purpose was to present it as one so complicated as to defy solution. Indeed, it did remain for long unsolved or at best solvedonly in particular cases. This has constituted a serious barrier to academic mobility and to exchanges between universities in different countries or has served as an alibi for attitudes of protectionism and isolationism. Consequently society has time and again been prevented from deriving the full benefit of valuable human resources. Moreover, in acentury during which many thousands of men and women have left their homes and countries, often being obliged to do so in tragic circumstances. personal hardship and humiliation have been the lot of those who have found that their hard won ‘foreign’ qualifications are not recognized or, at best, accepted only after long delays. It must be admitted. however, that although in other spheres new efforts to develop exchanges and increase mobility have brought encouraging results, this problem has continued to prove particularly intractable. The question, therefore, arises, is the difficulty attributable to causes other than mere national egoism or the solipsism sometimes attributed to universities? A university degree or diploma can be difficult and recalcitrant to handle, simply because of the ambiguity attached to its role and purpose. In principle, it testifies to the possession of knowledge and to the aptitude to acquire new knowledge. Yet, at the same time, it constitutes a means of access to certain functions in society and is thus endowed with a negotiable value. Representing in this way both knowledge and power, it has a hybrid character made up of two different kinds of reality. It is very difficult, both in theory and in practice, to formulate policies which take proper account of the two dimensions of this single instrument with validity in two distinct spheres each calling for different treatment. Even if account is taken only of the social function of a degree or diploma, a certain

ambivalence exists. Many quite rightly regard it as a factor of upward social mobility which helps to correct and even offset inequalities attributable to the accident of birth or of financial status. But it is also true that it isa factor of social rigidity and immobility in so far as it defines, guarantees and encompasses certain socio-professional monopolies. It may be compared to a door which opens and thus gives access-but also one which closes and protects a domain from outside interference. Those who wish to pass through the door, students or would-be students, naturally wish it to be open widely. But once they have qualified, they do not mind seeing it closed. A privilege which is widely shared ceases to be a privilege and those, many of them students, who do seek situations of privilege. are anxious to preserve them from the multitude. Problems are raised at the national level by the complexity and ambiguity surrounding

academic qualifications. At the international level, the number of problems is far greater and they are more intractable. not least because of the interplay of conflictinginterests. Thus they can easily serve as a pretext for closing doors rather than opening them. This is no doubt why the efforts to re-establish the mobility of scholars which once existed in the world of Islam and in mediaeval Europe have, for so long, remained sporadic and unsuccessful.

THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND This is not the place to analyse the reasons for the withdrawal of higher education systems

X INTRODUCTION

behind national frontiers, particularly in the 19th century, or for the creation of vast academic empires. These, despite their authoritarian character, never became wholly independent because the flow of ideas and mutual borrowing between them never ceased. There have always been exchanges between the products of these systems but the systems themselves have remained relatively isolated one from the other. At the same time, political, economic and cultural relations between nations have

developed, at times more rapidly than at others, and it might have been expected that this would have had consequences for education, which both reflects and underlies most historical and social progress. And, in fact, starting in the second half of the 19th century, numerous bilateral agreements concluded between nations did include clauses referring to the mutual recognition of degrees and diplomas. Some of these agreements were concerned specifically with cultural co-operation but others, such as treaties of ‘friendship’ (Iraq-Turkey 1946), of ‘friendship and of commerce and navigation’ (Ecuador-Japan 1918), were broader in scope. The International Association of Universities has sought to assemble the texts of these agreements. In 1966, it published its Collection of Agreements Concerning the Equivalence of Universiiy Qualifications and, in 1977, a First Supplement in microfiche form. If one counts the number of these agreements-128 for the period 1911-61 (i.e. before the processes of liberation and decolonization led to an increase in the number of sovereign states)- it might appear that, already during the first half of the present century, a close network providingfor the equivalence and mutual recognition of qualifications had come into existence. But this is not so. In many cases, the clauses referring to equivalences have not been put into effect. Very often, they took the form of declarations of intent of a vague nature-‘Each contracting party shall determine the conditions andextent to which the equivalence of qualifications, academic degrees and diplomas awarded in the territory of the other party, including those relating to the exercise of a profession, may be recognized’. In other words, each contractingparty would continue to act unilaterally. The outsider may well be surprised and ask whether the insertion of such a clause in an agreement does not border on the absurd. Other texts foresee the establishment of mixed commissions of experts from the two parties charged with the elaboration of proposals for equivalences. But often the commissions do not meet, or if they do, their recommendations are not acted upon. Experience seems to show that only minimum results will be achieved if the matter of the

mutual recognition of academic qualifications is dealt with merely as a subsidiary part of a more general agreement negotiated by experts in foreign affairs rather than by academics and educationists. The inclusion of clauses on equivalences in this kind of agreement tended to be a mere formality. There was no political desire to apply them and, for a long time, the universities themselves, jealously guarding their own qualifications, did little to awaken this desire. There were exceptions, particularly in the case of countries linked by their common history, geography and culture. There were, for example, the agreements which Spain started to conclude in 1840 with countries in Latin America, and much later the important agreements which France concluded with the governments of African countries closely associated with it. Agreements of this kind express a genuine desire to co-operate in the specific field of education and provide a legal basis for the exchanges which the contracting parties intend to carry out. Similarly, the agreements between many of the socialist countries give expression to a policy of rapprochement and postulate the mutual recognition of degrees and diplomas as one means of achieving this end, as does the Treaty of Rome which provides for the ‘right of establishment’ within the European Economic Community. The Council of Europe Conventions on the Equivalence of Qualifications Giving Access to

Universities (1953), on the Equivalence of Periods of Study (1956) and on the Recognition of University Qualifications (1959) are distinctive in that they are concerned only with the mutual recognition of qualifications and are exceptional in that they were signed by a large number of countries. The latter, of course, do form part of a large cultural community which

INTRODUCTION XI

they regard as a basis for close co-operation. Another approach, more recent and as yet not widespread, is to entrust universities and

their members with the task of carefully studying courses, discipline by discipline. in order to devise complex and detailed systems of equivalences. These may not necessarily be incorporated in a formal international agreement or convention but may instead be validated in each of the countries concerned by national legislation, by regulations or in other ways in conformity with the law of the country. The number of mixed commissions set up for this purpose has steadily increased. These have the advantage of basing the mutual recognition of qualifications and of partial studies on the full consent of the interested parties. The disadvantage is that they involve a laborious process which may often later give rise to problems of equivalence since reforms of curricula do not take place in the same way and at the same time in the countries involved. Agreements concluded directly between universities appear to be very rare. Thus, until recently, there have been very few really effective agreements and these have

principally involved countries, such as those signatories to the Andean Pact, already linked by other historical, political and cultural ties. There was. for long, no question of a global solution.

A MORE DYNAMIC CONCEPTION Thcre has, however. been a considerable change in the situation since the Second World War. It is not necessary here to refer in detail to the appearance of many new sovereign states and to the foundation of new universities. Nor is it necessary toevoke again the ‘explosions’-that of student enrolments and that of knowledge and technology-and accompanying progress made in the democratization of higher education, the change in attitudes to the right to education and the development of international exchanges, not least in the field of higher education. All these factors have resulted in universities and post-secondary education in general finding themselves in a state of effervescence and spectacular quantitative expansion. All were bound to have an effect on the status of qualifications and on their international ‘convertibility’. Dynamic developments of this kind were also bound to have an effect on the nature of

academic qualifications themselves. For centuries. a university degree or diploma constituted a well-defined ‘asset’. It represented the acquisition of a body of knowledge and an aptitude to use it intelligently in the exercise of certain functions within society. But this conception has been undermined, partly because the knowledge which constituted the ‘asset’ has tended to become outdated and rapidly lose its value, partly because. as a corollary, the functions which it served have themselves changed, both in method and in content. Consequently, a university qualification is no longer an acquisition that will serve the holder for the rest of.his life. Instead, it must be seen as a potential to be used to assimilate new knowledge and to participate in, or at least to adapt to, the process of innovation. Instead of being a terminal point, it should constitute a starting point. turned towards the future rather than the past. Unesco has done much to encourage this new approach and it has embodied it in the various regional conventions on the mutual recognition of studies, degrees and diplomas which have been drawn up on its initiative. But the status of academic qualifications has also undergone a substantial relative change.

Far from being the privilege of the few they have become accessible to large numbers. Consequently, they are no longer the only prerequisite for access to certain functions and no longer, of themselves, open the door to certain closed professions. As has already been mentioned, academic qualifications both open and close doors. In many societies, they were for a long time the key to many selective mechanisms, for they appeared to operate ‘objectively’ if not ‘scientifically’. This is no longer true since they are now within reach of far greater numbers and the phenomenon of graduate unemployment increases the risk of being

xii INTRODUCTION

shut out. In this situation there is a danger: that of finding other criteria being added to or even taking the place of academic qualifications. These may take the form ofless equitable factors, such as that of family, social or financial status. But there may also be advantages. Consideration may be given not only to the qualifications of an individual but also to the experience, professionally or in terms of the competence, he may have gained outside his formal educational work, his achievements, publications, etc. The move in this direction has been strongly encouraged by Unesco and in its conventions reference is made to the desirability of taking account of such factors as well as of formal academic qualifications when assessing the aptitude of persons to engage in particular activities.

There is a third important element which has helped to modify attitudes towards academic qualifications. This is the development of international exchanges in all fields. In a world in which everything is moving more and more rapidly-merchandise, capital, equipment, information, labour-the barrier of the non-recognition of qualifications which is often a consequence of lack of knowledge of them appears as an anomaly blocking the movement of teachers, research workers and students, the very groups which traditionally moved more freely than many others. Science knows no frontiers, yet the men and women of science and those who seek the advancement of knowledge are painfully aware of them. It is strange that this should be so. Motor cars are exported but the qualifications of those who design them are not recognized in the importing countries. It is quite conceivable that a Nobel Prize winner could find it impossible to practise medicine in another country, not for political reasons, but simply because his qualifications were not regarded as valid. In a world which attaches growing importance to the value of mobility, situations of this kind verge on the absurd.

The intensification of international contacts has other and contrary effects, and institutions everywhere are tending more and more to be cast from common moulds. There is consequently an increasing uniformity of customs and ways of life which engenders a certain interchangeability or ‘generalized equivalence’, but paradoxically this also gives rise to a reaction against conformity and a growing search for diversity. Universities, in particular, are conscious of the cultural and scientific enrichment which they can derive from teachers and students accustomed to different approaches and methods of work.

STAGES OF HIGHER EDUCATION Thus three series of factors-the advancement of knowledge itself, the development of education and the development of international exchanges-all help to change attitudes with regard to the nature and conception of qualifications. This opens up new possibilities for action and Unesco, to its credit, has identified them. In particular, it has taken an initiative which has led to the drawing up of a number of regional conventions on the mutual recognition of degrees and diplomas (see appendices) which, it is hoped, will eventually lead to a global convention. First of all, the word ‘equivalence’ is not always applicable and has often been replaced by or combined with the term ‘mutual recognition’. This, instead of postulating the rigorous identity of curricula or of knowledge sanctioned by degrees and diplomas, recognizes that the training of the mind can be served by different areas of knowledge. While respecting the place of individuals, these conventions set the question of recognition in the context of the global perspectives of national and regional societies, of their cultural and economic development and of the optimum use of educational facilities and of human resources. Their aim is not only to facilitate the access of foreigners to higher education or to the professions, but also to facilitate the reinsertion in the national context of those who have studied abroad-a matter of great importance in the world today. Finally, and perhaps this is the most important of all, these conventions lend a new

dynamism to the notion of academic qualifications (or of partial studies), by regarding them not as terminal points but as spring-boards for future work. Thus they embody the notion ofa ‘stage of training’ which is considered to be represented by the sum total of theoretical and

... INTRODUCTION Xlll

practical studies, of personal experience and of achievements which together constitute the level of maturity and competence needed-in the case of the pursuit of studies-to embark on the following stage and, for the exercise of a profession, justifies the assuming of responsibilities and duties at a given stage. Thus, whereas the notion of ‘level’ implies that what is measured is static, that of ‘stage’ immediately suggests a continuous progression. Such a definition, moreover, postulates the taking into account of all the pertinent factors-including, for example, professional experience and personal achievements-and not only the qualifications earlier obtained within a particular educational system.

It is true that this does not solve all the problems of evaluation: it may even appear to complicate them. Professional experience, for example, is a complicated notion which is still difficult to quantify. To take account of this experience not only means assessing the knowledge and specialized competences which have been derived from it; it is also a question of assessing what the individual has gained from the exercise of complex and rigorous techniques and from the need to analyse and to take decisions quickly in complex situations. It is also a matter of acquiring the habit of team work and of co-operation with specialists in different fields. In other words, the need is to measure a certain ‘culture’ quite independently of the tangible context in which it has evolved and has its existence. It was once believed, and some still believe, that a classical education in Latin provided the mind with a sound training for later life (a graduate in classics, for example, could become an administrator). But the question is rarely put as to whether experience of human relations may be of use to the administrator who, later, might wish to become a grammarian or linguist. However this may be, such factors are difficult to measure or quantify and do not lend

themselves to data processing (required when the selection of candidates is done by computer). Yet they are factors which employers take into account when filling senior posts. Their methods, where these are codified, could profitably be studied. But they should be studied and not copied, for the ultimate objectives are different. The first concern of the manager. at least in a market economy, is the success of his business rather than the personal and intellectual development of his employees. He may thus attach importance to attitudes and behaviour such as acquiescence or apoliticism. neither of which is a guarantee of success in academic research. The notion of taking account systematically of non-scholarly and non- academic factors raises a new problem for the educational system, which must review its methods of examining and evaluation. At present much still depends on the personal judgement of those responsible for admissions to higher education. The question is raised here because it is of vital importance for the application of the

Conventions concluded under the auspices of Unesco. The present volume. which is designed to facilitate their application, is concerned with systems of higher education as they exist at present and only incidentally and factually deals with questions of professional experience and personal achievement where certain systems of higher education already take account of them. In organizing and presenting the country sections the first concern has been to ascertain whether the notion of ‘stages’ of training is already accepted and can thus be used in describing the systems. not as they might be but as they are at present. The question, therefore, is twofold: (1) are the stages identifiable? (2) is there sufficient articulation between the stages in different countries for valid conclusions to be drawn and for a system of mutual recognition to be based on them?

The first question can be answered affirmatively. This would not have been the case a few years ago. In the German-speaking countries. for example, there was traditionally only one ‘degree’ in many fields of study-the doctorate-and the student was left to organize his own programme of study. Certainly he passed through a number of stages but he did so at his own pace and not in conformity with a prescribed course. Today, all systems tend to be more highly structured. At first sight there is no such simple answer to the second question with regard to the

xiv INTRODUCTION

comparability of the articulation of stages in different countries. In some systems, in France for example, higher education is explicitly divided into three cycles, others tend to be binary in nature-undergraduate and graduate (or postgraduate). This is true of the Anglo-Saxon countries and of most countries which derive their own systems from them. In most socialist countries, higher education is also essentially binary in nature, with studies leading to the first ‘diploma’ then to the ‘aspirantur’ which broadly corresponds to postgraduate study, and to the award of a first doctorate (or degree of Candidate) on presentation of a thesis. A closer examination, however, reveals that many systems are, in fact, implicitly if not

explicitly tertiary in nature-even if there are no explicit stages or corresponding qualifications. In socialist countries, studies leading to the first ‘diploma’are generally divided into two parts. The first, for which no qualification is conferred, is devoted to training in fundamental disciplines, while the second is more highly specialized. Similarly, undergraduate medical studies, which in many countries appear to constitute a six or seven year continuum, are often divided into pre-clinical (more theoretical) and clinical studies. In the Federal Republic of Germany and in Austria the Vordipiom (or Vorprüfung) does not constitute a terminal qualification but it does mark apoint in the course leading to the degree. In the Anglo-Saxon systems, the pattern (although with exceptions) is that of a triple progression from BA-BSc to MA-MSc to PhD. However, it would be unwise to pursue this approach in order, arbitrarily, to seek to cast all

systems in the same mould. But, on the whole, they do appear to reveal a pattern of higher education divided into three phases. The first phase, which may or may not lead to the award of a particular qualification, may be described as one of training in the fundamental disciplines of one field of study (or activity). The second is one of greater specialization in one or several fundamental or applied disciplines, usually allied to an introduction to research and the analysis of complex problems. The third and final phase is that devoted to advanced study and original research, which may be carried out individually or in a team.

This, of course, is only a theoretical model and it must, in any case, be corrected for short post-secondary courses which lead directly to active employment. Here, the first phase is itself terminal in nature and, therefore, lays greater emphasis on practical work. Even so, it is highly desirable that it should not constitute a dead-end but permit, under certain conditions, access to the next stage of education. This is already the case in some countries. In the Gesarnrhochschulen in the Federal Republic of Germany, for example, the first stage is common to all students, whether they intend to follow long or short courses. It is the second stage which is shorter for some and longer for others. Finally, it should be mentioned that, in some countries, the third stage may be longer, due to

the existence of a ‘second’ doctorate (Habilitarion, in the Federal Republic of Germany, docrorar d‘Etar in France, dokror nauk in the Soviet Union). This is a qualification primarily designed for those wishing to accede to senior academic posts.

The question may therefore be put, should this tertiary structure find its counterpart in the world of employment? There is no difficulty with regard to short courses which train for middle level employment. However, the first stage of full higher education does not always correspond to a clearly defined stage in the hierarchy of professional employment. Subject to there being provision for some in-service training, it would be desirable for it to lead to middle level management appointments, and subsequently, to higher levels through internal promotion. The second stage is, broadly speaking, that from which engineers, doctors, lawyers and

senior secondary school teachers are recruited, together with administrators and managers. These are people who should have a mastery of a certain body of knowledge and of methods of applying this knowledge to practical, and often complex, problems. The third stage normally provides for access to scientific careers, including those in higher

INTRODUCTION xv

education. which require a high level of training and an aptitude for research and effective decision-making. Here again, the object is not to impose arigid framework or to create a monopoly of certain

kinds of qualification for certain categories of employment. To do so would be to deny the decisive importance of professional experience and of personal achievement.

THE PRESENT VOLUME The purpose of the above observations is simply to outline the broad framework which has served for the presentation of the contents of the present volume. It is addressed to those in universities and government departments and to others who are responsible for the recognition of academic qualifications or who may be interested in the various systems of higher education throughout the world. It is hoped that it will facilitate the task of those who will serve on the regional and national bodies charged with the important responsibility of applying the Conventions signed under the auspices of Unesco and thus. with stimulating mobility of individuals, in this way promote their personal development and that of the countries between which they form the living links. This is a task of special importance at a moment of history when, in some countries at least, there appears to be a lessening of interest in study abroad and when the difficulties of the economic crisis may reawaken attitudes of protectionism-a moment in history too. when international relations are more intricate and complex than ever before. The economic crisis is giving rise to an increasing obsession with the economic and

professional rewards of training, and this is at the expense of the development of the individual, which the Universal Declaration of Human Rights defines as one of the goals of education. For any man or woman today, international experience is an indispensable part of personal

and cultural fulfilment. It may. moreover, constitute an element of professional competence in a world in which almost all problems have an international dimension and in which the number of centres of innovation is continually growing. Architects. doctors, engineers, all need to be familiar with the achievements and methods of other countries, and to be able to communicate with other socio-professional groups. The Conventions seek specifically to allow them to do this without unnecessary waste of time and with the maximum benefit for the community. For the Conventions, the main question with regard to the individual is not a matter of

knowing what he has already done but of what be is still capable of doing in his own field or even in a new one. for it is no less important to stimulate mobility between the different fields of study. Here, too. the interests of the individual and those of the community can coincide. It is good for the mathematician to become a lawyer, if he feels the need or the inclination-and it may also be good for society to have the benefit of a number of lawyers who have also received a mathematical training. Today, knowledge changes and becomes out-dated so rapidly that the exact content of

previous training is less important than its scientific quality and its methods. Good higher education must. therefore, have a certain polyvalent element and prepare the mind to embark on new paths of study and research. The present volume, obviously. does not attempt to pass judgement and does not, of itself,

provide a basis for evaluation. However, its compilation would not have been undertaken had a knowledge of the patterns of higher education in different countries not been indispensable for taking decisions in matters concerned with the recognition of studies. degrees and diplomas. The information here presented has, in most cases, been furnished by the competent authorities in the countries concerned. It has been collated in the Secretariat of the International Association of Universities and efforts have been made to present it in a form which corresponds. as far as possible, to the stages of education and training outlined above,

xvi INTRODUCTION

and which describes the terminology of each system. An attempt has been made to present the information clearly and in comparable form, although, in certain cases, this has meant simplifying some long and complex texts. It is hoped, in this way’, that the country sections will help to indicate paths through the systems of higher education and through the main disciplines and fields of study, although the way in which these are divided and organized varies from one country to another. Similarly, for ease of reference, the descriptive texts are accompanied by tables which

recapitulate the periods of study leading to the award of the various degrees and diplomas. These should be used with caution since their apparent simplicity may overemphasize the significance of the length of courses as one of the criteria for assessing the value of a qualification. Important as it may be, it can also be misleading if it is the only factor to be taken into account, and the standing of qualifications cannot therefore be measured or compared simply by using a ruler. Those who will use this volume will certainlybe aware that tables of this kind constitute a tool which can only be of value if used with caution.

A Note on Terminology Much of the discussion regarding equivalences is bedevilled by semantics. For this reason, special care has been taken regarding the language employed in this book. So far as possible, a ‘neutral’ form of English, in which the key criterion is comprehensibility, has been used to designate institutions, qualifications and courses. For example, whereas the British speak of a ‘college of education’ but Americans refer to a ‘teachers’ college’ or a ‘normal school’. in this book the term ‘teacher-training institution’, which is self-explanatory, has in most cases been employed. Wherever possible, terms that might lend themselves to ambiguity have been avoided. Thus

the term ‘school’ (as in ‘school of social science’, for example) has been used as little as possible and a circumlocution employed. Likewise, the use of the word ‘professional’ gives rise to confusion. particularly when translating from the Romance languages. The procedure adopted here has been to use ‘professional’ when a high level of occupational training is implied (e.g. in medicine and engineering), and to use ‘vocational’-and, on occasion, ‘technical’-for lower levels of training. Moreover, the word ‘technical’ is now used in many countries not only to apply to the industrial techniques, but also to commercial and business arts, and even to preparation for tertiary occupations. It is realized that the use of these different terms has sometimes involved making value judgements that are arbitrary. Furthermore, the term ‘professional qualification’ has been used in the rather restricted sense of an award granted at the end of professional training, although its use does not imply that the award necessarily confers the right to exercise the profession for which it was granted. In certain cases. such as in the entries for a number of South American countries, the more exact denomination of ‘professional title’ has been deliberately employed. The word ‘qualification’ has been used as a generic term to designate any kind of degree,

diploma, title or certificate whatsoever awarded as the result of a course of education or training. Wherever possible. a distinction has been made between the words ‘thesis’ and

‘dissertation’, although current usage of these in English is itself very unclear. In general the term ‘thesis’ has been employed to designate a written exercise of a fairly substantial nature prepared for a doctorate degree and ‘dissertation’ for a lesser qualification than a doctorate. Words and expressions used in their common or generic meaning are printed in the text in

normal type. However. they are printed in italics when a specific meaning is attached to them in a particular system of higher education and they figure in the glossary for that system.

AFGHANISTAN 1

Afghanistan No information having been received recently, the present text is mainly repeatedfrom the 1976 English edition of this Guide.

In Afghanistan, all educational institutions are controlled, administered and financed by the State. Higher education is given at the University of Kabul and some institutions which are

attached to it (for instance, the College of Medicine at Nangarhar). The other major institutions of higher education are the Institute of Accountancy, the Institute of Industrial Management, the Higher Institute of Agriculture. fourteen advanced teacher-training colleges and a teachers’ academy. Kabul University comprises ten faculties: letters and humanities (including journalism,

history, geography, fine arts, education, linguistics, teacher training); Islamic law; law and political sciences; sciences; engineering (including architecture); economics and business administration; pharmacy; agriculture; veterinary science: and medicine: it includes a polytechnic institute, the College of Medicine (Nangarhar) and a university hospital. As a special facility for foreign students, the university also offers the following special

language courses in Pashto and Persian: (a) an elementary language course lasting four and a half months with an emphasis on conversation; (b) a nine-month course leading to a certificate: (c) an eighteen-month course leading to a diploma; and (d) a four-year course leading to a leicanc in Persian and Pashto in the faculty of letters. The Institute of Industrial Management. which includes two sections (industrial

management and secretariat) offers four-year courses at the end of which students may obtain a degree enabling them to occupy middle level management jobs in industry. banks and public administration. The Higher Institute of Agricui: ire, set up in 1971, acquired its status and present title in

1975. A State institution responsible to the Ministry of Higher Education. it includes departments of veterinary medicine, forestry and also offers courses in accountancy, management, marketing techniques of agricultural products, horticulture and co-operatives. It awards a diploma after five semesters. The Teachers’ Academy receives graduates with one year’s experience in the field of

teaching. They work in co-operation with Unesco educational specialists and continue their training abroad. with the aid of scholarships.

The languages of instruction at the university are Persian and Pashto; however, because of relations existing with assistance programme agencies or foreign universities, English and French are also used. Primary level teachers are trained in teacher-training colleges at secondary level. Secondary

level teachers acquire their training in the universities or in higher teacher-training institutions (two years). Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leaving certificate (baccaluria)

awarded after 12 years of general education in Afghan vocational schools or 1-vcées, after which candidates have to pass the university entrance examination (concor). Foreign students are admitted in accordance with cultural exchange agreements with certain countries. Foreign candidates are not required to pass the entrance examination, but must hold a twelfth-grade school-leaving certificate or equivalent. The main stage of higher education leads. in arts and science, after four years’ study to the

leicanc (licence). In engineering, studies last five years. In medicine they last seven, leading to the doctori (doctorate). A postgraduate degree (master’s degree) is awarded (in Persian and Pashto).

2 AFGHANISTAN

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, baccaluria and entrance examination)

years 4 5 6 7

Arts L M Sciences Engineering, technology L Medicine D

D doctori L leicanc M master’s degree

GLOSSARY Baccaluria. Secondary-school-leaving qualification, awarded at the end of 12 years of

education. The baccaluria is a necessary qualification for higher education, but does not give a right of access. Candidates have to pass a competitive entrance examination. Concor. Entrance examination set by the university for prospective Afghan students, who

must hold a baccaluria. Candidates must complete a questionnaire containing about 300 questions which test their knowledge and intelligence. Entrance to any particular faculty depends on the number of places available and the grades obtained by a candidate in the basic subjects taught in the faculty he wishes to enter. Foreign candidates holding secondary- school-leaving qualifications are not required to pass the entrance examination. Doctori. Degree of doctor of medicine awarded by the faculty and college of medicine after

seven years of study. The first year, known as MPCB (mathematics, physics, chemistry and biology) is common to all science, medicine and pharmacy students. It is followed by five years of professional study and hospital training, and by one year of internship in one of the university hospitals. The degree of doctor of medicine is a professional qualification. It is the sole doctorate awarded by the university.

L -

Entrance examination. See concor. Leicanc (licence). First degree, awarded in letters and sciences after four years’ study, the

first one or two of which consist of general study; the last one or two years of the course are devoted to specialization. In engineering, studies last five years. Master’s degree. Higher degree awarded in Persian and Pashto by the faculty of letters. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See baccaluria.

Albania Mo detailed information having been received recently, the present text is largely based on the previous edition of this Guide.

In the People’s Socialist Republic of Albania institutions of higher education are regulated by statutes approved by the Ministry of Education and Culture. Higher education is given in

ALBANIA 3

Tirana State University and in the following institutions, which are also state institutions: an institute for fine arts, three institutes for agriculture, an institute of physical education, four institutes of engineering, of mechanical and chemical engineering, three teacher-training institutions attached to the University, and a teacher-training institute.

The University is governed by a rector, together with the Council, which is the main governing body. It consists of seven faculties (history and philology; economics; law and political science; natural sciences, including mathematics and pharmacy; engineering, including architecture; medicine, including dentistry; geology and mining) and three institutes (history and languages; nuclear physics; folklore). A numerus clausus operates in accordance with the needs of the economy.

The Institute for Agriculture, which comprises the faculties of agriculture, veterinary medicine and forestry, offers professional qualifications in these fields after four or five years of study. The Institute of Physical Education, open to holders of the secondary-school-leaving certificate who successfully pass the competitive entrance examination, gives a teaching qualification after a three-year course (four years by correspondence). The teacher-training institute gives a three-year course leading to a teaching qualification (mësues i shkollës televjeçare) in a variety ofsubjects. It is residential, but also has a large number of external and evening students. Teachers of elementary and lower-secondary education qualify after two years’ study in a

teacher-training institution and teachers of upper-secondary education are trained in university faculties of arts and science. The basic level for access to higher education is either the deftesepjekurie (secondary-school-

leaving certificate), obtained after four years of general secondary education, following upon seven years of primary education, which gives access to all the faculties, or the teacher’s certificate for primary education, obtained in a teacher-training school, which gives access to the faculties of natural sciences; economics; law and political sciences; and history and languages. In addition, the leaving certificate of a technical school gives entrance to the

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 11 years, deftese pjekurie)

years 2 3 4 5 6

Eàu ca t i on TC P Arts B Fine arts B Law, political sciences B Economics B Exact and natural sciences B Engineering P Medical sciences medicine P dentistry P pharmacy P veterinary medicine P

Agriculture P

B bachelor’s degree tary and lower-secondary schools

P professional qualification TC teacher’s certificate for elemen-

4 ALBANIA

faculties of engineering, medicine and dentistry, and qualifies students to study pharmacy and enter the Agricultural Institute. The main stage of higher education comprises study lasting four to six years. Depending

upon the subject, this culminates in the award of either a bachelor’s degree after four years of study; or a professional qualification in pharmacy after four years, in agriculture and forestry after four or five years, in engineering, dentistry and veterinary medicine after five years, and in medicine after six years-obtained either through state examinations or by submitting a thesis, again depending upon the subject. Beyond this stage, students may prepare by three years’ full-time or five years’ part-time

study for a competitive examination for a teaching post in higher education.

GLOSSARY Bachelor’s degree. Degree of higher education, usually awarded after four years’ study in

arts, law and political sciences, economics, exact and natural sciences (sometimes five or six in other subjects), and the successful completion of either state examinations or a thesis. The sections of the programme that are not tested in the final examinations are examined by oral interrogations during the course. After completing their examinations candidates in the appropriate fields of study are awarded the corresponding professional qualification as teacher, doctor, lawyer, economist, engineer, etc. Deftese pjekurie. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, obtained after four years of general

secondary education following seven years of primary education, which gives entrance to all the faculties. Entrance also depends upon the number of places attributed to each faculty by a national plan, which takes into account the needs of the country (numerus clausus). Professional qualification. See bachelor’s degree. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See deftese pjekurie; teacher’s certifïcate for primary

education; technical-school-leaving certificate.. Teacher’s certificate for elementary and lower-secondary schools. Qualification awarded

after two years’ studies in a teacher-training institution. Teacher’s certificate for primary education. Secondary-school-leaving certificate obtained

after four years of secondary education in a teacher-training institution following seven years of elementary education. Confers the right to teach in an elementary school and also gives access to the faculties of natural sciences, economics, political sciences and law, and history and languages, as well as to the teacher-training institute. Technical-school-leaving certificate. Secondary-school-leaving certificate obtained after

four years’ study in a technical secondary school following seven years of elementary education. Gives access to the faculties of medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, engineering and architecture, and to the Agricultural Institute.

Algeria In Algeria higher education is provided in the University of Algiers, the University of Science and Technology of Algiers, the Universities of Annaba and Oran, the Universities of Science

ALGERIA 5

and Technology of Oran and Constantine, the University Centres of Tlemcen, Tizi-Ouzou, Sétif, Sidi-Bel-Abbès and Mostaganem, the Polytechnic School of Architecture and Town- Planning. the National Instituteof Agriculture, the National School of Veterinary Studies, the Higher Teacher-Training College, the School of Commerce in the Algiers area, and in the Higher Technical Teacher-Training College and the Institute of Telecommunications in the Oran area. Studies in Algerian universities are divided into three categories: social sciences and the

humanities; biological and earth sciences; exact sciences and technology. The Universities of Algiers (the oldest), of Oran and Constantine are comprised of, by and

large, the same institutes (previously Faculties)-those, for example, of economics, of medical and social sciences, of modern languages, of law and administration, or Arabic language and literature, of psycho!ogy and education, etc. The teaching in the Universities of Science and Technology of Algiers (USTA) and more

recently of Oran (USTO) is essentially in the field of the exact sciences. They comprise in particular institutes of physics, electronics, biology, chemistry, mathematics, civil engineering, mechanics, hydraulics. etc. This predominance of the exact sciences is also a feature of the recently founded university centres. The reorganization of higher education currently in progress has effected the following:

abolition of the propaedeutic year; abolition of annual in favour of semestrial or termly organization of the curriculum des études (term or semestrial periods are chosen according to the nature, quantity, structure and co-ordination of the teaching they are to contain); reorganization of the teaching unit into a sub-unit or module; abolition of annual in favour of term examinations; and initiation of continuous assessment. It will no longer be possible to retake a term or semester. All establishments of higher education are financed by the State and are under the direct

control of the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research. A policy of unification of the higher education system is currently being carried out.

Training structures specific to specialized higher education will be absorbed into the Ministry. The languages used are Arabic and French. Access to higher education is given by the Algerian baccalauréat. Options are based on the

grade of baccalauréat the candidate has obtained and the subjects he wishes to study. Every year, according to economic requirements, specific competitive examinations are

also held. These permit access to certain-fdières of higher education to candidates who, though they have not passed the baccalauréai, have attended third-year classes in secondary school (previously terminale). Scientific courses at university are also open to those who have not passed the baccalauréat, by means of the evamen spécial. option B, and law courses to those having followed capacité courses. The main stage of higher education involves the acquiring of a wider knowledge and

experience of one subject or of an advanced professional qualification. It leads to either the degrees of licence or DES. or to a diplôme in engineering, dental surgery, pharmacy or architecture, etc. The first part of licence studies consists of a common teaching programme (tronc commun) lasting two to four semesters, depending on the subject-matter. The licence obtained after six semesters in the humanities (Arabic literature, modern languages, philosophy and history), in natural sciences and geography and also the exact sciences (mathematics, physics and chemistry) is called the licence d’enseignement (in the applied sciences it takes eight semesters). This licence is primarily intended for those wishing to enter the teaching profession. The remaining licences are obtained after eight semesters and are in psychology, sociology, librarianship, economics, accounting, jurisprudence, translation and interpretation. In certain subjects (biological and earth and exact sciences, etc.) it is also possible to take a

diplôme d‘études supérieures (DES) after eight semesters.

6 ALGERIA

In technological sciences and in agriculture the diplôme of engineering in various specializations is obtained after ten semesters. In a further stage the best students undertake postgraduate (third cycle) studies, taking the

magister a minimum of four semesters after the DES or the licence. The magisrev is principally available in the major universities-Algiers, USTA and Constantine-and in schools such as the Polytechnic School of Architecture and Town Planning (EPAU), and the National Institute of Agriculture (INA). The academic year 1979/80 witnessed the establishment of postgraduate opportunities in the technological sciences. The last stage, the second of postgraduate studies, leads to the doctorat &Eta/. This takes a

minimum of three years. It involves individual research work and the submitting of a substantial thesis.

~~~~

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 13 years, baccalauréat)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education L Arts LE L/DES M D Fine arts Di Architecture Di Economics, accounting C L D and jurisprudence

Political sciences Di Commercial sciences Di Natural and exact sciences LE LIDES M D Technology, engineering LE Di Medical sciences medicine D dentistry Di pharmacy Di veterinary medicine D

Agriculture Di

C capacité en droit D doctorat DES diplôme d’études supérieures Di diplôme L licence LE licence d‘enseignement M magister

GLOSSARY Baccalauréat. Academic qualification obtained by six years’ primary followed by seven

years’ secondary education. Secondary education is divided into two phases of four and three years respectively. Students may choose between two main options (literary or mathematics/science). The baccalauréat gives access to all institutions of higher education, but some establishments may require it to be of a certain type, e.g. the ‘mathematics’ baccalauréat. Capacité en droit. Diploma of higher education awarded after two years’ study in law to

candidates not necessarily holding the baccalauréat who have nevertheless passed the entrance examination to the capacité courses. Curriculum des études. The curriculum des études of anydiplôme is the structuring in order of

ALGERIA 7

difficulty of the sum of all the knowledge required in the preparation of that diplôme. Diplôme. Qualification awarded by a faculty or institute of higher education which does not

normally award the liceiice (e.g. in the following subjects: pharmacy, dentistry. engineering. agriculture, politics. business. architecture, fine arts, etc. The diploma is also a professional qualification. Diplôme d’études supérieures (DES). First academic qualification (apart from the licence)

awarded mainly in exact. biological and natural sciences. It permits continuance of graduate studies (maxisrer). Doctorat. Highest academic qualification. awarded by several faculties. In medicine, the

doctorat d’Erat denotes the successful completion of the professional medical training course. In law and especially in the humanities and science. candidates must submit a thesis containing the results of substantial individual research. Filière. Ajlii.re is concerned with all teaching relative to a particular area of scientific

knowledge, in the way that the exact sciences, for example. are concerned with the basic sciences (mathematics. physics and chemistry) and their technological applications; the biological sciences include biology and medical science; the earth sciences touch on geology and geography, etc. Licence. First academic qualification. awarded in the humanities. in science, in law and in

economics after six to eight semesters of study. In certain subjects, it is possible to obtain a licence d‘ensei,~ncincrit after only six semesters. The remaining licerices take eight semesters and allow the continuance of graduate studies. Magister. Postgraduate academic qualification obtainable after a minimum of four

semesters after the DES or the licepice. Module. All training programmes involve a certain number ofdisciplines: thus, sociologists

are trained in the following disciplines: sociology, mathematics. statistics and the economy. Each discipline is further divided into elements called niodule.~. A rtiotiiik comprises a coherent and well-defined body of knowledge relating to a particular discipline; it is a complete entity independent of other nzodiiles being taught simultaneously with it. Tronc commun. The tronc coinriilin is a collection of rnodiiles forming the initial section

common to several different curricula. It may last one or more semesters.

Angola Higher education is provided in the People’s Republic of Angola by one university, the Universidade de Angola at Luanda (currently undergoing reorganization). Founded in 1962, it now comprises four faculties at Luanda (science, economics, engineering, medicine), one at Huambo (agriculture) and one at Lubango (humanities). The teaching language is Portuguese. Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leaving certificate; there is also

The fint stage of higher education leads to the bacharel, awarded after three years’ study. The second stage leads to the licenciado, after two further years’ study.

an entrance examination.

8 ANGOLA

The third stage leads to the doutorado (doctorate) following two to three further years-that is, after a total of seven or eight years’ study.

PROFILE OF H I G H E R STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies (Previous education: 1 1 years, carta do curso complementar liceus (secondary-school-leaving certificate), and entrance examination)

years 3 4 5 6 I 8

B bacharel D doutorado L licenciado

G L O S S A R Y Bacharel. Degree of higher education awarded after three years’ study. Carta do curso complementar liceus. Secondary-school-leaving certificate obtained after

four years of primary studies, followed by seven years of secondary studies divided into three cycles, and required for access to higher education. Doutorado. The highest degree of higher education. It is awarded after seven or eight years’

study. Entrance examination. Success in this examination is the second condition required for

university entrance. Licenciado. Degree of higher education awarded after two years’ study subsequent to the

award of the bacharel. Secondary-school-certificate. See carta do curso complernentar liceus.

Argentina In Argentina, higher education is provided in three types of institution: the national or provincial universities and the private universities; institutions that are not at university level and which are devoted to higher studies in the arts or to technical and professional studies; and teacher-training colleges. The universities are usually divided into faculties or departments and often include schools

and institutes as well. They offer courses at the highest level in traditional subjects, and also in architecture and town-planning, economics, technology and agriculture. There is one exclusively technological university. The 26 national universities are autonomous. They may decide for themselves,

independently of the State, all matters relating to their organization and functioning; they may set up their study programmes, appoint teachers, award qualifications and degrees, etc. Their resources come essentially from credits granted by the State. Each university considers

ARGENTINA 9

its financial, building and equipment requirements and submits these to the central government through the Ministry of Culture and Education. Through an Under-Secretariat of University Affairs, a university planning body examines problems that are common to all universities, sets administrative and teaching procedures and entrance requirements; it decides upon the creation of new studies and the abandoning of others, and upon thevalidity of university degrees and qualifications. The national government deploys a consulting body for this: a council of rectors of the national universities. Its purpose is to study the problems that are common to all these institutions and to submit to the Ministry of Culture and Education recommendations concerning university policy. The three provincial universities are financed by the provincial governments. They are

approved by the central government and the qualifications they award are nationally recognized. The 24 private universities are also autonomous, but they must be recognized by the State

and their statutes, courses and programmes must be approved by it. They are authorized to award degrees and university qualifications which are nationally valid if they are recognized as such by the central government. However, the right to practise one of the professions regulated by law or subject to state authorization, is granted by the Government,after advice from an official commission, to candidates who pass an examination of professional competence organized by the authorities, both national and private. The private universities receive no financial aid from the State. The institutions of higher education that are not of university status are very varied in type

and course of study. As with some short-term courses offered by universities, they give occupational training for medical auxiliaries. laboratory technicians, radio operators, mechanics, meteorologists, librarians, social workers, etc. The schools of fine arts and music fall within this category of institution, which are provided for in the national budget. Pre-school and primary school teachers are trained in training schools of higher level.

Secondary school teachers are trained in a number of institutions of different kinds. In several towns there exist higher teacher-training institutions, the instiiuios nacionales deprofesorado, which admit students after an entrance examination. On the other hand, courses for training secondary teachers have been set up in a number of national training institutions (escuelas normales de profesores), as well as the Institut0 Nacional de Lenguas Modernas. Lastly, the national universities also provide courses of professional training for future secondary school teachers. Moreover, there exist Catholic higher teacher-training institutions. Other institutions of higher education train specialist teachers for the arts and for physical education. Access to higher education is based on the bachillerato or secondary-school-leaving

certificate, which has different orientations (teaching, commerce, humanities, science) or techniques, and is usually awarded after 12 or 13 years of primary and secondary education. In certain subjects the holder of the bachilleraio must also sit an entrance examination. The enrolment is not restricted, but there does exist a numerus clausus. The number of foreign students admitted to the national universities (official system) has

been restricted since 1977. Every year, each of the twenty-six universities fixes a limited quota of available places. The Ministry of External Affairs and Culture decides upon their attribution; the Department of Cultural Affairs of this Ministry divides them up between various countries, especially those in Central and Latin America, according to the main lines of foreign policy. The applicant countries then choose their candidates with the help of their specialized bodies and propose them for definite choice. Each country must endorse its chosen candidates. They do not have to sit an entrance examination, nor have equivalence of secondary studies. At the end of their studies, however, they may only practise in Argentina unless they revalidate their qualifications. It should be stressed that it is the cultural departments of Argentinian embassies, together with the educational institutions of the

10 ARGENT IN A

different countries, which are responsible for the admission of foreign students. Short higher education courses of two to four years lead to a technical professional

qualification (midwife, nurse, physiotherapist, industrial, commercial or agricultural technician, librarian, etc.). As far as long courses of higher education are concerned, two main stages may be

distinguished and they are sanctioned by successive university qualifications. At university level, the first one or two years are often devoted to the study of basic subjects,

followed by progressive specialization. The main stage of long higher education courses varies according to the subject or the

university, but usually lasts five or six years. These courses lead to the licenciatura or to a professional qualification. This first stage corresponds to the study of basic subjects and a thorough practical experience in a given subject, or a high level professional qualification. The professional qualification of secondary school teacher may be awarded either in

faculties of science or humanities, concurrently with the licenciatura, or in a teacher-training institution. A further stage leads to the doctorado, the highest degree. The number of years’ study varies,

but the doctorado is usually awarded two or three years after the licenciatura, upon submission of a thesis. Since a doctorate is not a prerequisite for the practice of aprofession, no time limit is imposed. Specialization or advanced training takes place during postgraduate studies and provides

specific professional training.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12/13 years, bachillerato)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education Arts, humanities Fine arts Law, social sciences Economics Exact and natural sciences Technology, engineering, architecture

Administration, management Medical sciences medicine dentistry pharmacy veterinary medicine

Agriculture

P L D

P P P W P D P L D

L D

P P D

P D

D/P P L/D

P P D

D doctorado L licenciatura P professional qualification

G L O S S A R Y Bachillerato de nive1 medio O secundario. Secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded after

seven years of primary and five years of secondary education, the latter being divided into two

ARGENTINA 1 1

phases. The first phase lasts three years. The second phase includes two sections (arts and science) and usually lasts two years. In some secondary schools the second phase lasts three years and leads to a certificate which is usually called the bachillerato especializado. The bachillerato is required for entrance to all faculties but candidates often have to take an entrance examination as well (examen de ingreso), unless they have obtained the bachillerato especializado. Other secondary-school-leaving certificates are considered as equivalences of the bachillerato (see certijïcado de técnico). Bachillerato especializado. See bachillerato de nive1 medio O secundario. Certificado de técnico. Secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded after seven years of

primary and six years of secondary education in a training school for industrial technicians. This certificate is considered equivalent to the bachillerato secundurio. It gives access to higher education after success in an examen de ingreso (entrance examination). Diploma of professional qualification. See certificado de técnico. Doctorado. The highest university degree awarded after the licenciarura or the professional

qualification. This degree is obtained on submission of a thesis requiring at least a year’s preparation. In certain faculties it is also compulsory to have followed a course which lasts one or two years. Other faculties offer a specialization course which lasts one or two years after obtaining a professional qualification, but no degree is awarded for this. Entrance examination. See examen de ingreso. Examen de ingreso. Entrance examination required to enter institutions of higher education

which is imposed by certain faculties on candidates holding a secondary-school-leaving certificate giving access to these institutions (see cerri$cado de técnico). Every faculty organizes preparatory courses of two months’ to one year’s duration for candidates who wish to sit for this examination. National universities do so by using a unified system. Candidates coming from certain institutions-usually those where the second phase of secondary education lasts three years-are exempted. In certain faculties examinations also include interviews, aptitude tests and character references. Licenciatura. First degree of higher education awarded after four to seven years. Each

faculty organizes examinations based on each specific subject, certain examinations taking place within the course during the university year. Students may have to sit a general examination at the end of their studies and present research work. Profesor para la enseiianza primaria. Primary teaching qualification awarded after seven

years of primary and five years of secondary education and three years in an institute of higher education. Professional qualification. Title of higher education awarded after studies which usually last

between four and six years (medicine) and sometimes seven years (fine arts); the most usual length of courses is five years. A professional qualification is sometimes awarded at the same time as the licenciatura (e.g. secondary school teacher’s certificate) and is considered as an equivalence in the case of long-term university studies. In other cases (technician’s certificate, paramedical professions) it is awarded after shorter courses which last between two and four years. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See bachillerato; certijïcado de técnico. Teaching qualification. See profesor para la ensefianza primaria.

12 AUSTRALIA

Australia Higher education in Australia is provided primarily by universities, colleges of advanced education and colleges of technical and further education. There are a variety of other specialized colleges which offer higher education courses in art, theology, farm management, etc. In 1979 there were 19 universities, with at least one in each of the six state capitals. The

Australian National University, which is located in the national capital, Canberra, consists of a school of general studies, dealing with undergraduate teaching, and an institute of advanced studies containing the research schools.

Under authority vested in each governing body by the Act of Parliament establishing the university, each university has autonomy in managing its own affairs and in its decision- making. Until 1974 the financing of universities was a joint responsibility of the state and federal governments, and of the universities by charging tuition fees. In 1974 student tuition fees were abolished, and the federal government took over full responsibility for financing universities. Universities are in close contact with governments and with each other through such bodies

as the University Council of the Tertiary Education Commission, the Australian Vice- Chancellors’ Committee, the Federation of Australian University Staff Associations, and the Australian Union of Students. The governing body in a university is its senate or council, which is presided over by the chancellor, who is elected by the council and is usually a prominent member of the community. The council generally comprises elected representatives of graduates, teaching staff and students, as well as representatives from the relevant state parliaments, commerce and industry, and ex-officio members such as the vice- chancellor and the chairman of the academic body. Universities emphasize the development of knowledge and the importance of scholarship

and research. They are divided into faculties, departments and in some cases, schools. Within each facultyare gathered anumber of relateddepartments, each of which has its own head and each of which deals with one subject. Large universities may have up to twelve faculties. Universities give courses and conduct research in a wide range of professional and academic disciplines. They award undergraduate and postgraduate bachelor’s degrees, postgraduate diplomas, master’s degrees, and doctorates. Colleges of advanced education were establishedin 1965, their basic purpose being to widen

the range of tertiary education opportunities outside universities, with a strong bias towards the practical application of the studies undertaken. Courses are introduced into colleges of advanced education on the basis of known industrial and social needs. There are at present approximately 65 colleges of advanced education. In 1973, former state teachers’ colleges and pre-school teachers’ colleges became colleges of

advanced education and are now funded by the Australian government under advanced education arrangements. These colleges are autonomous, though financially dependent on the federal government under the same arrangements as exist for universities. As in the universities, student tuition fees were abolished in 1974. T h e colleges are kept in close contact with government and with each other through such bodies as the Advanced Education Council of the Tertiary Education Commission, membership to the Australian Conference of Principals of Colleges of Advanced Education, and the Federation of Staff Associations of Colleges of Advanced Education. Governing councils in colleges of advanced education usually comprise senior officials of

the college, elected representatives of teaching staff and students, and community representatives, many of whom have experience in education. Organization of the colleges varies according to size, nature and purpose; they are vocationally oriented, providing multi-

AUSTRALIA 13

level courses specifically designed to meet the needs of the community, tertiary in character, but flexible in their approach to entry requirements, teaching methods, modes of study, and the design of courses. They award undergraduate associate diplomas, diplomas and bachelor’s degrees, and postgraduate diplomas and master’s degrees. Colleges of technical and further education provide an opportunity for a vast range ofpost-

secondary education and some higher education courses, with over 250 major colleges throughout the country. These colleges are administered by the respective state education departments and co-ordinated at the national level by the Technical and Further Education Council of the Tertiary Education Commission. They are fundedjointly by state and federal governments, and there are no student tuition fees for technical courses. Originally, colleges of technical and further education were founded to provide part-time

education for people already in employment, but full-time courses have been developed and their awards are recognized by professional bodies. Practical training is usually offered concurrently or following completion of these full-time courses. Colleges of technical and further education award undergraduate diplomas, associate diplomas, certi3cates and conduct trade and course programmes. They provide specific vocational preparations for apprentices, technicians and various sub-professional groups, the main forms ofwhich are courses of adult education not leading to specific vocational qualifications. They cater for most external and part-time students (94 per cent of students enrolled in colleges of technical and further education are either studying externally or part-time) but a small number of universities and some colleges of advanced education also offer external courses for students who are unable to enrol for full-time or part-time study. These are offered for undergraduate bachelor’s degrees, diplomas and a small number of higher degrees. External study is supplemented by residential schools (three to five days) conducted at the institutions at varying times throughout the year. The time taken to complete an external course varies but is usually based on the time taken for part-time study. Apart from colleges of technical and further education, adult education courses are

provided by universities, colleges of advanced education, statutory bodies such as the Council of Adult Education in Victoria, large voluntary bodies such as the Workers’ Educational Association, and other much smaller voluntary bodies. There is a vast variety of courses: leisure/pleasure courses; preparatory courses for people seeking training for re-entry to the workforce; basic education programmes designed to increase adult literacy and numeracy; and intensive courses of varying length (maximum 27 weeks). All courses vary greatly in organization, period of study, etc. Post-secondary education and certification also takes place outside universities and

colleges. The major responsibility for the development of tradesmen rests with industry and comes under the general supervision of apprenticeship authorities. Most nurse education is provided within the hospitals. There are examining boards in law which directly or indirectly are under the control of the Supreme Courts. The Royal Colleges in the specialist areas of the practice of medicine conduct post-experience examinations. Access to higher education is provided by a satisfactory level being achieved after 12 to 13

years of primary and secondary education. Public examinations are being phased out in a number of states. Matriculation standard is judged on the basis of success in a senior public examination (higher school certificate, university examination, school-leaving-certi3caie) or teacher assessment and/or internal examinations. The standard of matriculation required for entry to universities, colleges of advanced

education, and colleges of technical and further education to undertake first bachelor’s degrees and diplomas varies in accordance with what standard is deemed necessary to enable the student to complete successfully the particular course at a particular institution. While an applicant may meet the admission requirements for a certain course, it may not be possible for him to attain a place if there is a greater number of qualified applicants than the limited

14 AUSTRALIA

number of places available. This applies particularly to universities and colleges of advanced education. Selection is made on the basis of academic merit. All institutions of higher education have special entry provisions for mature students

(usually required to be at least 22 years of age). Candidates are required to display academic ability of the standard required for normal admission, usually determined by special tests, essays, etc. Age, previous education, employment and other relevant background is taken into consideration and each application is decided on merit. Some universities and colleges of advanced education offer bridging courses for students whose matriculation standard does not meet the requirements for entry to higher education. These courses are offered in the summer vacation prior to the commencement of the new academic year. Courses in mathematics, science and English are the main ones offered. Institutions of higher education in Australia accept for enrolment overseas students, Asian

in particular. Due to the demand for places in institutions of higher education, some have had to impose separate quotas for the admission of overseas students. Applications must be accompanied by documentary evidence confirming all educational qualifications, and documents not in English must be accompanied by certified translations in English. Overseas students are expected to undertake courses of worthwhile standard and duration.

Approved courses include senior secondary studies, university courses, degree and diploma courses at colleges of advanced education, miscellaneous commercial study, secretarial study, nursing and other certificate studies. Applications will not normally be approved where the student’s proposed course is readily available to him in his home country or place of residence. This does not apply, however, to postgraduatestudents who have been awarded a scholarship by an Australian university. Students are required to have adequate English language capacity based on an English language test which they sit in the home country and which is marked by the Department of Education in Canberra. Undergraduate certificates, diplomas and associate diplomas undertaken at colleges of

advanced education and colleges of technical and further education usually require two to three years’ full-time study or four to six years’ part-time study. The main stage of studies at universities and colleges of advanced education offering degree

qualifications leads to the bachelor’s degree. Undergraduate studies last between three years (e.g. education, arts, science, commerce) and five years (e.g. medicine) full-time, and between five years (e.g. education, arts, science, commerce) and seven years (e.g. law) part-time. Arts and science faculties usually offer either a bachelor’s pass degree obtained in three years or a bachelor’s degree (honours) obtained in four years; candidates for the latter undertake extra work in their speciality. A n honours degree is normally required for access to higher degrees. A student who has qualified for a bachelor (honours) degree at a sufficiently high level may

proceed to study for the master’s degree, which constitutes the second stage of higher education. This degree may be obtained after one year (pass degree) or two years (honours degree) of course-work, as at undergraduate level, or research, which requires the submission of a thesis. In medicine and engineering, a period of practical training is usually required before the student qualifies for the master’s degree. Alternatively a student who has qualified for a bachelor (honours) degree at a sufficiently

high level may proceed to study for a doctor’s degree (usually PhD: doctor ofphilosophy). The usual period of postgraduate studies is three to four years and culminates in the submission of a thesis. Many faculties award a higher doctorate in science (DSc) or humanities (DLitt) upon submission of published work representing a substantial contribution to knowledge in a particular field. The final option for the graduate with a bachelor’s degree is to proceed to a postgraduate course lasting one to two years leading to a graduate diploma in a particular subject.

AUSTRALIA 15

PROFILE OF H I G H E R STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12/ 13 years, higher school certificate)

years 3 4 5 6 I 8 9 varied duration

Education Arts Psychology Music Architecture Law, accounting Social, economic and

Social work Exact and natural

Engineering Applied science and technology

Medical sciences medicine dentistry pharmacy veterinary medicine

Agriculture

commercial sciences

sciences

B B/Di M/Di D B B M/Di D DLitt

B D i M D B B M D DMus

B M B B M/Di D

B B M/Di D

B M/Di B B M/Di D

B M/Di D B M/Di

B B M/Di __ D B B M/Di

B M/Di D B B M/Di D

B B M D

DSc

B buchelor’s degree D doctor ofphi1osoph.v DLitt ùoctoraie in letters DMus dociorate in music DSc doctorate in science Di diploma M master’s degree

There are also: two- to three-year undergraduate associate diplomas and diplomas in most fields in colleges of advanced education; two-year associate diplomas and diplomas, and four- year part-time certificates in colleges of technical and further education.

GLOSSARY Associate diploma. See diploma. Award courses. Courses of study at institutions of higher education leading to the awards of

certificates, diplomas, associate diplomas, bachelor’s degrees, postgraduate diplomas, master’s degrees, doctorates. Bachelor’s degree. First degree qualification of higher education, obtained after three years

(e.g. arts, science, education, commerce) to five years (e.g. medicine). Universities offer two types of first degrees: bachelor’s degrees (pass) taken after three years’ study; and bachelor’s degrees (honours) taken after four years’ study. A n honours degree is usually required for access to a higher degree. Most degrees may be studied part-time and require double the length of time needed for full-time study. Bridging courses. Some institutions offer bridging courses, mainly mathematics, science and

English, for students who have not reached the assumed level of knowledge for first-year

16 AUSTRALIA

courses. These are conducted during the summer vacation and are of varying duration. Certificates. Certificate courses provide education at para-professional or technical officer

level. Most programmes operate on a four-year part-time basis. The certificate programmes meet the requirements of commerce and industry for the training of supervisors, draftsmen, technicians, technical officers and senior personnel. Course programmes. Course programmes are available at colleges of technical and further

education for a wide range of studies of varying duration and depth which cannot be presented as certificate or trade studies. No specific entrance requirements are needed. Diplomas. Undergraduate diplomas and associate diplomas require two to three years’ full-

time study. Colleges of advanced education and universities offer postgraduate diplomas which require one to two years’ full-time study and are designed to enable students holding a first degree to obtain a vocational qualification in a specialized area. Doctor’s degree or doctorate. These are higher degrees obtained after a bachelor’s degree

(high honours) and a minimum period of two years’ full-time study devoted to preparing a thesis. The qualification is that of doctor of philosophy (PhD). Higher doctorates are also awarded for published work representing an original and substantial contribution to knowledge, e.g. humanities (DLitt), science (DSc), music (DMus). External study. External courses are offered at some institutions for students who are

unable to enrol in a course of study that requires physical attendance daily/weekly at the institution. These programmes are carried out by correspondence, use of media (e.g. tape recordings), submission of essays, etc, and are supplemented by attendance at residential schools (three to five days) conducted at the institutions at varying times throughout the year. Higher degrees. See master’s degree and doctor’s degree. Higher school certificate. See matriculation. Honours degree. See bachelor’s degree. Master’s degree. This is a higher degree of higher education, obtained after a period of one

year following upon a bachelor’s degree (honours). Following upon a bachelor’s degree @ass), entry to a master’s degree may be obtained by completing a master’s qualifying course of one year. Master’s degrees may be obtained by research, culminating in the submission of a thesis, or by course-work, as at undergraduate level. In medicine and engineering a period of practical training in employment is required before this qualification is granted. Matriculation. Called senior public examination, higher school certificate, university

examination, school-leaving certifcate. Public examinations are being phased out in some states and where there is no public examination, matriculation is obtained via teacher assessment and/or internal examinations. The higher school certificate is obtained after six years of primary followed by six years of secondary education, giving access to higher education. Pass degree. See bachelor’s degree. Postgraduate diploma. See diploma. Public examination. See matriculation. School-leaving certificate. See matriculation. Tertiary education. Education after completion of primary and secondary education. Trade programmes. Trade programmes are available at colleges of technical and further

education to candidates employed as apprentices. The programme is of three years’ duration and is undertaken on a day-release basis, that is, one full day a week. There is also provision for block release training. Applicants must have reached a standard of education sufficient to follow the programme, but matriculation standard is not required. University examination. See matriculation.

AUSTRIA 17

Austria In Austria, universities and other establishments of higher education are federal institutions under the direct control of the federal Ministry of Science and Research, and are financed by the State. The organization of courses and qualifications is the subject of the General Law on higher education (Allgemeines Hochschul-Studiengesetz) of 1966, which has served since that date as the basis of a gradual overhaul of higher studies. Issues of administration and structure fall under the more recent law on university organization (Universitats-Organisationsgesetz), passed in 1975. Further laws also exist governing particular fields of study. The universities are, however, autonomous in respect of certain of their activities, their acts being governed by their statutes and by their own decisions. Each establishment of higher education has as its head a Rector. The Conference of Rectors (Rektorenkonferenz) is a body including all universities and higher academies of art. It submits proposals to the Ministry and deliberates on any issue raised in the field of higher education. The function of the universities is to guarantee general instruction in higher education, to

contribute to the advancement of knowledge, and to the training of future research workers and scientists, and to contribute also to advanced training in the professional field, such training having its basis in science and scientific procedure. The universities enjoy full freedom in the matter of teaching and are autonomous within the framework of the existing laws. Higher education takes place in twelve universities of which five are of the traditional kind and two are technical universities with various faculties; the others are the universities of mining, agriculture, veterinary medicine, economics, and teacher-training. Fine arts are taught in six higher schools or academies which have now attained university status. The universities are generally divided into faculties. Faculties are divided into institutes, and these may, in conformity with the law, form specialized groups called Fachgruppen. Several universities and commercial secondary schools, along with various other

institutions, some religious, offer instruction at a post-secondary or ‘quasi-university’ level which does not lead to a university degree. Their relatively short courses (one to six semesters) lead to professional qualifications normally corresponding to a particular professional title in, for example, smelting technology, publicity and sales, accounting, mechanical calculation, and the tourist trade. The universities themselves also organize short courses of four to six terms, leading to a professional qualification and not a degree, most notably in the fields of calculus techniques, mathematics applied to insurance, and translation. Primary school teachers are trained at post-secondary level over two years in teacher-

training institutions (Püdagogische Akademien) to each of which is attached apractical school. Secondary level teachers are trained in the universities. The minimum duration of studies for the award of a teaching qualification is four years. May 1979 saw,the foundation of a university research institute for ‘open’ university instruction whose function is to work out ‘open’ courses, especially refresher courses, and advise the universities in this regard. The language of instruction is German. Access to higher education is based on the Reifezeugnis or secondary-school-leaving

certificate which is awarded after four years’ primary and eight or nine years’ secondary education. Students obtain the right to enter higher education by passing either the Reifeprüfung in an Austrian general or professional secondary school, or the ‘professional maturity examination’, the Berufsreifeprüfung or a higher education entrance examination, the Siudienberechtigungsprüfung. The latter has, since 1978, been open to Austrians of at least 24 years of age, who do not have the Reifeprüfung but who have taken a special preparatory course available in certain universities. The Srudienberechiigungspriifung is not general; it is valid only for those subjects in which it has been prepared. A further requirement is always made, that the student pass the ‘supplementary/compiementary/aptitude’ examination (the

18 A US T R I A

Zusatz-Erganzungs-Eignungsprüfungen) whose subjects are taken from those deemed indispensable for the field of studies to be undertaken (for example, Latin in the case of classical archaeology), or for any particular semester of study or professional orientation. Higher studies involve the acquisition of a high level of knowledge and experience or a high

level professional qualification. Studies for the first university degree, the Magister or the Diplom, depending on the field of study, are divided into two successive phases called Studienabschnitte. The first phase is intended to offer a basic scientific training in the relevant field of studies, while the second involves a higher degree of specialization. At the end of the first stage the student must take a preliminary examination called the Vorprüfung, to which, however, no degree or qualification corresponds. A further stage leads to the degree of Doktor. For this the student must pass a

supplementary examination, submit a thesis and perhaps continue with his studies over a period of several semesters. The Austrian higher education system thus reflects the three stages common to those of other countries. A n exception to this is medicine, where studies lead exclusively to the Doktorat.

P R O F I L E OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12/13 years, Reifezeugnis)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education Arts Catholic theology Evmgelical theology Music Fine arts, architecture

Law, political sciences

Social and economic sciences

Exact and natural sciences

Technology, engineering

Commercial studies, administration

Medical sciences medicine pharmacy veterinary medicine

Agriculture

P M/Di

M Di/M

Di D

n

Di D

D Doktorat Di Diplom M Magister P professional qualification

GLOSSARY Berufsreifeprüfung. Examination by which persons between the ages of 25 and 45, who do

AUSTRIA 19

not have the Reifezeugnis, but wish, for professional reasons, to take university courses, may enter higher education in the subject in which the examination has been taken. If, in mid- course, they wish to change subject, they must take an Ergünzungsprujiung (complementary examination). Diplom. Qualification awarded after between eight and ten semesters’ studies (classified as

longer studies) which are divided into two phases, one general, one specialized. To receive the Diplom the student must pass the examination at the end of each stage and submit a Diplomarbeit (memoire or other work of Diplom level). This latter may, depending on the subject matter, be theoretical, practical, artistic, experimental or technical in nature. It is intended to demonstrate the student’s capacity for original work in one domain ofhis subject. Holders of the diploma are awarded the titles ofMagister, Diplom-Zngenieur, Diplom-Tierarzt, etc. Subjects studied for the Diplom are of three kinds: obligatory, optional and freely chosen. Only the two former come under the Diplom award. Doktor. The highest degree of higher education, awarded after between two and four

semesters of studies further to those leading to the Diplom (in technical studies and in agriculture there is no defined minimum, and enrolment for the course is not compulsory for the qualification). A dissertation (normally a piece of written work of thesis kind) must then be submitted on a subject of the student’s choice. If the thesis is approved, the student may take the Rigorosum examination, which involves the student defending his thesis. The qualification Doktor prior to the laws of 1975 differs widely from that awarded since then. By these laws, the studies for the degree of Doktor must have been preceded by those leading to the Diplom (except in the case of medicine, in which only the doctorate is available). Prior to the new laws, it was possible in some subjects, for example philosophy, to obtain the Doktor degree without first passing the Diplom. A further important distinction relates to the Rigorosum. Formerly the Rigorosum embraced all the domains of the relevant subject, while in its present form it is limited to the particular field forming the subject of the dissertation, and one or two further subjects ad libitum. A more general knowledge is tested in the Diplom examination. Eignungsprüfung. Aptitude examination testing the student’s capacity to study certain

subjects, for example, music, fine arts, drama, sport (physical aptitude examination), and the disciplines leading to careers in translation and interpretation. Erganzungsprüfung. See Berufsreifeprujïung. Magister. Degree of higher education awarded in certain disciplines after a minimum of

Maturazeugnis. See Reifezeugnis. Professional qualification. Qualification awarded either after shorter studies at university

(four to six terms) or after studies undertaken in other training establishments. Qualifications awarded after longer studies at university are university degrees (see Diplom, Magister, Doktor).

four to five years’ study and prior to that of Doktor.

Reifeprüfung. See Reifezeugnis. Reifezeugnis. Secondary-school-leaving certificate or ‘maturity’ examination, awarded

after four years’ primary and eight years’ secondary education, the latter divided into two phases, each of four years. The 1962 reform law set a maximum of five years for the second cycle but this law is not applied. The Reifezeugnis certifies the candidate’s success in the school-leaving examination, the Reifeprüfung. In theory the Reifezeugnis gives access to all university faculties. In some cases, however, a further examination (the Zusatzprüfung) is required of candidates who have not studied during their courses certain subjects regardedas particularly useful for the continuation of their studies. Access to higher education may also be obtained by the ‘professional maturity

examination’ (Berufsreifeprüfung) or the Studienberechtigungsprüfung.

20 AUSTRIA

Rigorosum. Final examination organized by an establishment of higher education, for the award of the degree of Doktor. Staatsprüfung. A n examination now replaced by the Diplom in all those subjects for which it

existed prior to 1975. Studienberechtigungsprüfung. Examination established in 1978 and allowing access to

higher education to Austrian nationals who are over 24 years of age, who do not have the Refezeugnis but who have followed a special preparatory course offered in various universities. It is not of general application, being valid only for those subjects in which it has been taken. Vorprüfung. Examination taken at the end of the first phase of the Diplom course. Zusatzprüfung. See Refezeugnis.

Bahrain Higher education in Bahrain is provided in four establishments: Gulf Technical College, Isa Town (technical sciences); the College of Health Sciences, Manama; the College of Arts, Science and Education; and the Hotel and Catering Training Centre, Muharraq. These establishments, founded between 1968 and 1978, are all State institutions. The teaching language is English. Access to higher education is based on the intermediate or secondary school certificate. The

College of Health Sciences and the Hotel and Catering Training Centre also set an entrance examination. The duration of studies depends on the establishment and qualification in question. Shorter

studies take place in the Hotel and Catering Training Centre, which awards certificates after two years’ study, and the College of Health Sciences, which offers a two-year course for a

PROFILE OF H I G H E R STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies (Previous education: 1 1 years, intermediate or secondary school certificate)

years 2 3 4 5

Administration B Engineering and Di Di technology

Health sciences AssD/P Di Hotel and catering C

AssD associate degree B bachelor C certiJicate Di diploma P professional qualification

BAHRAIN, 21

nursing diploma. The associate degrees (these are professional qualifications) awarded by the College of Health Sciences also require two years of study (X-ray, medical equipment, medical laboratory, and pharmaceutical technicians). The diploma in obstetric nursing takes one year after the award of the general nursing diploma (three years). Longer studies take place at the Gulf Technical College, which comprises a business studies institute and three departments (mechanical and electrical engineering, construction and civil engineering, and English). Only Arab nationals of the Gulf States are accepted in this college. It offers three- and four-year diploma courses in construction, civil engineering, secretariat skills, geodesy, mechanical and electrical engineering, and a five-year bachelor of arts in administration. These engineering diplomas are recognized by the City and Guilds of London Institute and delivered in co- ordination with it.

GLOSSARY

of Health Sciences.

College.

Training Centre.

Associate degree. Professional qualification awarded after two years’ study by the College

Bachelor. Degree of higher education awarded in administration by the Gulf Technical

Certificate. Qualification awarded after two years’ study by the Hotel and Catering

Certificate of secondary studies. See Intermediate or secondary school certificate. Diploma. Qualification awarded after three or four years’ study (depending on the

speciality) by the Gulf Technical College. Entrance examination. Entrance examination required of candidates by the College of

Health Science and the Hotel and Catering Training Centre. Intermediate or secondary-school certificate. Secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded

after six years’ primaryeducation followed by two years’ secondary education in the first cycle and three years’ in the second cycle; entitles the holder to enter higher education. Professional qualification. Qualification awarded by the College of Health Sciences in

various technical subjects after two years’ study.

Bangladesh In the People’s Republic of Bangladesh higher education takes place mainly in six universities: the Bangladesh Agricultural University in Mymensingh; the Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology in Dacca; the University of Chittagong; the University of Dacca; the Jahangirnagar University in Dacca; and the University of Rajshahi. All the universities are autonomous. Statutes framed by universities are, however, subject to the sanction of the Government. The universities in Bangladesh are both teaching and affiliating bodies (i.e. they lay down

the courses of study and conduct examinations for the colleges) except for the Agricultural University, the Engineering University and the Jahangirnagar University, which are purely

22 BANGLADESH

teaching universities. Besides a number of affiliated colleges providing teaching at honours level in some subjects, all affiliated colleges offer courses at the pass degree level. Professional teaching at the pass degree level is done by the constituent colleges. Apart from their own faculties which are subdivided into departments some of the universities have a number of institutes. The affiliated and constituent colleges are under the academic control of the universities. Administrative matters are controlled either by the Government or by the local bodies. The universities are mostly financed by the Government, whose grants total nearly ninety

per cent of their annual income. The remainder is provided by tuition, examination, registration and other fees. Government grants to universities are provided through the University Grants Commission (UGC), constituted by the Government, university and people's representatives. Affiliated colleges are either government-financed or privately managed with some government grants. The Association of Universities of Bangladesh (formerly Inter-University Board of

Bangladesh) co-ordinates activities of the universities both in the academic and administrative spheres. It has an executive body called the Standing Committee of Vice-Chancellors composed of the vice-chancellors of all the universities. Besides co-ordinating activities among the universities, it liaises with the Government and the UGC concerning administrative and financial matters respectively. Both English and Bengali (mother tongue) are the languages of instruction and

examination. English, however, remains a compulsory subject in the bachelor's pass degree courses in arts and commerce. Access to higher education is based on the higher secondary-school certificate obtained after

12 years of schooling. Candidates for some departments may have to take prescribed options (e.g. for engineering: mathematics, physics and chemistry). Candidates for degree courses are chosen on merit, according to the number of places available.

Foreign students are considered for admission: they have to contact the Bangladesh mission in their own country.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, higher-secondary school certificate)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education (post- B M

Arts B B M D Fine arts B Architecture B Law B Science B B M D Engineering B M Medicine B Pharmacy B Agriculture B M D

graduate entry)

B bachelor's degree D doctor's degree M master's degree

BANGLADESH 23

The first stage of higher education leads to the bachelor’s degree after two years (pass degree) or three years (honours degree). The bachelor‘s pass degree in arts (BA), science (BSc) and commerce (BCom) may be taken after two years’ study in an affiliated college. Honours candidates must take two subsidiary subjects other than their honours subject; they take their subsidiary examination at the end ofthe second year after admission to the honours course. In engineering, the first degree is taken after four years’ study; in fine arts, pharmacy and medicine, after five years. Honours degrees are classified as first, second or third class, pass degrees as first, second or

third division. The second stage leads to the trzmter’s degree. This is taken after one year’s study following

upon an honours degree, or two years’ study following upon a pass degree. The bachelor’s degree in education (BEd, BEd Tech, BPEd) is taken after one year’s study following upon the bachelor’s or master’s degree. The master’s degree in education (MEd) is taken one year after the BEd, or two years after a pass or master’s degree. The buchelor’s degree of law (LLB) is taken two years after a first degree (BA, BSc or BCom). The third stage leads to the highest degree--the doctor’s degree, doctor ofphilosophy (PhD),

and requires two to three years’ specialization and individual research following upon a good master’s degree. Candidates are required to submit a thesis for a doctor’s degree.

GLOSSARY Affiliated college. Institution of higher education whose syllabuses are laid down by a

university. The university also examines. Affiliated colleges are either government-financed or private, and the university is concerned only with maintenance of standards through syllabuses and examinations. Affiliated colleges provide courses for bachelor’s pass degrees and, in some cases, honours degrees. Bachelor’s degree (first degree). First degree of higher education, taken after two years’ (pass

degree) or three years’ study (honours degree). The bachelor’s pass degree may be taken in affiliated colleges. Honours candidates must take two subsidiary subjects other than their honours subject, and take a subsidiary examination after the second year of the honours course. In engineering, the first degree is taken after four years’ study. In fine arts, pharmacy and medicine (MB, BS) it is taken after five years’ study. Doctor’s degree. The highest university qualification, usually awarded following two or

three years’ individual research following upon a good master’s degree. Candidates have to submit a thesis. The qualification is known as docror of philosophy (PhD). Higher secondary school certificate. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, obtained after 12

years of schooling. The examination is held by the various boards set up by the Government. This qualification gives access to higher education. Master’s degree. Second degree of higher education, awarded after one year to candidates

holding a bachelor’s honours degree and after two years to holders of apass degree, who have to take a qualifying examination one year after their admission before they may proceed to the final examination for the master’s degree.

24 BARBADOS

Barbados In Barbados, higher or tertiary level education is provided in five institutions: the Barbados Community College; the University of the West Indies (Cave Hill); Erdiston Teachers’ Training College; the Hotel School; and the Samuel Jackman Prescod Polytechnic (cf. also Jamaica). The Community College is an intermediary institution between secondary level education

and university or university-type education. The University of the West Indies at Cave Hill offers courses in arts, law and economics, medicine, science and social sciences. There is also a school of education, an institute of social and economic research (branch in Barbados), an institute of mass communication and a department of extramural studies. The Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute, affiliated to the university, also has a branch in Barbados. The School of Education provides initial training for graduate teachers. Erdiston Teachers’ College provides training for nongraduate teachers of primary and secondary (comprehensive) education. Both the Hotel School and the Samuel Jackman Prescod Polytechnic keep a watchful eye on the growing demands of local industry and structure their courses accordingly. Codrington College is a specialized institution preparing students for ordination in the

ministry of the Anglican Church. It works in close collaboration with the University of the West Indies but retains its links with the University of Durham (England). Higher education is integrated into the system of the English-speaking West Indies.

Belgium In Belgium, higher education comprises university studies on the one hand, andstudies at the highest level in technical subjects, economics, agriculture, the paramedical fields, social studies, art and pedagogy on the other. University studies are provided by the universities or by institutions which have the same

legal status as universities and which award qualifications in economics. Divided according to language, they are the following: the Université de I’Etat à Liège; the Université Catholique de Louvain; the Université libre de Bruxelles; the Université de 1’Etat à Mons; the Faculté Polytechnique de Mons; the Faculté des Sciences agronomiques de 1’Etat à Gembloux; the Facultés universitaires Notre-Dame de la Paix à Namur; the Faculté universitaire catholique de Mons; the Facultés universitaires Saint-Louis à Bruxelles; the Rijksuniversiteit te Gent; the Katholieke Universiteit te Leuven; the Vrije Universiteit Brussel; the Universitaire Instelling Antwerpen; Rijksuniversitair Centrum te Antwerpen; the Universitaire Faculteiten Sint- Ignatius te Antwerpen; the Universitaire Faculteiten Sint-Aloysius te Brussel; the Universitair Centrum Limburg. The constitution permits both state and private higher education. State institutions of

higher education come under the authority of the Minister of Education. However, university authorities are not entirely under his control as a certain number of activities remain their

BELGIUM 25

responsibility. Private higher education has considerable importance: it takes place either in religious institutions, such as the Catholic University of Louvain, or in non-religious institutions such as the Free University of Brussels. The free universities come under a special régime which gives them greater autonomy. The State is responsible for official education. The free institutions of higher education receive financial aid from the State which is subject to certain conditions. Each university is composed of faculties, specialized schools and institutes. Faculties offer

the following subjects: arts, law, political science, social sciences and economics, science, medical sciences, applied sciences, agronomy and occasionally Catholic theology. The Conference of Rectors of Belgian Universities, together with the Inter-university Council of the French community and the Vlaamse interuniversitaire Raad, examine matters of common concern to all universities. There are two distinct types of régime in higher education. The laws regulating university

programmes and degrees provide for a state degree (grade légal) which may be obtained after studies in philosophy and arts, law and notarial studies, science, medicine, dentistry, pharmacology, veterinary medicine, agricultural science, applied science. In these studies and in other studies not regulated by law students may also obtain an academic degree (grade scientifique). Academic degrees may differ greatly from one university to another, since each institution sets entrance requirements, programmes and denominations. However, the structure of studies leading to academic degrees is similar to that leading to state degrees. Non-university higher education falls into one of the following seven legal categories:

higher technical education; higher economic studies; higher agricultural studies; higher studies in the paramedical fields; higher social studies; higher studies in the arts; higher pedagogical studies. These studies prepare for a vast number of professions but mainly in industry, commerce, agriculture, paramedical and social professions, teaching, interpreting, applied arts and media. They are sanctioned by a great number of titles such as: degrees in architecture, industrial engineering; teacher in a primary school; lower secondary school teacher; social worker; educationalist. There are short-term courses of higher education (a single phase which lasts between two

and three years) and in certain institutions there are long-term courses of higher education (a first phase which lasts two years and a second phase which lasts between two and three years). Access to higher education takes place after six years of secondary education following six

years of primary education. Holders of a secondary-school-leaving certificate may only enter university after success in an examination leading to a diplôme d'aptitude 2 accéder ù renseignement supérieur. The specialization open to students in higher education is largely determined by the type of studies followed at secondary level. Moreover, students in civil engineering must pass an examination organized by the relevant institutions. A number of stages in higher education can be distinguished. The first stage covers a period

of two to three years devoted to broadly plun-disciplinary studies. It leads to the first university degree, the candidature. The second stage, after a period of study in depth which takes place at least two years after

the candidature, generally leads to the licence, although in certain subjects three and sometimes four years of study are necessary. For future teachers in secondary education the teaching certificate (agrégation de ïenseignement secondaire supérieur) is taken at this stage. The third stage corresponds to a second phase or third phase of specialization, or to an

initiation in scientific research which leads to a doctorate after a minimum of a further year, in theory. Lastly, a final phase leads to the degree of agrégation in higher education or to a special

doctorate after a variable number of years-a minimum of two years-in specialized research in depth after obtaining a doctorate,

26 BELGIUM

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, diplôme d’aptitude à accéder à l’enseignement supérieur)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Education,

Letters Religion, theology Fine arts Law Notarial studies Social, political and

Applied economics Exact and natural sciences

Engineering Medical sciences medicine dentistry pharmacology veterinary medicine

psychology

administrative sciences

Agriculture

C L/ASS D DSP

C W A S S D A E S B L D C L D DSp C L D AES C L AES C L/ASS D DSp

C L/ASS D DSP C L/ASS D AES

C I A E S

C D A E S C L AES

C P AES C D D AES

C I AES

AES agrégation de l’enseignement supérieur supérieur B baccalauréat C candidature D doctorat DSp doctorat spécial I ingénieur L licence P pharmacien

ASS agrégation de l’enseignement secondaire

GLOSSARY Aggregatie (Dutch). See agrégation. Agrégation de l’enseignement secondaire supérieur. University qualification acquired at the

same time as, or after the licence. It entitles its holder to teach various subjects in general secondary schools. The examination includes a paper on educational studies, a period of teaching practice and the giving of two lessons in public. Agrégation de l’enseignement supérieur. This is the highest university qualification

conferring legal status (grade légal) which may be obtained in Belgium. It is usually required for teaching in universities. The examination consists of the successful submission of a major thesis and three minor ones, and a lecture given in public. The qualification may only be obtained a minimum of two years after one of the following

diplomas or qualifications has been conferred doctor of philosophy and humanities, law, science, medicine, surgery and obstetrics, veterinary medicine; licence for the profession of notary, dentist, pharmacist, civil engineer, agricultural engineer, or agricultural and chemical engineer. Candidature. First university qualification, granted after two or three years’ study. It

terminates a period of broadly-based studies essential for further studies and specialization. Diplôme d’aptitude à accéder à l’enseignement supérieur. This qualification has been

required since 1965 of all university candidates, whichever faculty they wish to join. The only

BELGIUM 27

exception is for candidates for studies in civil engineering (see examen d'admission). The qualification is obtained after passing an additional examination following upon the secondary-school-leaving certificate (or a certificate from an upper-secondary technical school). As with the school-leaving certificate, this qualification has to be legalized by the Commission d'homologation (see homologation). Doctorat. In arts, philosophy, sciences, a university qualification awarded after submission

and public defence of an original dissertation and thesis which have been accepted by the jury; and after passing an examination at least one year (or more often two or three years) following a licence in these subjects. In law, a university qualification awarded after three years following upon two years'

preparation of the candidature in law. Until 1969, candidates were not required to defend a thesis. Since then, the doctorate without a thesis has been replaced by a licence. It is now possible to acquire the qualification of docteur en droit after presenting and defending an original dissertation. In medicine, the doctorat is a university qualification granted after four years' study

following upon three years' study for the candidature in medical sciences. No t h i s is required. In veterinary medicine, this qualification is granted after three years' study following upon

two years' study in preparatory veteriiiary science and one year's candidature in veterinary medicine. No thesis is required. Doctorat spécial. This degree, which is a grade scientifque, corresponds to the grade légal

(state) qualification of agrégé de l'enseignement supérieur. It is awarded under the same conditions. (See agrégation de l'enseignement supérieur). Entérinement. Legalizing of a university qualification by the Commission d'entérinement

which guarantees that all certificates and titles have been conferred by universities in accordance with legal requirements. Only entérinement gives a title its legal value and enables its holder to practise the profession to which the qualification leads. Examen d'admission. Entrance examination set by higher education institutions, and

compulsory for all candidates for civil engineering. Geaggregeerde voor het hoger onderwijs(Dutch). See agrégation de l'enseignement supérieur. Geaggregeerde voor het hoger secondair onderwijs (Dutch). See agrégation de l'enseignement

secondaire supérieur. Grade légal. Degree awarded on fulfilment of requirements set out by law. The

requirements relate to the granting of university degrees and the programme of university examinations. Grades légaux lead to such professions as law, the magistrature, various branches of the medical profession, teaching. Qualifications relating to grades légaux have to be legalized (see entérinement). Grade scientifique. This qualification is granted either to a student who, having completed

studies for a grade légal, nevertheless has not fulfilled all the conditions for one, or to a student whose subject does not fall within the scope of the laws on the granting of university degrees (for example: economics, politics, oriental philosophy). Courses for grades scLcntiPques are entirely the responsibility of the university authorities. The qualification does not need to be legalized (entériné). Homologatie (Dutch). See homologution. Homologation. Legalization by the Commission d'homologation of the secondary-school-

leaving certificate (certificat d'études moyennes supérieures) and the diplôme d'aptitude à accéder à l'enseignement supérieur. The Commission ensures that the course of studies has followed the state teaching programme or a programme approved by the Ministry of Education. Ingénieur civil. See professional qualification. Kandidaat (Dutch). See candidature. Licence. University degree granted after two or three years following the acquisition of the

28 BELGIUM

candidature. The student follows a course of specialized studies and has usually to present a short dissertation. Licentiaat (Dutch). See licence. Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education awarded after three years'

study following upon two years' preparation for the candidature; for example: ingénieur agronome, ingénieur civil, pharmacien.

Benin In the People's Republic of Benin higher education is given in one university, the National University of Benin, Cotonou, as well as in three institutes of higher education: Higher Polytechnical College, Cotonou; the National Institute of Physical Education and Sport, Porto-Novo; and the National School of Social Workers. The University of Benin is a national university which is open to students from all over the

world. It comprises faculties of: science and techniques; health sciences; letters, arts and humanities; law and political science; a national institute of agronomy; a national institute of economics; a teacher-training college; and a centre of training in administration and further training. The language of instruction is French. Teachers in primary education are usually trained in secondary-level teacher-training

institutions. Teachers in secondary education (which, in Benin, is called 'general medium level education') are trained at the teacher-training college, which admits holders of the diplôme universitaire d'études scientifiques (DUES) and of the diplôme universitaire d'études littéraires (DUEL). It trains them for two years, after which they are awarded a certificat d'aptitude au professorat de l'enseignement secondaire (CAPES), which includes theoretical and practical examinations. Teachers of physical education and sport are trained for five years by the National Institute of Physical Education and Sport. Access to higher education is based on the baccalauréat or its equivalent. Candidates who

have passed the special entrance examinations are also admitted to the University of Benin. The first stage of higher education varies in length according to whether it constitutes a

terminal phase leading to a professional qualification, or whether it constitutes the first phase of long-term studies. In the first case, a three-year training course after the baccalauréat is offered by the Higher Polytechnical College for high level technicians in engineering, industrial mechanics, motorized/electronic/electrotechnic equipment, general adminis- tration, finance, statistics and applied economics, executive secretaryship, radiology, medical laboratory work, and laboratories of studies and research. The National School of Social Workers also trains specialists in three years. In the second case, two-year studies lead to the diplôme universitaire d'études littéraires (DUEL), the diplôme universitaire d'études scientsfiques (DUES), the diplôme d'études juridiques générales, or the diplôme d'études économiques générales. During this stage students acquire basic knowledge. The second stage of long-term studies also usually lasts two years and leads to themaîtrisein

science, letters, law and economics. Submission of a thesis is obligatory. The faculty of agricultural sciences offers a six-year training course for engineers after the baccalauréat

BENIN 29

which leads to the diplôme d'ingénieur agronome. In medicine, studies last six years (instead of three, as before), after which students are awarded the title of docteur en médecine after defence of a thesis. A third stage lasting sixteen months in which theoretical studies and practical experience

alternate is offered by the Centre of Administrative and Further Training to holders of the maîtrise of law, economics or arts who have passed the concours d'entrée, in order to prepare them for managerial posts in public and private administration. These studies lead to an administration degree in management, magistracy, diplomacy, social work sciences and financial administration.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies (Previous education: 13 years, baccalauréat)

years 2 3 4 5 6

DU/DE P M/CAPES DidDdm

CAPES D d m DE diplôme d'études juridiques générales

Dia diplôme d'ingénieur agronome DU

M maîtrise P professional qualification

certificat d'aptitude au professorat de l'enseignement secondaire diplôme de docteur en médecine

diplôme d'études économiques générales

diplôme universitaire d'études scientixques (DUES) diplôme universitaire d'études littéraires (DUEL)

GLOSSARY Baccalauréat. Secondary-school-leaving certificate obtained after six years of primary

followed by seven years of secondary education divided into two phases of four and three years. The first phase leads to the brevet d'études du premier cycle and the second phase to the baccalauréat. The baccalauréat gives access to higher education. Brevet d'études du premier cycle. See baccalauréat. Certificat d'aptitude au professorat d'enseignement secondaire (CAPES). Title of higher

education awarded to the holders of the diplôme universitaire d'études littéraires (DUEL) or of the diplôme universitaire détudes scientifiques (DUES), after two years of study, entitling them to teach at 'general medium level education' (secondary education). Certificat de fin d'études secondaires. See baccalauréat. Concours d'entrée. Competitive entrance examination set by the Centre of Administrative

and Further Training for holders of a maîtrise in arts, economics or law, before following training courses which prepare them to hold managerial posts in public and private administration. Diplôme d'études économiques générales, Diplôme d'études juridiques générales. Titles of

higher education obtained after two years' study respectively in economics and law. Diplôme universitaire d'études littéraires (DUEL). Title of higher education obtained after

two years of study in humanities (English, modern literature, history, geography, sociology and anthropology, philosophy and Marxism). Diplôme universitaire d'études scientifiques (DUES). Title of higher education obtained

30 BENIN

after two years of study in science in the following specializations: mathematics and physics (MP), physics and chemistry (PC), chemistry, biology and geology (CBG). Maîtrise. Degree of higher education awarded on submission of a dissertation at the endof

the two-year second phase of higher education in the following specializations: science (mathematics and physics, physics and chemistry, natural science); arts (English, history, geography, modern literature, sociology and anthropology, philosophy and Marxism); law and economics.

Bolivia In Bolivia higher education is provided in nine universities (one of which is private, the Universidad Catolica Boliviana, La Paz), a technical institute, six higher professional institutions and eight teacher-training colleges. Two universities are technical universities: the Universidad Técnica de Oruro and the Universidad Boliviana Técnica ‘José Ballivihn’, Trinidad-Beni. The basic law of the Bolivian university (Ley Fundamental de la Universidad Boliviana)

(1972) re-confirmed the principle of university autonomy, but limited this to academic problems. It installed a new body, the Consejo Nacional de Educacion Superior (CNES) (National Council for Higher Education) which is responsible for the co-ordination and general administration of the universities. The Conferencia de la Universidad Boliviana (CONUB) (Conference of the Bolivian University), which is made up of four representatives of the CNES and of all the rectors of the universities in the country, is nonetheless the most important university body. The universities offer courses in traditional subjects (letters and humanities, sciences,

health, pure science and natural science) as well as in the higher branches of technology, architecture, the arts and agronomy (since 1977). The teaching language is Spanish. Teacher-training is provided in teacher-training colleges: five escuelas integradas

(integrated colleges) in the urban zones which train teachers inevery subject at every level; five escuelas normales especializadas (specialized teacher-training colleges), which train teachers at primary and secondary level in certain specific subjects (arts, music, physical education, technical branches); many escuelas rurales (rural colleges), which train teachers at the primary level and technical level; two institutos superiores de educacidn (ISE) (higher institutes of education) at postgraduate level at La Paz and Tarija. Access to teacher-training colleges is based on the bachifleraio (secondary-school-leaving certificate) and success in an entrance examination; since 1977, the title ofprofesor and five years of practical experience are required for the ISE.

Access to higher education for students who begin studies which lead to the title oflicenciado or iécnico superior is based on the bachillerato en humanidades (baccalaureate in arts and humanities), which is awarded after eight years of primaryeducation followed by four years of secondary education. Since 1972, those studying for the licenciado also have to pass a national

BOLIVIA 31

entrance examination set by the National Council for Higher Education concurrently with the universities. Relativdy short studies lead after one, three, or four years to a professional qualifkitiun of

técnico (technician) in tourism or nursing. and to one of high-grade technician in industry or commerce. Universities or other authorized institutions confer at this level the qualification of técnico superior which requires the preparation of a tesina (short dissertation). The main stage of long studies leads to the licenciaturu after four to seven years of study.

Studies in letters and humanities usually last four years, in law, economics, engiiieeriiig and dentistry five to six years and in medicine six to seven years, depending on the institutions. A further stage may lead after the licenciatura to a doctorado. This degree requires the

preparation of a thesis embodying research.

PROFILE OF H I G H E R STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, buchillerato en humanidades)

years 4 5 6

P/L D

D doctorado L licenciatura P professional qualification

G L O S S A R Y Bachillerato en humanidades. Secondary-school-leaving certificate obtained after eight

years of primary education divided in two phases, followed by four years of secondary studies also divided in two phases. The bachillerato en humanidades gives access to higher education. Doctorado. The highest degree of higher education, awarded after the licenciaruru or a

professional qualification on submission and defence of a thesis. Licenciatura. Degree of higher education awarded after a course of study, the duration of

which is four to five years in letters and humanities, five years in law, economics, enginecring and dentistry, and six or seven years in medicine, depending on the institution. Maestria. See professionai qualification. Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education, usually awarded with the tirle

of técnico superior, by certain universities ci institutions after studies of varying Icngrii: one year for tourism, three years (agricultural expert, industrial or commercial technician, nuisc), four years for book-keeping. The state qualification of primary school-leacher (marsiro) requires three years; that of secondary school-teacher, four years. The duration oi the irainirig given by the institutos superiores de educacih (ISE) is two years, after which the proiÈsores who have five years of practical experience obtain, on submission of a thesis, iîie qualification of experto for the programmes which are orientated towards educational administration, and of maestria for those which are orientated towards pedagogical techniques. Técnico superior. See professional qualification. Tesina. Short dissertation required for the title of técnico superior. Titulo profesional. See professional qualification.

32 BOTSWANA

Botswana Higher education was provided by the University of Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland until 1975 when its R oma campus became the National University of Lesotho. The University of Botswana and Swaziland comprises two university colleges, one at Gaborone, Botswana, the other at Manzini, Swaziland (see also Lesotho and Swaziland). The University College of Botswana provides instruction in humanities, science, economics

and social sciences, and education. It includes the Institute of Adult Education and the National Institute for Research in Development and African Studies. Each of the university colleges is governed by a council; the academic body deals with questions relating to the universities. The teaching language is English. Primary school teachers are trained in secondary level establishments and secondary

teachers at university. Access to higher education is based on the Cambridge overseas school certipcate, which is

taken after seven years’ primary and five years’ secondary education. This examination is organized in the United Kingdom. Under certain conditions, holders of thegeneral certificate of education, and adults over twenty-five years of age may also enter higher education. Shorter courses in higher education lead after one or two years to professional

qualifications (certificate in business studies; certipcate in statistics). The first stage (undergraduate) of higher education leads to the award of the bachelor’s

degree (first degree), taken after four years’ study in the humanities (BA) and in science (BSc). (Information given in this paragraph is based on the regulations proposed and is liable to modification.) The second stage (postgraduate) leads via examinations and the submission of a dissertation

to the degree of master of arts (two semesters full-time education and three part-time) or master of science (18 to 24 months, full-time, 48 maximum part-time education). This stage is open to holders of the bachelor’s degree.

PROFILE OF H I G H E R STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, Cambridge overseas school certificate)

years 2 3 4 5

D/C B M

B bachelor’s degree C certificate D diploma M master’s degree

GLOSSARY Bachelor’s degree. First degree of higher education awarded for four years’ undergraduate

study in arts or science. The bachelor’s degree in education is awarded after four years’ study as a first degree. Cambridge overseas school certificate. Secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded after

seven years’ primary and five years’ secondary studies. This examination is organized in the United Kingdom. It entitles its holders to enter higher education. Certificate. See professional qualification. Diploma. See professional qualification. First degree. See bachelor’s degree. Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education awarded in the form of a

BOTSWANA 33

certiJicate or diploma after one or two years of undergraduate studies (administration, statistics). Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See Cambridge overseas school certificate.

Brazil In Brazil, establishments of higher education may be run either privately or by the state. The latter depend for their administration upon either the federal or the state government or the municipalities. The Federal Council for Education (Conselho Federal de Educaçao), an organ of the Ministry of Education and Culture, establishes the educational standards and programmes for the higher education system nationwide. It is also through this Council that the Government authorizes the setting up of a federal or private establishment of higher education (state and municipal establishments are authorized by the State Education Councils). After a period of two years an establishment may receive approved status, which then

makes the qualifications it awards nationally valid. The law allows each establishment to set its own entrance examination, but the Federal Council reserves the right to lay down the minimum length and programmes of those courses which give the right to enter the professions. Higher education is provided in 30 federal universities, eight state universities, two

municipal universities, and 21 private universities or in other establishments-seven federations (see below) and 836 independent establishments, of which 657 are private (1976 figures). The universities are composed of faculties or schools of higher education offering

instruction in a wide range of disciplines: teacher-training, humanities;fine arts, architecture, law, social or economic sciences, exact and natural sciences, engineering, medicine, etc. To obtain recognition as a university, an establishment musï include at least three faculties, schools, or institutes. Although the basic teaching unit is the professorship, faculties and schools tend to be organized by departments. Currently the tendency is also toward the creation of large-scale units for the provision of basic studies; these are called institutes and concentrate teaching and research around a professorship or a group of professorships in related subjects. The Council of Brazilian University Rectors is a liaison body on which are represented all

the federal, state and private universities. It carries out inquiries and promotes the exchange of information. The Federations are associations of establishments formed with the goal of offering more

varied and better integrated courses and greater administrative efficiency. The independent establishments consist of faculties, schools, centres, academies or

institutes with relatively few students (sometimes as few as 500) and normally offering instruction in one or two subjects only (technology, law, economics, social sciences, administration, librarianship, fine arts, medicine, nursing training, preparation for secondary

34 BRAZIL

teaching). They are for the most part private and normally dependent upon some further organization (foundation, company, association, council, etc.). The federal universities are financed by the federal government, but may also have other

sources of finance. Teaching takes place in Portuguese. Primary teachers for grades one to four are trained in teacher-training institutions at the

secondary level. The training of secondary teachers takes place in the faculties of philosophy, the faculties of education, or the faculties of humanities and philosophy. These are either incorporated into the university or are frequently independent institutions specializing in the preparation of secondary teachers. There are also higher training institutions for physical education. Short courses are provided in technical training-professional training in very specific

fields, provided either in specialized technological centres or in higher education institutions (title of technician, etc.). Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leaving certificate (SSLC),

which is awarded on successful completion of eleven years of primary and secondary education. Moreover, in order to enter higher education, candidates must pass a concurso vestibular or entrance examination. Thus every establishment requires the candidate to take an examination in three or four subjects determined by law, to which, in different fields and establishments, further compulsory subjects may be added. A numerus clausus has been adopted in view of the disproportion evinced in the application and graduation figures.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 11 years, secondary-school-leaving certificate and entrance examination)

years 3 4 5 6 I 8

Education Arts Theology Fine arts Architecture Law Social and political sciences (including social work)

Economics Exact and natural sciences Engineering Medical sciences medicine dentistry pharmacy veterinary medicine

Agriculture

B/L M B/L M D B M D

P P

P B/L/P M B/L D

B D B/L M D

P B/P M

B/P D B/P P B D B P

P B P M D

B bacharelado D doutorado L licenciatura M mestre P professional qual- ification

BRAZIL 35

The main stage of higher education entails the award of a university degree, the bacharelado, or of a professional qualification, and is usually reached after between three and five years of study, depending on the institution and the subject studied (dentistry and agriculture, four years; architecture and law, five years; medicine, six years). The bacharelado or the licenriaiura are generally awarded after four years’ study to students of philosophy, human science or science who wish to become secondary teachers. The second stage, and the first stage of postgraduate studies, leads to the mestre, awarded

upon completion of at least one year’s study following the barharelado or lirenciaiura to students who have followed a certain number of courses, taken exams andsubmitted a thesis. The third stage leads to the doutorado. The requirements for this degree are identical to

those for the mestre: the doutorado, however, normally requires two further years of study.

GLOSSARY Bacharelado. First degree of higher education, awarded after a three- to five-year course (six

in medicine). Examinations for this take place at the end of each semester and during the course of the year, and there is no final examination. The degree ofbarharelado gives the right to practise the corresponding profession. Concurso vestibular. Entrance examination taken by students who have successfully

completed their secondary studies and wish to enter higher education. Each establishment sets an examination including three or four subjects determined by law with the possible addition of further compulsory subjects. Doutorado. The highest degree of higher education, awarded to students having passed an

exam and submitted a thesis, normally after two years’ study following the award of the inesire or licenciatura. Licenciatura. This degree of higher education is awarded only in relation to secondary or

higher level teaching (generally after four years’ studies). It is obtained contemporaneously with the bacharelado, the conditions being the same for both courses. Mestre. Degree of higher education awarded after at least one year’s studies subscyuent

upon the award of the barharelado or licenciaturu. Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education awarded by faculties after

courses generally lasting between three and five years (six in niedicine).

Bulgaria In the People’s Republic of Bulgaria, higher education is the responsibility of the Ministry of Education. The latter ensures that higher education matches the requirements of the country’s social, cultural and scientific development with respect to the training of young specialists in the institutions of higher education. It controls the number of students in the higher institutes, sets out regulations governing all institutions of education and ensures their pedagogical, methodological and ideological control. All higher education is free. Most of the students are granted scholarships based on their grades as well as on their family

BULGARIA

income. The rest get individual financial assist8Pce. The outstanding students are granted scholarships irrespective of their family income. >! Higher education takes place in 30 higher institutions, as follows: three universities (one

with a branch), the Academy for Social Sciences and Social Management, ten technical institutes, the Medical Academy comprising four medical institutes (with branches), three economic institutes, two agricultural institutes, four art institutes (for music, fine arts and dramatic art), a teacher-training institute, an institute for sport and an institute for foreign students. Apart from the Ministry of Education, part of the higher institutions in the People's Republic of Bulgaria come under the authority of the relevant ministry or committee (the Ministry of Public Health, the Committee of Culture, the National Industrial and Agrarian Union). The Academy of Social Sciences and Social Management is under the direct responsibility of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party. All institutions of higher education have equal rights and obligations to prepare specialists

in different fields. The Institute for Foreign Students ensures language training and special preliminary preparation of the foreign students who are going to study in other higher institutions. Studies in higher education may be on a regular, evening or correspondence basis. This enables many people to continue their education beyond secondary school. Specialists are trained in about 145 specialities, most of which are mastered in theuniversities, the technical and art institutes. T o improve the tuition process as well as the adaptation of the graduates, the specialities in the higher institutions are gradually expanded.

"% 36 .I :

The language of instruction is Bulgarian. Access to higher education is based on the diplom za zavarfeno sredno obrazovanie

(secondary-school-leaving certificate) or equivalent qualification from an institution of general (gymnasija) or technical secondary education. This qualification is obtained after eight years of primary school and four years (five for some special secondary schools) of secondary general education, which terminates with matriculation. Candidates to higher institutions must pass a competitive entrance examination (konkursen izpit). Secondary- school-leaving results are also taken into consideration. Teachers of primary education take a two- to three-year course in semi-specialized training

colleges at postsecondary level. Teachers of secondary education obtain higher education diplomas after four to five years of postsecondary studies (at a university or higher teacher- training institute), during which period they receive special training for teaching. Necessary steps are being taken to ensure the training of teachers for all kinds and grades of schools (from nursery schools to secondary schools) at higher institutions. Teachers having graduated from semi-specialized training colleges at postsecondary level are allowed, if they wish, to continue their education on a correspondence basis at higher teacher-training institutes (provided they meet the age requirements).

The social, economic and cultural progress of the country requires the specialists having the diploma of higher education (diplom za ruvarSeno visSe obrazovanie) to study at an advanced level. The training course lasts four to six years, and leads to the acquisition of an advanced professional qualification. At universities the main stage of studies lasts four to five years. Courses in other institutions of higher education last five to five and a half years (six in architecture and medicine). This term of education alone does not furnish the students with any rights or professional qualification. Higher education terminates with a state examination (darfaven izpit) and (for most of the specialities) individual research resulting in a thesis. All this leads to a diplom za zavarSeno visSe obrazovanie (diploma of higher education). This may be considered a basis for a further stage ofpostgraduate work. Postgraduate work

branches into two, as follows. The holder of adiplomaof higher education may continue with his studies in different courses which provide further qualification and narrow specialization on the basis of his general qualification (for medical students, for instance, specialization in cardiology, orthopaedic surgery, etc.). Postgraduate work ensures further training of the

BULGARIA 37

specialists in new fields of their speciality. The different forms of postgraduate work are in conformity with the constantly changing demands of the country. Another form of postgraduate work prepares specialists for scientific research. It leads to two qualifications: kandidat na naukite and doktor na naukite (doctorate of science), The kandidat na naukite qualification is obtained after individual research (aspirantura) and

a thesis. The forms of education are on a regular, correspondence and unrestricted basis. The regular qualification term lasts three years, while the correspondence term is four years. The unrestricted qualification is an independent form of obtaining the degree. The scientific results obtained during the period of research are defendedbefore ascientific

board in the form of a thesis. Members of the scientific board are outstanding specialists in the appropriate field. In Bulgaria there is a scientific board for each branch of science. The thesis must meet one basic requirement-it must constitute a contribution to science. A third stage may lead to the doktor na naukite, obtainedon the basis of individual research

and after presentation of a further thesis which must represent an important contribution to a given branch of science. The thesis is defended before the appropriate scientific board. Extensive work is being done in the country to select thesis themes relevant to problems of

major importance for the national economy.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, diplom za zavari’eno sredno obrazovanie or zrelostno svidetelstvo and entrance examination)

years 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Education YPP/Di Arts Di K D Fine arts Di Law Di K D Economics Di K D Exact and natural Di K D

Technology, engineering Di K D

medicine Di K D dentistry Di K D pharmacy Di K D veterinary medicine Di K D

Agriculture Di K D

sciences

Medical sciences

D doktor na naukite Di diplom za zavarSeno visSe obrazovanie K kandidat na naukite YPP udostoverenie za praktika pedagogiteska.

GLOSSARY Aspirantura. See kandidat na naukite. Dariaven izpit. State examination for students who have attended the full course of

specialized studies in a higher institution. Success in this examination (together with defence of a thesis for most of the specialities) ensures a professional qualification, which allows further higher education. Students obtain the diplom za zavarSeno visSe obrazovanie (diploma

38 BULGARIA

of higher education) enabling them to apply their professional qualification or to carry on with their studies. The number of subjects in this state examination depends on the speciality. Diplom za zavarSeno sredno obrazovanie. School-leaving-certificate awarded to students at

technical or art schools after four years of secondary following upon eight years of primary education. This diploma enables holders to sit the competitive entrance examination giving access to higher education. The diploma for the priesthood, obtained after six years’ secondary education, gives access to higher ecclesiastical studies. Diplom za zavarSeno visSe obrazovanie. Obtained at the end of four to six years’ study.

Candidates must pass yearly examinations on the whole range of subjects studied before being admitted to the following year. At the end of their studies, they must pass a darfaven izpit (state examination) or submit a thesis (for most of the specialities). This diploma is regardedin many fields as a professional qualification. Diploma of higher education. See diplom za zavarSeno visSe obrazovanie. Doktor na naukite. Scientific qualification obtained as a result of individual scientific

research representing an important contribution to a given branch of science. Candidates must submit a thesis containing the results of the scientific research. The thesis is defended in public before a scientific board and candidates are awarded a diploma.

Kandidat na naukite. Obtained after three years’ study after the diplom and the presentation of a thesis. Primary teacher’s qualification. See udostoverenie za pedagogireska rabota. Professional qualification. See diplom za zavarSeno visSe obrazovanie; darfaven izpit. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See zrelustno svidetelstvo. Udostoverenie za pedagogifeska rabota. Teaching qualification obtained in a training

college at an intermediate level between secondary and higher education. It enables holders to become primary teachers (first form through to eighth form). Udostoverenie za poluvisSa tehnifeska praktika. Technician’s qualification obtained after a

short course of study (two or three years in an institution of intermediate education, tp institut, ip institut). Zrelostno svidetelstvo. Secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded after eight years of

primary education followed by four years of general and polytechnic secondary education. This certificate entitles its holders to sit the competitive entrance examination to higher education.

a In the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma, higher education is given in two types of institutions: universities and university institutes, and specialized institutions of higher education. There are two universities and nine university institutes: Rangoon Arts and Science

University, with three affiliated colleges; Mandalay Arts and Science University, with three affiliated colleges; the Institute of Medicine I, Rangoon, the Institute of Dental Medicine, Rangoon, two institutes of medicine (Mingaladon, Mandalay); institutes of technology, economics, education (in Rangoon); of agriculture (Mandalay); and of animal husbandry and veterinary science, in Insein.

BURMA 39

The specialized institutions are teacher-training colleges and schools, technical and professional institutes, and an institute for foreign languages. The language of instruction is Burmese, except in some subjects at postgraduate level,

where English is used. All universities and colleges are state institutions under the control of the Department of

Higher Education of the Ministry of Education (except for the university institutes of medicine, transferred to the Ministry of Health), but they are independent units. Each university has an academic board and an administrative board. Policies are framed by two bodies: the Universities Central Council, which frames broad policies and co-ordinates the work of the universities and colleges, and the Council of University Academic Bodies, which frames all academic regulations and co-ordinates all academic work. Statutes and regulations are uniform for institutions offering the same courses. All universities and colleges are totally financed by the State. ii nominal fee is charged for studies, but one-fifth of students are exempt. Two innovations have been initiated since 1976 to ‘deconcentrate’ the institutions of higher

education. One is the opening. between 1977 and 1979, of 20 two-year regional colleges in the various states of the country, and the other is the introduction of university correspondence courses. The regional colleges have been created to train middle level technicians engaged in production and industry who are currently in great shortage. The scheme is at an early stage and is still being improved. The university correspondence courses were set up in 1975-76 to satisfy the increasing demand for higher education. The administrative control of the University Correspondence Education Department (responsible for the university correspondence courses) lies with the Universities’ Central Council and the University Correspondence Education Management Board. The academic control lies with the Council of University Academic Bodies. The syllabuses and courses are those approved by the Rangoon Arts and Science University Academic Body. Course books and assignments are prepared by the professors and heads of departments at the Rangoon Arts and Science University and the Institute of Economics, Rangoon. Teachers of primary and lower-secondary education are trained in two years at upper-

secondary level in teacher-training colleges. A four-year course in education at the university leads to the award of a bachelor’s degree (BAEd). There is a one-year postgraduate course leading to a diploma and a two-year course leading to the bachelor’sdegree ofeducation (BEd) for holders of a bachelor’s degree in a teaching subject. Access to higher education is based on success in the basic education high school

examination, taken after 11 years of schooling. Candidates are chosen from the ‘A’ list, which denotes eligibility for university admission. The first stage of higher education leads to the bachelor’s degree, obtained after four years’

study in humanities, science and economics. These faculties offer a bachelor’s degree (pass) after four years, and a bachelor’s degree (honours) after five years. In agriculture and education, the degree is awarded after five years’ study, in engineering, architecture and forestry after six years, in dentistry, veterinary science and medicine, after six anda half years. in law, the course only takes two years but candidates have to hold a bachelor’s degree. Professional qualifications are awarded in the form of certijicares or diplomas after one to three years’ study. The second stage is reached after two to three years, and leads to the master’s degree. The third stage is reached after three to four years following upon the master’s degree, and

leads to the doctor’s degree. Both higher degrees are awarded in almost ali subjects.

40 BURMA

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies (Previous education: 1 I years, basic education high school examination)

years 4 5 6 7 8

Bu Bh M D

Bh bachelor’s degree (honours) D doctor’s degree

Bp bachelor’s degree (pass) M master’s degree

G L O S S A R Y Bachelor’s degree. First degree usually obtained after four years’ study. The faculties of arts,

science and social science offer two levels of bachelor’s degree: a bachelor’s degree (pass) in four years, and a bachelor’s degree (honours) in five years. The bachelor’s degree in engineering, veterinary science and forestry is taken in six years. In law and medicine it is obtained in two years’ study following upon a bachelor’s degree in arts, science or social science, which is a prerequisite. Certificate. See professional qualification. Diploma. See professional qualification. Diploma of education. Qualification obtained by candidates who already hold a bachelor’s

degree. This takes one year’s study following upon the bachelor’s degree. Holders of a bachelor’s degree may obtain a degree of bachelor of education in two years following upon the bachelor’s degree. Entrance examination. See matriculation examination. Honours degree. See bachelor’s degree. Mastership. See master’s degree. Master’s degree. Qualification of higher education, obtained in two to three years after the

bachelor’s degree. Matriculation examination. University entrance examination open to candidates who have

completed four years’ primary and six years’ secondary ‘education and hold the secondary- school-leaving certificate. 1’

Pass degree. See bachelor’s degree. Professional qualification. Higher education qualifjfation which may be awarded as a

certificate or a diploma. In technology, three years’ stddy lead to the award of a diploma. In education, a diploma may be obtained in one year by thoie already holding a bachelor’s degree

Secondary-school-leaving certificate. Qualification obtained after four years’ primary and six years’ secondary education. It gives access to higher education in technology, to the teacher-training colleges and to the matriculation examination.

in a teaching speciality. ,I

,

BURUNDI 41

Burundi Higher education in Burundi is provided by the University of Burundi. which was created in 1977 by the amalgamation of the Université Officielle de Bujumbura (UOB) and the Higher Teacher Training School. The decree enacting the creation of the University endows it with organic. technical and administrative autonomy. It is under the supervision of the Ministry of Education and is directed by an Administrative Council. a Rector, a Vice-Rector, and a Secretary-General. The staff are administered under two statutes, governing administrative/ technical and teachinglscientific staff respectively. Under the sponsorship of the State, the University of Burundi receives an annual grant from the Ministry of Education. Teaching takes place in French in the following: the faculties of letters and human sciences

(African, French and English language and literatures, history and geography). law, economics, and administration, psychology and education, science, agriculture, and medicine; and the institutes of physical education and pedagogy. The faculty of economics and administration offers a two-year short course training

students of commerce and administration to diploma level and a longer course in economics and in administration and management. The faculty of science comprises: a sciences’ section training candidats in chemistry,

agriculture, pharmacy, geology and mineralogy and offering licence courses in biology, and a ‘polytechnic’ section offering two-year courses for the candidature in mathematics, physics, and civil engineering. There is also a three-year course for students who have not taken or passed the entrance examination for the polytechnic ‘A’ course (two years). In the context of continuing education, the University of Burundi offers evening courses in

Arabic and Swahili which lead to the award of a certificate of attendance. Increasingly the University itself organizes the second phase of studies in Burundi. Teachers

are sent from Switzerland, Belgium, France, and the Soviet Union under co-operation agreements. The Association of Partiaily or Wholly French-Language Universities (AUPELF) regularly sends teaching staff. The University of Burundi also enjoys privileged relationships with the universities of Zaire, Yaoundé and Belgium in exchanges of students and of teachers. Co-operation agreements have also been signed with some French universities, notably in the field of medicine. Access to higher education is based on the certificat d‘humanités complètes, a school-leaving

certificate awarded after seven years of secondary education. This certificate must be confirmed by a Commission established by the Ministry of Education to ensure that the courses have been regularly carried out in the manner required by the State. Civil engineering ‘A’ studies are open only to those who have passed a special entrance examination. The new system adopted by the Ministry of Education entails selection being made among holders of the secondary-leaving certificate by an Orientation Commission. The latter takes into account the places available in the University and national requirements; candidates present a list of three subjects which they have chosen, and their academic performance over the last three years of secondary education is taken into consideration. The first stage of higher studies lasts between one and three years and is devoted to basic and

often multidisciplinary studies. The baccalauréat is awarded in law after one‘s year study, and the candidature after two years’ study and success in the final examinations in other disciplines. An exception to the above is the civil engineering ‘B’ course, in which the candidature is awarded after three years. In many cases the first year of studies is common to different candidatures. This is the case for economics and administration, psychology and education, chemistry, mineralogy, pharmacy, geology and agronomy. A two-year course diploma is awarded to students who have completed their studies at the

Institute of Pedagogy, in the commerce and administration section, and in the co-operative.

42 BURUNDI

The second stage of higher education lasts two years and leads to the licence. In agriculture it lasts three years, and in medicine, four years.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 13 years, certificat d‘humanités complètes)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 I

Pedagogy Di Psychology, education C L Physical education L sports

administration

administrative studies

sciences

Commercial and Di

Exact and natural C L

Engineering C(A) C(B) Medical sciences medicine pharmacy

Agronomy C C IA

B baccalauréat C candidature D doctorat Di diplôme IA ingénieur agro- nome L licence

GLOSSARY Baccalauréat en droit. Law diploma awarded after one year in higher education. Candidature. First degree of higher education awarded after two or three years’ study. It

represents the basic training required to continue in higher education at a more specialized level. Certificat d’humanités complètes. Qualification obtained after six years of primary followed

by seven years of secondary education, giving access to higher education. Diplôme. Degree awarded after two years in commerce and administration and also after

two years (diploma of lower-secondary teaching) in the Institute of Pedagogy. Doctorate. Degree of higher education awarded exclusively in medicine after seven years’

study. The first doctors of medicine of the University of Burundi will graduate in 1982. Ingénieur agronome. Diploma awarded after five years’ study at the faculty of agriculture,

the two years of the candidature being taken at the faculty of science. Licence. Diploma awarded at the completion of four years’ university studies.

CANADA 43

Canada In Canada post-secondary education is offered in both degree-granting and non degree- granting institutions. According to the Canadian constitution, education comes under the jurisdiction of the provincial governments. However the federal government is involvedin the financial support of post-secondary education. Degree-granting institutions derive their powers from the government of the province in

which they are located or, for certain older institutions, from a royal charter granted before Canadian confederation (1867) by the British Crown. Some universities hold their degree- granting powers in abeyance while in federation or affiliation with another institution and prepare students for degrees granted by the parent institution. In the past, the words ‘university’ and ‘college’ were almost synonymous. At present,

however, the word ‘university’ is reserved for institutions which offer programmes leading to a degree and have the power to grant the degree. The word ‘college’, though at times used to denote a degree-granting institution, most often refers to an institution which offers post- secondary courses for transfer to a university, or courses which are occupationally oriented, or both. Canadian universities are autonomous institutions. Most of them use English as the

language of instruction, some use French, and some offer programmes of study in both French and English. The greatest source of financial support for the universities is the public purse; other sources of income are student tuition fees, endowments and gifts. A university is composed of faculties, departments, schools and institutes which exercise

teaching, research and community service functions. The institutions are usually governed by a senate for academic matters, and a board of governors for administrative and financial matters. They are headed by a president, principal or rector. Co-ordination between universities is achieved through official governmental bodies within provinces or regions and through non-governmental provincial, regional and national associations. At the national level, the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada represents 69 universities and colleges, virtually all of Canada’s degree-granting institutions. Until the mid-sixties, the universities were expected to provide almost all of the available

opportunities for education beyond the secondary school. Since then, however, there have been established nearly 200 non-university institutions-known by the generic term ‘community college’ or, in the Province of Quebec, as CEGEP (college of general and professional studies). These colleges offer programmes of study leading to diplomas and certificates, but not to degrees. Their emphasis is on vocational education, although some of them (in British Columbia, Alberta and Quebec) offer preparatory courses of study after which students may transfer to university programmes. Private institutions, generally profit- making enterprises, prepare students for secretarial work and other technical occupations and offer corresponding certificates. For most full-time students, the academic year consists of two terms or semesters of a little

less than four months each, September to December and January to April. In addition, most universities organize a summer session of six weeks from the beginning of July to mid-August and some offer, as well, a four-week intersession in late spring. A variation in effect at a few universities provides for year-round operation with three terms or trimesters, the third running from May to August. More than a dozen universities organize studies in some faculties on what is called the co-

operative plan, alternating full-time study on campus during one term with full-time employment providing supervised work experience during the next. Most universities operate departments of continuing education which offer courses, mostly

to part-time students, in the late afternoon or evening during the regular university term.

44 CANADA

These courses may be conducted on campus or elsewhere within the area served by the university. In recent years, institutions have been established in British Columbia, Alberta and Quebec

which are primarily concerned with teaching at a distance, and thus offer opportunities for university study to individuals who are either unable or unwilling to attend a conventional university. These institutions are involved in the production and delivery of self-instructional materials and make use of media technology for the delivery of live instruction. Each province has its own pattern of schooling. In all provinces except Ontario, Quebec and

Newfoundland, students are eligible for admission to university after the completion of 12 years of elementary andsecondary schooling. In Ontario, students must normally complete 13 years of study prior to admission to university. Some Ontario institutions admit students following 12 years of schooling. In Quebec, students must complete a two-year programme of preparatory studies in a CEGEP following 11 years of primary and secondary schooling before being admissible to university. In Newfoundland, the provincial schools have 1 1 grades after which students enter university at a level beyond which four years are required to complete a general degree in arts and science. Each university sets its own admission requirements which are expressed in terms of the

school-leaving certificates of the province in which the university is located. There are no nationwide admission tests, nor do individual universities administer their own admission tests. For purposes of admission, most universities require a number of documents from candidates including an official report of school marks and a recommendation from the school principal or counsellor. Access to a particular programme may depend on the programme of study the candidate has followed in secondary school, where a variety of optional courses is available. Admission requirements vary from one programme to another and students may be required to follow certain additional courses before being admitted to the programme of their choice. Some professional degree programmes may be entered directly from secondary school.

Others require the applicant to have completed some or all of a first degree programme. The stated minimum requirement for admission to dentistry, medicine and law, for example, may be one or more years of arts or science; in practice, however, a full degree is almost a necessity because competition for entry is keen. Still other professional faculties, such as library science, require a bachelor’s degree for entry. Most universities are flexible about admitting to first degree courses, usually in arts and

science, persons with unconventional patterns of previous schooling. Normal requirements include that the candidate has reached the age of 21, has been out of school for two or more years and can show promise of success in university. All Canadian universities admit students from other countries. However, applicants from

abroad face special conditions. They must obtain a student authorization and visa from a Canadian government office in their home country and they must give assurance of having sufficient funds to finance their studies and stay in Canada and to cover the expenses of their return journey. It is normal for students from abroad, whose schooling was not in the language used in the university in which they propose to study, to be required to demonstrate their proficiency in that language. It is usual for Canadian universities to require that records of former schooling be accompanied by notarized translation into French or English. Also, some universities impose quotas on the number of foreign students who may be admitted to certain faculties. In six of the ten provinces, the tuition fees charged to students from other countries are considerably higher than those for Canadians, ranging from $800 to $1,500 or more per two-semester year. The main stage of university studies leads to a bachelor’s degree or to a first professional

degree. The bachelor’s degree may be obtained after three or four years of study, depending upon the length of secondary school studies. The curriculum of the first year, or an equivalent

CANADA 45

period spread over two years, usually consists of general non-specialized subjects. In some institutions, two types of degree may be obtained: a general bachelor’s degree or an honours bachelor’s degree. The general degree is normally a terminal degree while the honours degree, requiring an additional year of study, prepares the student for direct admission into a postgraduate programme of studies. The curriculum for a first professional degree may vary in length but is normally of four

years’ duration. The degree obtained is usually a bachelor’s degree, except that in medicine, veterinary medicine and dentistry the degree is ordinarily that of doctor. The goal of undergraduate education in arts and science is to provide programmes which

will enable students to develop their potential abilities. This education is, in most cases, not job-specific, although there are some fields in which a bachelor’s degree may constitute a form of professional education, e.g. economics. The majority of university students terminate their post-secondary studies upon completion of the three- or four-year undergraduate degree and

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 11/12 or 12/13 years, school-leaving certificate)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Education Arts Religion, theology Fine arts Architecture Law Social sciences Administrative sciences Commercial sciences Science Engineering Medical sciences medicine dentistry pharmacy veterinary medicine

Agriculture

P P B M/P M D B M D

B B M D D B

B M B/D B/M B/D B B/M/P M/P

B M M D B M/P M D

P M M D P B P P P M M

B M/P D P M P M D

B B/M D

B bachelor’s degree; baccalauréat maîtrise

N.B. The academic requirements vary considerably from one university to another; in particular, in law, the bachelor’s degree may be obtained after different periods of study depending on whether another bachelor’sdegree has been required before the beginning of law studies (on the other hand, the licence en droit is a title which is conferred in the province of Quebec); in dentistry, there exist diplomas at different levels indicated according to the universities; in veterinary medicine, the professional qualification (P) and the master’s degree (M) are independent degrees which do not follow each other. One obtains them at different levels depending on whether a previous bachelor’s degree is required or not.

D doctor’s degree; doctorat M master’s degree; P professional qualification; titre professionnel

46 CANADA

compete in the marketplace for employment, either in the public or private sectors. Professional programmes of study at the undergraduate level provide students with the necessary skills and knowledge to exercise their profession upon completion of their studies: faculties of medicine exist to train doctors, faculties of education to train teachers, faculties of engineering to produce engineers, and so on. The second stage corresponds to postgraduate studies leading to the master’s degree. To be

admitted to a master’s degree programme a candidate must hold an honours bachelor’s degree (exceptionally a strong candidate holding only a general bachelor’s degree might be allowed to enter a master’s programme after a qualifying year). The master’s degree normally requires two years of study beyond the corresponding honours bachelor’s degree and may be obtained in arts (MA), in the sciences (MSc) or in given specialities such as education (MEd) and engineering (MEng). The master of philosophy degree (MPhil) may be obtained at a few universities but only in arts subjects; however, it requires a minimum of two years’ study beyond the corresponding honours bachelor’s degree. The third stage is that of the PhD or doctorate and requires at least two years of study

beyond a master’s degree or a minimum of three years beyond the honours bachelor’s degree. This degree may be obtained in a variety of disciplines, including the applied sciences, and is known under the generic term of PhD although it may be granted under the specific terms of DLitt, DSc, DScA, DMus and LLD. A variety of postgraduate programmes leading to post- secondary certificates or diplomas is also available. Graduate education is usually separated into the preparation of professionals and

education in the humanities, the natural sciences and the social sciences. While graduate level studies are undertaken by those who wish to pursue in depth research and scholarship in their chosen field, they also act as professional programmes: the humanities as training for university and college teaching, in the natural sciences for post-secondary teaching or for careers in research in the public and private sectors, and in the social sciences for teaching or for professional service in government departments or in industry.

GLOSSARY Baccalauréat. See bachelor’s degree. Bachelor’s degree. First qualification of higher education. It is usually awarded after four

years’ study (three for candidates who are holders of the senior matriculation certificate or of the diplôme d‘études collégiales). This first qualification is either a general (pass) bachelor’s degree, or an honours bachelor’s degree. The former does not usually lead to further studies. The latter, which comprises more specialized studies, usually takes one year longer, but normally enables holders to obtain the master’s degree in one year less. Candidates for professional studies are usually required to have undergone one or two years of higher education or even to have obtained a bachelor’s degree. In French-language universities, the first university qualification is usually the baccalauréat, but certain universities award as first degree a licence, e.g. in law. Doctorate or doctor’s degree. The highest qualification of higher education, awarded after

at least one or two years of graduate studies following upon the master’s degree. Candidates must submit a thesis. In certain subjects, the doctorate (PhD) involving research is distinguished from a ‘speciality’ doctorate which emphasizes participation in lectures and practical work. In veterinary medicine and dentistry, the qualification ofdoctor is obtained at the end of the first stage of studies (see professional qualijïcation). First professional degree. See professional qualification. General bachelor’s degree or Pass Degree. See bachelor’s degree. Honours bachelor’s degree. See bachelor’s degree. Maîtrise. See master’s degree. Master’s degree. Postgraduate qualification of higher education. It is usually awarded after

CANADA 47

one or two years’ study following upon the bachelor’s certificate. Holders of a bachelor’s degree with honours spend one year less before obtaining the master’s degree. In certain specialities, there are two types of master’s degree: the master of arts degree (MA) and a speciality master’s degree; the former requires individual research and submission of a thesis, the latter requires following of lectures and practical work. In French-language universities this qualification is called maîtrise. Pass degree. See buchelor’s degree. Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education obtained after a varying

number of years, consisting usually of a certificate or diploma. There are numerous courses leading to a first professional degree and to more advanced qualifications following upon the first professional qualification. The first qualification is usually obtained after four years’ study, but the length of studies may vary from one to five years. In medicine, veterinary medicine and dentistry, the first qualification is that of doctor.

Central African Republic In the Central African Republic, higher education is provided by the University of Bangui, founded in 1969, which comprises todate four faculties, three university institutes and two research institutes. The faculty of law and economics offers three-year degree (licence) courses in public law,

private law, and economics. Instruction in the capacité (certificate of professional competence) programme was phased out in 1977, but the faculty each year holds capacité examinations at Bangui for the benefit of those who have prepared this diploma independently. The faculty of letters and humanities offers two-year courses for the diplôme universitaire

d’études littéraires in English literature, history and geography, modern literature, and, starting in October 1979, for the diplôme d’études universitaires in education, which will be confined to students intending to teach the humanities in colleges of general education. The faculty of science offers courses in mathematics and physics and chemistry, and

chemistry-biology and geology. From October 1979 it offers a diplôme d’études universitaires in education, confined to students intending to teach science at colleges of general education. The faculty of health sciences offers courses leading to the doctoral en médecine and to a

number of diplomas. The institutes are: the University Institute of Management; the University Institute of

Agriculture of M’Baïki, which trains agricultural engineers over three years (the course was increased to four years as from October 1979); the University Institute of Mining Technology, Geology and Construction; the Institute of Applied Linguistics, which has the declared aim of improving the level of teaching in schools, lycées and colleges, of the official language of the nation-that is, French; the Institute of Research into the Teaching of Mathematics, which is intended to adapt the teaching of mathematics to the Central African cultural context and to advise the mathematics teachers of the primary and secondary schools of the country.

48 CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC

Besides the University, there exist other higher education establishments. The National Pedagogical Institute comprises five departments having the following functions: research into teaching methods; refresher courses and employee-training; psychology and academic and professional orientation; the elimination of illiteracy and continuing education; and production of teaching methods. The Teacher-Training College trains students over four years for the certificat d'aptitude

professionnelle, which entitles the student to teach in colleges of general education. From October 1979, this establishment will begin a close co-ordination with the faculty of letters and humanities and the faculty of science in the training of teachers for the first andsecond stages of secondary education over three and four years respectively. The Teacher-Training College will provide the teacher-training and the faculties the basic instruction. The function of the National School of Administration and Magistracy is to train the

administrative and legal officials of the country for the different official grades. Three successive two-year courses are offered; as from October 1979, the third is exclusively open to graduates-graduates in public law taking the administration course, economics graduates taking the treasury service course and graduates in private law being trained for the magistracy. The teaching language is French. Access to higher education is generally limited to students who have passed the baccalauréat

or the entrance examination of the faculties, institutes or teacher-training college. There are, however, some exceptions to this rule. The capacité course in law is open to those who do not have the baccalauréat but the brevet

of the first cycle of secondary studies. Holders of the capacité in law with average marks in this examination above 12 out of 20 may go on to take the degree courses in law and economics. Access to the first two-year course of the National School of Administration is by

competitive examination open to candidates not having the baccalauréat. The competitive examination for the second cycle is open exclusively to holders of the baccalauréat unless the candidates are already members of the civil service. The faculty of health sciences accepts for its para-medical departments candidates not

having the baccalauréat. Advanced health technicians are trained in four years; nurses, social workers, midwives and community development agents are awarded a diplôme d'Etat after three years' study and health assistants a diploma after one year. The first stage of higher education lasts two years and leads to a non-terminal qualification:

in the humanities, the diplôme universitaire d'études littéraires; in science, to the diplôme universitaire d'études scientijïques; in law, to the capacité en droit. The second stage, of two years' duration, leads, in law, economics, and mathematics to the

licence (first terminal degree). In mathematics amaitrise is conferred one year after the licence. Professional qualifications are also awarded at this stage: a diploma in agriculture at the Institute of Agriculture (diplôme d'ingénieur des travaux agricoles); a diplôme supérieur de gestion after three years' study at the Institute of Management; a diplôme d'ingénieur after four years at the Institute of Mining, Geology and Construction. In the faculty of health sciences a six-year course leads to the doctorat in medicine which is the only doctorate awarded by the University.

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC 49

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 13 years, baccalauréat)

years 2 3 4 5 6

Law, economics C* L Mathematics DUES L M Natural and exact DUES L

Education DEUP CAP-CEG? CAP2è sciences

cyclef Humanities (English, DUEL L modern literature, history, geography)

Management D S G Mining, geology, P

Medicine D Para-medical sciences - Agriculture P

construction

P* P*

C capacité en droit CAP-CEG certificat d'aptitude professionnelle à l'enseignement dans les collèges

d'enseignement général (ler cycle) CAP 2e cycle certificat d'aptitude professionnelle à renseignement du second cycle dans

les lycées D doctorat DEUP diplôme d'études universitaires pédagogiques D S G diplôme supérieur de gestion DUEL diplôme universitaire d'études littéraires DUES diplôme universitaire détudes scientifiques L licence P professional qualification * The baccalauréat is not required for admission to these courses. t See text.

GLOSSARY See entry on Ivory Coast.

50 CHAD

Chad

No detailed information having been received recently this text is mainly repeatedfrom the 1976 English edition of this Guide.

In Chad, higher education is provided largely through the university and is under the control of the Ministry of Education and Culture. Several other institutions of higher education are under the jurisdiction of other ministries: the National School of Administration (Ministry of Public Administration); the Institute of Animai Husbandry and Veterinary Studies and the Institute of Stockbreeding, the Institute of Forestry and Agriculture (Ministry of Agriculture). The university comprises four faculties: education; humanities; law, economics and

management studies; pure and applied science. The faculties are subdivided into departments. The language of instruction is French. Access to higher education is based on the baccalauréat (secondary-school-leaving

certificate), obtained after six years of primary and seven years of secondary education. Candidates for the diplôme de capacité en droit do not need a baccalauréat. The main stage of higher education is divided into two phases. The first phase leads after

two years’ study, to adiplôme universitaire de lettres modernes (DULMO) in humanities, to the diplôme universitaire de sciences (DUS) in science, or to the diplôme universitaire de sciences juridiques, économiques et degestion (DUSJEG). These are not terminal qualifications. In law, the capacité en droit is awarded to those who do not hold the baccalaauréat. The second phase leads, after one year’s study following upon the first qualification, to the

licence (first degree) in modern literature, history and geography, law, business administration and biology. The National School of Administration awards a licence in law after three years’ study. Diplomas are awarded in administration and in law. Where there are no facilities in Chad, students continue their studies abroad.

PROFILE OF H I G H E R STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies (Previous education; 13 years, baccalauréat)

years 2 3

D L

D diplôme universitaire L licence

G L O S S A R Y Baccalauréat. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, obtained at the end of six years of

primary followed by seven years of secondary education in a general or technical secondary school. Secondary education is divided into four years’ lower and three years’ upper education, and there are three main options (mathematics, science or literature). Programmes are adapted from the French curriculum; the baccalauréat gives access to higher education. Capacité en droit. Qualification obtained after two years’ study in law. Access is open to

those who do not hold the baccalauréat; they must be 17 years old and pass an entrance examination.

CHAD 51

Diplôme universitaire de lettres modernes (DULMO). Non-terminal qualification obtained after two years’ study in humanities. Diplôme universitaire de sciences (DUS). Non-terminal qualification obtained after two

years’ study in science. Diplôme universitaire de sciences juridiques, économiques et de gestion. Non-terminal

qualification obtained after two years’ study in commerce, economics and administration. Licence. First degree awarded after one year’s study following upon the diplôme

universitaire; the National School of Administration awards a licence in law after three years’ study. Special entrance examination. Examination for those who do not hold the baccalauréat,

giving access to studies leading to the capacité en droit.

Chile

In Chile, higher education is provided in eight universities, two of which are state universities (University of Chile, State Technical University), and six are private (two Catholic: the Catholic University of Chile and the University of Valparaiso; four secular: University of the North, Technical University Federico Santa Maria, University of Concepcion, and Southern University of Chile). The private universities are very largely financed by the State, the state universities entirely so. The universities are autonomous. The co-ordinating body is the Council of Rectors. Planning of courses and curricula is the responsibility of a University Council. Each university is headed by a Rector and is organized into faculties, schools or departments, each of which corresponds to a speciality or set of specialities. (It should be noted that higher education in Chile is in the process of reform.) The training of primary and secondary school-teachers takes place in the universities, in the

institutes of education. Secondary school technical teachers are trained in the technical universities. Universities also provide summer and refresher courses for teachers. There is in Chile a Centro Latino-americano de Formacion de Especialistas en Educacion. The language of instruction is Spanish. Access to higher education is based on theprueba de aptitudacadémica (PAA), which is taken

by students who have already passed the secondary-school-leaving certificate (licencia de educacion media). Certain faculties and schools further require the candidate to take a special examination. Theprueba is the national university entrance examination; it is organized by a commission attached to the Council of Rectors. Depending on the subjects tested, the prueba de apritud académica allows candidates to apply to one or more faculties. Certain short courses lead to the award of abachiller (for example, in theology, philosophy,

biology, etc., at the Catholic University of Chile) in three years, and more especially to the award of a technician’s diploma, for the most part after four years, in many technical, administrative and other fields (for example, electrical, chemical, mechanical, electronic,

52 CHILE

halieutic, agricultural or laboratory technician, technician of topography, nursing or midwifery). The main stage of long-term higher education takes between four and six years (or as many

as seven in medicine). It implies a high level of knowledge and experience of the subject matter, and leads either to the licenciaturu or to a high level professional qualification. The second stage leads in certain universities and certain subjects to the degree of magister.

This is a postgraduate degree awarded for advanced studies in a particular field. A third stage is available in certain disciplines in certain universities; this comprises the

submission of a thesis involving specialized work and leads to the award of the doctorado. The universities provide continuing education in the Escuelas de Temporada, the Cursos y

Seminarios de Difusion, etc. Foreign students may generally be accepted in Chilean universities if they have successfully

completed their secondary education but each university has its own entry requirements.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, licencia de educacih media)

years 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ~

Education Humanities, philosophy Catholic theology Fine arts Architecture Law Social and economic

Business studies Natural and exact

Technology, engineering Medical sciences

sciences

sciences

medicine dentistry pharmacy veterinary medicine nursing

Agriculture

P P P L M B L L

B L D B L P

P P

B P/L

P L L M B L M D

Di/P L P P

P/L/D P P P P

P P P/L M

D doctorado Di technician's diploma L licenciatura M magister P profes- sional qualification

N.B. The duration of studies, the conditions of award and the nomenclature of diplomas may vary between establishments.

GLOSSARY Bachiller. First degree of higher education awarded by some universities in certain subjects

(for example by the Catholic University of Chile) usually after three years of basic non-

CHILE 53

specialist study. This qualification is not a pre-condition for the award of higher degrees. Doctorado. The highest degree of higher education, awarded in certain faculties to

candidates who have submitted a thesis after a period of study subsequent to the award ofthe licenciatura or a professional qualification. Entrance examination. Examination required by certain faculties (after theprueba de aptirud

académica) of students wishing to enter higher education; it may be accompanied by further special requirements. Licencia de educacih media. Secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded after six years of

primary followed by six years of secondary education, in two cycles of three parts. The examination is organized by the heads of secondary education and includes written and oral tests and an assessment of the candidate’s personality. Those students with sufficiently high marks in the written examinations may be exempted from the oral part. To enter higher education, the candidate must pass first the licencia de educacibn media, and then theprueba de aptitud académica. Licenciatura. First degree of higher education in most universities. The licenciatura is

awarded after studies lasting normally between four and five years, but sometimes six (engineering) or seven (medicine). Candidates must normally submit a dissertation. Magister. Degree of higher education awarded in certain establishments normally after two

years’ studies subsequent to the award of the licenciatura. Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education awarded by certain faculties.

The period of studies is normally between five and six years (seven in medicine) and studies are carried out under the same conditions as those leading to the licenciatura. Prueba de aptitud académica. University entry examination required of students wishing to

enter higher education who have already passed the secondary-school-leaving certificate (licencia de educacibn media). The subjects of this examination are taken from the curriculum of secondary education. It comprises a comprehension paper, a foreign language paper, and three papers on subjects related to the candidate’s speciality. The examination may be taken not more than three times and the candidate may vary the subjects related to his speciality. Depending on the subjects tested, theprueba entitles the candidate to apply to one or more faculties. Technician’s diploma. Qualification in higher education awarded in certain faculties after a

period of technical studies varying between establishments, but normally of four years.

China

In the People’s Republic of China, higher education, which is undergoing major reforms, is provided in some 600 institutions of various types including ‘general’ universities (human and natural sciences, social sciences), technical universities, specialized institutions (medicine, agriculture, foreign languages, etc.) and teacher-training colleges. The Central Ministry of Education is responsible for the general direction, co-ordination

54 CHINA

and administration of these institutions and has overall responsibility for teaching methods and choice of programmes and textbooks. At the local level, there is a dual authority structure involving the traditional academic leadership and the local authorities. The day-to-day administration of each university institution is in the hands of a President and several Vice- Presidents with functional responsibilities. In 1977, the ‘key’ university system was re-introduced with 89 such institutions, of which

some thirty are directly responsible to the Central Ministry. The others are responsible to a wide variety of the jurisdictions including provincial governments and, in the case of specialized institutions, other ministries and academies. The primary purpose of these key universities is to train research scholars and academic staff for other universities, academies and research institutes throughout the country. Major emphasis is placed on the teaching of subjects in the fields of science and engineering-659 out of 819 subjects. In addition to the above-mentioned universities and institutions of similar rank, there are

also other institutions including workers’ and peasants’ colleges and correspondence schools. These are operated by factories, people’s communes, provincial, municipal and rural authorities and by industrial departments under the State Council. They play an important role in quickly training the large numbers of technicians needed in the agricultural and industrial sectors. They also help to raise the general educational level of the workers and peasants. The courses in the workers’ schools are normally of two or three years’ duration and students attend either full-time or part-time. Since 1979 an open university has been functioning under the authority of the Ministry of

Education and the Central Broadcasting Administrative Bureau. The three-year course, given by television, is addressed to workers of senior-secondary-school level, school-teachers and other young people and is designed to provide basic knowledge in the fields of science and engineering. There are also other radio and television courses, including one in Shanghai for teachers in senior secondary and secondary technical schools. Policy in matters of access to higher education is determined by the Central Ministry of

Education in collaboration with other ministries and government departments and the universities themselves. Selection is normally based on a nationally unified entrance examination established in 1976 and taken mostly by secondary school students. The length of courses for the first stage of university study is four years but, in some subjects, it may be three or five years. Academic work is linked with practical and field work and a dissertation is prepared during the final year. The second stage, which is one of postgraduate study and research, may be undertaken in

more than two hundred approved institutions. Admission to them is normally by entrance examination, re-introduced in 1979. The duration of postgraduate courses varies from two to four years.

COLOMBIA 55

Colombia

Higher education in Colombia is givenin 93 university institutions, 25 institutes of technology and five military academies; the first two types of institutions comprise both official and private institutions. Colombian universities provide two types of studies: long studies leading to the licenciaturu

or to a professional qualification, and short technological studies leading to the title of tecnologo after six semesters. They are autonomous institutions; the number of courses varies from one institution to another. One hundred and thirty-five different programmes are thus provided throughout the country, both in long courses of study and in technological courses of study (law, economics, book-keeping, medicine, dentistry, nutrition and dietetics, agronomy, different specializations in engineering, various fields of technology). For the most part, each faculty is divided into departments, but sometimes one department is serviced by several faculties (for example a mathematics or language department). Evening classes are very highly developed and usually lead to the same titles as traditional forms of teaching, although the number of teaching hours is sometimes greater and the duration of studies is thus greater too. Two associations of institutes of higher education now exist in Colombia: the Colombian

Association of Universities (ASCUN) and the Colombian Association of Institutes of Technology (ACIET), and most institutions of higher education are members of these associations. The Colombian Institute for the Development of Higher Education (ICFES) is the state

body appointed by the executive to carry out the constitutional functions of supervising university education. It must therefore fix the minimum contents of the various courses, fix the subsidies allocated by the State to the universities, fix the norms of higher education, carry out studies concerning costs in matters of education for the various universities and institutes of technology, grant technical and pedagogical assistance to these institutions, work out programmes and supply consulting bodies for this according to needs. There is also intermediary training at post-secondary level, but not at the level of higher education. The institutions which give this kind of training are under the authority of the Ministry of Education. These studies last, respectively, four or five semesters in traditional courses or evening courses and lead to the qualification técnico intermedio profesional. Their purpose is to train technicians who will easily find jobs. Teachers for primary education and agriculture are trained in schools at the secondary level

or in technical institutes of agriculture (ITA). Teachers for secondary education are trained in the faculties of education of institutions of higher education. Likewise at post-secondary level there exist a number of institutions for training special

categories of teachers: a national school of physical education, a higher training school for agriculture, a training school for industrial teachers, and an experimental school for rural education. The latter trains in two years inspectors for primary education, certain teachers for agricultural schools and monitors for community development organizations (co-operatives, literacy campaigns, etc.). The teaching language is Spanish. Access to higher and intermediate education is based on the bachilleruto which is obtainedin

the different types of institutions (teacher-training institutions, classical and industrial secondary schools, etc.). It is awarded after six years of secondary education following five years of primary education. However, most universities also impose an entrance examination, or aptitude or intelligence tests, which are organized by the ICFES (Servicio Nacional de Pruebas) or, in some cases, by the universities themselves.

56 COLOMBIA

Short-term studies are those in technology which lead to a qualification as tecndogo after six semesters. The main stage of long-term higher education is reached after four to five years. It is

characterized by a high level of knowledge and practical experience or by the acquisition of a high-level professional qualification. It leads to the licenciatura or to a professional qualification as a lawyer, an engineer, an architect, etc. Studies for the licenciatura last four years; they are offered in pedagogical universities or faculties of education in which the courses concurrently teach a subject and pedagogical techniques. A further stage of postgraduate studies may be undertaken in several universities. The title

awarded after this stage of specialization is that of magister or doctor, according to the level reached. In certain professions (e.g. medicine) the last stage corresponds to a ‘specialization’ which

includes two or three years of training in some field of practical experience in the profession.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 1 1 years, bachillerato)

years 2 3 4 5 6 I

Education Arts Religion theology Fine arts Architecture Law Economics Exact and natural sciences

Natural resources Technology, engineering Medical sciences medicine dentistry

L D L

P P

Téc Tecn L P M L M D

P M Tecn

P Esp P ESD

D doctorado Esp especializado L licenciatura M magister P pro- fessional qualification Téc técnico Tecn tecnblogo

G L O S S A R Y Bachillerato. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, obtained after five years of primary

education followed by six years of secondary education. Pupils having finished their secondary education may have the right of access to the universities, the institutes of technology and intermediate studies. However, all these institutions usually set an examen de admisibn (entrance examination) for candidates. Bachillerato industrial. See buchilleruto. Diploma de técnico profesional intermedio. Intermediate diploma for professional

technicians-post-secondary diploma obtained after two or two and a half years of study, giving a professional qualification as a technician (telecommunications, industry, electricity, accounts, etc.).

COLOMBIA 57

Diploma de tecnologo. Degree of higher education, obtained after three years of study leading to the professional title of tecnblogo (business technology, industrial technology). Doctorado. Title awarded after postgraduate specialization studies in the same way as the

magister. It requires a complete mastery of the specialization and an effective contribution to the advancement of knowledge through extensive research. Entrance examination. See examen de admisibn. Especializado. See magister. Examen de admision. Entrance examination which must normally be taken by candidates

for higher education who have already obtained the bachillerato. Each university sets the papers for its own examination; these are normally based upon subjects in the secondary- school syllabus which are particularly relevant to those studied in the faculty. In certain cases tests of aptitude must also be taken; often candidates also have to be interviewed by a psychologist, the dean of the faculty or another official. Licenciatura. Degree of higher education awarded after four years of study. Magister or especializado. Degree awarded after obtaining a degree of higher education.

Candidates must carry out one or more years of study in the subject in which they wish to specialize. The magister requires extensive and up-to-date knowledge and initiation to research work. Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education awarded after four or more

years of study. A thesis or a monograph and/or preliminary work in the main subjects are sometimes compulsory. The level corresponds to that of long-term studies and the licenciatura. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See bachilierato.

Congo

In the People's Republic of the Congo higher education is provided by the Marien Ngouabi University, formerly known as the University of Brazzaville. The University is a public institution which is responsible to the Ministry of Education; its resources come from a state subsidy and receipts of its own. It comprises two faculties (arts and humanities, science), an institute of rural development, a teacher-training college, a higher institute of economics, law, administration and management, a higher institute of physical education and sport, and a higher institute of health. It also has correspondence courses. Teachers of primary education are trained at secondary level and those of secondary

education at the university. The language of instruction is French. Access to higher education is based on the baccalauréai or other qualifications recognized as

equivalent and on success in a special entrance examination. In law, students who do not hold a baccalauréat may obtain a capacité en droit after two years of study. If they have an average of at least 12 out of 20 they may immediately go on to study law. The teacher-training college awards the certificat d'aptitude au professorat dans les collèges d'enseignement général (CAP- CEG). The main stage of higher education, after three years of study, leads to a licence in letters,

science, law and economics, sociology, psychology and educational sciences.

58 CONGO

The second stage leads, two years after the licence and on presentation of a dissertation, to a maîtrise in letters, science and educational science. The faculty of science also confers a diplôme d‘études approfondies (DEA) in solar energy and tropical botany.

PROFILE OF H I G H E R STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies (Previous education: 13 years, baccalauréat)

years 3 4 5

L M

L licence M maîtrise

GLOSSARY Baccalauréat. Secondary-school-leaving qualification obtained after six years of primary

followed by seven years of secondary education in a classical or technical secondary school. Secondary education is divided into two cycles, the first lasting four years and the second three. The baccalauréat gives access to higher education. Capacité en droit. Qualification which may be obtained after two years of study by students

who do not hold the baccalauréat. Holders of this certificate may continue their studies and obtain a licence in law. Certificat de fin d’études secondaires. See baccalauréat. Examen spécial d’entrée. Examination imposed on non-holders of a certificat dejïn d‘études

secondaires who wish to have access to higher education. Licence. First degree of higher education obtained after three years of study in letters,

science, law, economics, sociology, psychology and educational sciences. Maîtrise. Second degree of higher education obtained after two years of consecutive study

after the licence by candidates having presented a dissertation.

Costa Rica

In Costa Rica higher education is given in four public institutions (the University of Costa Rica, the Institute of Technology of Costa Rica, the National University and the State Distance University), a private university (the Autonomous University of Central America), two university colleges and various private post-secondary institutions which are more specifically devoted to commercial studies. The language of instruction is Spanish.

COSTA RICA 59

Public institutions are mainly financed by credits allocated by the State, by the revenue derived from certain taxes, by students’ fees and by gifts. The oldest institution, the University of Costa Rica (whose main centre is in San José), has regional university centres in other towns, and offers courses in five different branches (arts, basic sciences, social sciences, engineering and health sciences). It also comprises annex faculties. The National University, which is situated in the province of Heredia and also has other

university centres, comprises the following faculties: philosophy and arts, health sciences, exact and natural sciences, geology and oceanography, and social sciences. The Institute of Technology of Costa Rica, whose main centre is situated in the province of

Cartago, offers courses in the following seven subdivisions: agronomy, civil engineering, forestry, industrial engineering, management, research, technological development, univer- sity and student services, which are concerned with teaching methods and research, as well as with administrative procedures. The State Distance University (UNED), whose main centre is in the province of San José,

opened at the beginning of May 1977. Its main purpose is to give higher education courses to as many people as possible who were unable to have access to the traditional system of education for various reasons, and more particularly to the rural and adult population. It offers courses in education, management and hygiene. The administration of the universities usually comes under the authority of the University

Assembly, of the University Council, of the Rector and Vice-Rector (in hierarchical order). The most important governing body of the Institute of Technology is the Board of Administration, which is made up of the Rector, of representatives of the central government, of private enterprise, of the students and of the Association of Former Students. Access to higher education in the public institutions of higher education, for national

students, is the completion of secondary education (five years of classical education or six years of technical and professional studies, following six years of primary education) and an examen de admisibn (entrance examination), except at the State Distance University where only the first of these two requirements is necessary. Foreign students must present a legal certificate proving success in certain subjects, an identification card granted by the Consulate, a certificate proving that they have followed compulsory studies or their equivalent, and must apply to benefit from the agreements passed by the Government of Costa Rica with their country of origin recognizing these qualifications.

~

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 11 or 12 years, bachilleraio and entrance examination)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ~~ ~

Art and letters Di B L E M D Science Di B L E M Social sciences DI B L M Engineering DI B L E M Agricultural sciences, husbandry B L M

Medicine Di B L M

B barhiller D dociorado Di diplomado E especialidad L hcenciatura M maestria

COSTA RICA 60

Short-term studies lead to a first qualification, the diplomado, at the end ot two years and students may choose whether or not to continue their studies. If they do continue, students may go on to study for the title of bachiiler which constitutes the main stage of higher education: during the first phase a bachiileraio is awarded after four years. Alicenciatura may be awarded, either one or two years after, or directly as a first degree. A further stage leads to an especiaiidad (specialization) or amnestria two years after the title

of bachiller. In certain subjects a final stage leads to a doctorado (approximately four years after the title of bachilier).

G L O S S A R Y Bachiller. Qualification awarded after a minimum duration of eight periods of study (four

years), sometimes called bachilierato. Bachillerato. Secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded after five years of classical

education or six years of technical and professional studies following six years of primary education. This is also the name given to the first degree awarded in higher education. Diplomado. Title awarded at the end of short-term studies after between four and six

periods of studies of fifteen weeks (two or three years) during which the students must have obtained between sixty and ninety créditos (credits). Doctorado académico. The highest degree of higher education. Minimum duration of

studies: seven periods of study after the bachilier (three and a half years). Especialidad profesional. Part of postgraduate studies, except that it is centred on

specialized practical training in a given field of the profession. No time limit is imposed, because these specializations are of a non-university kind. Licenciatura. Minimum duration of two periods of supplementary studies (one year) after

the bachilier, or of ten periods of studies (five years) if the student does not hold this qualification. In order to reach university level students must successfully complete diploma work which corresponds to the specific requirements of each branch of study. Maestria. Degree awarded after four minimum periods of study (two years) after the title of

bachilier. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See bachilierato.

Cuba

In Cuba higher education is provided in four universities (Universidad de La Habana, Universidad de Las Villas, Universidad de Oriente, Universidad de Camagüey), as well as in 23 institutes of higher education (including three higher polytechnics) and six university centres. The Ministry of Education heads, guides, controls and carries out policy in matters of graduate and postgraduate education. It controls teaching, methodology, courses and programmes, the allocation of student numbers and the specialization courses offered by the

CUBA 61

centres of higher education which come under the control of other institutions (medicine, pedagogy, arts and physical education). In Cuba higher education, books and other teaching material are free. Many centres of higher education provide courses for workers in addition to their

traditional full-time courses. The universities, the institutes of higher education and the higher polytechnics all have the

same status, although their purposes differ slightly. Universities are institutions which are responsible for training specialists, and more especially specialists in natural sciences, exact sciences, social sciences, humanities and economics. The institutes of higher education are responsible for training specialists in specific fields and concrete sectors of the country’s development (for example the Institut0 Superior de Ciencias Médicas). The higher polytechnics are responsible for training specialists in technical sciences, and more especially for various sectors of the national economy. The language of instruction is Spanish. Access to higher education is based on the certifcado de fin de estudios secundarios

(secondary-school-leaving certificate), which certifies that the student has followed twelve years of primary and secondary education. Access to higher education is also based on the marks previously obtained. The main stage of higher education usually lasts five years, although the length of studies

may vary between four and six years. The ordinary courses that are offered to workers usually last a year longer than traditional courses. At the end of the first stage students are awarded a titulo profesional (professional qualification). A further stage corresponds to a period of study in depth and research which leads to the

candidato a doctor en ciencias, which is the first scientific degree. In medicine, the first stage is

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, certi3cado de fn de estudios secundarios)

varied years 4 5 6 7 8 9 duration

Education Arts Fine arts Law Economics Exact and natural sciences

Engineering Medical sciences medicine dentistry pharmacology veterinary medicine

Agriculture

P C

P C P C P C

P C

P C

C - P C P C P C P c

D

D D D D D

C candidato a doctor en ciencias D doctorado P professional qualipcation

62 CUBA

usually followed by a course of professional specialization leading to a specific specialization. Another stage, which is of varying duration, leads to the degree of doctor en ciencias, which

is the second scientific degree. It is awarded after the student has defended a thesis containing the solution of a scientific problem and which contributes to the progress of knowledge in that specific field.

GLOSSARY Candidat0 a doctor en ciencias. The first scientific degree; it requires a minimum of two years

of advanced studies. There are two régimes: full-time studies (maximum duration-four years) and part-time (maximum duration-six years). The course leading to the award of the degree includes: research or ‘development’ work which must provide results and include original aspects which may be of importance for production, services or science; advanced and specialized studies; studies in philosophy; the study of a foreign language. Certificado de fin de estudios secundarios. Certificate obtained after six years of primary

education followed by three years of secondary; and then by three years of pre-university education or technical and professional training. Doctor en ciencias. The highest degree of higher education. It is awarded after astudent has

submitted and defended a thesis which includes general theoretical conclusions and the study of an important scientific problem which represents a valuable contribution to the advancement of science and its applications. It gives evidence that the student knows how to work on his own and that he has reached a very high level. Professional qualification. First qualification of higher education awarded after five years in

most faculties (six in medicine). Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See Certijïcado de jïn de estudios secundarios.

Cyprus

In Cyprus higher education is at present provided in nine post-secondary institutions: the Pedagogical Academy for the training of pre-primary and primary teachers; the Pedagogical Institute for the in-service training of primary teachers; the Higher Technical Institute for the training of engineering technicians; the Hotel and Catering Institute; the School of Nursing and Midwifery; the School of Psychiatric Nursing; the Forestry College; the Productivity Centre for postgraduate training in management; the School of Public Health Inspectors, which operates according to demand, once every five years approximately. All these institutions are state-financed and supervised by the Ministries of Health (three),

Labour (three), Education (two) and Agriculture (one). Cyprus provides third level education to less than 10 per cent of its students; the remainder continue their higher education in some 1000 institutions, located in some 30 countries, but mainly in Greece or the United Kingdom (about 60 and 20 per cent respectively in 1976-77).

CYPRUS 63

A decision was taken by the Government in 1978 to establish a university, in order to meet primarily the needs of Greek Cypriots; special arrangements will be made to meet the requirements of Turkish Cypriot students. A small number of part-time, public institutions offer post-secondary training to prepare

students for university entrance examinations and to teach languages, accounting, etc. Some ten private institutions offer third level education in business administration, etc. With the exception of the Pedagogical Academy, where the medium of instruction is Greek,

the other institutions are intercommunal and teaching takes place in English. Access to higher education is based on the school-leaving-certificate (apolytirion or

apodeiktirion for Greek Cypriot schools, bitirme diplomasi or Cprus certificate of education for Turkish Cypriot schools). This is normally obtained after six years’ primaryand six years’ secondary education (divided in the Turkish Cypriot system into two three-year phases). The number of vacancies in ail public, third level institutions in Cyprus is fixed annually by the Council of Ministers, in accordance with the estimated requirements of the Cyprus economy. All candidates are required to pass an entrance examination and competition is high. Access to higher education for Cypriots outside Cyprus is determined: (a) in Greece, by the

numerus clausus in force in Greek universities which varies between five per cent of the total student enrolment in the case of the National Metsovion Polytechnic, and 15 per cent in the case of schools of humanities, law, economics and business administration of other Greek institutions of higher education; (b) in the United Kingdom, by the obligation to satisfy the normal requirements of entry to British universities. Special provisions for the admission of foreign students have long existed in the case of the Forestry College, where a high percentage of vacancies is traditionally reserved for overseas students from the Commonwealth and/or

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, apolytirion or apodeiktirion in Greek Cypriot schools, bitirme diplomasi or Cyprus certificate of education in Turkish Cypriot schools)

years 1 2 3 4

PPTD/PTD Pedagogy (Pedagogical Academy) Pedagogy (Pedagogical Institute) D Technical engineering D Forestry D Nursing, midwifery C D Psychiatric nursing C D Management (Productivity Centre) D Public health C

C certificate D diploma PTD primary teacher’s diploma PPTDpre-primary teach- er’s diploma

In addition, short or part-time courses, sandwich and distance education courses are provided by: the Higher Technical Institute where civil, electrical and mechanical engineering are taught, as well as repair of medical equipment (which is sponsored by WHO); the Hotel and Catering Institute; the Pedagogical Institute which organizes workshops for teachers; the Productivity Centre which runs courses for supervisors in industry; the ‘Popular University’ which runs short programmes in the form of lectures, to be repeated on radio broadcasts.

64 CYPRUS

other friendly countries, especially in the Middle East and Africa. Similar provisions were recently made for the comparatively new institutions under the Ministry of Labour, such as the Higher Technical Institute, the Hotel and Catering Institute and the Cyprus Productivity Centre; a percentage of vacancies is reserved for foreign students sponsored by Unesco, WHO, the Commonwealth and Arab countries. It is hoped that the Co-operative College will develop into a regional educational centre for the countries of the Middle East and North Africa, in accordance with a relevant resolution passed by the Near East and North Africa Regional Agricultural Credit Association (NENARACA), under the aegis of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Except for the special diplomas of the Pedagogical Institute and the Productivity Centre

(which require one year or less), studies in higher education last two years (at the Forestry College) to three or four years (in midwifery and nursing) and lead to a diploma in a special field (there are also certificates).

G L O S S A R Y Apolytirion or apodeiktirion (Greek Cypriot schools). Secondary-school-leaving certificate

awarded after six years of primary education and six years of secondary education, giving access to higher education. Bitirme diplomasi or Cyprus certificate of education (Turkish Cypriot schools). Equivalent

in the Turkish Cypriot schools of the apolytirion (see above).

Czechoslovakia

In Czechoslovakia higher education is provided in: comprehensive universities offering education in humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, medicine and pharmacy, as well as veterinary medicine (faculties of education in universities train teachers of primary and lower- secondary education; some teacher-training institutions are independent); technical universities and specialized technical institutions such as schools of economics, agricultural colleges providing courses in agriculture, forestry and wood technology and schools of fine arts. All these institutions are administered and financed by the State, by means of the National

Ministries of Education (in Prague for the Czech Socialist Republic, and in Bratislava for the Slovak Socialist Republic). All higher education in Czechoslovakia is free. The contents and duration of higher education are fixed for each subject through

programmes which are applied nationwide. The development of university evening and correspondence courses allows many of those already in employment to gain access to higher education. These courses last one year longer than conventional courses. The language of instruction is Czech and/or Slovak; theses may also be presented in other

languages.

CZECHOSLOVAKIA 65

There are six theological faculties for the training of priests (two Catholic, three Evangelical and one Orthodox); these come under the Ministries of Culture. Most institutions of higher education are divided into faculties. These are usually

subdivided into the basic teaching unit, which is the department. Primary school-teachers are trained for five years at post-secondary level in faculties of

education; the latter exist either within the framework of the universities or independently. Secondary teachers are trained in the faculties of humanities, science, education, mathematics, physics and physical education and sport, where they receive concurrent training in education and the subjects they have chosen. The technical universities, schools of economics and colleges of agriculture train secondary teachers of professionally orientated subjects (e.g. agriculture and economics). Access to higher education is based on the maturitni vysvëdc‘eni (secondary-school-leaving

certificate). This is awarded after four years of secondary education in a secondary school, following upon eight or nine years of primary education. An admissions board is appointed by the rector of a university or college or the dean of a

faculty and makes its selections on the basis of a complete evaluation of every applicant’s qualifications, taking into consideration a report on his or her general secondary education and the results of the university entrance examination. The main stage of higher education is of differing duration for different subjects: for

economics, four years; engineering, four to five years; education, four to five years; veterinary studies, five and a half years; architecture and medicine, six years. It leads, after success in the state final examination, to the qualification of absolvent (graduate) and the award of a diploma in the respective branch of study. In some cases this diploma is accompanied by a degree, i.e. ‘engineer’ (Ing.) at the technical faculties, agricultural colleges and schools of economics; ‘doctor of medicine’ (MUDr); ‘veterinary doctor’ (MVDr); ‘academic architect’ (akademickj archirekr), ‘academic painter’ (akademicki rnalir) or ‘academic sculptor’ (akademickj sochal) at the school of fine arts. Absolvents may sit an additional examination, the rigoroznizkouSka. They then obtain the

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, maturitni v-vsvëdcëni and entrance examination)

years 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0

Education Arts Fine arts, architecture Law Economic sciences Engineering Medical sciences medicine P K --!DL dentistry P P K - B L veterinary medicine P K - -DL

K --- Dv Agriculture P

A absolvent D doktor Dv doktor vëd K kandidat vëd P professional quali- fication

66 CZECHOSLOVAKIA

degree of doktor: doctor of philosophy (PhDr), doctor of law (JUDr), or doctor of natural science (RNDr). A further stage is spent either in institutions of higher education or at scientific research

institutes-especially that of the Czechoslovak Academy of Science. Aspirantura or postgraduate studies last three years and lead, after submission of a thesis (which may be in Czech or Slovak) to the kandiddt vëd or candidatus scientiarum (CSc). Another stage which varies in length, leads to the award of the doktor vëd or doctor

scientiarum (DrSc), the highest degree of higher education. This requires the submission of a thesis (in Czech or Slovak) reflecting a very high level of research and making a significant contribution to the subject in question.

GLOSSARY Absolvent. First degree of higher education, awarded after between four and six years’ study

(depending on subject) of traditional university kind (see also doktor). Aspirant. Absolvent holder doing scientific research according to his individual plan of study

in a particular subject, on a wide scientific base. The aspirant must have two languages of international status and study the philosophical questions raised by his subject. The aspirantura course leads to the ‘candidate examination’ and the submission of a thesis for the degree of kandidut vPd (candidatus scientiarum). Aspirantura. Guided postgraduate studies of an absolvent who is preparing himself for

scientific or scientific research work. Studies normally last three years; the maximum is five years, for students who are already in employment. Aspiruntura studies take place in a university or higher education establishment, in the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences or a research institute. The supervisor must have the corresponding scientific qualification of the relevant institution. Candidatus scientiarum. See kandidut vëd. Diplom. This is the university qualification issued by a higher education institution to

Doctorate. See doktor; doktor vZd. Doctor scientiarum. See doktor, doktor vZd. Doktor. This is a degree conferred upon the graduates of some branches of study on the

basis of a special examination (see rigorozni zkoucka). Doktor vëd. The highest degree of higher education, normally awarded after that of

kandidut vëd. It demands the submission of a thesis which must be the product of original research and represent a contribution to knowledge. Entrance examination. See maturitni vysvëdreni. Kandidat vëd. Postgraduate scientific degree awarded after the completion of aspirantura

studies or the award of a professional qualification. The student in the first period of study must master two modern languages, and study his own specialization and Marxism-Leninism. For the rest of the time, he prepares a thesis which must reflect original research work on a scientific problem. Maturitni vysvëdfed. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, awarded after eight or nine

years’ primary and four years’ study in a general secondary school. It is required for access to higher education. The number of students entering each faculty is determined annually by a national plan. in each institution the board of examiners of the university appointed by the rector (or the dean of the faculty) takes its decisions concerning the admission of the applicants on the basis of the general secondary school report of the applicant and the results of the entrance examination. Professional qualification. First degree of higher education awarded as a diploma in a

particular specialization, e.g. inzenir (engineer); doktor mediciny (doctor of medicine);

successful candidates to the final state examination who have become graduates.

CZECHOSLOVAKIA 67

akademicki architekt (architect). TI.,s degree is awarded after a five-year course of study (six in medicine and architecture). Rigorozni zkoulka. Examination taken by a candidate already holding the degree of

absolvent in order to obtain the degree of doktor. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See maturitni vysvëdreni.

Democratic Kampuchea

No information having been received recently the present text is repeatedfrom the I976 English edition of this Guide.

In Democratic Kampuchea higher education takes place in five universities. TheUniversity of Phnom-Penh offers courses in the following faculties: law and economics, commerce, medicine and related sciences, pharmacy, letters and human sciences. science, education. The University has attached to it a higher teacher-training institution (distinct from the faculty of education), a primary teacher-training institution and an institute of languages. The Technical University has faculties of industrial, electronic and civil engineering; it also has higher schools of chemical engineering and of civil aviation, as well as institutes and technological centres. The University of Agricultural Sciences gives a wide range of courses: agriculture, forestry, veterinary medicine, sociology and economics, fisheries and stock- breeding. It has also a number of research institutes. There are also a university of fine arts, a Buddhist university and a school of administration. All these institutions are situated either in Phnom-Penh or nearby. Universities in provincial centres (Battambang, Kompongcham and Takéo-kampot) are being developed. Depending upon the institutions and the various subjects, courses are given in either Khmer or French. Teacher-training takes place within the faculty of education of the University of Phnom-

Penh and comprises a two-year specialized course, which awards a qualification for primary and lower-secondary education. Teachers for upper-secondary education are trained in three years in a higher teacher-training institution. Higher education is entirely financed by the State, but the responsibility for it lies with the

Ministry of National Education. However, the faculty of medicine of Phnom-Penh University is under the Ministry of Public Health and the school of administration depends directly upon the office of the President of the Council of Ministers. Access to higher education is by the buccalauréut. However, some courses are open to

students who possess lower qualifications. Thus courses leading to the capacité en droit may be entered by holders of the lower-secondary-school certificate (baccalauréat, premièrepartie) or a similar qualification, or by civil servants of at least three years’ standing. The faculty of medicine also admits to the training course for health officers candidates who are holders only of the lower-secondary-school certificate. The first stage of studies lasts two or three years in some fields. Thus, in various

68 DEMOCRATIC KAMPUCHEA

technological fields, a higher technician’s diploma (diplôme de technicien supérieur) may be gained in three years. A professional qualification in the fields of commercial administration or management may also be awarded after three years. In certain fields-such as the humanities, science or medicine-a preparatory course of a general nature lasting one year must be followed. This leads respectively to the following qualifications: certificate of general literary studies (certificat d‘études littéraires générales) for French and Khmer studies; in science, a certificate of preparatory studies (certificat d‘étudespréparatoires); for medicine, the certificate of studies in physics, chemistry and biology (PCB, certificat d‘études physiques, chimiques et biologiques) must be obtained in the faculty of science. In technology a higher diploma of general science (diplôme d‘études supérieures du premier

degré) is awarded after a two-year course which represents the first stage leading to the qualification of engineer. A diploma of higher studies, first stage (diplôme d‘études supérieures de premier degré) is awarded after a three-year course at the Buddhist University. A longer course lasting at least four years leads to the licence degree or to the professional

qualification of dentist (four and a half years), pharmacist (five years), doctor of medicine (seven years), etc. A further stage consisting of specialized courses and research may be undertaken in certain

fields. In law, for example, a thesis for the doctorate may be submitted after the diploma of higher studies (diplôme d‘études supérieures).

GLOSSARY Baccalauréat. Certificate awarded at the end of secondary education. Secondary education

is divided into a first phase of four and a second phase of three years, and follows upon six years of primary education. The baccalauréat gives access to higher education. Capacité en droit. Qualification awarded after two years’ study of law. To enrol in the

course for this qualification it is not necessary to possess the baccalauréat, but only either to hold a lower-secondary-school certificate (diplôme détudes secondaires dupremier cycle) or to be a civil servant of three years’ standing. Certificat d’études Littéraires générales. Certificate of general literary studies awarded after a

preparatory course in the faculty of humanities, as an intermediate stage to the licence degree. Certificat d’études préparatoires. A certificate of preparatory studies in science. Several

types of certificate exist, with a bias in either mathematics, the physical and chemical sciences or the biological sciences. Such a certificate is a necessary qualification for proceeding further towards the licence degree. For medicine the corresponding intermediate qualification is the certificate of studies in physics, chemistry and biology (PCB, certificat de sciencesphysiques, chimiques et biologiques). Certificat d’études supérieures. The licence degree in humanities or science is awarded after a

certain number of these certificates have been obtained. Diplôme de technicien supérieur. Higher technician’s diploma awarded after three years’

study beyond the baccalauréat. Diplôme d’études secondaires du premier cycle. Lower-secondary certificate awarded at the

end of the first four years of secondary education. Diplôme d’études supérieures (DES). In law and economics the DES is an intermediate

qualification obtained after the licence but before the doctorat. It is usually taken one year after the licence and comprises written and oral examinations and the writing of a dissertation. Diplôme d’études supérieures de sciences générales. Qualification awarded in various

faculties or higher technical institutions after a two-year basic scientific course, possession of which allows the holder to continue his studies for an engineering qualification. Diplôme d’études supérieures du premier degré. Diploma of higher studies (first stage)

awarded after three-year course at the Buddhist University. Doctorat. Highest university degree, awarded in certain faculties. It corresponds either to

DEMOCRATIC KAMPUCHEA 69

the completion of specialized research undertaken after the licence and, where appropriate, the diplôme d‘études supérieures. Licence. University degree awarded in the faculties of law and economics, commerce,

humanities and science after a minimum course of four years. In humanities and science the award of the degree is conditional upon having acquired the requisite number of certijïcuts d’études supérieures.

Democratic People’s Republic of Korea

In the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea higher education is provided in universities and other higher education establishments, numbering 168. All higher education is subject to the State Education Committee. Nursery and primary-school teachers are trained over three or four years at secondary

school leaving standard, secondary school-teachers at university level. Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded

after eleven years of free compulsory schooling. There are four years of primary school followed by seven years’ secondary study,

comprising a first cycle of three years and a second cycle of four years consisting of either technical or general studies. There is also an eleven-year instruction programme in general studies and in foreign

languages, music, dance or plastic arts. The first stage of higher education involves four- or six-year courses leading to a

professional qualification. The second stage of higher education leads after three or four years’ study and research to a

first doctorate. The title ‘doctor’ is granted after study and research pursued over several years. It is very

rarely awarded and is bestowed exclusively upon scholars who have performedscientific work of the highest value.

70 DEMOCRATIC PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF KOREA

~

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (First Stage) (Previous education: 11 years, secondary-school-leaving certificate)

years 4 5 6

Education P/S Humanities, fine arts P/S Law, social sciences, P/S

Science P/S Engineering, technology P/E Medicine P/M Agriculture P/E

E engineer M medical doctor P professional qualification S specialis1

economics

Democratic Yemen

In the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen, higher education is given in the University of Aden which was founded in 1975, incorporating five colleges founded between 1970and 1975: the Higher College of Education; the Nasser College of Agriculture; the College of Economics and Administration; the College of Medicine and the College of Engineering. Teaching takes place in Arabic. The College of Education offers courses in humanities and sciences. Both departments offer

two courses: (a) a two-year course leading to a diploma for teachers in intermediate schools; (b) a four-year course leading to a bachelor’s degree for teachers in secondary schools.

Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school certificate. Bachelor ofArts and Bachelor of Science degrees are conferred by the University. Nasser College of Agriculture (AI Hewta) offers four-year courses leading to a bachelor’s degree in agriculture. The College of Administration and Economics offers courses leading to a bachelor’s degree

in administration, economics and accountancy.

DENMARK

Denmark 71

Higher education in Denmark is provided in universities and other higher education institutions. Denmark has three universities (Arhus, Copenhagen, and Odense) which comprise

faculties of medicine, humanities, theology, economics and politics, and science. The Technological University (Danmarks Tekniske H~jskole), has five faculties (chemistry, science, mechanical and civil engineering, and electricity). Two other establishments, the Danmarks Ingenkrakademi K~benhavn and the Danmarks Ingenbr-akademi AIborg train engineers in civil, mechanical, chemical and electrical engineering, etc. During the last decade two new university centres have been founded: the Roskilde Universitetscenter (1972) and the AIborg Universitetscenter (1974), the latter including various previously existing establishments. These two centres constitute an important breakthrough in Danish higher education. They have decided on new methods of imparting and reception of knowledge, based on an ‘integrated’ approach to higher education, with special emphasis on working in groups. The konsistorium is the supreme governing body of a university which is administrated by a rector assisted by collegial boards and committees. There are a great many other higher education establishments in Denmark of specialized,

technical or professional kinds; most of them are connected with the Ministry of Education, others being attached to other Ministries (Music, Fine Arts, etc.). Teaching takes place in Danish. Although placed under the Ministry of Education, the universities and university centres

are autonomous institutions. The Conference of Danish Rectors promotes co-operation between the universities and the other higher education establishments. A ‘directorate’ of higher education and continuing education (the Direktoratet for de videregiende uddannelser), which includes a national council and six national planning committees, was formed in 1974. Teachers at primary school and first cycle secondary (realskole) level are normally trained

in colleges of education, which may be state or privately run. The course lasts between three and a half years and four; while basically theoretical in outlook, it nevertheless includes periods of teaching practice. The course leads up to an examination common to all such colleges. It may be followed up at post-secondary level in the various longer and shorter courses offered by the Danmarks Laererh~jskole (the Danish advanced teacher-training college) and by the centres deriving from that establishment. The training of teachers for the second cycle of secondary education (gymnasiums) takes place in the universities ana university centres. Students intending to become teachers must follow a teacher-training course at postgraduate level of one semester. The training ensures a proper balance of theory and practice. Shorter studies are offered in subjects such as social work (three years) or in engineering (in

the teknika where the teknikum ingenlar diploma may be obtained after three years or in the Danmarks Ingeni~rakademi where the title of akademingenlar is awarded after three and a half years). Access to higher education is generally based on the srudenrereksamen or secondary-school-

leaving exam, which is awarded after ten years of primary and first cycle of secondary education, followed by the three years of the second cycle of secondary studies. In practice, the hjere forberedelseseksamen, a ‘higher’ entrance examination, gives access to higher education; this is taken after two years of preparation. Since 1977, a system regulating access to higher education has been operating (exclusively for longer courses) and quotas have been fixed. This takes into account probable future demand for qualified persons, the numerical

12 DENMARK

capacity of the institutions, the candidates’ place of origin in Denmark, and the places offered by the establishments. Candidates may apply to several establishments and for several different courses, thereby increasing their chances of success. The first stage of longer studies lasts two or three years and is devoted to the acquisition of a

fairly extensive programme of basic knowledge. Although the student does not always qualify for a university degree, he may take an examination to establish that he has reached this level. (This is sometimes called candidatus artium or examinatus artium). The second stage of higher education leads to the degree of kandidat, which is awarded to the

student who has passed the final examination or embedseksamen after studies lasting between four and a half and eight years or to a professional title (civil engineer) after five years’ study. The kandidat is the normal preparation for teaching in the second cycle of secondary education. The degree of licentiat (graduate) is awarded after two or three years’ study subsequent to the award of the kandidat or magister, and involves supervisedresearch work at postgraduate level. It could in a sense, constitute a third stage of higher education, before the doktorgrud, which is awarded after the submission of a thesis and an oral examination on the thesis and which reflects a high level of specialization.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12/13 years, studentereksamen)

varied years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 duration

Education Arts Religion, theology Fine arts Architecture Law, economics Political sciences Social sciences Commercial sciences Exact and natural

Engineering, technology Medical sciences

sciences

medicine dentistry pharmacy veterinary medicine

Agriculture, forestry

P K L K/M L K L

P P

P HD/P K L K M L

D D D

D D D D D

P1 P2 P3K L D

P4 K L D K L D K L D K L D

K K L D

D doktorgrad; doctor HD handelsvidenskabeiig diplomprave K kandidat; candi- datus L licentiat; lieentiatus M magister P professional qualification: Pl, tekni- kum ingenim; P2, akademingenbr; P3, civilingenim; P4, nurse, midwife, etc.

GLOSSARY Doktorgrad. The highest degree of higher education, granted after a variable number of

DENMARK I3

years of study to candidates on submission and defence of a thesis. It is rarely awarded. Embedseksamen. Final examination for the qualification kandidat. Entrance examination. See hejere forberedelseseksamen. Hejere forberedelseseksamen. ‘Higher’ entrance examination for universities and other

higher education establishments, taken after two years’ preparatory studies. Kandidat. First degree of higher education, awarded after a period of studies lasting

between four and a half and eight years. The length of studies depends on the ability of the students and the time they devote to them. When ready, the student arranges with the administration of the institution to sit the final examination. Some faculties (e.g. science) prescribe a detailed syllabus. In some cases, the student must take an examination at the end of the first phase of study. This often serves as preparation for secondary-school (second cycle) or university teaching. Licentiat or Licentiatus. Degree of higher education granted after that of kandidar to

students who have undertaken two or three years’ guided research at postgraduate level. Magister. Degree of higher education awarded after studies lasting at least five years. It is

normally a preparation for research. The final examination is called the magister-konferens. Professional qualification. Qualification after studies taking place in certain ‘intermediate’

or ‘higher’ level establishments. It may consist of the name of the profession it qualifies the holder to exercise (for example. reknikum ingenim, civil-ingenim) or that of the final examination (for example, in business studies, handelsvidenskabelig diplomprnve, HD). Realeksamen. Secondary-school-leaving certificate phased out in 1975. It was taken after

seven years’ primary education followed by three years’ secondary education in a first cycle teaching establishment (realskole). Secondary-school leaving certificate. See sîudentereksamen. Studentereksamen. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, awarded after nine to ten years’

primary and first cycle secondary education, followed by three years’ second cycle. The courses are the same throughout the country. In theory, this examination gives the holder access to higher education.

Dominican Republic

In the Dominican Republic higher education is given in two kinds of institutions-universities and other institutions of higher education. There are six universities. The Universidad Autonoma de Santo Domingo (UASD), which

is the oldest university in America (1538). is a state university. Its two main governing bodies are the Claustro Universitario and the Consejo Universitario. It draws its income from governmental funds, student fees and state subsidies. It comprises seven faculties (engineering and architecture, economics and social sciences, law, medical sciences, arts and humanities, science, agronomy and veterinary medicine), as well as a preparatory university college, and it also has three regional university centres (Suroeste, Nordeste, Este).

74 DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

The Universidad Catolica ‘Madre y Maestra’ in Santiago is a private university which draws part of its funds from the State. It comprises six faculties (business administration, education, engineering, law, social work, nursing) and four departments (languages, theology, history, Spanish). The Universidad ‘Pedro Henriquez Urefia’ in Santo Domingo is also aprivate university. It

comprises faculties of agronomy and veterinary medicine, arts and humanities, law and political science, architecture and fine arts, sciences, engineering, health sciences, education, economics and social sciences, as well as four affiliated institutes. The Universidad Central del Este, San Pedro de Macoris, a private institution which was

founded in 1970 and recognized by the Government in 1971, receives credits from the Government. It comprises a faculty of medicine which meets the educational needs of foreign students (and more particularly of Puerto Ricans), faculties of engineering, arts and humanities, economics and social sciences and journalism.

T h e Universidad Tecnol6gica de Santiago, which was founded in 1974 and recognized in 1978, is made up of faculties of economics and social sciences, engineering and architecture, a department of secretarial studies, and a language school.

The Universidad Nordestana (UNNE), San Francisco de Macons, which was founded and recognized in 1978, comprises faculties of engineering, medicine, sciences, economics, agronomy, arts and humanities. The other institutes are: Instituto Tecnologico de Santo Domingo; Instituto de Formacion

Integral; Instituto de Estudios Superiores; Centro de Estudios Técnicos; Centro de Investigation, Formacion y Asistencia Social; Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Exactas; Centro de Estudios de la Educacion; Centro Educativo Fray Ramon Pané. The Instituto Tecnologico de Santo Domingo is a private institution which was founded in 1972 by young professionals who wanted to contribute to the transformation of Dominican society by developing a university institution which would serve as a model for the Third World. It draws its funds from student fees and subsidies from the central government. It offers courses whose main characteristic is a new approach in the social sciences and the humanities (including economics), in civil and industrial engineering, in health sciences (medicine) and in lifelong education. The Instituto de Estudios Superiores is a private institution which comprises departments of management, accounts, secretarial work, modern languages, marketing, nursing and fine arts. The language of instruction is Spanish. Primary teachers are trained in teacher-training institutions which are at the level of upper-

secondary education. Their courses last three years. Secondary teachers and teachers in teacher-training institutions receive their training in university faculties of education. Courses in them last three years and lead to the licenciatura degree. Access to higher education is based on the bachillerato, normally obtained after six years of

primary education followed by five or six years of secondary education (the Instituto de Estudios Superiores also imposes an entrance examination). Secondary schooling comprises two phases. The first, which lasts two years, is common to all students who wish to continue their studies. The second phase, which lasts four years, leads to the bachillerato and prepares for higher education. The main stage of higher education leads to a professional qualification or to a licenciatura

after studies whose duration varies according to the institution and to the subject chosen. Studies may lead to a professional qualification as a journalist after three years, as a iécnico in physics (three years), or medical science (four years), as an ingeniero(five or six years), or as an arquitecfo (six years). The professional title of doctor is obtained after four and a half years at the Instituto Tecnol6gico de Santo Domingo, after six years at the Universidad Central del Este, and after seven years at the Universidad Autonoma de Santo Domingo. The licenciatura, for instance, is obtained after three years in sociology, and after six years in law.

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 75

Certain institutions, such as the Universidad Autonoma de Santo Domingo and the Instituto Tecnologico de Santo Domingo, also offer postgraduate training corresponding to a second stage. In the first, postgraduate courses are offered by the faculty of medical science in a great number of specializations; and in the second, professional recycling courses of one year leading to diplomas are offered. The Universidad Autonoma de Santo Domingo confers a doctorado in law after a year’s studies immediately following the licenciaturu and on submission of a thesis. The Universidad Central del Este also confers a doctorate in law, after five years of studies.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies (Previous education: 11/12 years, bachillerato)

years 4 5

L D

D doctorado L licenciaturu

GLOSSARY Bachillerato. Secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded after six years of primary

education followed by five or six years of secondary schooling divided into two phases. The first phase lasts two years and is common to all those who seek to carry their studies further. The second phase lasts four years and prepares for higher education. Schooling ends with the bachillerato, which gives access to higher education. Doctorado. The highest degree in higher education awarded after a minimum of one year’s

studies after the licenciaturu and on submission of a thesis. Examen de admisibn. Entrance examination imposed by the Instituto de Estudios

Superiores for holders of the bachillerato who wish to enrol in this institute of higher education. Licenciatura. First degree of higher education awarded after a course wlxh may vary in

length between three and six years. Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education awarded after courses which

may vary in length betweeen three and seven years. The qualification of doctor is awarded after four and a half years and after submission of a thesis at the Instituto Tecnologico de Santo Domingo, after six years at the Universidad Central del Este, after seven years at the Universidad Autonoma de Santo Domingo. The doctorates in dentistry and in veterinary medicine require five years. In other subjects studies last between three and five years and lead to the title of ingeniero. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See bachillerato.

76

Ecuador ECUADOR

In Ecuador higher education is given in 14 universities and three polytechnics of university rank, the majority of which are stake institutions. The others are private, including some Catholic universities. Some institutions offer courses in a broad range of disciplines, others are technological and professionally oriented. Both the public and the private universities are autonomous, but they are all partly or

entirely financed by the State. They are divided into faculties, institutes and specialized schools. Primary teachers are trained at the level of secondary education. Secondary teachers are

trained either in universities in the faculties of philosophy, humanities or education, or in higher teacher-training institutions. Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leaving certificate (bachilleraio)

or its equivalent. Candidates for higher education have to submit a testimonial from the head of the institution in which they had their secondary schooling. Moreover, many universities also require candidates to pass an entrance examination. The maximum number of students to be admitted is determined by the administrative council of each faculty. Students coming from certain vocational or technical institutions of secondary level may enter courses in higher education in the corresponding subjects.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, bachillerato and entrance examination)

years 3 4 5 6 I 8

Education L P D Arts L D Fine arts P Architecture P Law and political L P/D

Administrative and L D

Economics P D Exact and natural D

Engineering P D

sciences

social sciences

sciences

Medical sciences medicine P P D dentistry P D pharmacy D

Agriculture P D veterinary medicine D/P

D doctorado L Iicenciaiura P professional qualipcarion

(The duration of studies and the names of degrees vary according to the institutions.)

ECUADOR 77

Studies of shorter duration, lasting two, three or four years, may lead to a.professional qualification as topographer, librarian, social worker, nurse or midwife. The main stage of higher education comprises a period of four to six years’ study (seven in

medicine). This stage, according to the subjects studied and the type of institution involved, leads to the award of the licenciatura degree, or a professional qualification (engineer, economist, etc.), or to the dociorado degree. Students intending to teach in secondary schools may obtain, after four or five years’ study,

the qualification of licenciado in education or of profesor de ensefianza secundaria. A further stage may he followed in certain disciplines, after the award of a licenciatura or a

professional qualification. This leads to the submission of a thesis for the doctorado degree. Those with the licenciado degree in education may obtain after two years’ further study, a doctorado degree in education, which gives the right to teach in higher education.

GLOSSARY Bachillerato en educacih. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, awarded after six years of primary education followed by six years’ study in a teacher-training institution. It entitles the holder to teach in a primary school and gives access to the faculties of philosophy, arts and education and to certain other faculties, after passing an entrance examination (pre-university course). Bachillerato en humanidades. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, awarded after six years

of primary followed by six years of general secondary schooling. In the last year pupils must choose between three options: literature andphilosophy: physics and mathematics: chemistry and biology. The certificate is endorsed humanidades clusicas (classical humanities) or humanidades modernas (modern humanities). It gives access to higher education but many faculties require candidates to sit an entrance examination in addition (pre-university course). Bachillerato técnico O comercial. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, awarded after six

years of primary education followed by six years of schooling in a secondary technical institution of an industrial or commercial type. It gives access, after the passing of an entrance examination. to the faculties of economics, agriculture, veterinary medicine and, in certain cases, to the faculty of engineering, depending upon the specialization chosen by the candidate. Doctorado. The highest degree of higher education, awarded after at least one year’s further

study beyond the licenciatura or the obtaining of a professional qualification. A thesis representing original work must be submitted and in certain cases courses must also be followed. Entrance examination. Examination obligatory for entrance to some of the faculties that are

open to holders of a secondary-school-leaving certificate (cf. bachillerato en educacibn; bachilleraio en humanidades; bachillerato iécnico O commercial). This examination usually consists of topics drawn from the secondary school syllabus which are relevant to the particular faculty the candidate seeks to enter. In some cases the candidate must pass a scholastic aptitude test or examinations based more specifically upon the type of studies the candidate wishes to pursue. Licenciatura. First degree of higher education, awarded after a course lasting usually

between four and six years. During each successive year the candidate must pass three examinations and obtain a mark of at least 18 out of 30 in order to be eligible to sit for the annual examination, success in which is necessary in order to start the following year’s work. The annual examination may be taken again by unsuccessful candidates at the beginning of the new university year, but if they fail again, the whole year must be repeated. Primary teacher’s certificate. See bachillerato en educacibn. Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education, awarded in those faculties or

for those specializations in which there exists no licenciaturu degree. The qualification is

78 ECUADOR

awarded after studies which vary in duration between three and seven years (more usually, from four to six years). Such courses are at the same level as a licenciatura course.

Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See bachillerato en educacibn; bachillerato en humanidades; bachillerato técnico O comercial.

Egypt, Arab Republic of

In the Arab Republic of Egypt higher education is provided in 12 state universities (Ain- Shams, Al-Azhar, Alexandria, Assiut, Cairo, Helwan, Mansourah, Minia, Menoufia, Tanta, Zagazig, Suez Canal), one private university (the American University), and ten institutions of professional and technical training-some public, some private. T h e Islamic University of Al- Azhar, the oldest, dates from 970. The following universities were founded during the 1970's: Helwan, Mansourah, Tanta, Minia, Menoufia. The Suez Canal University is still in a preparatory stage. Responsibility for higher education is vested in the State and is exercised by the Ministry of

Higher Education. Financing of higher education is largely from public funds. Organization and administration as well as the academic programmes are determined by laws, decrees and government regulations. The autonomy of the universities is established by law. The Egyptian universities have full academic and administrative freedom and direct their own affairs; they are concerned not only with teaching but also with scientific research. The Supreme Council of the Universities, whose President is the Minister of Education, is

formed of the President and Vice-president of each university, a dean elected annually to represent the university in Council meetings, and five persons external to the universities but competent in university matters. The Council determines the overall policy of higher education and scientific research in the universities along lines suggested by the national, social, economic, scientific and cultural goals to which the nation aspires. It co-ordinates studies and awards, and the instruction given in the various different establishments. It decides the number of students to be taken by the faculties of each university. The Council may call upon the services of sixteen committees each responsible for a particular university discipline, plus committees of equivalences and cultural relations respectively. The universities are divided into faculties which offer courses for diplomas of higher

education. The majority of these have affiliated institutes whose teaching is more specialized. Instruction in the faculties is offered in a wide range of subjects: law, archaeology and letters, medicine, pharmacy, engineering, agriculture, veterinary medicine, economics and politics, commerce, basic sciences, dentistry, Islamic studies, education, hotel management, social work, fine art, etc.

T h e institutions of professional and technical training are of various kinds. Many are affiliated to a university. Others are private institutions. Their intake is governed by the same conditions as for the universities, and they normally award a qualification equivalent to the first diploma conferred in the universities.

EGYPT, ARAB REPUBLIC OF 79

Short courses (one to one and a half years) take place in training centres affiliated to the higher technical institutes, leading to professional qualifications in the industrial, commercial and agricultural fields. The institutes of higher studies not affiliated to the universities offer courses of specialized

instruction at a high level for students already holding a higher education diploma. They are the Institute of National Planning, the Higher Institute of Public Health, and the Institute of Higher Arabic Studies. Primary school teachers are trained in teacher-training colleges which take students at the

completion of their lower secondary studies. The course is of five years, that is, two years longer than the remaining general secondary programme. Secondary teachers are trained in university in theeducation faculties and higher teacher-training colleges. There are also higher institutes of physical education, art, music and domestic science. The Higher Institute of Industrial Education trains teachers for the preparatory and secondary industrial and technical schools. The teaching languages are Arabic and English. Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leaving certificate. Holders of

the school-leaving certificate of a technical secondary school may, under certain conditions, enter higher education in their own speciality. Holders of the certificate of primary school teaching may enter higher education in institutes of domestic science or education. The number of candidates for higher education is sometimes restricted, and some organizations impose entrance examinations. A limited number of students are authorized to enrol in certain faculties as affiliated students, and they are not then required to follow the courses or conform to other academic conditions. Higher education consists initially of one or more years of generally multi-disciplinary

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, secondary-school-leaving certi3cate)

years 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Education B M D Arts B M D Islamic studies B M D Architecture B M D Law B D Political sciences, B M D

Exact and natural B M D commerce

sciences Technology, engineering Di B M D Medical sciences medicine dentistry pharmacy

B M D B M D B M D

veterinary medicine B M D Agriculture B B M D

B baccalaureos D doktora Di technician's diploma M magistr

80 EGYPT, ARAB REPUBLIC OF

studies in basic subjects,.especially science or medicine, in which one year’s preparatory study is standard. There are various stages of higher education reflecting the various degrees awarded. The main stage normally lasts between four and five years, depending on the establishment

in question. In medicine, however, it lasts six years with one additional year’s practical work, and in scientific subjects it often lasts five years. The courses constitute a strong overall grounding in a subject and lead to the award of the baccalaureos degree. In the higher institutions of professional and technical education courses last from four to

five years. In technology, an intermediate qualification, that of technician, may be awarded after three years. The second stage is a more specialized one and a training in individual research work. It may

be undertaken in a university or in a specialized institution of higher education. In the universities, courses last two years and comprise a one-year course of study followed by one year of research culminating in the submission of a thesis. The degree awarded is that of magistr. Students who already hold a university degree may sit for the magistr in a faculty of education. The third stage leads after at least two further years’ study after the award ofthemagistr, to

the doktora, the highest degree of higher education. This degree is awarded for advanced research work culminating in a thesis. In certain cases, after the dokrora, a degree of doctor of science is awarded. This is reserved for researchers who have undertaken a substantial body of research work.

GLOSSARY Baccalaureos. First degree of higher education, awarded usually after four years of higher

education, preceded in some faculties by a preparatory year (in medicine, the course usually lasts six years; in science and engineering, five years). Students are examined at least once a year in every subject. Examinations may be oral, written or practical. In order to proceed to the next year of their course, students must have passed all the examinations of the preceding year, and may only repeat a year of study once. Doktora. The highest degree of higher education, awarded after at least two years’ research

after the award of the magisir and requiring the submission of a thesis. In medicine, a dokiora in medical sciences may be prepared concurrently with the professional qualification of doctor of medicine. Magistr. Degree of higher education awarded after two or three years following upon the

baccalaureos, usually after submission of a thesis. Normally the course takes two years-one year of study and one year of research. Primary teacher’s certificate. Secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded after six years

of primary education followed by three years of classical secondary education and five years of study in a teacher-training institution. The certificate not only gives the right to teach in primary schools but also to enter higher education to study domestic science or education. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. Certificate awarded after six years’ primary followed

by six years’ secondary education undertaken in an establishment of general secondary education. The secondary studies are divided into two cycles of three years each. In theory the secondary-leaving certificate gives access to higher studies. The number of applicants admitted toany facultyis fixedannually by the Supreme Council. Students are selected among those who have performed best in the secondary-leaving certificate or in the technical- secondary certificate, the latter being limited to the faculty corresponding to their own specialization, and applying for a single degree or diploma course only. Technician’s diploma. Qualification awarded in certain higher professional institutes after

some three years’ study. These studies may be continued for a further two years for the baccalaureos degree.

EGYPT, ARAB REPUBLIC OF 81

Technical-secondary-school certificate. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, awarded after six years of primary education followed by six years of secondary education in a technical school (commercial, agricultural or industrial) divided into two phases of three years each. Candidates for higher education possessing this certificate are subject to the same conditions regarding entry as holders of the secondary-school-leaving ceriijïcate.

El Salvador

In El Salvador higher education is given in two types of institution: in four universities, andin specialized institutions which may be either state or private. The Universidad de El Salvador is an autonomous state university which draws its funds

from credits from the State, gifts and from fees paid by students. It comprises eight faculties (medicine, dentistry, law and social sciences, agronomy, science and humanities, engineering and architecture, chemistry and pharmacy, economics). It has two regional university centres (Oriente, Occidente). The Universidad Centroamericana ‘José Simeon Canas’ is a private university which is financed by gifts, and by fees paid by students. It comprises faculties of economics, industrial engineering, humanities and natural sciences. The Universidad ‘José Matias Delgado’, a private institution founded in 1977 and financed by fees, credits from the Government and private donations, comprises schools of law, of humanities and fine arts, of applied arts, of book-keeping, of business administration and marketing, and of public administration. The Universidad ‘Albert Einstein’, which was also founded in 1977, comprises faculties of architecture and civil and industrial engineering. The specialized institutions are: a school of social work, a higher teacher-training

institution, a higher school of physical education, a higher school of tourism, the Institute of Technology of San Salvador and the Central-American Institute of Technology. Primary teachers are trained at the Ciudad Normal ‘Alberto Masferrer’, an institution

which gives courses varying from nine months to three years’ duration at the end of which a certificate is awarded. This gives holders access to the faculty of humanities, to the School of Social Work. or to another specialized institution of higher education. The language of instruction is Spanish. Access to higher education is given through the bachiileraio (secondary-school-leaving

certificate), which is normally awarded after nine years of primary education followed by three years of secondary education. The Central-American Institute of Technology only requires the bachilleraio, whereas all the other institutions impose an examen de admision (entrance examination). The length of higher education courses varies according to the type of studies followed. In

the faculties, the first years of study are a transitional period in which the student completes his general education and is helped to adapt to higher education. Studies must be accompanied or followed by a year of state social service. They lead to a professional qualification, or to a licenciaiura, or to a degree of doctor, depending on the specialization.

82 EL SALVADOR

The School of Social Work awards a professional qualification as social worker after three years of study and submission of a thesis. The Universidad de El Salvador awards professional qualifications as técnico (technician) in statistics, demography, clinical laboratory work, physiotherapy, anaesthesiology, and maternal and infant hygiene, after three years. The title of ingeniero in agronomy requires five years of study and that ofarquitecto five and a half years at the Universidad de El Salvador; at the Universidad ‘José Simeon Canas’ the title of ingeniero in various specializations requires five years, and five and a half years at the Universidad de El Salvador. At the Universidad de El Salvador, the title of licenciado is obtained after four years in

science and in journalism, and five years in letters (after defending a thesis), philosophy, sociology, educational sciences and economics (the length of studies in this subject is the same as at the Universidad ‘José Simeon Canas’). The latter university awards a licenciaturu in administration after six years. The title of doctor in dentistry is awarded after five years, and the title of doctor in medicine

after seven.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, bachillerato and entrance examination)

years 3 4 5 6 7

P L/P D D

D doctorado (medicine, dentistry) L licenciado P professional qualification

GLOSSARY Bachillerato. Secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded after nine years of primary

education followed by three years of secondary education and giving access, after success in an examen de admision (entrance examination), to higher education. Doctorado. Degree of higher education and professional qualification in dentistry,

pharmacology and medicine, awarded after five, six or seven years and which usually requires the preparation of a thesis. Examen de admisibn. See bachillerato. Ingeniero. Professional title awarded after five years at the Universidad ‘José Simeon

Canas’ and after five and a half years at the Universidad de El Salvador. Licenciado. Degree awarded by the Universidad de El Salvador and the Universidad ‘José

Simeon Canas’ after four (science, journalism), five (letters, economics), or six years (administration), generally on presentation of a short thesis. Professional qualification. Title obtained after a varying duration of studies (técnico, three

years; arquitecto, five and a half years: doctor in medicine, seven years). Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See bachillerato.

ETHIOPIA 83

Ethiopia

At present in Ethiopia, higher education is offered in two universities, Addis Ababa University and the University of Asmara, in junior colleges and specialized institutions. Although Addis Ababa University started its programme in limited areas, i.e. education,

health, engineering and administration, it has demonstrated a remarkable growth by presently running 18 faculties and colleges and more than 75 departments within Addis Ababa and in other administrative regions. The colleges and faculties under the umbrella of Addis Ababa University are: Alemaya

College of Agriculture, Awasa Junior Agricultural College. Academy of Pedagogy, Debre &it Junior Agricultural College, Debre Zeit Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Gondar Public Health College with a Faculty of Medicine, School of Graduate Studies, Institute of Language Studies, Faculty of Law, Faculty of Medicine, College of Pedagogical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, College of Social Sciences, Faculty of Science, Faculty of Technology, Division of Continuing Education, Separate programmes with specific objectives are run by teacher- training institutions. In addition to the above faculties and colleges, there are research institutes, both in Addis Ababa and in other places, to co-ordinate research work. The University of Asmara, founded by a non-Ethiopian religious group, has faculties of

arts, commerce and science. A special relationship is now emerging between Addis Ababa University and the University ofAsmara. Exploratory studies have already been conducted by the Commission for Higher Education, with a view to strengthening and diversifying the courses offered by the University and making it play a more important national and regional role. Teaching is given in Amharic and English. Outside these two universities, the institutes offering post-secondary programmes can be

categorized into four areas according to fields of concentration:

(a) Agricultural institutions-The Ambo Agricultural Institute and the Jimma Agricultural Institute offer a two-year diploma programme in general agriculture; the Wondo Genet Forest Resources Institute which provides a two-year diploma programme for forest rangers; and the Assistant Veterinary Training Institute at Debre Zeit, which trains animal health assistants for two years, leading to a diploma. Pedagogical instirutions-The College of Teacher Education at Kotebe which offers a two-year diploma programme for would-be secondary school teachers and the Ecole Normale supérieure de Français, which offers first degrees that enable the graduate to teach French and Amharic in secondary schools. Engineering und technology-The Polytechnic Institute at Bahar Dar which offers a two- year diploma programme, and the Municipal Technical College (three-year course). Commercial institutions-The Addis Ababa Commercial School, which offers a two- year post-secondary diploma programme in accounting, banking, etc.

(b)

(c)

(d)

All these institutions operate under the direct control of the Commission for Higher Education, which was set up after the revolutionary changes of 1974, to co-ordinate the activities of post-secondary educational institutions and to promote innovation and reforms which are still under way. Other post-secondary institutions, such as the Telecommunication Training Centre, the

Ethiopian Airlines Training Centre, the Institute for Banking Studies etc., are attached to specialized ministries and operate outside the control of the Commission. Access to higher education is based on the Ethiopian School-Leaving Certificate

Examination (ESLCE) or its equivalent. Lately, a study has been carried out by the

84 ETHIOPIA

Commission to replace the ESLCE with a higher education entrance examination. Generally, admission to diploma programmes is possible with a pass in three subjects at ‘C’ level or completion from a recognized specialized secondary school or its equivalent, after a minimum of two years of successful work experience. Successful completion of personal interviews and special tests might be required. To be enrolled in a degree programme passes in five subjects and in the aptitude test with a ‘C’ average are required. Foreign examinations that are considered equivalent to the Ethiopian school-leaving

certificate are: The General Certificate of Education (GCE) of the University of London; the Cambridge Overseas, West African School Certificate, or the Oxford Examination. The Committee for selection and admissions may grant equivalence to other secondary-school- leaving certificates in individual cases. The first stage in higher education leads to a diploma awarded by higher institutions after a

successful completion of a two-year programme. The first degree in higher education is the BA or BSc which normally is obtained after three or four years of study (five for veterinary and medical science). Postgraduate programmes leading to MA or MSc degrees normally take from one and a half to two years.

~~

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, Ethiopian school-leaving-certificate examination)

years 2 3 4 5 6

Education Arts Architecture Law Social sciences, economics

Administration Business, commerce Exact and natural

Engineering, technology Medical sciences public health pharmacy veterinary medicine

Agriculture

sciences

Di B M B M

B Di B Di R

B M Di B M

B M

Di B M

Di MD

B bachelor’s degree Di diploma DVM doctor in veterinary medicine M master’s degree MD medical doctor

GLOSSARY Bachelor’s degree. First university degree awarded, depending upon the subject, after three

to five years of study. It takes three years in most cases except for the BSc in engineering, technology and pharmacy and the LLB degree in law which are obtained after four years. Examinations are administered at the end of each semester or term and generally the success of the student depends on his cumulative performance throughout the programme.

ETHIOPIA 85

Diploma. Qualification obtained at a university or in an independent institute after successful completion of a two-year programme. The only exceptions in terms of the length of time for obtaining a diploma are the Gondar Health College, which requires from two to two and a half years in nursing. environmental health and laboratory technology, the Municipal Technical College and the faculty of building technology where programmes of studies extend to three and two and a half years respectively.

Doctorate. Professional qualification conferred in medicine and veterinary medicine. Five years are required to obtain the MD and the DVM. Ethiopian secondary-school-leaving certificate. Certificate awarded after twelve years of

primary and secondary schooling.

Fiji

In Fiji, higher education takes place mainly at the University of the South Pacific, founded in 1970. Other institutions of higher education are the Fiji School of Medicine, the Fiji Institute of Technology and the Western Division Technical Centre, which opened in 1978, the Fiji School of Agriculture and four teacher-training colleges. The University of the South Pacific serves ten English-speaking territories in the South

Pacific. It is financed by fees, funds from the Fiji government and other territories and by a grant from the United Kingdom. The university consists at present of four schools. The school of social and economic

development offers courses in accounting, economics. sociology, history, geography, politics and public administration, and trains social scientists and administrators. The school of education offers courses in education, English and mathematics, and trains secondary education teachers, as well as providing a correspondence course leading to the diploma of education. The school of natural resources offers courses in biology, chemistry and physics. The School of Agriculture was established in 1977 by means of the integration of the Regional College of Tropical Agriculture in Western Samoa with the University. The University also includes: a centre for applied studies in development: an institute of education; an institute of marine research; an institute of natural resources; an institute of Pacific studies and an institute of social and administrative studies. These were established to provide research and consultancy services for governments and agencies in the region. The Fiji institute of Technology is concerned mainly with the training of apprentices and

with the provision of post-trade courses; it also offers courses leading to an ordinary technician diploma in engineering as well as a diploma in business studies. It comprises the following schools: building and civil engineering; electrical engineering; maritime studies; food and fashion; business studies; general studies; printing; mechanical engineering. The Fiji School of Agriculture offers two three-year diploma courses in tropical agriculture

and tropical fisheries. Teachers of primary education are trained in two years at post-secondary level at Nasinu

86 FIJI

Teacher’s College, Corpus Christi Teacher’s College, Fulton College and Lautoka Teachers’ College. Teachers of secondary education obtain a diploma of education (DipEd) after three years’ training in the University’s School of Education, or they read for a bachelor’s degree in arts or science and then do a further year’s postgraduate study leading to a certifcute of education. Teachers already in employment may do a year’s in-service training leading to the certijïcate of education. The teaching language is English. Access to first degree courses is open to candidates holding a secondary-school-leaving

certificate and who have satisfactorily completed the foundation programme or other programmes of study of comparable standard, such as, for instance, a one-year full-time ‘post New Zealand University entrance course’. Two pre-degree programmes, each lasting one academic year, provide a basis for further programmes of study: Preliminary I (not open to applicants from Fiji) accepts entrants at a standard equivalent to New Zealand school-leaving certificate; foundation at minimum entry standard equivalent to New Zealand university entrance. The University also provides teaching for first year students of the Fiji School of Medicine and the Fiji School of Agriculture at the foundation and preliminary I levels respectively. The first stage of higher education leads, after three years’ study, to the bachelor’s degree of

arts (BA) in the school of social and economic development, or science (BSc) in the school of natural resources. Candidates for the graduate certificate of education do a further one year’s course after the bachelor’s degree. Students at the school of agriculture are awarded the diploma in tropical agriculture after three years’ study for the school certificate or a diploma in tropical fisheries, two years after Preliminary I. There is as yet no secondstage leading to a higher degree; there are no postgraduate courses,

but in special circumstances, individual candidates may be considered for admission to MA, MSc or PhD studies. External courses (adult education) are provided throughout the university region for

DipEd by correspondence. Regional centres are established in Cook Islands, Gilbert Islands, Niue, Solomon Islands, Tonga and Western Samoa.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12/13 years, secondary-school-leaving certificate)

years 3 4

Social and economic BA

Natural resources BSc Education DipEd C Agriculture DTA

development

BA bachelor of arts BSc bachelor of sciences C Certificate of education DipEd dip- loma of education DTA diploma in tropical agriculture

~~ ~ ~ ~ ~

GLOSSARY Bachelor’s degree. First qualification of higher education, obtained in arts or science generally after three to three and a half years’ study. Normal full-time programme comprises four courses in each semester of the first year and three courses in each semester thereafter. Students are required to emphasize two particular areas of study in their programmes.

FIJI 87

Certificate of education. Postgraduate qualification, obtained after one year’s study following upon the bachelor’s degree in arts or science. Diploma of education. Non-graduate diploma for secondary school-teachers awarded after

three years’ training at the school of education. External courses for it are provided throughout the region by correspondence. Diploma in tropical agriculture. Awarded after three years’ post-secondary studies by the

school of agriculture.

Finland

In Finland higher education is provided in nine universities-the Abo Akademi and the Universities of Helsinki, Joensuu, Jyvaskyla, Kuopio, Oulu, Tampere. Turku and Lapland (the last of these, the University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, was founded in 1979, since when it has offered courses in law and education); in three technical universities. those of Helsinki, Lappeenranta, and Tampere: and in specialized higher schools of economics, administration, social work, and veterinary medicine. Finland has 20 institutions of higher education. Continuing education is widely available; there are 19 summer universities open to all-comers, regardless of qualification, and an ‘open’ university still in the experimental stage. In the University of Abo, the Abo School of Economics, the Swedish School of Economics

and Business Administration, and the Swedish School of Social Work and Local Administration, Swedish is the main teaching language. At the University of Helsinki, the Sibelius Academy and the College of Veterinary Medicine, Finnish is the principal language used. The traditional universities comprise faculties of: human sciences, mathematics, social sciences and politics, chemistry, engineering, theology, law, medicine (including dentistry), science (including pharmacy), agriculture and forestry, education, physical education, technology (including architecture), economics and business administration, as well as often containing institutes and research centres. Of the technical universities, Helsinki and Lappeenranta have departments for each speciality (civil engineering, mechanical engineering, etc.), while Tampere is divided into faculties. The University of Helsinki is a state university, financially and administratively

autonomous though almost entirely financed by the State. The other higher education establishments are also under the direct supervision of the Ministry of Education and are, with two exceptions, state property. They are all autonomous both administratively and in relation to matters of teaching and research. Each university is under a rector (rehtori). A numerus clausus is applied rather strictly

throughout all higher education institutions and fields of study. Primary school-teachers are trained in three years in teacher-training colleges, secondary

school-teachers at university. Teachers of the first cycle of secondary education must pass the first and lower kandidaaffi diploma in humanities or in natural science (over three or four years). Those of the second cycle must pass the kandidaatti examination in philosophy (which

88 FINLAND

takes five to six years). The university courses must be followed by a training period of two semesters in specialized institutions of school administratibn called normaaliiyseo where students take an examination in education. Before this they must follow a preparatory course in education. Various establishments offer short (two- to four-year) intermediate courses often taken by

students having average secondary level qualifications. These are schools preparing students for careers as nurses, midwives, or social workers, and technical colleges whose entrants have normally done professional work in one or other field of technology. The latter train their students as technicians who may then continue their studies in an institute of technology. Access to higher education is based on the enrolment examination, in Finnish the

ylioppilastutkinto, in Swedish the studentexamensbetyg, awarded after four years’ primary and eight years’ secondary education, the latter divided into two phases of five and three years in that order. It consists of two certificates, one of which is awarded by the Enrolment Examination Board, the other, a secondary-school-leaving certificate (lukionpüüstotodistus in Finnish, in Swedish dimissionsbetyg frün gymnasiet), awarded by the school itself. Faculties often require candidates to take entrance examinations. Teacher-training colleges also impose entrance examinations open to ylioppilastutkinto holders. Some institutions of social science or economics accept candidates from secondary level professional schools. In higher education generally, three stages are distinguishable. The main stage leads to two

levels of the first degree-the kandidaatti. The lower level of the kandidaatti is not, however, available in all institutions or all disciplines. The lower level is comparable to a bachelor’s degree and often has a specific name: in humanities HuKand, in natural science Luonnontiet Kand, etc. Professional diplomas from the faculties of agriculture and forestry (agronomi) or economics schools (ekonomi) are generally considered comparable to a bachelor’s degree. The lower level requires between three and four, the higher between five and six years’ study. The higher level of kandidaatti in philosophy (FilKand), social sciences (valtiotKand), and architecture (ArkKand), is better compared to the master’s degree. In medicine, the kandidaatti is not considered as a first degree. Some universities (for example, Helsinki) award the maisteri, second diploma of higher

education, simultaneously with the first. In law, a lower level diploma, the alempi oikenstutkinto is reached after two years, when students may continue their studies for the kandidaatti degree. This reflects the first two stages common to many countries. This system is, however, in process of revision, following the instigation by a joint working

party of the Ministry of Education and the higher education establishments themselves, of fifteen laws governing the award of higher education qualifications. The new system defines fifteen basic degrees and diplomas whose relation the above laws determine. For each qualification, there are between one and ten curricula differing widely one from another. The studies required for a basic diploma vary between 160 and 240 weeks (four to six years). These laws came into force as follows: 1977, law, medicine, dentistry; 1978, economics and business administration, pharmacy, veterinary medicine, physical education; 1979, theology, engineering, architecture, agriculture and forestry, education; 1979-80, humanities, natural sciences, social sciences, and 1980, psychology. The training programme is itself composed of periods of study of between one and several weeks. These are divided into different kinds of study: general (25 per cent), studies confined to the student’s subject (50 per cent), and specialized advanced studies (25 per cent). The impact of the reform of the basic diplomas system is felt above all in the field of ‘liberal education’, that is, humanities, social and natural sciences. In these subjects, studies involving one principal and two subsidiary topics are being relegated in favour of a more generalized syllabus. The lower level of university diploma previously awarded (humKand in the humanities, luonnont.Kand in natural science) is being phased out altogether. In medical sciences, in contrast with all other subjects, the basic

FINLAND 89

qualification is the lisensiaaiii in medicine (Iüüket-lis), dentistry (hammaslüüket-lis), or veterinary medicine (elai~ilüaketieten-lis). A further stage (third) normally requires between one and three years’ postgraduate studies

after the completion of the preceding stage. It reflects advanced knowledge of the subject, usually at a more specialized level requiring a greater personal contribution. It leads to the award of the lisensiaatti degree. In many subjects this serves as a professional qualification after the successful candidate has completed the required periods of work experience. The higher degree of tohtori (doctor) is available in all subjects. It consists of personal

research leading to the publication of original work and normally requires between one and three years’ study, with submission of a thesis.

It should be noted that, in many traditional universities, the philosophy faculty is alone responsible for both scientific instruction and instruction in the humanities. For this reason, the degrees kandidaatti, maisteri and lisensiaatti are awarded in both literary and scientific fields.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, ylioppilastutkinto (in Finnish), studentexamensbetyg (in Swedish) and, generally, entrance examination)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Education P K L - To Arts L H u K FilM FilK L To Religion, theology K To Law, political A0 K To sciences

Social sciences, P/L MValK To L To economics

Exact and natural LuK FilK To sciences

Technology, engineering, P L To architecture

Medical sciences medicine L To dentistry L To pharmacy P To veterinary medicine L To

Agriculture P K L To

A0 aiempi oikenstutkinto FilK fil.kandidaatti FilM filosofian maisteri HuK humanist.kandidaatti K kandidaaiti L lisensiaatti LuK Iuonnontiet kandidaatti M maisteri P professional qualification To tohtori ValK valtiot. Kand.

90 FINLAND

GLOSSARY Basic degree. See kandidaatti. Diplom (Swedish). See diplomi. Diplomi (Finnish). Higher education qualification awarded in certain faculties instead of

Doctor (Swedish doktor) See tohtori. Entrance examination. See ylioppilastutkinto. Kandidaatti (Swedish: kandidat). First degree of higher education, awarded after studies

lasting between three and six years. Most faculties offer the student considerable freedom in the constitution of his syllabus. Some subjects (medicine and agriculture, for example) are less flexible. Participation in group discussions (Finnish seminarii, Swedish seminuria) is compulsory. Also important is personal work undertaken under the professor’s direction. Three grades of pass exist for each examination: approbatur (pass), cum laude approbatur (good), and laudatur (excellent). For entrance and inter-course examinations a certain proportion of the superior grades is required. Thus for the lower level of the kandidaatti (HumKand and luonnontiet Kand) the cum laude approbatur is required in two subjects and at least the approbatur in a third. The full kandidaatti entitles its holder maisteri (magister) (see: maisteri). Licenciat (Swedish); Lisensiaatti (Finnish). Degree of higher education awarded after

between one and three years’ study after the award of the kandidaatti. Under the old system, the student must (a) submit a more extensive thesis than that submitted for the kandidaatti and (b) pass three examinations obtaining at least Iaudatur in his main subject and at least cum laude approbatur in two subsidiary subjects. In medicine, the lisensiaatti is the first professional qualification. Maisteri. Formal higher education qualification awarded in certain universities in solemn

ceremony and qualifying holders of the full kandidaatti (see: kandidaatti). Professional qualification. Higher education qualification awarded in certain faculties (in

technology), in agriculture (agronomi) or economics (ekonomi). Holders of a professional qualification may often pursue their studies toward the kandidaatti and lisensiaatti degrees. (This is not always the case-in medicine, for example.)

the kandidaatti (for example, in engineering-diplom-ingenjor).

Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See ylioppilastutkinto. Studentexamen (Swedish). See ylioppilastutkinto. Tohtori (Swedish doktor; doktorsgrad). The highest degree of higher education, awarded

after between one and three years’ research and study following the award of the lisensiautri. Submission of a thesis is required. Ylioppilastutkinto (Swedish: studentexamen). Secondary-school-leaving certificate,

awarded after four years’ primary followed by eight years’ secondary education, the latter divided into two phases of five and three years in that order. The second of these phases is the lukio phase. The certificate in principle gives access to all faculties, but in fact many of these and indeed many higher education establishments impose an entrance examination.

FRANCE 91

France

Higher education in France has three main characteristics: (a) the predominance of state institutions, financed by the State and alone entitled to award state diplomas; (b) the fact that instruction in the majority of state institutions is nearly or completely free; (c) the existence of ‘grandes écoles’ awarding state-recognized diplomas or qualifications, access to whose courses is by competitive examination. Higher education establishments comprise the universities founded under the law of 12

November 1968 on the orientation of higher education, other state establishments of scientific, administrative or cultural nature, some of which are independent of the universities (for example, certain ‘grandes écoles’), and private establishments. The National Council for Higher Education and Research, which includes representatives

of teachers and students in universities and higher institutions, as well as representatives from outside the system, is consulted by the Minister on all matters relating to higher education. A conference of university presidents has also been set up; this meets as it thinks fit, or at the initiative of the Minister, who is its chairman. The General Assembly of Directors of Schools and Establishments awarding the Engineering Diploma (AGREEPDDI) has a status similar to that of the conference of university presidents. The universities are divided into ‘units of teaching and research‘ (UER) in the following

fields: humanities, social sciences, law, economics, politics, exact and applied sciences, pharmacy, medicine, and in exceptional cases, theology. They have a dual purpose-to further knowledge and culture while training the student for a professional life in accordance with the economic and social needs of the nation. The universities are autonomous, being administered by a council and president chosen by election, and controlling their own budgets. They are also multi-disciplinary. Their councils include university teachers, research workers, students and representatives from outside the university. They may award national diplomas regulated by the Ministry of Education or their own diplomas. Other bodies forming part of the universities are: institutes of politics (IEP), higher schools of engineering (ENSI), university technological institutes (IUT), institutes offering specialized instruction at a high level, and establishments independent of the universities, such as the polytechnical institutes. The public and private institutions of a scientific, cultural and administrative nature,

among which are included the grandes écoles, offer courses: (a) for an engineering diploma (about 140 institutions); (b) for commercial or managerial employment; (c) for certain specific careers in the French civil service-teaching, administration, specialized technical posts, etc.; (d) careers in the arts. The majority are public institutions depending in the main on the Ministry of Education, such as the écoles normales supérieures (advanced teacher-training colleges), the national schools of arts and crafts (écoles nationales darts et métiers) and the national institutes of applied sciences (instituts nationaux de sciences appliquées, INSA). A certain number of institutions are attached to other ministries: national defence,

industrial and scientific development, supply, post and telecommunications, agriculture-or even directly linked to the government. This is the case with the École Polytechnique, the schools of mining, the school of aeronautics, the schools of telecommunications, of veterinary science, and of agriculture, and the International Institute of Public Administration. After graduation from a grande école such as the École Polytechnique, many students go on to another more specializedgrande école, such as the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées or the École des Eaux et Forêts. Special institutions prepare for artistic careers, such as the École Nationale Supérieure des Beaux-Arts, the Conservatoire National d’Art Dramatique or the conservatoires of music.

FRANCE

Special mention must be made of special institutions such as the Collège de France, the National Museum of Natural History, the Paris Observatory, the Longitudes Office, the Practical School of Higher Studies (EPHE), the School of Higher Studies in Social Sciences (EHESS), and the National Foundation of Political Science, all of which offer instruction at the highest level. Extra-university instruction is available at all levels in the context of continuing education;

training courses and evening classes may lead up to various higher education qualifications. Thus the national school of arts and crafts and its centres in the provinces offer evening classes to all-comers which may lead up to the award of an engineering diploma. The French Open University, the Centre National de Télé-enseignement, also offers throughout France an instruction in every respect comparable to that of other state institutions. Some universities also have centres of televised instruction. Access to higher education is based on the baccalauréat which is the secondary-school-

leaving certificate. Secondary studies are increasingly specialized over a range of different options, but are intended to give the student a general culture in French language and literature, mathematics, ancient and modern languages, arts and social sciences and various exact and natural sciences. The baccalauréat has different sections (see Glossary). Entrance to higher education is restricted to: holders of the bacca/auréar (or a recognized

equivalence), although there are certain requirements of correspondence between baccalauréat option and the course chosen (this is the case in management, politics, medicine, etc.); and candidates who have passed a special entrance examination (ESEU); for the capacité in law, the baccalauréat is not required. Foreign students wishing to enrol in French universities to work for French qualifications

must undergo a pre-enrolment process. This involves obtaining and completing enrolment forms between the 15 December and the 15 February of the previous academic year; this may be done at the French cultural service of the relevant country. In other higher education establishments foreign and French students are admitted on the

basis of qualification and academic record or competitive exam, or after between one and three years' study in the preparatory classes of some lycées. The competitive examinations are national in extent and in some cases common to several schools. Selection is more or less severe according to the level of the school and the number of applicants. In higher education a number of stages, extending over a period of five to seven years or

longer, can be distinguished. The definition of these stages varies according to whether they relate to general studies (e.g. arts subjects) or a particular professional qualification (e.g. social and economic administration). Degrees and diplomas corresponding to the various stages set out but awarded outside France may, especially where the higher education system of the relevant country resembles that of France, be officially recognized as equivalent or homo/ogué. The French higher education system has three stages of training, instruction, and research which constitute its three cycles. For the first two, the teaching unit is the unité de valeur (UV) (see Glossary). There are three categories of UV according to the field of studies chosen (compulsory, optional or free). The first stage (or cycle) lasts two years and in letters and human sciences, in science, law,

and economics involves a first phase of largely multi-disciplinary basic studies. This leads to the diplôme d'études universitaires générales (DEUG). The detail of the diplôme is decided by the predominant orientation of the studies undertaken, thus DEUG mention droit (see Glossary). In medicine, pharmacy and in studies preparatory to the entrance to various schools, the same period is devoted to the acquisition of an essential grounding in the basic sciences. In this field, as in dentistry, the examinations conditioning entry into the second year are highly selective. The universities also offer short courses in technology, given in the university technological

institutes, whose full-time courses lead after two years to the diplôme universitaire de

FRANCE 93

technologie, which automatically has a more technical orientation. This also holds for studies leading to the brevet de technicien supérieur (BTS) and certain other short professionally- orientated higher courses (those, for example, of primary school-teacher or chartered accountant). The second stage (or cycle) is devoted to the provision of a scientific training at an advanced

level designed to prepare the student for the exercise of professional responsibilities in working life. Such studies are rewarded in the humanities, in science, in law and economics by the licence after one year and the maîtrise after two. In certain fields, however, (e.g. medicine and pharmacy), this period does not have any particular formal significance. W e should also note the existence of 'multi-disciplinary' training courses which comprise

first and second cycle courses leading to pre-professional qualifications in the following subjects: economic and social administration, applied modern languages, applied mathematics and social sciences, maîtrise in science and technology, maîtrise in management application of computer science, maîtrise in administrative sciences. This second stage constitutes the normal requirement for secondary school-teachers who,

after passing the licence and the maîtrise, must take the certificat d'aptitude au professorat de /'enseignement secondaire (CAPES) or the agrégation of secondary education, which are competitive exams. Preparation for the agrégation involves studies at a level similar to that of the third stage. The third stage (or cycle) involves a high degree of specialization with training in the

techniques of research. in it are awarded professional qualifications (diplômes d'études supérieures spécialisées (DESS), diplômes de docteur-ingénieur) or those whose orientation is that of research (doctorats de troisième cycle or d'Etat). The docteur-ingénieur diploma and the doctorat de troisième cycle include a first-year course leading to the diplôme d'études approfondies; their second and third years are devoted to research work leading to the production and defence of a thesis. The doctorat dEtai is awarded for original scientific research of a high order. There are also

doctorats d'université which are not state diplomas. In medicine, pharmacy, and dentistry full professional qualifications are awarded, as for

example the diplôme d'Etai of doctor of medicine and of pharmacist. and doctor of dental surgery. These may be extended by courses of specialization. for example, diplômes de spécialité in medicine, doctorats de troisième cycle in dentistry and pharmacy, and doctorat dEtat in pharmacy

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, baccalauréat)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0

Arts, languages DEUG L M/ DEA D3C D

Theology D E U G L M DEA D3C D MST

Fine arts DNSEP Architecture Di

Human and social DEUG L M/ DEA/ D3C D (DPLG)

sciences MST DESS

94 FRANCE

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0

Sciences

Law

Economic and administrative sciences

Politics

Technology, management

Commercial studies

Engineering Medical sciences medicine pharmacy

DEUG L M/ DEA/ D3C D

DEUG L M DEA/ D3C D As

DEUG L M/ DEA/ D3C D As

MST DESS

DESS

MST DESS

Pr L/Di DEA/ bEA D3C D3C D DESS/ M

BTS/ DUT

Di Di

Di DEA Sp/DG DG

PCEMl PCEMZ DCEM D CES As Di DEA/ D3C D

DESS dentistry PCEMl Di CES D3C human biology PCEMl PCEMZ DCEM M/ D/ D

veterinary medicine CPr Di CERBH DERBH

Agriculture CPr Di Multi-disciplinary DEUG L M studies (mathemat- ics applied to the social sciences etc.)

As BTS CERBH CES CPr D DCEM D3C DEA DERBH DESS DEUG Di DG DNSEP DUT L M MST PCEM SP

agrégation de renseignement supérieur brevet de technicien supérieur cycle d'étude et de recherche en biologie humaine certificat d'études supérieures preparatory classes doctorat d'Etat deuxième cycle d'études médicales diplôme de troisième cycle diplôme d'études approfondies diplôme détudes et de recherches en biologie humaine diplôme d'études supérieures spécialisées dplôme d'études universitaires générales diplôme (de pharmacie, d'ingénieur, d'architecte DPLG, etc.) diplôme de docteur ingénieur diplôme national supérieur d'expression plastique diplôme universitaire de technologie licence maîtrise maîtrise de sciences et techniques premier cycle d'études médicales speciality

FRANCE 95

In other subjects, certain professional specialities have their own institutions, such as the Centre of Tropical Agriculture for agricultural engineers, or the Institute of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry for Tropical Countries, for veterinarians. University teaching appointments are subject to a competitive exam, candidates for which

must be holders of the doctorat dEtar. In some subjects access to university teaching posts is restricted to those who have passed

the agrégation de /‘enseignement supérieur (pharmacy, medicine, law and economics).

GLOSSARY Agrégation de l’enseignement secondaire. Advanced professional competitive exam open to

holders of the maîtrise. Those who pass are qualified agrégés, and may be allocated a teaching post in secondary education, or become assistant lecturers in higher education. Agrégation de l’enseignement supérieur. Higher education competitive examination which

entitles the holder to occupy a higher education teaching post in certain subjects (law, economics, pharmacy, medicine). Attestation d’études approfondies (AEA). In science this denotes that the theoretical part of

the diplôme d‘études approfondies has been passed. Baccalauréat d‘enseignement général. Secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded after

five years’ primary followed by seven years’ secondary schooling. Secondary education has two phases. The first lasts four years, and takes place in a college. It is intended to orientate the student in the following ways: after two years towards a lycée d’enseignement professionnel (LEP, professional high school) or in the fourth year towards an LEP (two- or three-year courses) or technicallycée (LT) or general lycée (LEG) (three-year courses), where he follows the second phase of secondary education. Qualifications giving access to higher education are the baccalauréats taken in the LEG’S and LT’s and the brevets de technicien in the LT’s. The baccalauréat may be taken in a range of literary options (Al to A7), a range of economics options (B), a mathematics and physics range (C), a mathematics and natural sciences range (C), a mathematics and natural sciences range (D), an agricultural range (D’), and a mathematics and technology range (E). Baccalauréat de technicien. Qualification obtainable in various sections of an industrial (F)

or commercial (G) kind or relating to computer science (H). Studies must take place in a technical lycée for most sections or in certain professional lycées for the G section. The aim is to give a general education equivalent to that of the traditional baccalauréat as well as a vocational training as a technician: the qualification obtained affords access to higher education more easily than does the brevet de technicien. Baccalauréat en théologie. Initiai qualification awarded after two years’ study in a university

or religious institute, or at Strasbourg II. Baccalauréat technique. See baccalauréat. Brevet de technicien. Qualification which can be prepared in certain technical lycées over

three years. It has four categories (industry, hotel management, agriculture, and para-medical professions). This diploma admits to higher education, but entrance is restricted to university institutes of technology or technical lycées which prepare for the brevet de technicien supérieur (see also baccalauréat de technicien). Brevet de technicien supérieur. Qualification of higher education, or of the higher

technicians sections (STS), awarded after two years’ study in the preparatory classes of technical lycées, to which candidates are admitted after a normal or competitive examination, or on their qualifications, depending upon their speciality. BTS holders may, under certain conditions, continue their studies at university. Capacité en droit. Certificate awarded after two years’ study of law. The baccalauréat is not

required, but candidates must be over 17 years old. Holders of the capacité may enrol for higher studies in law.

96 FRANCE

Certificat d’aptitude au professorat de l’enseignement secondaire (CAPES). Competitive recruitment examination open to those who already have alicencein the subject in which they take the CAPES. Successful students undergo a year’s training at a centrepédagogique régional at the end of which they take a practical examination. Those who pass are entitled to employment in secondary school-teaching and are qualified as professeurs certifiés. Certificat d’études spécialisées. In medicine and dentistry, a qualification normally obtained

after the doctorat, after two or three years’ study of a specialization. Certificat d‘études supérieures. Qualification of higher education, awarded after a period of

study lasting between six months and a year in certain scientific subjects (e.g. biology). Concours d’entrée. Competitive entrance exam of certain establishments known as grandes

écoles. Success in this exam normally requires two years’ preparation following the baccalauréat in the special classes of certain lycées. Access to these classes is limited to outstanding students. Diplôme. Higher education qualification awarded in certain fields (for example the diplôme

dEtat de pharmacien, which entitles the holder to run a dispensing chemist’s) and by a considerable number of schools and institutes (diplhes of engineering, architecture, etc.). It often serves as a professional qualification. Diplôme d’études approfondies (DEA). In science or humanities, the compulsory first year of

the doctorat de troisième cycle spent in preparation for research work. Diplôme d‘études supérieures spécialisées. Diploma of the third cycle which prepares the

student for professional life. It signifies a high level of specialization attained in the course of research work. Diplôme d‘institut d’études politiques. Qualification awarded upon successful completion of

four years’ study in an institute of political studies. Diplôme universitaire de technologie (DUT). Diploma awarded to those who pass the final

examination of a two-year course in a university technological institute. In some cases, the holder may continue his studies in the first cycle of university. Diplôme universitaire d’études universitaires générales (DEUG). Diploma awarded at the

end of the first cycle of university studies. It is specified in the following subjects: law; economics; economic and social administration; humanities and art (section A, literary studies; B, literary studies and foreign cultures; C, applied modern languages; D, plastic arts; E, music; F, history of art); human sciences (section A, philosophy; B, sociology; C, psychology; D, history; E, geography); science (section A, science and structure of matter; B, natural and life sciences); applied mathematics and social sciences; physical education and sport; theology (section A, catholic; B, protestant). Docteur-ingénieur (or ingénieur docteur). Qualification of higher education in science,

awarded after two years’ studies and submission of two theses relating to technological applications of the science in question. Doctorat d’Etat. The highest degree of higher education. It is awarded in the humanities and

science after some years’ study following the maîtrise. A thesis must be submitted on a subject acceptable to the university; the candidate therein sets out personal research work constituting an original contribution to the subject. In most subjects university teachers are required to have this degree. It is not sufficient qualification in law, economics, or medicine (see agrégation de l’enseignement supérieur). In medicine, it is conferred at the end of professional training after submission of a (normally) rather shorter thesis. In medicine, the doctorat is a professional qualification. Candidates for the doctorat d‘Erat in pharmacy must have the diplôme d’Etat in pharmacy and a DEA or DESS. Doctorat d’université. Diploma of the third cycle. Except in humanities, it is not a national

diploma, but organized by the universities themselves, who accept candidates on their academic record. Doctorat de 3ème cycle. Diploma awarded after two or three years’ study in the third cycle

FRANCE 97

involving submission of a thesis or preparation of individual or collective work. The first year, the DEA (or DESS for certain disciplines) is obligatory. Equivalence. Equivalence is distinguished from homologation or full ratification (validité de

plein droit) in that it merely allows the student to continue his studies. Examen spécial d’entrée dans les universités (ESEU). Examination open to candidates of 20

years of age having two years of professional activity behind them, or of 24 years of age. The papers are varied to match the nature of studies the candidate intends to pursue. Homologation. Homologation is possible where foreign diplomas have been awarded in the

same conditions, relative to initial qualifications, of duration of studies, curricula and examinations, as the corresponding French diplomas: the student may then request the award of the relevant French diploma. The list of foreign diplomas which may be so dealt with is published annually. Homologution is restricted to certain countries and certain subjects. Ingénieur-docteur. See docteur-ingénieur. Licence. Higher education diploma awarded after the first year of the second university

cycle (see maitrise). Maîtrise. Diploma awarded after the second and last year of the second cycle. Maîtrises of

basic training leading to careers in teaching and research are to be distinguished from the more recent kind which have professional rather than academic ends and prepare the student for his working life. Unité de valeur. These are awarded for a semester or year’s work on a well-defined syllabus

in both compulsory subjects and those in which the student has complete or restricted freedom of choice.

Gabon

The Republic of Gabon is, together with the Central African Republic, the Republic of Congo and the Republic of Chad, one of the countries where higher education was formerly provided under the auspices of the Foundation for Higher Education in Central Africa (Fondation de l’Enseignement Supérieur en Afrique Centrale). Today, higher education in Gabon is given in the Omar Bongo University (the former National University of Gabon), Libreville. This is a state institution under the control of the Ministry of Education and Scientific Research.

The University is autonomous. It comprises faculties of arts, science, law and economics, exact and natural sciences, a university centre for health sciences, a national school of engineering, an advanced teacher-training college, an advanced teacher-training college for technical studies, a national school of forestry, a school of administration, a national institute of business management and an institute of agricultural studies. A national school of magistracy is affiliated to the University. There is also the African Institute for Data Processing, situated at Libreville, which wasset

up in 1971 by the member states of OCAM (Common Afro-Mauritian Organization) and is an international institution. It offers a two-year course leading to a diplôme danulyste-

98 GABON

programmeur (programme analyst). Access to the institute is by competitive examination open to holders of the baccalauréat. The language of instruction is French. The advanced teacher-training college awards a certificat d'aptitude au professorat des

collèges (CAPC) after three years and trains inspectors of primary education and teachers. Qualifications awarded in Gabon are recognized in France and in the other three countries

mentioned above as legally valid, as are French qualifications in Gabon. Access to higher education is based on the baccalauréat or secondary-school-leaving

certificate, obtained after six years of primary and seven years of secondary education, or on an equivalent qualification. Those who do not hold the baccalauréat may gain access through success in a special entrance examination. The main stage of higher education in the University is divided into two phases. The first

phase leads, after two years' study, to the diplôme universitaire d'études littéraires (DUEL) in arts, to the diplôme universitaire d'études scientifiques (DUES) in science, to the diplôme universitaire d'études juridiques (DUEJ) in law and to the diplôme universitaire d'études économiques (DUEE) in economics. The University also awards a brevet de technicien suptrieur de secrétariat de direction, a brevet d'aptitude aux fonctions de greffier and a diplôme de magistrat (in three years). The National School of Engineering (ENSIL) awards a diplôme de spécialité de I'ENSIL. The second phase leads to the licence en lettres after a further year of study and to the licence

en droit et sciences économiques after a further two years. The National Institute of Business Management awards a maîtrise de gestion one year after the licence. The University Centre for Health Sciences confers a doctorate after six years of study, the Advanced Teacher-training

~~~

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 13 years, baccalauréat)

years 2 3 4 5 6

Education CAPC/ CAPET

Arts DUEL L Law D U E J P L Economics DUEE L M

Science DUES L Medicine D

Engineering DSQ P

CAPC CAPET D DSQ DUEE D U E J DUEL D U E S L M

certificat d'aptitude au professorat des collèges certificat d'aptitude pédagogique à l'enseignement technique doctorat diplôme de spécialiste qualifié diplôme Universitaire d'études économiques diplôme universitaire d'études juridiques diplôme universitaire d'études littéraires diplôme universitaire d'études scientifl4ues licence maîtrise

P professional qualification

GABON 99

College for Technical Studies (ENSET) and the National School of Engineering respectively award a certificat d’aptitude pédagogique à renseignement technique (CAPET) and the diplôme d‘ingénieur after five years of study. Holders of a DUEL or DUES may carry on with their studies in France and in countries that are members of the Conseil Africain et Malgachepour l’Enseignement Supérieur (CAMES).

GLOSSARY Baccalauréat. Secondary-school-leaving qualification, obtained at the end of six years of

primary followed by seven years of secondary education, in a general or technical secondary school. Secondary education is divided into four years’ lower and three years’ upper education. There are three main options (mathematics. science or literature). Programmes are adapted from the French curriculum. The baccalauréat gives access to higher education. Certificat d’aptitude au professorat des collèges (CAPC). Qualification awarded by the

advanced teacher-training college at the end of three years’ study. Certificat d’aptitude pédagogique à l’enseignement technique. Qualification awarded by the

advanced teacher-training college for technical studies (ENSET) which gives the right to teach in a technical school. Diplôme de spécialiste qualifié. Qualification awarded by the National School of

Engineering at the end of two years of study. Diplôme universitaire d‘études économiques (DUEE). Qualification obtained after two

years’ study in the faculty of law and economics. Diplôme universitaire d’études juridiques (DUEJ). Qualification obtained at the end of two

years’ study in the faculty of law and economics. Diplôme universitaire d’études littéraires (DUEL). Qualification obtained after two years’

study in the faculty of arts. Diplôme universitaire d’études scientifiques (DUES). Qualification obtained after two years’

study in the faculty of science. Docteur. See professional qualification. Doctorat. Qualification awarded by the University Centre for Health Sciences (CUSS) afteï

six years’ study. Licence. First degree of higher education, obtained at the end of three years’ study in letters

and science, and at the end of four years’ study in law and economics. Maîtrise. Postgraduate degree awarded by the National Institute of Business Management

after one year following upon the licence, on presentation of a dissertation. Professional qualification. Degree of higher education awarded after two years’ study in

technology, three years’ study in law, five years’ study in engineering and six years’ study in medicine. In medicine, the title awarded is that of docteur.

100

Gambia

GAMBIA

No information having been received recently, the present text is repeated from the 1976 English edition of this Guide.

In the Republic of the Gambia higher education is provided in a teacher-training college, (Brikama New College) and a number of vocational institutions provide training at post- secondary level. Access to the teacher-training college is based on the secondary IVth examination, taken

after six years of primary and four years of junior secondary education, or through the West African Examination Board general certificate of education, obtained after six years of primary, five years of senior secondary (leading to ‘O’ level qualifications) followed by two years of sixth-form secondary education leading to ‘A’ level. Candidates also have to take an entrance examination. Students wishing to attend higher education go abroad, mostly to the USA and the USSR.

German Democratic Republic

The universities, colleges (Hochschuten) and technical schools (Fachschulen) of the GDR are state institutions of higher education within the unified socialist education system and represent a continuation of the progressive traditions in the German universities. In the institutions of higher education are embodied the established principles of GDR

higher education such as the equal right to education for every citizen, the right to work, the unity of training and education, teaching and research, and theory and practice. The Ministry of Higher and Technical Education (Ministerium fiir Hoch- und Fachschulwesen) implements the unified central management and planning of the whole complex of higher education. In preparing and carrying out his decisions the Minister consults rectors, teaching staff, students and other members of the educational institutions. His decisions are based on recommendations of the Council for Higher and Technical Education (Hoch- und Fachschulrat), the Research Council (Forschungsrat) of the GDR, the scientific advisory boards (Wissenschaffliche Beirüte), the scientific councils (Wissenschaftliche Rate), the social councils (Geseltschaffliche Rate) and other bodies at the universities and colleges. In higher education in the GDR there are institutions at two levels. The engineering schools and technical schools (Zngenieur und Fachschuten) are institutions

of higher education below university level. To be accepted for a course at one of them the normal requirements are the school-leaving certificate of the ten-year general polytechnical secondary school (zehnklassige altgemeinbildende potytechnische Oberschule-POS) and a completed vocational training. Graduates from these institutions (e.g. Zngenieur, ûkonom)

GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC 101

take up responsible positions in industry, farming and in other fields. By continuing their studies they may advance to the qualification level of university graduates. There are 53 universities and colleges (institutions at university level) in the GDR. These

include the universities in Berlin, Leipzig, Rostock, Greifswald, Halle-Wittenberg. and Jena, the Freiberg Mining Academy and the Technical University in Dresden. Together with colleges in fields such as technology, medicine, economics, farming and education they are the highest places of learning and at the same time important institutions of science and research and of adult education. They are the scientific and also the intellectual and cultural centres of the country in each field. Each university or college is divided into departments (Sektionen), encompassing the special disciplines of a unified field of training and research. The department is further divided into special areas of scientific work (Wissenschaftsbereiche). Access to higher education is based on the university entrance qualification (Hochschulreifè).

This includes a thorough knowledge of mathematics. the natural sciences, the mother tongue and literature, two foreign languages, music and art, history, social sciences and geography, and also basic skills in the polytechnical subjects. The main ways to acquire this qualification, after completion of attendance at the POS. are courses at the extended secondary school (erweiterte allgerneinbildende Oherschule) leading to the Abitur after two years, or a completed vocational training plus Ahitirr (Berufshildung mit Abirur-three years). In addition there are special classes and preparatory courses at universities and colleges. Those at work may acquire the entry qualification for university level education by means of courses at adult education institutes. courses for young skilled workers at engineering colleges, study at the workers’ and peasants’ faculty (Arbeiter- und-Bauernfakultat) of the Mining Academy in Freiberg and other special entry examinations. For some courses of study aparticular vocational training or at least one year’s professional

experience in a related field (Vorpraktikurn) is required. Admission is according to the level of achievement while taking account of the social structure and the needs of society and the economy. Citizens of other states are admitted to higher education courses in the GDR on the basis of

international agreements and arrangements with social organizations of other states or international bodies. A precondition for admission is that as a rule a student is delegated by the relevant organ of the home country. Applicants for study at a university or college need a certificate that would admit them to a course of university level education in their own country. For a course at a technical school an educational level corresponding to that of the ten-year school (POS) and proof of knowledge in the professional field are required. Apart from this it is desirable that applicants should not be older than 25. A medical certificate is needed to confirm that the applicant is physically fit to study. The main stage of higher education. usually lasting four and a half or five years depending

on the field of study. consists of courses, examinations and practical work. A distinction is made between basic and specialized training. The basic training includes the technical and other training required by all students on the course in question. The specialized training serves the further acquisition of knowledge and skills needed for the later transition to professional work. Here students learn to a greater extent methods of applying and developing scientific knowledge in their future professional practice. Following the passing of the diploma examinations and the defence of the diploma paper, the first academic degree. Diplom eines Wissenschaftszwei~es (diploma of a scientific discipline), is conferred. One may then bear the corresponding title (e.g. D@lomchemiker, Diplomlehrer). By means of assistantships, research studies (Forschungsstudium) and research programmes

for serving teachers in higher education (Aspirantur), talented young scholars are encouraged and prepared for their research degree which constitutes a further stage. After the defence of the thesis submitted and the successful conclusion of the procedure for gaining a higher academic qualification (Promotionsve~fahren), the degree of Dokror eines Wissen-

102 GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

schaftszweiges (doctor of a scientific discipline), e.g. Dr.rer.nat. is conferred. In order to be awarded the degree of doctor of science (Doktor der Wissenschaften, e.g. Dr.sc.rer.nat.) a higher level of scientific work has to be demonstrated encompassing results of research influencing the international level in the field of science and technology. Since 1950 it has been possible for people at work qualified to enter university level

education and possessing several years of professional experience to follow external courses of study at a university or college without interrupting their professional work. These external courses, combining fairly long phases of private study with class work in the form of tutorials, lectures, practical work and seminars, last from five and a half to six years. The degree acquired is recognized as having the same status as that gained by the internal student. Factories and other institutions are obliged in law to give the external student favourable conditions to study (depending on the course, between 48 and 36 days per year additional paid leave, and also several weeks’ paid leave to complete the final diploma paper). The universities, colleges and technical schools also offer graduates scientifically orientated work- based postgraduate or further education courses.

PROFILE OF H I G H E R STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 10/13 years, Reifezeugnis, Abitur, Hochschulreife)

years 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 1 12

Education Arts Religion, theology Law Social sciences, economics

Commerce Mathematics Science (other fields), natural sciences

Engineering Medical sciences medicine dentistry pharmacy veterinary medicine

Agriculture, forestry, fisheries

Di Dr DW Di Dr DW

Di Dr DW Di Dr DW Di Dr DW

Di Dr DW Di Dr DW Di Dr DW

Di Dr DW

Di Dr DW Di Dr DW

Di Dr DW Di Dr DW

Di Dr DW

Di Diplom Dr Doktorat DW Doktor der Wissenschaften

G L O S S A R Y Abitur. Leaving certificate of the extended secondary school (erweiterre allgemeinbildende

Oberschule) or a completed vocational training plus Abitur (‘Berufsausbildung mit Abitur’). The entry requirement for a course of higher education at university level. AbschluBzeugnis der 10. Klasse. The leaving certificate of the 10th class followed by a

GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC 103

completed vocational training together form the entry requirement for a course of study at an engineering or technical school (institution of higher education below university level). Diplom. The degree at university level is conferred following success in the diploma

examinations and in the defence of the diploma paper, the degree gained being the ‘diploma of a scientific discipline’ (Diplom eines Wissenschaftsl>ceiges). Entitles the graduate to enter the professional field and to bear the relevant professional title. Doctor/Doktor der Wissenschaften. There are two doctorates: the first, the degree of ‘doctor

of a scientific discipline’ (Doktor eines Wissenschafsz>~eige~), is conferred after the defence of the doctor thesis submitted and the successful conclusion of the procedure for gaining a higher degree (Promotionsverfahren). The second, the degree of ‘doctor of science’ (Doktor der Wiss- enschaften), is conferred after success in defending a second higher degree thesis, this being the product of a period of further research in which results are presented contributing to the international development of the scientific field. Eignungsprüfung. An examination for entry to university level education, demanded of

applicants for courses requiring particular talents (for example. study at an art college). FachschulabschluB. Lower level degree gained in higher education, conferred after

successfully completing at least a three-year course of studies at an engineering or technical school. Fachschulreife. For entrance to a technical school (institution of higher education below

university level) the normal requirement is the leaving certificate of the ten-year general polytechnical secondary school (zehnklassige allgemeinbildende polytechnisrhe Oberschule) and a completed vocational training. In addition, a substantial period of professional experience is of advantage for those training to be engineers or economists. Hochschulreife. Level of qualification permitting entry to higher education at university

level (Abitur or special school-leaving examination). Ingenieur/Okonom. See FachschuIabschluJ. Vorpraktikum. A period of professional experience normally forming the first part of

particular courses of study, for example in the fields of technology, medicine or agrarian sciences.

Federal Republic of Germany

In the Federal Republic of Germany, the Lander that make up the federation are the legislative and administrative authorities in the organization of education. Issues that affect all the Lander or several of them are the responsibility of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Culture of the Lander, whose purpose is to co-ordinate the educational and cultural policies of the Lander. Its decisions must be unanimous. The federal government may moreover contribute to the advance of science and of higher education by appropriate legislative and financial measures. Higher education establishments of university standard comprise various categories of

104 FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

institution. There are traditional universities offering instruction in: philosophy, humanities and human sciences, theology, natural and exact sciences, medicine, law, economics and social sciences, and, more rarely, agriculture or veterinary medicine. There are technological universities, colleges of theology and schools of education. If these last are excluded (for details see below), all of these institutions have certain features in common. These are the close connection between teaching and free research, a large degree of autonomy, the right to appoint the teaching staff, the right to award the doctorate and the right of Habilitation. Almost every establishment of higher education is in fact an institution of the Lundat the

same time as having legal personality. This has two consequences. O n the one hand, the Lander have an overall responsibility for the higher education establishments and must provide for their personal and physical needs. It is the Lander which finance them in general, and they normally have no other resources with the exception of some private endowments. The Lander control their budgets and see to the application of the regulations that govern their public function. O n the other hand, each establishment is autonomous in relation to its internal structure, its teaching methods and its study and research programmes. As the representative body of the higher education establishments, the Westdeutsche Rektorenkon- ferenz (Conference of West German Rectors) is the counterpart at the federal level of the Standing Conference of Ministers of Education and Culture of the Lander. It ensures a certain degree of'harmonization in many fields (examinations, conditions of admission, international exchanges, legislation, planning and administration affecting higher education, etc.). There is also a scientific council that oversees the programmes of scientific development worked out at federal level and in the Lander. The majority of the establishments of higher education are divided into faculties, and these

sub-divided into departments. Each faculty is responsible for fixing its own programme of study and teaching. The faculties often include departments in disciplines complementary to their principal subject. The technological universities further include faculties of philosophy and politics and, in some cases, those of literary studies, human sciences and fine arts. Some also teach the basic sciences. Training of both primary and secondary school-teachers takes place at post-secondary

level. Primary school-teachers are trained in the universities, the schools of education, and, sometimes, in the schools of educational sciences. In general, the schools of education form part of the universities. In some cases, they are independent establishments having characteristics similar to the other university institutions. Teachers of the second cycle of secondary studies are invariably trained at university. Vocational higher education in Federal Germany places particular emphasis on relatively

short courses. The technical colleges (Fuchhochschulen) train students to one of two levels of professional qualification: the Gruduierung (graduation) which comprises short, practical courses, and the Diplom whose courses are longer and more theoretical. These courses cover aspects of engineering, economics, and professions relating to social work and social assistance. In scientific or artistic fields, their courses are orientated toward practical problems. The subjects they offer are similar in some respects to those offered by the university, but the courses themselves are shorter and more practical. They also include compulsory periods of work experience. For these reasons, distinctions are made between the professional qualifications awarded by the technical colleges and those awarded by the universities. Access to higher education is based on the Hochschulreife, which is awarded after thirteen

years of primary and secondary education. It usually corresponds to a full course of general secondary education, at the end of which the secondary-school-leaving certificate (Reifezeugnis) is awarded. Entrance to the specialized professional schools is by the Fuchhoch- schulreife, which is reached after twelve years of primary and secondary education followed by a practical training course. It is also possible to enter higher education under certain

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY 105

conditions by different routes. By and large, arrangements have been made in all the Lander for persons in employment to receive instruction either full-time or part-time enabling them to meet the entrance requirements for higher education. In many subjects of a technical nature a preliminary work experience is required lasting

between three months and one year. The length of studies varies with the subject and sequence of course chosen. At university,

students have, within certain limits, the right to fix the programme they follow themselves, and they often exceed the required minimum length of studies. It is regarded as normal and, indeed, desirable that not all of the student’s courses be followed in the same establishment; and there are no annual examinations. It is therefore far from easy to define the level of any particular course of higher education in the Federal Republic of Germany. The first stage of higher education may perhaps be identified with the four or five semesters

devoted to the study of basic subjects. These are normally multi-disciplinary studies in exact and natural sciences, social sciences and economics, psychology, applied sciences, and medicine. In medicine, this stage corresponds to the first cycle of preclinical studies. In the other subjects it leads to an intermediate examination often called Vorprüfung, Zuischenprüfung or Vordiplom. The main stage representing the normal period of study corresponds to the acquisition of a

high standard of learning and experience or to a professional qualification. This stage leads to a terminal examination, the Staarsexamen (state examination), or to a university examination

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 13 years, Hochschulreije)

varied years 4 5 6 7 duration

Arts, human sciences Theology Law Economics, social

SP/MA SP/MA (P/Di)

(Di) Di (SP) SP

D D D D

sciences

technical sciences Exact and natural, (SP*/Di) (SP*/Di) D

medicine (SP) SP D dentistry SP D veterinary medicine SP D

Agriculture (Di) Di D

Medical sciences

D Doktor Di Diplom MA Magister Artium P professional qualification SP Erste Staatsprüfung

* Only for those intending to teach at secondary level. A qualification in brackets shows the minimum duration according to the 1979 regulations; where only one qualification is given, without brackets, minimum and average duration are given.

106 FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

organized according to the rules of the institution of higher education concerned ( Diplom, Magister Artium). The state examinations are compulsory for the exercise of the professions of medicine, pharmacy, law and primary and secondary school teaching. Outstanding results are normally required in these final examinations if the candidate wishes to take a doctorate, which constitutes the last stage and is conferred after presentation of a thesis and success in an examination (Rigorosum). This stage may vary in duration.

GLOSSARY Abitur. See Reifezeugnis. Diplom. University qualification awarded to students who do not wish to take the teacher-

training course for secondary teaching but who have passed the final examination in certain subjects (e.g. technical studies, exact and natural sciences, economics and social science, political sciences). This examination normally includes the submission of a memoire, and written and oral tests. Recently this qualification has also been awarded by the technical colleges in the majority of the Lander (see: Magister Artium, Erste Staatsprüfung). Doktor. University qualification awarded to students who have passed an examination (the

Rigorosum) on a number of subjects in the appropriate discipline, and submitted a thesis of scientific value (Dissertation). The student may also be required to defend his thesis. In general, for admission to the doctorate course, outstanding results must be obtained in the final examination (Erste Staatsprüfung, Diplom, Magister Artium). The duration of doctorate studies varies with the discipline chosen and the subject of the thesis. Erste Staatsprüfung. Qualification of higher education awarded by the state to students who

have passed a final examination; a basic requirement in medicine, pharmacy, law and for primary or secondary teaching. Fachhochschulreife. Entrance requirement for the specialized professional schools,

requiring twelve years of primary and secondary education followed by a period of practical work experience. Habilitation. Qualification required of teachers of higher education. It is normally awarded

to candidates who have spent a period of time (varying between disciplines) as assistant doing personal research work. The candidate must normally already have the doctorate, and must in addition pass a special examination and submit a thesis. Hochschulreife. Entrance requirement for higher education, requiring thirteen years of

primary and secondary education and success in the final examination (see Reifezeugnis, Fachhochschulreife). Intermediate Examination. See Vorprüfung, Zwischenprüfung. Magister Artium. University qualification awarded after a final examination in arts and

human sciences to students not intending to teach at secondary level. It is equivalent to the Diplom. Matura. See Reifezeugnis. Reifeprüfung. See Reifezeugnis. Reifezeugnis. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, normally awarded after four years’

primary and nine years’ secondary education. The transition from primary school to an establishment of secondary education may also take place after the sixth or tenth years of schooling. The certificate indicates that the student has passed the final examination of secondary education. In theory, it qualifies the holder to enter higher education in any field. In fact, in some subjects the candidate is required to undergo a period ofwork experience before admission, although this may in some cases be undertaken simultaneously with his studies (see also Hochschulreife). Staatsexamen. See Erste Staatsprüfung. Vordiplom. Intermediate examination taken after some two years’ study, in exact and

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY 107

natural sciences, economics, politics, and social and technical sciences. In arts and human sciences, this examination is generally called the Zwischenprüfung. Vorprüfung. See Vordiplom. Zwischenprüfung. Intermediate examination taken after some two years’ study in the fields

of arts and human sciences (see Vordiplom).

Ghana

In Ghana higher education takes place in three universities-the University of Cape Coast, the University of Ghana (Legon) and the University of Science and Technology at Kumasi-and in specialized institutions of higher education. The universities are divided into faculties which are themselves divided into departments.

The governing body of a university is its council comprising ex-officio members and appointees, as well as members elected by the University staff. The senate or academic board, composed of members of the academic staff, has authority in all academic matters. About 90 per cent of resources are provided by the State and 10 per cent from student fees. The University of Ghana offers a variety of part-time courses for adults. The specialized institutions of higher education are the schools of veterinary medicine,

forestry, law, librarianship, mining and nursing. institutes of journalism, management and public administration, teacher-training colleges, as well as four polytechnics. Resources come almost entirely from government grants. These institutions are autonomous but each is administered by its board of governors whose members are usually appointed by the Minister of Education. The National Council for Higher Education is responsible for higher education planning. The language of instruction is English. Teachers are trained at three levels. Primary school-teachers are trained in two years at

upper-secondary level, following eight years’ primary and four years’ secondary education. After eight years’ primary and at least five years’ secondary education, prospective secondary teachers may pursue educational studies at Cape Coast University. leading to the award of a bachelor‘s degree in education. A further one-year course leads t6 the master’s degree in education. The University also offers a one-year course leading to the diploma of education. Access to higher education is based on thegeneralcerrificate of education, normally obtained

after eight years’ primary and five years’ secondary education and taken at two levels: ordinary (‘0’) level and advanced (‘A’) level. Minimum entrance requirements are five ‘O’ levels and up to three ‘A’ levels, according to the field of study. Candidates are selected from those suitably qualified. The first stage in higher education (undergraduate studies) leads to the bachelor’s degree. In

the University of Ghana all courses, except medicine, have a three-year duration and are offered at the honours level; students who fail to reach honours level but otherwise perform satisfactorily are awarded apass degree. In the University ofCape Coast and the University of

108 GHANA

Science and Technology, a bachelor’s degree may be obtained in three or four years according to the discipline and type of degree (general or honours). Courses in basic and applied sciences and education include long vacation assignments in laboratories, industry, farms and in class- room teaching. Professional qualifications are marked by the award of certificates or diplomas after one or two years of study. Graduate studies lead to the award of the master’s degree and doctor’s degree (higher

degrees) and to various postgraduate diplomas and certificates. A master’s degree may be obtained following two years’ course-work and research after the bachelor’s degree; a thesis must be presented. In science studies may last one year after a four-year honours degree. To obtain a doctor’s degree three years’ research on an approvedsubject and the presentation of a thesis are required. Advanced professional qualifications are awarded as certificates and diplomas following one or two years’ study after the bachelor’s degree.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 13 years, general certificate of education)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 I 8

Education P P B M R Arts B M D Religion, theology L P Fine arts B P Architecture B P Law B M D Economic and social B M D

Administrative sciences B P Mathematics B M D Science B B M D Engineering B M D Medical sciences

sciences

medicine pharmacy

Agriculture B M

B bachelor’s degree D doctor’s degree L licentiate M master’s degree P professional qualification

GLOSSARY Bachelor’s degree. First degree (undergraduate studies) obtained in three or four years

depending on the discipline and type of degree. Sometimes there is a preparatory year (as in medicine). In certain fields the bachelor’s degree may be obtained as a general degree or as an honours degree. The courses of study differ. In some cases, an honours degree requires one year more. Certificate. See professional qualification. Diploma. See professional qualification. Doctor’s degree. Higher degree which follows the master’s degree. To obtain it, three years’

research on an approved subject and the presentation of a thesis are required.

GHANA 109

General certificate of education. Secondary-school-leaving certificate normally obtained after eight years’ primary and four years’ secondary education. This examination comprises a choice of subjects at two levels: ordinary level and advanced level. The student must obtain the number and combination of passes required by the branch of higher education he wishes to enter. Usually one and sometimes two more years’ preparatory study are needed for the advanced level. These examinations are organized by the West African Examinations Council or by a United Kingdom body, usually Cambridge or London University. This system is also known as school certificate. Master’s degree. Higher degree (graduate studies) obtained following two years’ course-

work and research after the bachelor’s degree. A thesis must be presented. In science, studies may last one year after a four-year honours degree. Professional qualification. Higher education qualification marked by a certificate or a

diploma after one or two years’ study at the level of undergraduate studies or. after a bachelor’s degree or a first professional qualification, at the level of graduate studies. Secondary school-leaving certificate. See p w u l certificate of education.

Greece

In Greece higher education is provided in fourteen institutions of higher education. In addition to the University of Athens, the National Technical University of Athens (Polytechnion), the University of Thessalonica, the University of Patras and the University of Ioannina, there are now the University of Thrace (founded in 1973 and comprising two faculties: one of humanities and the other of natural science and mathematics), the University of Crete (founded in 1973 andcomprising two faculties: law and techno1ogy)and the technical University of Crete (being set up). The other institutions of higher education are a school of economics and commerce, the Panteios School of Political Science, a school of agricultural studies. the two schools of industrial studies in Piraeus and Thessalonica, and aschool of fine arts. The universities offer courses in the following branches: orthodox theology, philosophy

and arts, law, exact sciences, medicine and dentistry, veterinary medicine. agricultural sciences, and technology. In 1976-77. two new schools of medicine were opened at the Universities of Patras and Ioannina. In 1974, the State met the need for renewing educational structures and for reorganization

by introducing various innovations in matters of education. Secondary education was divided into two phases, the gymnasium and the grammar school, which both last three years. Under the new Constitution (1975, Article 16), higher education can only be provided by state institutions which are autonomous, and state-financed and controlled. The system of admission to institutions of tertiary education which, until 1979, was based on an entrance examination for holders of the secondary-school-leaving certificate has been modified. In 1980, the entrance examination system was replaced by the following procedure: candidates

110 GREECE

are admitted to institutions of higher education on the marks obtained during the last two years of grammar school in certain basic subjects and in school-leaving examinations. For the sake of uniformity, examinations in these subjects are now the same throughout the country. Lastly, the system of university studies has been modified according to Law 815/1978. The

former administrative structure of the institutions of higher education which was based on chairs, divisions and schools has been replaced by a system in which the department is the basic unit. The department is governed by its council, made up of full and associate professors, assistant professors, a representative of the assistant teachers and one or two student representatives (depending on the number of professors). This is the first time in the history of Greek higher education that representatives of assistant teachers andstudents take part in the meetings of a university administrative body with the right to vote. Moreover, higher education has been democratized: enrolment and examination fees have been abolished and the cost of textbooks is met by the Government. These measures only partly apply in the case of foreign students. They receive the basic books they need for their studies free of charge, but they must pay registration fees of between 36,000 and48,000 drachmas per annum, according to subject, except if they hold scholarships; it sometimes happens that, on the proposal of a university, a student is exempted by the Minister of Education from paying these fees. Summer courses have been created at the universities of Athens and Thessalonica and at the

Balkan Peninsula Institute of Studies to enable students to learn the Greek language in order to follow courses and sit for examinations. In addition, five centres of higher technical and professional studies (KATEE) have been

created at Thessalonica, Patras, Larissa, and Herakleion. Four other centres will be created before 1983. Their purpose is to give students the necessary theoretical and practical knowledge to become high level technicians and thereby contribute to the development of the national economy. A cross-channel system has been created between the universities and the KATEE. Primary teachers are trained in two years in numerous teacher-training colleges,

~

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, apolytiuion lykiou)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education Di Arts P D Theology P D Law, political sciences P D Economic sciences P D Exact and natural P D

Engineering, P D sciences

technology Medical sciences medicine P D dentistry P I1 veterinary medicine P D

Agriculture, forestry P

D didaktorikon Di primary teacher’s diploma P piychion

GREECE 1 1 1

recruitment for which takes place at the end of secondary education. There is also a special college for the training of nursery teachers and a National Institute of Physical Education, in which studies last three years. Secondary teachers are trained at university level. The language of instruction is Greek. The basic level for higher education is the upo/vtirion (vkiou (secondary-school-leaving

certificate) to which the marks obtained in certain basic subjects during the two last years of grammar school are added. This certificate is awarded after six years of primary education followed by three years at gymnasium and three years at grammar school. Several stages may be distinguished in higher education. The main stage may be carried out

either at a university or in another kind of institution of higher education. The length of studies varies according to subject: from four years in theology, philosophy, law etc. to six years in medicine. These studies lead to a first qualification, thepî.vchion. This stage entails a thorough acquisition of knowledge and of practical experience and corresponds to a high level professional qualification. A second stage leads to a diploma of advanced studies after an entrance examination and

one or two years of study. The third stage awards the didukîorikon (doctorate) which is usually obtained after two or

more years of research and submission and defence of a thesis.

G L O S S A R Y Apolytirion lykiou. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, obtained after six years' primary

education followed by six years of secondary education, which is divided into two phases of three years each. Didaktorikon. Degree of higher education conferred in certain faculties after two or more

years' study beyond the prychion and obtained after the successful presentation and defence of a thesis. Doctorate. See diduktorikon. Ptychion. Qualification of higher education, conferred after studies varying between four

years (in theology, philosophy, law, humanities, economics, science, political science, industrial studies), five years (veterinary medicine, dentistry), five or six years (engineering, depending on the specialization) and six years (medicine). Attendance at courses is compulsory. Examinations in June and October (and sometimes in December) determine promotion to the following year's course. Five subjects in all are examined. For the other subjects the marks obtained during the year count as examination marks. Candidates pass only if they have obtained an average of five out of ten. The final examination of theptychion IS in eight subjects, in which candidates take a written paper and an oral examination. Practical examinations are set in science and medicine. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See upolytirion lykiou.

112 GUATEMALA

Guatemala

In Guatemala higher education is provided in five state and private universities. The Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala is an autonomous state university which is governed by a Consejo Superior Universitario in which both professors and students are represented. It comprises faculties of agronomy, architecture, economics, law, social sciences, medical science, chemistry and pharmacology, letters and humanities, engineering, dentistry, veterinary medicine, schools of psychology, history, social work, together with six regional university centres. The other four universities are private and the qualifications they confer are officially

recognized in Guatemala. The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala has three faculties (science and humanities, social sciences, and educational sciences), as well as a research institute divided into a research centre in education and aresearch centre in demography, environment and natural resources. The Universidad ‘Francisco Marroquin’, which was founded in 1971 and is financed by

student fees and gifts from private organizations, comprises four schools (economics, law, architecture and medicine), three institutions offering postgraduate studies in economics and business administration, social sciences and clinical and medical psychology, as well as a department of lifelong education. The Universidad ‘Mariano Gklvez’ is a private university recognized by the State which

comprises schools of business administration, engineering, economics, law and social sciences, applied arts, management, and educational sciences. The Universidad ‘Rafael Landivar’, a private institution recognized by the State, comprises

faculties of law and social sciences, letters and humanities (as well as teacher-training and training in social work), economics, engineering; a school of rural social sciences, an institute of political and social sciences, and a centre of social development. Teaching is given in Spanish. Primary teachers are trained in three years at upper-secondary level. The holders of a

diploma obtained in a faculty of letters and humanities of a university may teach at -the secondary level. Qualifications to teach at secondary level are also given after three years at the Universidad ‘Francisco Marroquin’ and four years at the Universidad ‘Rafael Landivar’. Access to higher education is through the bachillerato (certificate at the end of secondary

school) or its equivalent, which is generally obtained after six years of primary education followed by five or six years of secondary education. An examen de admision (entrance examination) is moreover generally required for candidates to higher education (especially at the Universidad ‘Francisco Marroquin’). The length of studies varies according to the subject. The main stage leads to the licenciatura

or to a professional qualification. The licenciatura is awarded after four or six years, depending on the universities and the subjects chosen. A professional qualification of jngeniero is delivered after five or six years of study, and a professional qualification of doctor in medicine and veterinary medicine after six years. At the Universidad San Carlos de Guatemala, at the Universidad del Valle and at the

Universidad ‘Francisco Marroquin’, the second stage leads to a maestria after one or two years of study and on submission of a thesis. The first confers maestria in specialities in engineering, medical sciences, chemistry and pharmacy, and veterinary medicine; the second in anthropology and teacher-training; the third in economics and business administration, in clinical psychology and medical psychology, in social sciences and family medicine (reserved to doctors). At the Universidad San Carlos de Guatemala. at the Universidad del Valle and at the

GUATEMALA 113

Universidad ‘Francisco Marroquin’, the third stage leads to a doctorado in certain subjects. This title is conferred after two consecutive years of study after the maestria and on submission of a thesis.

~~~~

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies (Previous education: 11/12 years, bachillerato)

years 5 6 7 8

L/P M D

D doctorado L licenciaturu M maestria P professional qualifiration

GLOSSARY Bachillerato. Secondary-school-leaving certificate generally awarded after six years of

primary education and five or six years of secondary education, which is divided into two phases. The bachillerato gives access to higher education to those who pass the examen de admision (entrance examination). Doctorado. The highest degree of higher education awarded after two years of consecutive

studies after the maestria and on submission of a thesis. Examen de admision. See bachillerato. Licenciatura. First degree of higher education awarded after four to six years of studies

depending on the universities and subjects. Maestria. Awarded after one or two years’ study after the licenciaturu and on submission of

a thesis. Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education awarded after five or six years

of study and six ycara in medicine. where the qualification is called doctor. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See bachillerato.

Guinea

No information having been received recentiv, the present text is repeuted from the 1976 English edition of this Guide.

In Guinea higher education is given in the following institutions: the Polytechnic Institute of Conakry, the Ngéréré Polytechnical Institute, a higher teacher-training institution, a national school of arts and crafts, and a higher school of administration. All these institutions are

114 GUINEA

public and are controlled by the Ministry of National Education, Youth and Culture, with the exception of the higher school of administration, which is controlled by the Ministry of Justice. Teaching is mainly in French. The Polytechnical Institute of Conakry is a higher scientific and technical institution whose

task is to train both engineers and secondary teachers. It includes faculties of humanities, science, civil engineering, geology and mining, and agriculture, to which are being added faculties of medicine, pharmacy and electrical engineering. The Ngéréré Polytechnical Institute is divided into departments (mathematics andphysics,

chemistry and biology, physics and chemistry, humanities, history and geography, and philosophy). The National School of Arts and Crafts at Conakry is concerned with technology. The National School of Administration trains higher civil servants. Primary teachers and teachers for the ‘middle’ phase of schooling (see below) are trained

respectively in the primary teacher-training institution and in the secondary teacher-training institution, whose level is equivalent to that of upper-secondary education. Teachers for upper-secondary education are trained in the Polytechnical Institute or in the higher teacher- training institution. Access to higher education is dependent upon passing the baccalauréat which is taken at the

end of 12 years’ schooling. Schooling is divided up as follows: a first phase of four years, a second or ‘middle’ phase of five years, which takes place in a lower-secondary school of general or technical education, and a third phase lasting three years which takes place in a classical or technical lycée. This third or upper phase may, in a classical lycée be either in a scientific or literary option. Schooling given in a primary or secondary teacher-training institution, also at the level of the third phase, lasts one or two years and leads to a primary or secondary school-teacher’s certificate. Entrance to the Polytechnical Institute of Conakry is also controlled by means of an entrance examination, candidates for which must normally have passed the baccalauréat. The main stage of higher education lasts three or four years and leads to a professional

qualification (engineering diploma, teaching diploma) or to a licence degree in the humanities or in science. A second stage may be undertaken in the fields of the humanities or science beyond the

licence. It leads to a diploma of higher education (diplôme d‘études supérieures). A third stage, in the form of research, leads, after presentation of a thesis, to the award of the

doctorate, which is the highest degree.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, baccalauréat).

years 4 5 6 7

L DES D

L licence DES diplôme d’études supérieures D doctoral

GLOSSARY Baccalauréat. Qualification awarded after three years of secondary education (third phase)

given in a classical or technical lycée. The course in the classical lycée has either a literary or a scientific option. The third phase follows upon asecondphase of five years (‘middle’ phase) in

GUINEA 115

a secondary school of general or technical education and upon a first phase lasting four years. The baccalauréat gives access to higher education, although sometimes there is also a competitive entrance examination. Competitive entrance examination. See c'encours d'entrée. Concours d'entrée. Competitive examination open usually only to holders of the

baccalauréat and taken by those who wish to be admitted to certain institutions of higher education. Such an examination must be passed by those who hold a baccalauréat in the scientific option and who seek entrance to certain faculties of the Polytechnical Institute. Diploma of higher education. See diplôme d'études supérieures. Diplôme. Qualification awarded at the end of higher education. The diplôme d'ingénieur

(engineering diploma) of the Polytechnical Institute of Conakry, for example, is awarded after a four-year course in civil engineering, agriculture, or geology and mining, and the diplômede professeur de I'enseignemenr secondaire (secondary-school-teaching diploma) is awarded after a three-year course. Diplôme d'études supérieures. Diploma usually awarded after a licence degree in humanities

or science. The candidate submits a dissertation which represents a minimum of one year's research. Doctorat. The highest degree of higher education, awarded after the licence and often also

after the diplôme d'études supérieures. It represents the results of several years' research submitted in the form of a thesis. Licence. Degree of higher education, awarded in the humanities or science, usually after

three years of higher education. Professional qualification. Qualification awarded at the end of higher education in certain

faculties and certain higher institutions such as the diplôme d'ingénieur (engineering diploma) or diplôme de sortie (graduation diploma) of the national school of administration or of the higher teacher-training institution. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See baccalauréat.

Guyana

In Guyana higher education takes place in a university-the University of Guyana, Georgetown-and in specialized institutions of higher education. The University of Guyana comprises faculties of agriculture, arts, education, natural

sciences, social sciences, engineering and technology. The specialized institutions of higher education are: the government technical institutes, the school of agriculture, Lilian Dewar College of Education (formerly College of Education for secondary teachers), Cyril Potter College of Education, and the Management Development Training Institute. Resources come from government grants. The language of instruction is English. Teachers of primary education are trained in a two-year course given at the Lilian Dewar

116 GUYANA

College of Education while teachers of secondary education are trained in a three-year course at the Cyril Potter College of Education. Both courses lead to a certificate. A two-year part- time postgraduate course at the University leads to a diploma for teachers of secondary education. A n accelerated one-year course is organized as necessary to ensure an adequate supply of teachers, and there is a one-year evening course for teachers in service. Access to higher education is based on the general certificate of education, ordinary level,

obtained after seven years’ primary and five years’ secondary education. However, ‘general proficiency’ and ‘basic proficiency’ certificate examinations mounted by the Caribbean Examinations Council are now being phased in, and it is planned that the Caribbean Examination Council secondary education certificate will in time completely replace the GCE examination. The main stage in higher education leads to a bachelor’s degree obtained in four years in

architecture, three to four years in arts, natural sciences, social sciences and technology. The University of Guyana also offers a one-year course in law for students preparing the bachelor of law at the University of the West Indies (Barbados). Three-year courses lead to the award of a certificate in medical technology and to various diplomas: radiography and physiotherapy in three years, public administration and general technology in two years. For other diplomas, a first degree is a prerequisite only in education. The Government Technical Institute awards diplomas and gives full-time and part-time courses leading to a United Kingdom (national certificate or the higher national certificate (see entry for United Kingdom). The Farm Institute awards diplomas. The second stage leads to the acquisition of a master’s degree in arts, science, or social

sciences, after a minimum of twelve months after initial registration in the case of part-time students, but not more than six years after initial registration in either case.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, general certificate of education)

years 2 3 4 5 6

Education Arts Architecture Law Social and economic

Administration Exact and natural

Engineering, technology Paramedical studies

sciences

sciences

P B B

P B P

B bachelor’s degree P professional qualification

GLOSSARY Bachelor’s degree. First degree (undergraduate studies) obtained after four years’ study. Certificate. See professional qualification. Diploma. See professional qualification.

GUYANA 117

General certificate of educatiodcaribbean Examination Council secondary education certificate. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, obtained after seven years’ primary and five years’ secondary education. For admission to higher education, the candidate must obtain passes in five subjects according to the requirements of the course he wishes to take. Professional qualification. Higher education qualification awarded as a certificate or a

diploma after two or three years, generally part-time. These studies may be below the level of the first degree (undergraduate studies) or follow it.

Haiti

In Haiti higher education is given in the State University of Haiti at Port-au-Prince and in other institutions of higher education, often privately run, in Port-au-Prince or Cap-Haïtien, Gonaïves or Les Cayes. The teaching language is French. The State University of Haiti comprises the following faculties: law (including economics

and administrative sciences), medicine and pharmacy, dentistry, ethnology, science (including civil engineering and architecture), letters, agriculture and veterinary medicine. A n advanced teacher-training college and an institute of administration, management and higher international studies are attached to the University, and so are four schools of law. Though part of the University, they are entirely autonomous as regards staff appointments and financial resources. Other institutions include a school of laboratory technology, a higher technical institute, an institute of higher commercial studies, and several schools of nursing. O n the whole, higher education is the responsibility of the Ministry of Education. But the

faculties of medicine and pharmacy and dentistry are the responsibility of the Ministry of Health. Shorter courses lead to vocational and professional qualifications in the Institute of

Technology (diplomas in surveying and engineering) after one year’s study, in schools of nursing after three years’ study, in schools for laboratory technicians, etc. Teachers of primary education are trained at secondary level in teacher-training colleges to

which holders of the brevet élémentaire du premier cycle (see glossary, baccalauréat) gain access by competitive entrance examination. Teachers of secondary education are trained at the Advanced Teacher-Training College in the following sections: humanities, philosophy, social science, languages, mathematics, natural science. Access to higher education is based on the baccalauréat (secondary-school-leaving

certificate) obtained after six years of primary followed by seven years of secondary education (divided into four years’ lower and three years’ upper secondary education), or other equivalent qualifications from French or francophone secondary education. Candidates to the faculties of medicine and pharmacy, dentistry, science, as well as to the Advanced Teacher-Training College must pass a competitive entrance examination. The main phase of higher education usually lasts three to five years. (In law, the baccalauréat

118 HAITI

en droit is obtained at the end of the first two years’ study.) Studies in higher education lead, depending on the subject, to: a licence in law (four years), social and administrative science . (three years), or humanities (three years); a certificat d‘études supérieures in letters or science; a professional qualification, e.g. in civil engineering (four years), agriculture, pharmacy etc. (five years); a certificat d’études supérieures which is awarded after three years’ study by the Advanced Teacher-Training College and qualifies holders to teach in secondary education. In medicine, the qualification of docteur en médecine and the professional licence to practise are awarded after a total of seven years, after periods of internship and practical training.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 13 years, baccalauréat)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 I

Education CES Arts CES~L Human sciences DES (anthropology)

Architecture P Law BD L Social and admini- L

Science CES

Medical sciences

strative sciences

Engineering, technology D P

medicine pharmacy

Agriculture D

BD baccalauréat en droit CES certificat d’études supérieures D diplôme DES diplôme d’études supérieures L licence P professional qualipcation

GLOSSARY Baccalauréat. Secondary-school-leaving qualification, obtained at the end of six years of

primary followed by seven years of secondary education (divided into four years’ lower and three years’ upper secondary education). The first ‘lower’ phase of secondary education leads to the brevet élémentaire du premier cycle which gives access to secondary level teacher- training colleges. The second, ‘upper’ phase offers a variety of options: Latin/Greek, Latidscience, sciences and languages, and leads to the baccalauréat, which gives access to higher education. Baccalauréat en droit. Qualification awarded by some schools of law after two years’ study. Certificat d‘études supérieures. Qualification awarded after three years’ study in letters and

science. Also the diploma awarded by the Advanced Teacher-Training College at the end of three years’ study. This is also a professional qualification. Competitive entrance examination. Candidates to certain faculties of the State University

(medicine and pharmacy, dentistry, science) and to the Advanced Teacher-Training College have to pass a competitive entrance examination. Diplôme d’études supérieures. Qualification of higher education awarded in humanities by

HAITI 119

the ethnology faculty of the State University after one year’s study following upon the licence in anthropological science. Doctorat. Qualification of higher education awarded in medicine: the title of docteur en

médecine is awarded after a period of internship and practical training following upon theoretical studies. Licence. Qualification awarded in certain subjects after a period of three to four years’ study

(law, anthropology). Professional qualification. Qualification awarded by institutions of higher professional

education (university faculties or institutes) after a period of usually four to five years’ study (e.g. qualification as a dentist, civil engineer or architect).

Holy See

At the level of higher education the essential preoccupation of the Holy See, as the central organ of the Catholic Church, is the teaching of the Christian Revelation and those subjects related to it. These studies are in fact closely linked to the ministry of evangelization which the Church recognizes as its own mission. However, certain institutions also teach other subjects. Institutions dependent upon the Church belong to the Holy See of to other ecclesiastical

bodies such as the dioceses, religious congregations and ecclesiastical associations. Institutions may be classified into two categories. depending upon whether they are of the

university type or not. Institutions of university type include: ecclesiastical universities or faculties, whose programmes consist entirely of sacred subjects and the subjects related to them or to the evangelizing mission of the Church; and Catholic universities and faculties, which teach secular subjects as well as sacred ones, or even secular ones only. Institutions of non-university type give vocational training in the mode of the seminaries, in which candidates for the priesthood are prepared for the exercise of their functions. Institutions of higher education are controlled, at the central level, by the Sacred

Congregation for Catholic Education, which is one of the Ministries of the Roman Curia at the Vatican; at the national level institutions are controlled by the national conferences of bishops; and at the diocesan level by the diocesan bishop assisted by his council. Teaching is given in Italian and/or Latin, depending upon the institution. Access to higher education is given by a secondary-school-leaving certificate, which, as for

admission to a secular university, allows enrolment in the first phase of studies in an ecclesiastical faculty. Some faculties (of ecclesiastical history, liturgical studies, missiology, Oriental ecclesiastical studies, psychology and Christian archaeology) impose additional requirements: students must have followed the usual theological courses in an institution of non-university type, or hold a baccalaureate in theology. Access to medieval studies is only open to students who have completed their university studies. Access to studies in theology is only open to students who have followed courses in philosophy for two years. Holders of an

120 HOLY SEE

academic degree from an ecclesiastical faculty or a secular faculty of letters, law or history may also be admitted to a course in Christian archaeology. In ecclesiastical faculties or universities three stages may usually be distinguished. They are

of variable length. The first stage, which lasts between one and three years, usually leads to the baccalaureate (this certificate, however, does not exist in every subject), which generally marks the end of the first phase of study in ecclesiastical faculties. The second stage, after a further one or two years’ study, leads to the licence, which is

awarded at the end of the second phase of study in ecclesiastical faculties, and to the magistère, which requires at least one year’s further study following upon the licence. The third stage leads to the doctorate which is awarded one or two years after the licence on

submission of a thesis. In theological faculties which form an integral part of state universities the period of study is

generally shorter, so as to be in line with studies in other faculties. For the same reason the studies in theological faculties are not always divided into three successive phases; in most cases the diploma in philosophical and theological studies is awarded after a five-year course, and the doctorate two years later. - ~~

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: secondary-school-leaving certificate)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Philosophy, theology

Arab-Islamic studies Christian archaeology Biblical studies Canon law (Latin or Oriental)

Canon and civil law Ecclesiastical history Classical and Christian

Liturgical studies Medieval studies Missiology Sacred music Ancient Orient (studies) Oriental (ecclesiastical studies)

Pedagogical (studies) Philosophy Psychology (studies in) Religious Catholic

Sociology (studies in) Theology

(seminaries)

letters

(studies)

*

L B L D

L D

L D B L D

B L D

L D

B L D L D

B L M D L D

B L D

L D B L D

B L D M

B L D B L D

B baccalaureate D doctorate L licence M magistère * See Glossary, baccalaureate.

HOLY SEE 121

GLOSSARY Baccalaureate. Degree awarded at the end of the first phase of studies in ecclesiastical

faculties. It shows global knowledge of the basic subjects of the programme at the facultyand a first initiation to the use of scientific methods. In the faculties of philosophy and theology the baccalaureate may be awarded to students who have followed the two-year course in philosophy prior to their theological studies, or the courses in philosophy and theology (which last six years) in an institution of non-university type, on condition that such courses are linked to the faculty. Diploma. Without necessarily being considered as a universitydegree proper, the diploma is

in certain cases a qualification awarded after study in higher education. In other cases it is merely a certificate awarded to a student who has successfully followed a course of ecclesiastical studies of variable length. The diploma gives the right to teach in certain schools below university level, although it may also merely indicate that the holder possesses a qualification in a specified field of knowledge (for example, the expert diploma). Doctorate. The highest research degree of higher education, awarded after the licence.

Candidates are not bound to follow special third phase courses of study, hut must submit a substantial thesis which represents a real contribution to knowledge, the greater part of which mus! he pnb!ished. The Uxtcrâte givcs the fight iû teach in a faculty. Licence. Degree of higher education awarded at the end of the second phase of study in an

ecclesiastical faculty. The licence is sometimes considered as equivalent to the masier’sdegree (as defined in the French-speaking university world), sometimes below or above it, according to how it is characterized by the awarding faculty. The licence gives the right to teach in a seminary or in an equivalent school. Magistère (master’s degree). University degree, awarded after at least one year’s study

following the licence by certain institutes giving specialized courses within a faculty (usually the faculty of theology) or by the institutes of sacred music. It is also awarded at the end ofthe four-year courses of the institutes of Catholic religious studies.

Honduras

In Honduras higher education is given in two types of institution: a university and state faculties, and specialized state institutions. The Universidad Nacional Autonoma of Honduras at Tegucigalpa includes six faculties

(medical sciences, engineering, law, economics, chemistry andpharmacy, dentistry), a Centro Universitario Regional Atlintico which trains specialists in agricultural sciences and forestry, a Centro Universitario de Estudios Generales, a Centro Universitario Regional Norte, which offers courses in science, letters and the arts. The University is completely autonomous. It draws its funds from credits granted by the Government, fees, gifts and entrance fees for access to certain professions. The claustro pleno (University Assembly) and the University Council have as many student members as administrative and teaching staff.

122 HONDURAS

T h e other state institution of Honduras is the Escuela Superior del Profesorado ‘Francisco Moradn’, under the control of the central government, which finances it. It includes departments of natural sciences, social sciences, mathematics, languages and literature, domestic economy and physical education. Primary teachers are trained in teacher-training institutions in the last three years of

secondary education. The course leads to the qualification of maestro de educacibn primaria. The ‘Francisco Morazhn’ advanced teacher-training college trains secondary teachers in a four-year course and offers training courses for primary and secondary teachers during their career. The language of instruction is Spanish. Access to higher education is given by the bachiflerato en ciencias y ferras, normally awarded

after six years of primary schooling followed by five years of secondary schooling. Secondary education is divided into two phases: the first phase, ciclo c o m h de cultura general, which lasts three years; and the second phase which may be either two years of continued general education or three years of specialized education. The qualifications of maestro de educacibn primaria and perito mercanti1 y contador also give access to higher education (see Glossary). An examen de ingreso (entrance examination) is compulsory for entrance to courses in social work, nursing and agriculture. The length of the courses varies according to the subject. In theuniversityall students must

spend their first year in the Centro Universitario de Estudios Generales. This is a compulsory preparatory year given over to general studies in classical and scientific subjects and is aimed at allowing the students to fit in better to the various professional courses offered in the different faculties. The courses lead either to the licenciatura or to a professional qualification. In general the licenciatura may be awarded after a course lasting four years in nursing and five years in economics, business management, accountancy, journalism, mathematics and

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 1 1 years, bachillerato en ciencias y letras)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 I

Education P L Law Social sciences Chemical sciences Economics Business management Mathematics, natural

Medical sciences sciences

medicine dentistry pharmacy nursing

Technology, engineering Agriculture

D D D

L P P P

P

D doctorado L licenciatura P professional qualification

HONDURAS 123

natural sciences (six years in law and social science). The doctorado (doctorate) may also be obtained in dentistry (six years), chemical sciences and pharmacy (six years) and medicine (seven years). Other qualifications are awarded after courses whose duration ranges from one and a half

years (for laboratory technicians) to five years for engineers (chemical engineers, mechanical engineers, electrical engineers, agricultural engineers and engineers in forestry) (in civil engineering courses last six years). At the University, in order to be awarded a degree or other terminal qualification the student must sit for a general written examination and submit a thesis.

GLOSSARY Bachillerato. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, awarded after six years of primary

schooling and five years of secondary schooling, the latter being divided into two phases. The first phase (ciclo comun de cultura general), comprises three years of general studies. The second phase is more specialized, with two years in a school of general education or three years in a more specialized one leading to the bachillerato en ciencias y letras. This gives access to higher education. However, an e-xamen de ingreso (entrance examination) is also required for higher education in certain fields (social sciences, nursing, agriculture). If the second phase of secondary education is undertaken in a three-year course in a teacher-training institution or a commercial school, this leads respectively to the award of the qualifications of maestro de educacibn prirnaria or of perito mercantily contador, both of which confer the same rights as the bachillerato and give access to higher education. Diploma. See professional qualification. Doctorado. Professional qualification of doctor, awarded in chemical sciences, pharmacy,

and dentistry (six years), and in medicine (seven years) (see licenciatura, professional qualification). Examen de ingreso (entrance examination). See bachillerato. Licenciatura. Degree of higher education awarded after a course usually lasting five years

(six in law and social sciences). All students spend the first year in the Centro Universitario de Estudios Generales. This preparatory year is devoted to general classical or scientific studies, the aim of which is to fit students for the professional qualifications awarded in the various faculties. In order to obtain the degree the student must pass a general written examination and submit a thesis. Maestro de educacion primaria. Secondary-school-leaving qualification awarded after the

end of the second phase (three years) of secondary education undertaken in a teacher-training institution. It gives the same rights as the bachillerato. Perito mercantil y contador. Secondary-school-leaving qualification awarded after the end

of the second phase (three years) of secondary education undertaken in a commercial school. It gives the same rights as the bachillerato. Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education awarded at the end of a course

with a duration of from one and a half years (for laboratory technicians) to five to six years in engineering (according to subject) and to seven years in medicine. The title of doctor is awarded in chemical sciences and pharmacy and indentistry (six years) and in medicine (seven years). In the university faculties the first year is spent in the Centro Universitario de Estudios Generales (see licenciatura). The term titulo or diploma is often used to describe the qualification (es, titulo de agronomo, diploma de técnico). Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See bachillerato, maestro de educacibn primaria, perito

mercanti1 y contador.

124 HUNGARY

Hungary

Higher education in the Hungarian People’s Republic is provided in three kinds of institution: universities and associated establishments, higher professional and art schools, and teacher- training colleges. Institutions of higher education are financed by the State. The universities are divided into faculties made up of departments corresponding to the

various subjects taught. The traditional-style universities are made up of varying numbers of faculties (letters, science, law, social sciences, economics, and education). The technical universities offer instruction in various fields of technology or architecture. There also exist specialized universities: several for medicine, one in economics, one in veterinary medicine, several for agriculture and one in forestry. The aim of the universities is to train highly qualified specialists and research workers. The higher professional schools, which recruit their students on criteria that are

comparable to those observed by the universities, prepare directly for occupations in very diverse fields of technology, agriculture and economics, but unlike the universities they do not award the highest degrees. The same is true for the schools of fine arts. The training of pre-primary and primary school-teachers takes place at post-secondary

level in teacher-training colleges over two or three years. Secondary teachers are trained over four or five years in the advanced teacher-training schools or in the universities. Studies are organized in accordance with curricula programmes which are drawn up by the

Ministry of Education and which lay down guidelines on the content of instruction. The detailed programmes are worked out by each university council and by special committees. In all institutions, and for all students, there are compulsory courses in the social sciences and one or two foreign languages. Those who are already in employment may also follow courses in higher education, either

through evening or correspondence courses and by being given weekly study leave or being allowed to work shorter hours. Access to higher education is based on the érettségi (secondary-school-leaving certificate)

obtained at the end of a secondary course in a general, technical or professional school, or its equivalent. However, in order to enter higher education candidates must be between 18 and 35 and pass an entrance examination. Preference is given to students who have taken employment after passing the secondary-school-leaving certificate. The total number of students admitted each year is determined by the National Planning Office in accordance with the needs of the national economy. The shortest courses available in some professional schools provide training in, for

example, construction, commerce, cartography, mechanics, and electricity for the qualification of advanced technician. The main stage of higher education generally comprises a course, usually of four to six

years’ duration, ending in a state examination (dlZumvizsgu), which confers the first higher education qualification of oklevél (in the technical and agricultural universities the state examination also includes the submission of a thesis). As in most socialist countries, at the outset of higher studies, two years are devoted to basic studies before specialization is attempted. This reflects the pattern of the first two stages common to many other countries. Those holding the university qualification of oklevél may either practice a profession or

continue their studies to the doctorate (doktordtus), which is obtained after submission of a thesis. In certain fields (law, medicine, veterinary medicine, dentistry) the doktordtus is not properly speaking a degree, but is awarded upon the completion of studies. A further stage (therefore, the third), which includes both research asid specialization,

HUNGARY 125

allows some of the best students to proceed to the kandidutusqualification. This is to a certain extent a post-university qualification since it is awarded after several years in employment by a special committee of the Academy of Sciences. It is normally required in order to obtain a full- time post in higher education. Another stage is open to persons already teaching in higher education. It consists of the

submission of a considerable number of research studies which are assessed by a special national qualification body appointed by the Academy of Sciences. It leads to the award of the tudomanyok doktora (doctor of science).

~~ ~~

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, évettségi)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Education Arts Fine arts Law Economic sciences Exact and natural

Technology, engineering Medical sciences

sciences

medicine dentistry pharmacy veterinary medicine

Agriculture, forestry

O O K

D ç O O 0

O

O 0 0

Ds* Ds

Ds O

K K K

K

K

K K

K

TD TD TD

TD

K TD TD TD TD TD

Ds doktoraius K kandidatust O oklevél TD tudomanyoh- dokiorat

* See text. t Varied duration according to the students.

GLOSSARY Allamvizsga. State examination which leads to the first university qualification. In certain

faculties the state examination also requires the presentation of a thesis (see oklevél). Doktoritus. (a) First university qualification in certain faculties, awarded after five years’

study (law, dentistry and veterinary medicine) or six years’ (medicine). The organization of studies for the dokrorurus is similar to that of studies which lead to the qualification of oklevél in the other faculties. (b) Qualification of higher education awarded in certain faculties where the doktorutus is not the first qualification obtained. Those students who already hold the oklevél qualification may proceed to the doktorutus in arts, science, economics, pharmacy, engineering and agriculture, after the submission of a thesis. Entrance examination. Competitive examination for the final selection of students for

higher education (see érettségi). Érettségi. School-leaving-certificate awarded after eight years of primary and four years of

secondary education in an institution of general, technical or artistic education. This

126 HUNGARY

certificate may be considered a necessary qualification in order to enter higher education. The final selection of candidates is made upon the results in an entrance examination. Kandidhtus. Post-university qualification awarded by a committee of the Academy of

Sciences after submission of a thesis and an oral examination which includes the use of foreign languages and questions on the particular field of study, including philosophy. This qualification is essential for all full-time university teachers. Oklevél. First qualification of higher education, awarded after a period of study which may

vary from two years (for pre-primary teachers) to six years. A course which extends over several semesters has an intermediate examination (rigorosunt). For the final result, the marks awarded in practical exercises are taken into consideration. The whole course leads to the a//amvzzsga (state examination) which, for technology and agriculture, also includes a thesis. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See érettségi. Tudomhnyok doktora. The highest post-university degree, awarded by the Academy of

Sciences after the award of the kandiddtus, to teachers of higher education, on submission of a considerable number of research studies.

Iceland

No information having been received recently the present text is repeated from the 1976 English edition of this Guide.

Higher education is given principally in the University of Iceland and in a teacher-training instit ution. The University of Iceland is a state institution and wholly financed by the Government.

Although placed under the control of the Minister of Education, it nevertheless enjoys considerable autonomy. It comprises faculties of theology, of philososophy (arts and sciences), sociology, law and economics, medicine (including pharmacy), dentistry, and engineering, which has subdepartments of mathematics, physics, chemistry, engineering, biology, and geology. There is also a course in sociology. Each academic year is divided into two semesters. Shorter courses take place outside the university for midwifery (two years) and nursing

(three years). Primary teachers and teachers in the first two years of secondary education are trained in a

teacher-training institution which is at the same level as the university. Teachers for these levels are also recruited from those who have completed their secondary schooling, in which case they follow a one-year course only. Teachers of higher classes in secondary education must have obtained a university degree. The requirement for entry into higher education is the studentsprbf, a general secondary-

school-leaving examination with a choice of literary or scientific options. Success in this examination opens the door to higher education, although for engineering the candidate must

ICELAND 127

obtain a predetermined minimum mark in the scientific option of the leaving examination. There are two types of studentsprb/, both obtained on completion of six years of primary

plus six years of secondary education. They carry equal status and both admit to the University of Iceland. The menntaskdli studentspro/is obtained on completion of a two-year general secondary plus a four-year upper secondary phase in an ‘academic’ school. The verzlunarskbli Islands studenispub/ is awarded on completion of a six-year course at the commercial college. Periods of study are not subject to any fixed limits. In certain subjects, such as pharmacy

and some kinds of engineering, it is possible to complete only the first part of the course, lasting three years. A special examination, the fyrrihluta pr@ is then taken. Study in the faculty of engineering leads to the BSprbjïn most kinds of engineering, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and geology and takes three years. This enables candidates to teach science in secondary schools. In the faculty of philosophy, for languages, science, etc., a three-year course leads to theBA

prci/(baccalaureatus artiuni). This gives the right to teach in lower secondary education. After that it is possible to take another course for two to three years. which leads to the kandidatsprbJ For arts subjects the length of course leading to this degree is three to four years. The principal stage in most faculties is reached with the kandidatsprbf or randidatus

examination after four and a half to seven years of study, according to the subject. In literary subjects a further year after the candidutus leads in the philosophy faculty to the nzeisteraprcif or magister artiitrn (degree of master of arts). A further stage of study may be undertaken, which consists of research and the preparation

of a thesis, leading to the doktorsprof(doctora1 examination). The degree of doktor may also be awarded as an honorary title.

__ ~~

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, studentsprdf)

years 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

B B K M D

D dohtorJprb/ B Baccalaureatus artium (BA prbfi K kandidatsprci/ M metsteraprof

GLOSSARY Baccalaureatus artium. See BA prbJ BA prof. Examination which may be passed in the faculty of philosophy in a variety of

subjects (languages, sociology, history, etc.) after three years’ study. Success in this examination gives the right to teach in the first phase of secondary education. BS prof. Examination which may be passed in the faculty of engineering after three years’

study. Candidatus. See kandidatsprb/. Doctorate. See doktorsprb/. Doktorsprof. Examination consisting of the presentation of a thesis which must represent

personal research, success in which gives the doktor degree. Fyrrihluta prof. Examination taken at the end of the first part of a course of study in, for

example, subjects in pharmacy and engineering. Success enables such studies to be continued, if so desired, in a foreign university.

128 ICELAND

Kandidatsprbf. Examination leading to the award of the degree of kandidat in most faculties after a period of study which varies between four and a half years (in economics) and seven years (in medicine). The degrees are designated as follows: cand. theol. (kandidat in theology), rand. med et chir. (kandidat in medicine and surgery), cand odont. (kandidat in dental surgery), cand. jur. (kandidat in law), cand econ. (kandidat in economics), cand. mag. (kandidat in literary studies). The examinations take place at the end of every semester and in September. In most subjects they are both written and oral, and sometimes there are also practical tests. In order to sit for the examinations students must have obtained sufficient marks in a trial examination and have followed preparatory classes. In the event offailure the student may re-sit within one year. No time limit is fixed for the duration of courses. Magister artium (Mag. art.). See MeisteraprbJ Meisteraprof. Examination which may be taken in the faculty of philosophy, after about

seven years of literary studies, success in which leads to the degree of mag. art. Studentsprbf. Secondary-school-leaving examination. After six years of primary education,

secondary schooling comprises a first phase of three years and a second phase of four years. From the second year of the second phase onwards, pupils follow a curriculum with either a literary or a scientific bias. There are two types of studentsprhf, both obtained on completion of six years of primary and six years of secondary education. They carry equal status and both admit to the University of Iceland. The menntaskbli studentsprbfis obtained on completion of a two-year general secondary plus a four-year upper secondary phase in an ‘academic’ school. The verzlunarskoli Islands studentsprbf is awarded on completion of a six-year course at the commercial college.

India

Higher education in India is provided by eighty-eight universities and technical universities, twenty agricultural universities, six establishments for technical, and twelve for professional, training. Over the last six years ten new universities have been founded: Avadh University, Faizabad; Bhavnagar University, Gujarat; Bundel Khand University, Jhansi; Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur; Kakatiya University, Waranjad; Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtah; Nagarjuna University, Guntur; Narendr Dev University of Agriculture and Technology; Perarignar Anna University of Technology, Madras; Rohilkhand University, Bareilly. All Indian universities are established by Acts of state legislatures or by the central

government. The following universities have been established by an Act of Parliament while the rest have been established by Acts of the state legislatures: Aligarh Muslim; Banaras Hindu; Visva-Bharati; Jawaharlal Nehru; North-Eastern Hill and the University of Delhi. There are three kinds of institutions having degree-granting status: (a) Universities

established by Acts of Parliament or state legislatures as mentioned above; (b) institutions of national importance having been declared such by an Act of Parliament (nine in number);

INDIA 129

institutions ‘deemed to be universities’ (ten in number). The Indian Institutes of Technology (Delhi, Kanpur, Bombay, Madras and Kharajpur), the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, etc., are all institutions declared to be of national importance under an Act of Parliament. Under s. 3 of the Act governing the University Grants Commission, powers have been given

to the central government to notify, on the advice of the University Grants Commission, institutions as ‘deemed to be universities’. These are institutions previously established and continuing to provide instruction at a fairly specialized level in particular disciplines. For example, the Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages, the latest addition to the category of institutions ‘deemed to be universities’, is an institution specializing in the methodology to be adopted for teaching the English language. Indian universities were originally conceived as purely examining bodies, all the teaching

being done in colleges affiliated to them. Owing to the developments that have taken place in their form and activities, they now fall into three categories:

(a)

(b) (c)

the affiliating type, where some teaching work, especially at postgraduate level, is undertaken by the university itself; the unitary type, where all teaching and research is provided by the university itself; the federal type, normally situated in a major city, with a number of university or constituent colleges closely associated with the work of the university.

Under the Constitution of India, education, including higher education, falls within the legislative competence of the member states of the Union. The universities are mainly financed by grants from the state and central governments. The central government, however, exercises direct authority in certain fields over the institutions known as central universities, such as Banaras Hindu University, and institutions for scientific, technical, or professional education financed by the central government and responsible to it. The University Grants Commission, set up by Act of Parliament as an autonomous body, has central responsibilityat the national level for promoting and co-ordinating university education, for maintaining academic standards and for allocating and disbursing government grants to the universities. The autonomy of the universities means that they are solely responsible for decisions in

matters of admissions, courses of study, appointments and administration, and the state governments intervene only when their advice is requested. The Association of Indian Universities, previously known as the Inter-University Board of India, acts as a liaison body between the universities, the central government and other official and non-official organizations. Various bodies, such as the Indian Medical Council and the Bar Council, are concerned with the establishment and maintenance of common standards in institutions of higher education and research, and in scientific and technical institutions. General and technical higher education in the universities are provided in separate faculties.

Many general disciplines (languages, history, geography, political sciences, economics and the various natural sciences) are taught in general colleges. Medicine, pharmacy, technology, commerce and law are usually taught in separate institutions. Some universities/colleges offer studies in the form of morning or evening courses for

students in employment. Correspondence courses are also offered by a number of universities. Many polytechnic schools offer short courses of higher studies lasting between one and

three years. To study in these institutions, it is not necessary to have the qualification required for university entrance (see below). These studies do not lead to the award of university degrees, but of technical diplomas in various fields. The training of teachers for primary education is undertaken in special training colleges

under the same conditions as for the professions mentioned above. Secondary teachers are trained within the universities. There are also courses for the training of teachers of physical education.

130 INDIA

The situation with regard to languages used for teaching varies from institution to institution. By and large, higher education is provided in Hindi (the national language), in English, and, according to the location of the institution, in one or other of the languages of wide regional diffusion. Some sixty universities have sanctioned the use of an Indian language for undergraduate level teaching. National languages are generally used at undergraduate, English at postgraduate, level. Access to the longer courses of study in higher education is by the higher secondary-school

certificate obtained after 11 or 12 years of primary and secondary education. The practice by which some universities organize their own admission examinations (matriculation certificate) is now being abandoned. However, the universities define the requirements for admission and the qualifications which students must already possess before commencing study in a particular field. The normal pattern of ten years of secondary education with one year in a pre-university course plus three years at university (except in Bombay and the state universities of Uttar Pradesh where it was 10 + 2 t 2) evolved in the sixties is now changing to 10 t 2 + 3. Over the next few years all states are likely to switch to the 10 t 2 + 3 pattern. In many professionally oriented disciplines, the first year of study is a preparatory year.

Thus in medicine, engineering, agriculture, etc. it is first necessary to study basic scientific subjects and pass a pre-professional (or intermediate) examination. In universities in which the threeyear ‘integrated’ courses have been introduced, pupils who have completed the school-leaving certificate course have to spend one further year in a pre-university course either in a higher secondary school or in a college before they are permitted to enter upon the degree course. The first stage of higher education leads, after a period of three years’ study, to the

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, secondary-school-leaving certificate)

y e a r s 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0

Education Arts Fine arts Law Economic and commercial

Exact and natural

Technology, engineering Medical sciences

sciences

sciences

medicine dentistry pharmacy veterinary medicine

Agriculture

B M PhD B B(hons) M PhD D

Di B M PhD LLD

Di B B(hons) M PhD

B B(hons) M PhD D

Di B M

MBBS M PhD D

B M B M PhD

Di B M PhD

B bachelor’s degree B(hons) bachelor’s degree (honours) D doctor’s degree Di diploma LLD doctor in law M master’s degree MBBS bachelor’s degree of medicine and surgery PhD doctorate in philosophy

INDIA 131

bachelor’s degrée or to a professional qualification. Candidates usually have to take an examination at the end of the second year. The bachelor’s degree with honours is sometimes awarded in the humanities, sciences, commerce, etc. after three years’ study only; at Lucknow University a further year’s study is nevertheless required. In law, studies for the bachelor’s degree are open only to those who possess a university degree-a bachelor’sdegree in letters and humanities, or even a master’s degree. Prospective secondary school-teachers may similarly obtain the bachelor’s degree in education subsequent to a first or second degree. In engineering, the first degree is obtained after five or six years’ study and practical work.

In medicine, the bachelor’s degree in medicine and surgery (MBBS) requires five years’ study and one year’s internship. The second stage is reached after further study and often some individual research. It

requires two or three years’ study after the award of the bachelor’s degree and leads to the master’s degree in the humanities, engineering, commerce, social sciences, agriculture or pharmacy. The third stage requires at least two years’ specialization and research work after the

master’s degree. This enables the best students topresent a thesis for the award ofthe degree of doctor of philosophy (PhD). In sciences and arts there are two doctorates, the one more advanced than the other. Thus three or more years of research over and above the PhD can lead to the award of the degrees docror of science (DSc) or doctor of literature (DLit) respectively. In medicine, following the master’s degree in surgery it is possible to specialize in a particular field or acquire a university doctorate in medical science (PhD in medicine). The title of doctor of medicine requires considerable experience and original work.

GLOSSARY Bachelor’s degree. First degree of higher education, awarded after three to six years’ higher

studies following ten years in secondary education. Certain establishments of higher education offer a one-year pre-university course destined for those candidates who spent ten years in primary and secondary education according to the structure in force prior to the recent reform, or who have not completed the last year of secondary education required by the new structure. In the coming years, all states are likely to adopt the 10 + 2 + 3 structure. Since the number of places is limited, each faculty determines its own entrance requirements, usually requiring high marks in the school-leaving certificate. Students of professional studies leading to a bachelor’s degree are frequently required to have already completed one or two years of higher education, or even, in the case of law or teacher education, to hold a bachelor’s degree in relevant subjects. Certain professionally oriented faculties themselves organize preparatory courses. Examinations are held at the end of each year. They comprise written examinations with, in scientific and technical subjects, additional practical tests. One or two written examinations may sometimes be replaced by a dissertation or a thesis. Some faculties award a bachelor’s degree (honours) to candidates taking additional papers in a subject; Lucknow University, however, requires a further year’s study for this degree. The title bachelor includes references to the field of study; thus bachelor of arts (BA), bachelor of commerce (BCom), bachelor of education (BEd), bachelor of law (BL), bachelor of medicine and bachelor of surgery (MBBS) etc. Diploma. Qualification awarded after one to three years’ study, at the end of short courses,

especially in polytechnic and agricultural schools. Doctor’s degree. University qualification, normally awarded after at least two years’

research subsequent to the award of the master’s degree. It is designated by the initials PhD (doctor of philosophy). A higher doctor’s degree may be awarded in science (DSc) or the humanities (DLit) after three or more years’ study following upon the PhD. In medicine, besides the research doctorate in medical science (PhD in medicine) the qualification docror of

132 INDIA

medicine may be obtained by several years of professional specialization in combination with original work leading to a thesis. Higher-secoiidary-school certificate. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, awarded at the

end of 11 or 12 years of primary and secondary education. It gives access to establishments which have adopted the new structure of studies for the first degree (see bachelor’s degree, school-leaving certificate). The examinations for this certificate are held by regional bodies. The examinations may be taken one or two years after the secondary-school certificate or the secondary-school-leaving certificate. Indian school certificate examination. A form of general certificate of education, ordinary

level (see United Kingdom, Glossary) organized under the supervision of the Cambridge Overseas Syndicate (United Kingdom). This examination is taken by a small number of students only. Master’s degree. University qualification awarded after a period of study lasting normally

two, but sometimes three years, subsequent to the award of the bachelor’s degree. Studies are undertaken under conditions similar to those leading to the bachelor’s degree. Matriculation certificate. Secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded after ten years of

primary and secondary education, and giving access to institutions which have retained the traditional structure of studies leading to the first degree (see bachelor’s degree, school-leaving certificate). The examinations for this certificate are organized by boards of education. It is the prerequisite qualification for the one-year pre-university course organized by most universities. Pre-university course. In some states, these courses, of one or two years’ duration, are now

given in secondary schools rather than in colleges as before. They lead to a pre-university examination parallel to the higher-secondary-school certificate. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. School-leaving certificate awarded after ten years of

primary and secondary education and giving access to institutions which have retained the traditional structure of studies leading to the first degree (see bachelor’sdegree, school-leaving certificate). The examinations for this certificate are held by the regional boards. (See also higher-secondary-school certificate, matriculation certificate, pre-university course).

Indonesia

In Indonesia higher education is given in both state and private institutions: universities, institutes, academies, and institutes for the training of secondary school teachers and lecturers in the lower teacher-training institutions (SPG, sekolah pendidikan guru). The higher teacher- training institutes are known as IKIPs (institut keguruan dan ilmu pendidikan). Universities have a variable number of faculties for all the main subjects. The institutes of

technology of Bandung and Surabaya, the Agricultural Institute of Bogor, and IKIPs are state institutions of university rank. The importance of private universities and other private higher education institutions

INDONESIA 133

varies, though there is a large number. Private institutions are classed as ‘approved’, if they may organize their own examinations, ‘recognized’ if the Department of Education and Culture (Ministry) is represented on the examining boards, or ‘registered‘ if the Department of Education and Culture (Ministry) organizes the examination. In the first two cases the examinations are recognized as having the same status as those in state institutions. There are also private IKIPs but these are fewer than state institutes. The Department of Education and Culture, Directorate General of Higher Education,

exercises authority over both state and private institutions. There are eleven consortia assigned by the Director-General of Higher Education to set up

a minimum curriculum in each field of studies. There is a consortium for each of the following areas: education; mathematics and natural sciences; social studies; psychology; medical science; technology; agriculture; economics; law; letters and philosophy; ‘antar bidang’, i.e. ‘between studies’, e.g. sports and health, library-science, etc. Each higher educational institution elaborates the minimum curriculum in accordance with the needs of the local community it serves. The financing of state institutions is a charge upon public funds. Private universities may

receive state subsidies, under certain conditions, but generally they provide their own funds. either from fees or from the bodies which support them, e.g. a religious community. Primary teachers are trained in teacher-training institutions (SPG) at the secondary level.

Secondary school teachers are trained at tertiary level in the IKIP or in the universities (faculties of teaching and education FIP/FKg). An IKIP comprises: a faculty of education, which trains teachers for primary teacher-training institutions, guidance and counselling, and rural social workers; a faculty of social sciences (history, geography, civics and moral education); a faculty of arts and humanities; a faculty of basic sciences; a faculty of technology (which trains teachers for secondary technical schools); and a faculty for sports and health education. In practice, not all students in an IKIP later enter teaching: some go into the economic or industrial sectors.

It should also be noted that a ministerial decision in 1979 created two additional programmes for IKIPs and FIP/FKgs designed to eliminate teacher shortages: (a) The Diploma programmes (Diploma I, II and III) for those who select education as their profession after secondary school; (b) The AKTA programmes (in IKIPs) for persons who have studied outside the education and teaching faculties, but who wish to become teachers. Candidates are required to add twenty credit hours of education and teaching to their prior qualifications and are eligible for placement within the school/university system in accordance with their level of attainment at the point of entryinan.4KTA programme. AKTA programmes are thus graded I, II, III, IV. AKTA V comprises a programme for the training of teachers in institutions of higher education. The language of instruction is the national language (Bahasa Indonesia). Theuse of English

is also officially encouraged and in some institutions and faculties, demonstrated reading competency is a prerequisite for graduation. Access to higher education is attained by possessing the ijazah sekoluh inenengah aras, the

secondary-school-leaving certificate, which is taken at the end of 12 years of primary and secondary education. This certificate is awarded on the results of regional examinations, at present; however, introduction of state leaving examinations is envisaged for the future. Candidates are selected for higher educational institutions on the basis of: (a) grade record in the last three years of secondary school; (b) principal’s recommendation; (c) results in their school-leaving examination; and (d) results in an entrance examination. Three high status higher educational institutions, the Institute of Agriculture at Bogor, the Institute of Technology at Bandung, and Gajah Mada University, have conducted pilot projects for the past two years whereby candidates are accepted without an entrance examination. Special classes were set up for students so admitted. At this time, the success of these students as

134 INDONESIA

compared with their contemporaries who were admitted on the basis of an entrance examination suggests that the use of prior school records, principal’s recommendations and leaving examinations are adequate for predicting success, eliminating the need for entrance examinations. However, all other universities and IKIPs, as well as the three institutions mentioned above, except for their pilot classes, require entrance examinations. The first year of higher education usually comprises courses in a number of compulsory

subjects taken by all students in all faculties. In addition each faculty has a number of compulsory subjects which must be taken by students in that faculty. Beginning with the academic year 1979,430, entrants must choose electives which, in combination with the compulsory subjects, comprise a major and a minor course. Each course is assigned a certain number of credit hours in accordance with the number of contact hours of practice, theory, and application involved to a maximum set by the faculty, no more than 10 credit hours above the national minimum. For all faculties except medical science, veterinary science, dentistry, and pharmacy, the

first stage lasts four years and leads to a sarjana degree. In IKIP/FIP/FKgs, candidates who intend to become teachers of two subjects in secondary schools must carry their studies up to

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, ijazah sekolah menengah aias and entrance examination)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Medical sciences SM/B P P Der Engineering SM/B P Dor Teacher-training Dl/Al D2/A2 D3/A3 A4 AS

Various studies SM S PS/Sp 1 Dor/Sp2 (new system)

(new system)

(The table gives the minimum duration of studies.)

Al AKTAI A2 AKTA II A3 AKTA III A4 AKTAIV AS AKTA V B bakalaureus or bakalaureat D1 diploma I D2 diploma II D 3 diploma III Der dokter Dor doktor P professional qualification PS pasca sarjana S sarjana SM sarjana muda Sp 1 spesialis I Sp2 spesialis II

INDONESIA 135

this level. The former three-year degree, sarjana tnuda, has been retained by universities, but is regulated as an integral part of sarjana. The second stage lasts for two years after the award of the first degree. This stage leads to the

acquisition of the degree of pasca sarjana or to a professional qualification. The third stage leads to the degree ofdoktor, two years beyond thepascasarjana. The degree

of doktor is awarded after submission of a thesis and the presentation of various ‘theorems’-namely, original and critical exposition of the various intellectual concepts involved. It should be noted that provision is made for awards of professional spesialis certificates I

and II-equivalent, respectively, with pasca sarjana and doktor. These certificates are awarded in accordance with specialist programmes designed and modified within the various faculties and entail six years of work (spesialis I) or eight years’ work (specialis II). Both usually demand original research or special contributions to a field of study.

G L O S S A R Y AKTA I, II, III, IV. Teaching licence, certificate integral with the diploma programmes for

those entering the profession from education faculties, but comprising special training in education and teaching for those who enter the profession of teaching from other faculties. The level of the licence IS commensurate with previous academic attainments at the point of entry for the professional training. Levels I, II. and III awards equivalent qualifications and access to the school as diplomas I, II, and III. AKTA IV qualifies the candidate to teach two subjects at the higher-secondary level. AKTA V. Teaching licence-certificate which qualifies university and institute lecturers to

teach in appropriate faculties. Bakalaureus or Bakalaureat. Terminal degree obtained at the end of three years’ study at

academies or IKIPs prior to the study leading to the sarjana degree (old system). Diploma I. Undergraduate diploma qualifying a secondary-school graduate after one

additional year of study (20-30 credit hours academic, 20 credit hours education and teaching) to teach one subject at lower-secondary school level. Diploma II. Undergraduate diploma qualifying a secondary-school graduate after two

additional years of study (60-70 credit hours academic, 20 credit hours of education and teaching) to teach two subjects at lower-secondary school level or one subject at higher- secondary school level. Diploma III. Undergraduate diploma qualifying a secondary-school graduate after three

additional years of study (90-100 credit hours academic, 20 credit hours of education and teaching) to teach one subject at the higher-secondary school level. For Diplomas I, II and III courses are available in faculties of education as well as others but descriptions are not yet available. Dokter. Third and full professional degree of higher education awarded in faculties of

medical and veterinary medicine. Doktor. Degree of higher education, awarded after submission of a thesis following upon

the completion of a minimum of eight and a maximum of eleven years of study (minimum 228/maximum 233 credits hours). Two years beyond pasca sarjana. Entrance examination. Selection examination taken by candidates for entrance to most

university faculties; candidates must, in any case, have completed a full secondary course (see ijazah sekolah menengah atas). Ijazah sekolah menengah atas. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, awarded after six years

of secondary education following upon six years of primary education. Secondary education is divided into two phases of three years each. In the second phase, in schools of general education, pupils may choose between three options: (a) languages and literature; (b) mathematics, i.e. the exact sciences and economics; and (c) the social sciences. Pupils choosing

136 INDONESIA

options a and c, as well as those coming from secondary technical institutions (technology, agriculture, home economics, business and commerce, etc.) may enter only those faculties corresponding to their particular fields. Option b gives access to almost all faculties. Pasca sarjana. Degree of higher education, awarded after submission of thesis or major

paper following upon the completion of a minimum of six and a maximum of eight years of study (minimum 180/maximum 194 credit hours). Two years beyond sarjuna degree. Professional qualification. Qualification awarded after professional studies in the old system

but still in use in some faculties: ingenieur after five years in the faculty of engineering; apoteker after six years in the faculty of pharmacy; doktorandus medis after five years in medical sciences; doktergigiafter six years in dentistry, etc. All faculties will eventuallyfollow the new 4-6-8 scheme. It is at present a period of transition. Sarjana. Degree of higher education, awarded upon completion of undergraduate studies

of a minimum of four years and a maximum of six years (minimurn 144/maximum 160 credit hours). Sarjana muda. First degree of higher education awarded at the end of a three-year course

(now an integral part of savjana programmes in some universities under the new system 1978-79). In theory, attendance at the course is compulsory and the student must sit for regular examinations which he may re-sit only a limited number of times. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See ijazah sekolah menengah atas. Spesialis I. Certificate of higher education having equivalent status with pasca sarjana,

awarded upon completion of significant contributions to a field of study and upon completion of a minimum of six and a maximum of eight years of study (minimum 180/maximum 194 credit hours). Specialis II. Certificate of higher education having equivalent status with doktor, awarded

upon completion of significant research of original contribution to a field of study and upon the completion of a minimum of eight and a maximum of eleven years of study (minimum 228/maximum 233 credit hours). Faculties other than education will offer Spesialis I and II courses of equivalent status, but descriptions are not yet available.

Iran

In Iran higher education is given in 24 universities, 50 technical education institutions, some 110 professional education institutions, affiliated to various governmental organizations, 24 institutes of educational guidance and several teacher-training colleges and centres (information received in 1978). The universities are mainly state institutions. The University of Tehran, which offers the

widest range of courses, receives some 14 per cent of all students in higher education. AS well - as a number of institutes, it includes 17 faculties (education, theology, fine arts, humanities, law, economics, public administration and commercial management, science, engineering, medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, veterinary medicine, public health, agriculture, natural

IRAN 137

resources, social science). Several other universities also possess faculties of agriculture and engineering. One of them is a completely technological university (Aryamehr University of Technology) comprising both scientific and technical departments. The Tehran Polytechnic has departments of engineering (mechanical and hydraulic, electrical and electronic, civil, textile, chemistry and petroleum, mining and metallurgy). The higher institutions are more specialized in one or more branches of professional

training (agriculture, commerce, fine arts, social affairs, nursing, telecommunications. aeronautics, cartography, various fields of technology, medicine and pharmacy, etc.). Some are postgraduate institutions like the Industrial Management Institute in Tehran. Primary school-teachers are trained mainly at various levels of secondary education, in

various types of institution (teacher-training institutions of general education, of rural education. of tribal education). Training of secondary teachers takes place at an advanced teacher-training college at Tehran (Danechsaraye-Ali). University graduates take a one-year course only. The Technical Teacher-training Institution (Narmak) trains teachers for technical schools (honarestans). Evening courses are given in most institutions of higher education. With the exception of

private institutions, all institutions of higher education are financed by the State. The Ministry of Science and Higher Education has the task of co-ordinating their activities. Access to higher education is given by the secondary-school-leaving certificate, awarded

after four years of general or technical secondary education following upon a three-year guidance phase and five years of primary education. Entrance to higher education is also conditional upon passing a competitive entrance examination. Moreover, certain faculties (science, agriculture, medical sciences) require a secondary-school-leaving certificate with a scientific or mathematical bias. Generally the first one or two years of higher education are devoted largely to the teaching

of the basic disciplines, since a large number of the basic subjects are taken by all students at this stage. In certain schools and higher specialized technical institutions, a diploma or a professional qualification may be obtained after two years’ study Cfovgh-e diplome). The first main stage of longer studies normally demands four years’ study. It culminates in

the award of the bachelor’s degree or a professional qualification. A second stage leads, after two years’ postgraduate study, to the master’s degree or fovgh-e

lesans. Candidates undergo an examination and have to submit a short dissertation. A third stage of study leading to the submission of a doctorate thesis may be undertaken in

certain institutions. The doctorate is awarded after a period of two years following upon the master’s degree. In pharmacy, dentistry, veterinary medicine and medicine, it is a professional qualification awarded after five to seven years’ studies. In architecture a town planner’s diploma may be obtained under the same conditions.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, secondary-school-leaving certificate)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

FD B FL D

B bachelor‘s degree D doctorate FD fovgh-e diplome FL fovgh-e lesans (master’s degree)

138 IRAN

GLOSSARY Bachelor’s degree. Qualification usually awarded after four years’ study. The first one or

two years are devoted to a course of a general nature on basic subjects, preceding study in a specialized field. In engineering the course lasts five years. The bachelor’s degreeis sometimes called the lesans or licence. Doctorate. Highest degree of higher education, awarded in certain universities after the

bachelor’s degree or the fovgh-e licence. It requires the submission of a thesis. In medicine, the qualification of doctor is awarded after six or seven years; in dentistry and veterinary medicine, six years. In pharmacy, five years. Fovgh-e diplome. Qualification awarded after two years of higher education. Fovgh-e lesans or licence. University degree awarded in certain fields of study two years after

Lesans. See bachelor’s degree. Master’s degree. See fovgh-e lesans. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. Qualification awarded after four years of general or

technical secondary education following upon a three-year guidance phase and five years of primary education. For entrance to higher education holders of the certificate must also pass an entrance examination.

the bachelor’s degree.

Iraq

Higher education in Iraq is provided in six state universities and twenty-one technical institutes. The universities exist as legal entities in their own right, financed for the most part by the State but capable of owning resources and receiving gifts. They are controlled by the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research. A Higher Council for Universities plans and co-ordinates their activities. The University of Baghdad is the most important, and comprises colleges in the following

subjects: administration, law and political sciences, humanities (including sociology, psychology, languages, Islamic studies, archaeology and journalism), agriculture, science, medicine, pharmacy, dentistry, veterinary medicine, nursing, physical education, engineering, and fine arts. It also includes centres offering a more specialized instruction (Palestinian studies, psychology and educational research, research in administrationand economics, and medical research). The University of Basrah comprises colleges of humanities, education, engineering,

administration and economics, science, agriculture, and medicine. It also includes a centre for studies of the Arabian Gulf area, a computer centre, a cultural centre, a medical centre and a centre for maritime science. The University of Mosul comprises colleges of medicine, veterinary medicine, engineering,

science, agriculture and forestry, humanities, administration and economics, and education; a

IRAQ 139

department of continuing education; a medical centre; a centre for research in management and economics; and a centre for applied agricultural research. The Sulaymaniyah and Al-Mustansiriyah Universities offer instruction in engineering,

administration, education and humanities, and medicine (the former); and humanities, science, medicine, education, administration and economics, law and Islamic studies (the latter). The Technical University of Baghdad, founded in 1975, offers instruction in mechanical,

electrical and chemical engineering, in construction, and in metallurgy. Sixteen of the twenty-one technical institutes belong to the Foundation of Technical

Institutes, an independent organization established in 1972 and connected to the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, which fixes its annual budget. The function of this body is to provide the country with the trainedpersonnel it needs in fields like administration, agriculture, medicine, and technology. The institutes are located at Baghdad, Basrah, Sulaymaniyah, Arbil, Misan, Mosul, Kirkouk, Hillah, Ramadi, and Najaf. The teaching languages are Arabic and English. Primary school-teachers are trained in teacher-training colleges at secondary school level,

the course however lasting one year longer than normal secondary education. Secondary school-teachers are trained in the universities.

Access to higher education is based on the adadiyah (secondary-school-leaving certificate). This is awarded after six years’ primary followed by six years’ secondary (general, technical or professional) schooling. Entrance to the various streams of higher education depends overall on the level and nature of a candidate’s previous education. The duration of studies varies between disciplines. Shorter studies take place in the

technical institutes and lead after two years and practical training to a diploma (of technician).

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, adadiyah (secondary-school-leaving certificate)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education Di B Arts Di B M Law B Social sciences, B

Administration Di B Commercial sciences B Exact and natural B M

economics

sciences Engineering, technology Di B M Medical sciences medicine Di B M dentistry B M pharmacy B veterinary medicine B

Agriculture Di B M

B bachelor’s degree Di diploma M master’s degree

140 IRAQ

The main stage of higher education leads to the bachelor’s degree in humanities and agriculture (four years), in science (four to six years, depending on the university) and in engineering (five years). This degree reflects extensive knowledge and experience of the subject matter and leads in certain fields with a defined professional goal (for example, medicine) to an advanced professional qualification. The bachelor’s degree in medicine, awarded after six years’ study, is sometimes designated doctor in medicine. The second stage, in which the student attains even deeper knowledge of his subject and

begins his own research, leads, after two years’ study subsequent to the award of the bachelor’s degree, to the master’s degree in the humanities or science.

GLOSSARY Adadiyah. Diploma awarded after six years’ primary followed by six years’ secondary

schooling. Secondary education is divided into two cycles: a first intermediate cycle of four years, and a second cycle of two years. The first cycle consists of general studies, while the second includes the options ‘science’ or ‘humanities’. Official examinations take place at the end of each cycle, both of which entail the award of certificates of completion of studies. The second, the school-leaving certificate, gives access to higher education. Bachelor’s degree. Degree of higher education awarded by the universities and generally

referred to by an abbreviation which reflects the speciality in which it has been awarded, thus: bachelor’s degree, BA, in the humanities; bachelor of science, BSc, in science; bachelor of veterinary medicine, BVM, in veterinary medicine; and bachelor of medicine and surgery, M B and ChB respectively. The bachelor’s degree in medicine, awarded after six years’ study, is sometimes also designated doctor of medicine. The duration of studies required for this degree varies between four years in humanities and agriculture, five in engineering, and four to six years in science, depending on the university. Diploma. Qualification of higher education awarded by technical institutes after two years’

study. Doctor in medicine. See bachelor’s degree. Master’s degree. University degree awarded after two years’ study consequent to the award

of the bachelor’s degree. It is generally referred to by an abbreviation reflecting the speciality in which it has been awarded, thus: master of arts, M A (humanities); master of science, MSc (science). Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See adadiyah.

In Ireland higher education takes place at two universities and institutions of specialized higher education. The National University of Ireland is a federal university, with a central office in Dublin and

three constituent colleges-University College, Dublin; University College, Cork; University

IRELAND 141

College, Galway-and six recognized colleges: St. Patrick’s College, Maynooth (which is also a Catholic seminary), the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (medicine), St. Patrick‘s College of Education and our Lady of Mercy College of Education (both in Dublin), Mary Immaculate College of Education (Limerick) and St. Angela’s College of Education (Sligo). The last four are teacher-training colleges. Dublin University consists of one college. Trinity College. Each college is divided into faculties and departments. Universities are financed for the major part hy the State in the form of annual grants-in-aid and non-recurrent grants for capital purposes, in a proportion varying from 68 to 82 per cent, as well as by students’ fees, endowments and private donations. Each college has its own governing body and exercises full control of its finances. Among other institutions of higher education leading to professional qualifications are the

Royal College of Physicians; the Dublin College of Technology; institutes of higher technical education; colleges of commerce; teacher-training colleges; the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies (Celtic, and theoretical and cosmic physics); agricultural and horticultural colleges; a college of art and a college of music. There is also the newly created National Institute of Higher Education at Limerick and a similar National Institute of Higher Education is about to open in Dublin. (Degrees are at present awarded by the Council for National Educational Awards). Teaching takes place in English and, for certain courses, in Irish. Teachers of primary education attend, after success in an entrance examination, two-year

courses at teacher-training colleges, which are part of the higher education system. For graduates, the course lasts one year only. Teachers of technical education also follow a two- year course, those of domestic science a three-year course. Teachers of secondary education obtain, after a one-year university course following upon a first degree, a higher diploma in education. In addition to the traditional type universities, the two national institutes for higher

education at Limerick and Dublin and the colleges of technology, there are now also regional colleges located in the smaller cities and larger towns which provide post-secondary education in applied scientific. technological and business subjects. Courses are from one to three years in duration. Degrees and diplomas are awarded by the National Council for Educational Awards. Possibilities are also being developed for the very best students at these courses to proceed to degree courses in the universities. Short courses and sandwich courses are provided in the regional colleges, the colleges of technology and the national institutes for higher education for people at the ‘apprentice’ stage in certain careers (e.g. medical laboratory technicians and trainees in technological employment). Access to higher education is gained through the matriculation examination (or leaving-

certificate examination, Ardfeistmeireachf in Irish), taken at the end of six years of primary education followed by six years of secondary education. This examination may be sat more than once, and is held annually in June. Candidates must have passes in a number of subjects and at specified levels which vary according to the course to be followed. Admission requirements are set out by each university, and may vary from one to the other, depending also on the number of places available. Overseas students may be admitted, in limited numbers, to the faculties of arts (excluding

social science), commerce, science, agriculture and law. Application should be made before 15 December of the year preceding entry. Applications for admission to the faculties of medicine, veterinary medicine, engineering and architecture will be considered from students from developing countries on/y. Places are strictly limited, and a very high standard is required. Post-secondary education is available at varying levels. For entry to university courses and

to the NIHE’s completion of secondary education at a high standard is required. Completion of secondary education, not necessarily at such a high standard, is necessary for entry to the regional colleges. For students who may not have completed the full course of secondary

142 IRE LAND

education, there are courses of further education in vocational schools. Both academic and technical subjects are offered; on the academic side it is possible to complete the course of secondary education and proceed to a university. O n the technical side it is possible to train for skilled commercial and technical employment. The vocational schools also provide a means for mature students to resume and complete secondary education. The main stage of higher education leads to a bachelor’s degree, which may be a professional

qualification (professional degree). The length of study varies from three or four years, depending on the subject and university, to five years (veterinary medicine, architecture) or six years (medicine, dentistry). There are two types of bachelor’s degree, thepass degree and the degree with honours(or moderatorship); the length of study is the same for both types. Professional studies extending over at least two years lead to award of aprofessionaldegree

(diploma or certificate). Non-degree professional qualifications may be obtained at universities and other institutions of higher education (i.e. diploma in administration, information systems analysis, librarianship) in one to three years. The second stage consists of more advanced (graduate) studies, and leads to the master’s

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, matriculation examination)

varied years 2 3 4 5 6 I 8 9 duration

Education P M D Arts B M D DLitt Religion, theology B DD Architecture B M/D

Law Social sciences, economics

Administration Commercial sciences Exact and natural

Engineering, technology Medical sciences

sciences

medicine dentistry pharmacy veterinary medicine

Agriculture, forestry,

B B B/M D LLD P B M D DEconSc

B P D B M M D B M D

B M M/D

B M D B M/D

B M D B M/D

DSc

fisheries

B bachelor’s degree D doctor’s degree DD doctor of divinity DLitt doctor of letters DEconSc doctor of economics DSc doctor of science LLD doctor of law M master’s degree P professional qualijïcation

(As far as the doctorates are concerned the duration of studies is approximate.)

IRELAND 143

degree. These studies last between one and four years after the award of the first qualification. Candidates must present a thesis based on research. A third stage leads to the doctor‘s degree, called doctor of philosophy (PhD). A higher doctor’s degree may be awarded, after a minimum of five years (usually longer)

following upon the first degree, for original work already published, for example the DEconSc (economics), DLitt (arts), LLD (law), DSc (science) and DD (theology).

GLOSSARY Bachelor’s degree. First higher-education qualification, usually acquired after three or four

years’ study, five in architecture and veterinary medicine, six in medicine and law. In some subjects, the bachelor’s degree with honours (or moderatorship) is granted after four years, as for the pass degree, but the programme for the honours degree covers a wider field. Certiïicate. See professional degree. Diploma. See professional degree. Doctor’s degree. Higher-education qualification, acquired after four years of research

following the bachelor’s degree, for which candidates must present a thesis. The title for the holder of a doctorate is PhD (doctor ofphilosophy). A higher doctor’s degree may be awarded following advanced research and publications: DEconSc (economics), DLitt (arts), LLD (law), DSc (science), DD (theology). The minimum period of study is five years, often longer. First degree. See bachelor’s degreu. Honours degree. See bachelor’s degree. Leaving-certificate examination. See matriculation exutnination. Master’s degree. Higher-education qualification obtained one to three years after the

bachelor’s degree, involving research and the presentation of a thesis. Matriculation examination. School-leaving certificate granted at the end of six years of

secondary education following upon six years of primary education. Candidates must obtain passes in subjects, the number and choice of which depends on the course in higher education they wish to follow. Moderatorship. See bachelor’s degree. Pass degree. See bachelor’s degree. Professional degree. Higher-education qualification entitling its holder to practise a

School-leaving certificate. See matriculation examination. profession. Professional degrees follow the same progression as others.

Israel

In Israel higher education is given in five different kinds of institution: in universities or in institutions classified as universities, in the Everyman’s University which operates by correspondence, radio and television, in teacher-training colleges, in technological colleges and art and music colleges.

144 ISRAEL

Israel has the following institutions classified as universities, engaged in teaching and research: the Hebrew University of Jerusalem; Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan; Tel-Aviv University; Haifa University; Ben-Gurion University of the Negev; the Weizmann Institute of Science (a postgraduate research and teaching institute); and Technion, Israel Institute of Technology. Except for the last, all offer undergraduate and postgraduate courses. They offer a range of courses in humanities, law, natural sciences,and social sciences. Some of them offer courses in medicine, dentistry, para-medical studies, pharmacology, agriculture, applied sciences, all branches of engineering and architecture. The universities are autonomous in the conduct of their academic and administrative affairs

within the framework of their budgets. Though about 70 per cent of the total recurrent budget and about 50 per cent of the total development budget comes from public funds, they are not state universities. The licensing and accrediting authority for higher education is the Council for Higher

Education, a statutory body whose chairman is the Minister of Education and Culture (ex officio). In addition to the chairman, the Council has 19-24 members personally appointed by the President of the State on the recommendation of the Government. At least two thirds of them must be academics of standing. The Council has the sole power to authorize recognized institutions of higher education to award academic degrees. It is authorized by law to advise the Government on the development and financing of higher education and scientific research. The Council constituted the Planning and Grants Committee whose functions are: to propose and supervise the allocation of budgets for higher education, taking into account the needs of society and the State, whilst safeguarding academic freedom and assuring the advancement of research and learning; to propose to the Government and to the Council for Higher Education plans for the development of higher education, including their financing; to express its opinion on all higher education matters; to promote efficiency in the institutions of higher education and co-ordination between them. Outside the universities, a large number of institutions give post-secondary education in a

variety of fields: fine arts, music, nursing, textile technology, etc. University level education is offered in the form of evening classes by several institutions such as Technion and the University of Tel Aviv or in the form of correspondence, radio and television courses, in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences and in mathematics by Everyman’s University. Teaching is in Hebrew and in English. Access to higher education usually comes after a minimum 12 years of primary and

secondary education. A precondition is success in the bagruth (matriculation) examination or its equivalent. Certain faculties require a threshold weighted grade composed of the bugruih and the entrance examination results. There are two special programmes for overseas undergraduate students. The first is a one-

year programme for which credits may be given abroad. The other is a special four-year programme leading to a bachelor’s degree. No special provisions exist in postgraduate studies. The fist stage of higher education is provided by the universities and the colleges. It

comprises three or four years’ study aIid usually leads to a bachelor’s degree. The second stage is of greater specialization and is open to candidates having completed

good undergraduate studies. It leads in most cases to the degree of master or magister and in medicine and dentistry to the degree of MD. A secondary school-teacher’s certificate, a diploma in courses such as criminology and librarianship may be obtained after afurther one or two years of studies. The third stage leads to the research degree, PhD or DSc, which is awarded after specialized

research including a thesis. Candidates for the PhD must have achieved very good results in the preceding stage.

ISRAEL 145

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, bagruth (matriculation)

years 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ~

Art, design Arts, humanities Architecture Law Social sciences Exact and natural

Engineering, technology Medical sciences

sciences

medicine dentistry pharmacy

Agriculture

B

B M D B M D

B M D B M D

B/Di M D

MD MD

B M B M D

B bachelor’s degree D doctorate (PhD) Di diploma M master’s degree MD doctor of medicine

G L O S S A R Y Bachelor’s degree. Degree of higher education awarded in most disciplines after three or

four years of study. Bagruth (matriculation). Examination taken after completion of twelve years of primary

and secondary education. This certificate is a requirement for higher education. In certain cases an entrance examination must also be passed or additional faculty requirements met. Certificate or diploma. Qualification which may be obtained after the first university degree. Doctor’s degree. Highest university degree (PhD) awarded after the degrees of bachelor and

master, usually after at least three years of research. Professional qualification in medicine and dentistry (MD). Engineer. Degree awarded after four years. Entrance examination. Competitive examination that must be taken in certain cases by

holders of the bagruth (matriculation) certificate. Master’s degree. Degree of higher education awarded after a period of one to three years of

study beyond the degree of bachelor. The degree of doctor in medical sciences is a second degree. Matriculation. See bagruth. Professional qualification. See diploma, doctor’s degree, engineer. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. Certificate awarded on the results of an examination

taken at the end of secondary education in a technical institution (beit sefer miqzoi) or in an agricultural institution (beit sefer haqlai). Success in the examination may lead to access to higher education in the respective fields after passing special supplementary examinations.

146 ITALY

Italy

In Italy higher education takes place at universities, polytechnics, and university institutes. These are divided into state institutions and free (libere) or assimilated (pareggiate) institutions, which are private in character. There are also some higher institutes governed by special rules (istituti superiori con ordinamento speciale), like the Oriental University Institute (Istituto Universitario Orientale) and the University Naval Institute (Istituto Universitario Navale) of Naples, that award particular diplomas of Iaurea in the field of Oriental and European languages and literatures and in the field of maritime commerce andindustry. Also in this category are the Higher Normal School (Scuola Normale Superiore) and the Higher School of University Studies (Scuola Superiore di Studi Universitari e di Perfezionamento) of Pisa which do not award academic qualifications and have as their aims to promote the highest cultural level in the field of humanities and science. State universities are financed by the State. Institutions recognized by the State have the

right to award degrees. Students have to pay fees, but there is a system of student assistance (scholarships and

presalario). Each institution of higher education is autonomous within the limits fixed by law, but under

the control of the Ministry of Education-General Department of Higher Education (Minister0 della Pubblica Istruzione-Direzione Generale dell'Istruzione Universitaria) as regards administration, teaching and discipline. Statutes are drawn up by the institutions and approved by state authorities with a decree of

the President of the Republic. Statutes determine the establishment of faculties, special courses and specialized courses. The pattern of studies in each university course, the conditions of entrance, examinations and the status of subjects are regulated by national law (ordinamento didattico universitario). There is no great difference between universities, polytechnics and university institutes.

Universities usually comprise several faculties offering the traditional subjects: humanities, science, medical sciences, law, political, social and economic sciences and certain techno- logical subjects. Polytechnics (there are two state polytechnics in Milan and Turin) comprise the faculties of engineering and architecture. University institutes often have one faculty only, though this is not always so. Originally, university institutes were institutions of higher education teaching 'non-traditionaï subjects (e.g. education, economics, architecture, commercial science etc.); some have become faculties when integrated into a university. There exist now polytechnics and university institutes specializing in sociology, architecture, engineering and teacher training. The Standing Conference of Italian University Rectors (Conferenza Permanente dei Rettori

delle Università Italiane) is a non-statutory association which informally collaborates with the governmental authorities in matters concerning the university life and co-operates to ensure co-ordination between universities. The final decision concerning educational policy in the field of higher education is in the hands of the Ministry of Education. For many important matters the Ministry is helped by a consultative body, the National University Council (Consiglio Universitario Nazionale, CUN). Teachers of primary education are trained at upper-secondary level in isrifuti di magistero.

Teachers of secondary education are trained in almost all university faculties. Special courses in education are given by faculties and university institutes of magistero which are also concerned with sociology and psychology. There are also the higher institutes of physical education (istitufi superiori di educazione fîsica), having full university status, where

ITALY 147

candidates are selected by competitive entrance examination principally for demonstrating their athletic ability. Studies last three years. The aims of these institutions are to train teachers of physical education in secondary schools. The Italian system of higher education has nonumerusclausus for admission to courses. All

students holding a secondary-school diploma may enrol for a university course if they have completed a five-year course at secondary school. Exceptionally, there are two laurea courses to which are admitted only candidates who have completed two years of studies in other laurea courses. These are in geography and forestry sciences. Studies last two years. Students holding a four-year secondary-school diploma (from istituti magistrali or licei

artistici] may gain admission to all university degree courses after attending aone-year course called a corso integrativo. The secondary-school-leaving certificate (maturità) is generally acquired after five years of

primary education, followed by three years in a middle school (compulsory schooling) and five years of secondary education in an upper-secondary school. Only the above-mentioned istituti magisirali and licei artistici provide upper-secondary courses having a length of four years. There are several types of maturità related to the different types of upper-secondary schools (maturità classica. maturità scientifca, maturità tecnica, maturità professionale, maturità artistica, maturità magistrale, maturità per ïarte appiicata). Studies at university level generally last from four to six academic years (arts, law, political

sciences and most other courses have a length of four years; a few courses, such as chemistry, architecture and engineering, have a length of five years; medicine lasts for six years). At the end of the courses successful candidates in the final examination (esame di laurea) become holders of the only Italian academic degree, the laurea diploma, and are also awarded the title of doctor (dottore). There are exceptions to this system: the diploma of economics and law (diploma di tnagistero in econotnia e diritto) and the diploma of managerial economics (diploma

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 13 years, maturità)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education Arts Fine arts Architecture Law, political sciences Economics Exact and natural

Chemistry, engineering Medical sciences

sciences (except chemistry)

medicine pharmacy veterinary medicine

Agriculture

Di specialized diploma PD professional diploma

PD L Di L Di La

L Di PD L Di

L Di

L Di

L Di

PD L Di L Di L Di L Di

L laurea La licenza accademia di belli arti

148 ITALY

(6: magister0 in economia aziendale) are awarded after one year of studies to which are admitted holders of the diploma of Iaurea in economics and commerce. Only exceptionally are other degrees awarded after shorter courses (two or three years), but

their holders are not entitled to the title of dottore(statisticians, interpreter-translators, social assistants, inspectors of primary education). These courses are either diploma courses (e.g. courses for statisticians and inspectors of primary education) or special courses, called corsi a finispeciali(e.g. courses for social assistants). The former are at university level while the latter are at tertiary level but not at university level. In accordance with certain conditions it is possible to transfer from a special course to a university course and vice versa.

Degrees and qualifications granted by universities, polytechnics and university institutes have only academic value. In order to practise the profession corresponding to their studies, candidates have to pass a state examination (esame di stato). Holders of the laurea diploma may obtain admission to post-lauream courses of

specializzazione in several subjects. These courses vary in length from one to five years but they do not end with the award of a second academic degree, like, for example, the British master’s degree or the French maîtrise. The higher specialized diploma (diploma di specializzazione) has a professional character.

GLOSSARY Assegno di studio. See presalario. Corso a fini speciali. Special course of tertiary education taken in universities but not at

Corso di diploma. Course of higher education having a length of two or three years at the end

Corso integrativo. See maturità magistrale and maturità artistica under diploma di maturità. Diploma di abilitazione all’insegnamento elementare. See maturità magistrale under diploma

di maturità. Diploma di maturità. Qualification awarded to successful candidates in final secondary-

school-leaving examination (esame di maturità). In the Italian system there are the following types of maturità:

university level.

of which is awarded a diploma not entitling its holder to the title of dottore (see Iaurea).

1) 2) 3)

Maturità classica for students from a classical secondary school (liceo classico). Maturità scientijïca for students from a science secondary school (liceo scientifco). Maturità tecnica for students from technical secondary schools. This has many sub- types, including: (a) Maturità tecnica commerciale (commercial). (b) Maturità tecnica nautica (nautical). (c) Maturità tecnica per geometri (for surveyors). (d) Maturità tecnicaper le attività techniche femminili (for girls in technical activities). (e) Maturità tecnica per il turismo (for managers in tourism). (f) Maturità tecnica di perito aziendale e corrispondente in lingue estere (for firm

managers and translators of foreign languages). Maturità professionale for students from vocational schools. Maturitàper tarte applicata for students from schools of fine arts particularly concerned with applied arts. Maturità magistrale for students from schools for teachers in primary education, called istituti magistrali. Maturità artistica for students from licei artistici.

4) 5)

6)

7)

All these types of maturità, except numbers 6 and 7, are awarded after 13 years of general schooling, comprising five years of primary education, three years of lower-secondary

ITALY 149

education in middle schools and five years of upper-secondary education in upper-secondary schools. The rnaturità magistrale and rnaturità artistica are awarded after 12 years of general schooling, the upper-secondary courses having a length of four years. The maturità diplomas give admission to all university courses but the rnaturità magistrale and maturità artistica must be followed by a one-year course, called a corso integrativo. Without the corsu integrativo holders of these two diplomas are admitted only to the

faculties and university institutes of magistero and to the faculties of foreign languages (maturità magistrale), and to the faculties of architecture (maturità artistica). Diploma di perito. See maturità tecnica under diploma di maturità. Doctorate. Status of being doctor. See dottore under laurea. Entrance examination. Supplementary examination for candidates to courses of physical

Esame di laurea. See laurea. Esame di stato. State examination entitling successful candidates to practise a profession,

open only to holders of the required higher-education qualification. The examination mostly tests the practical aspects of the profession envisaged. The professional qualification is granted by the Ministry of Education. Esame distato alsomeansa final examination, like that of maturità, prescribed by law at the end of courses of upper-secondary education. Higher specialized diploma. Professional qualification granted to students who, having

obtained the laurea, have done from one to five years’post-lauream studies, usually two years. Studies leading to this qualification are called corsi diperfezionamento; they usually comprise lectures as well as independent research. Laurea. The only Italian academic degree of higher education, generally obtained after four

years’ study (five in chemistry, engineering and architecture, six in medicine). Programmes for the laurea are fixed by law at national level. In order to qualify for the laurea, and to obtain the title of dottore, students must pass all prescribed examinations and then submit an original thesis. Dottori must pass the state examination before they may practise the profession corresponding to their qualifications. Libera docenza. A diploma which used to be awarded to highly qualified persons, usually

holders of a degree of laurea, in order to demonstrate their capability to teach in universities. Candidates were required to have published works and they had to pass an examination (esame di libera docenza). The diploma of libera docenza was abolished by Law no. 924 dated 30 November 1970.

education.

Maturità. See diploma di maturità. Presalario. Assistance given to some university students in the form of a kind of salary.

Officially it is called assegna di studio. Primary school teaching diploma. See maturità magistrale under diploma di maturità. Professional qualification. See higher specialized diploma, esame di stato, laurea. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See diplunia di maturità. Secondary-school teaching diploma. Also called diploma di abilitazione alïinsegnamento,

required for secondary school-teachers. It is taken after the laurea on the basis of an examination at national level. Vocational diploma. See maturità professiunale under diploma di maturiià.

150 IVORY COAST

Ivory Coast

Higher education in the Ivory Coast is provided in the National University and several other colleges of higher education. By intergovernmental treaty, qualifications awarded by the National University of the

Ivory Coast enjoy full parity with those awarded by the French higher education system. Equivalence also pertains for member states of the African and Madagascan Higher Education Committee (CAMES). The University has the following faculties: letters and human sciences, law, economics, science, medicine, pharmacy (school of) and odonto- stomatology (institute). There are various further centres and institutes. Under the faculty of letters and human sciences are the following institutes: ethno-sociology, applied linguistics, tropical geography; African history, art and archaeology; Black African literature and aesthetics; and the following centres: audiovisual teaching and research, French studies for foreign students, the Ivory Coast centre of applied psychology; architecture and town- planning. Under the faculty of law there are the Institute of Criminology, and the Ivory Coast Centre of Jurisprudence. Under the economics faculty is the Ivory Coast social and economic research centre. Under the science faculty are the institutes of tropical ecology and of mathematical research, centres of floristics and data-processing. The teaching language is French. The other institutions of higher education offer professional training. The National Higher

Technical Institute co-ordinates technical and commercial higher education in Ivory Coast. It includes: a national school of engineering, a higher school of commerce (five years’ study), an institute of industrial technology, and an institute of tertiary technology awarding a university diploma of technology (two years). Primary teachers are trained at the Teaching Research and Training Centre of assistant

teachers. The higher centres prepare primary teachers over one year. First-phase secondary teachers are trained over three years in the Higher Teacher-Training College. Second-phase secondary teachers take the licence in education at the University or the Higher Teacher- Training College (CAPES). Teachers in physical education and sport are trained in four years by the National Institute of Sport. The Higher School of Agriculture trains agricultural engineers in five years, with a further year of specialization. The Institut Agricole Bouaké prepares the students for the diploma of applied agriculture over three years. The School of Public Works includes an engineering school, a school of engineers of technology, of higher technicians and a continuing education centre. It offers a four-year course for the diploma of technical engineer, and five-year courses for diplomas of engineering and higher technician (after the brevet d‘études du premier cycle). The school of statistics offers longer (four-year) courses for the qualification of engineers, but also two-year courses for the diplomas of assistant technician in statistics and technical agent. The school of administration offers two advanced courses, for administrators and administrative attachés (higher cycle) and has a civil service school for category ‘B’ opeïatives, and a continuing education centre for executives. The computer centre trains students to a high level in computer science-two years for programmers, three years for programme analysts, five years for systems analysts-and offers programmes in continuing education. The school of electricity trains both its operatives and also higher technicians. There are also a National Police College, the Post and Telecommunications Training Centre, the Higher School of Navigation, the Social Workers’ College. Lastly, the National School of Nursing and Midwifery offers a state diploma course, and the

para-medical school offers a two-year diploma of specialist nursing and midwifery.

IVORY COAST 151

Access to higher education is based on the baccalauréat. Dispensations and equivalences will be considered on request. An entrance examination may also be taken. Capacité studies in law (two years) do not require the baccalauréat. Foreign students may be admitted to study in the National University of Ivory Coast but their number is limited to 50 per facultyexcept for the

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 13 years, baccalauréat)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 8 9

Education C A E CAPCEG CAPES Humanities. social DUEL L M DEA D s D e

Law DEUG L M Economics DEUG L M DEA Ds De Administration B Di Di Commercial sciences Di Statistics Di I Natural and exact DUES L M DEA Ds DIng De

sciences

sciences Public works Tsup I I Engineering I Technology DUT Medical sciences medicine pharmacy dentistry

Agriculture Di I I I

B brevet CAPCEG certificat d'aptitude au projessorat des collèges d'enseignement général CAPES CAP1 D doctorat De doctorat dEtut DEA diplôme d'études approfondies DEUG diplôme d'études universitaires générales Di DIng docteur-ingénieur Ds doctorat de spécialité DUEL diplôme universitaire d'études littéraires DUES diplôme universitaire d'études scientifiques DUT diplôme universitaire de technologie 1 ingénieur (various levels) L licence M maîtrise Tsup technicien supérieur

certiJicai d'aptitude au professorat de I'enseignement secondaire certificat d'aptitude professionnelle des instituteurs

diplôme (school leaving, technical assistant, etc.)

152 IVORY COAST

Institute of Odonto-stomatology (four) or the School of Pharmacy (five). Foreign students registering for the first time must get an authorization delivered by the Ministry of Education. Overall the following stages may be identified in higher education. In shorter studies, the

higher technician’s diploma, the capacité in law, and the diplôme universitaire de technologie (DUT) require two years’ studies. Various other diplomas are awarded after courses of similar duration. The first stage of longer studies, lasting for a period of two years devoted to the acquisition

of knowledge on a broad multi-disciplinary basis, leads to the diplôme universitaire d‘études littéraires (DUEL) in humanities, to the diplôme universitaire détudes scientifiques (DUES) in science, to the diplôme d‘études universitaires générales (DEUG) in economics and law. In medicine also the first cycle of studies is devoted to the necessary grounding in the relevant sciences. The National Agricultural School has a competitive entrance exam open only to holders of the D U E S in agriculture. A second stage of more advanced studies leads, after the acquisition of a number of

certificats d‘études supérieures during the year’s study, to the licence in humanities, economics, and law. (This is the level normally required of secondary school-teachers.) After two years the maîtrise in science, economics, and law is awarded. Entrance to the school of administration is possible at different stages of the licences in law, economics, and humanities. A third stage, available in humanities, science, law and economics leads the student to

specialize. If his specialization is scientific, he may receive the diplôme d‘études approfondies and submit a thèse de spécialité de troisième cycle. In medicine, technology, agriculture and administration, it leads to a professional qualification (doctorat in medicine, professional qualification in engineering or administration). Studies continued beyond five to seven years open the possibility of a thèse de docteur

ingénieur (sciences) and above all the thèse de doctorat d‘Etat. The latter is traditionally a piece of work of considerable substance and length.

GLOSSARY Baccalauréat. Secondary-school-leaving certificate obtained at the end of six years’ primary

and seven years’ secondary education (divided into four years of lower and three years of upper secondary) in a general or technical secondary school. Programmes and teaching conditions are adapted from the French system of education. The baccalauréat gives access to higher education. Capacité en droit. Qualification awarded after two years’ study. The course is open to

candidates who are at least 17 years old and have passed a special entrance examination. See also professional qualification. Certificat d‘aptitude au professorat de l’enseignement secondaire (CAPES). Qualification

awarded after four years’ study in the advanced teacher-training college. Candidates may then go on to obtain a licence d‘enseignement. Studies include courses in education. Certificat d’aptitude au professorat des collèges d’enseignement général (CAPKEG).

Qualification awarded after two years’ study in the advanced teacher-training college. Certificat d’études supérieures (CES). Qualification of higher education, obtained after a

year’s study. Several certificates are required for a licence or a maîtrise in arts and science. Diplôme de technicien. Intermediate qualification obtained after one or two years’ study in

the national school of statistics, the national school of public works and several other institutions of professional higher education. Diplôme d’études approfondies (DEA). Qualification obtained at the end of the first year of

the third phase of higher education (troisième cycle). Diplôme d’études supérieures. Qualification of higher education, which was awarded in

science after one year’s study following upon the licence. Candidates had to submit a short thesis on an agreed topic, and undergo an oral examination.

IVORY COAST 153

Diplôme universitaire d’études littéraires (DUEL). Qualification obtained at the end of the first two years’ study in humanities, available in general studies, philosophy, history. geography, and modern languages (English, German, and Spanish). Diplôme universitaire d’études scientifiques (DUES). Qualification obtained at the end of the

first two years’ study in science, available in five subject-groupings: mathematics andphysics; physics and chemistry; chemistry, biology and geology; introduction to agriculture; and mathematics, physics, chemistry and technology. Diplôme universitaire de technologie (DUT). Qualification obtained at the end oftwo years’

study in the university institute of technology. Docteur-ingénieur or ingénieur-docteur. Professional qualification of higher education,

obtained in science after three years’ study and a thesis on the technological applications of the subject studied. Candidates must hold a diploma in engineering. Doctorat. The highest degree of higher education, awarded to students already holding one

or more higher degrees (see doctorat d‘Etar, doctorat d’université, doctorat de troisième cycle). The professional qualification ‘doctor’ is also awarded for studies of di!fering length leading to the diplomas of doctor of medicine or docteur-ingénieur. Doctorat d‘Etat. Degree of higher education, granted after at least two years’ study

subsequent to the award of the DEA and requiring the submission of a thesis. This qualification is required for teachers of higher education. Doctorat de spécialité de troisième cycle. Degree of higher education, awarded following at

least one year’s study subsequent to the DEA and requiring submission of a thesis. Doctorat d’université. Degree of higher education. awarded after one or two years’ study

subsequent to the award of the licence. It does not entitle the holder to teach (see doctorat d‘Etat). In humanities, the candidate must be a graduate or equivalent. A thesis must be submitted on a topic compatible with the faculty in question. Equivalences. The university-established list of national and foreign qualifications

recognized as equivalent to the baccalauréat. Licence. Degree of higher education, awarded after three years’ study. Maîtrise. Diploma of higher education, awarded in humanities after four years’ study. The

first two years are the first stage and common to licence and maitrise, being devoted to basic studies. The second phase, also of two years, involves a deeper knowledge of the subject. The first year of this course is equivalent to the licence. Professional qualification. Qualification awarded in institutions of higher professional

education at various levels after three to five years’ study (e.g. engineer, civil administrator etc.). Special entrance examination. Entrance examination for candidates to higher education

who do not hold the baccalauréat or its equivalent (see Equivalences).

154 JAMAICA

Jamaica

In Jamaica higher education is given by the University of the West Indies, the College of Arts, Science and Technology and teacher-training colleges. The University of the West Indies was founded to serve all English-speaking territories of

the region, with the exception of Puerto Rico. It is supported by and serves 14 territories in the West Indies, six of which are independent countries. TheUniversity comprises eight faculties: natural sciences, law, arts and general studies, social sciences, education, medicine, agriculture and engineering. The faculties of agriculture and engineering are in Trinidad. Faculties are divided into departments. The supreme authority of the University is the council, which comprises representatives of member territories, professors and appointed members. The senate, composed of teaching members of the University, is responsible for academic decisions. Deans of faculties are elected yearly. The University is autonomous. More than 90 per cent of its resources come from contributing territories. The College of Arts, Science and Technology is autonomous. It is administered by a council

whose members are appointed by the Government. The major part of its financial resources comes from official sources. The College teaches for general degrees of the University in arts and sciences and is divided into departments. Access is based on the general certificate of education, ordinary level. The College awards certificates after one or two years, and diplomas in three years. Teachers of primary and lower-secondary education are trained in teacher-training

colleges, which are administered and financed by the Government. Studies last two or three years according to the length of previous studies and lead to a diploma or a level similar to that reached one year after the general certificate of education, ordinary level. The basic level for access to higher education is usually reached after six or seven years of

secondary education following six years of primary education. Passes in certain subjects of the general certificate of education, ordinary and advanced levels, are required by certain faculties (e.g. mathematics, physics, chemistry for engineering). However, conditions of admission vary from one faculty to another, and each candidate is considered individually. The first stage of higher education (undergraduate studies) leads to the bachelor’s degree or

licentiate, or to a professional qualification. The bachelor’s degree is usually obtained after three years’ study (four in medicine; in education, it is obtained in two years). In arts and science, the bachelor’s degree may be either a general honours degree or a special honours degree. In theology, candidates obtain a licentiate after three years’ study at the United College of the West Indies or Codrington College, Barbados, or St. John Vianney, Trinidad. A professional qualification, the certificate, may be obtained after one year’s study in

education, management studies, nursing and after two years for social work, and after one, two or three years in engineering and technology; a bachelor’s degree is not required. The second stage of studies (graduate studies) leads to higher degrees. The master’s degree

requires two years’ study and submission of a thesis. Medical specialization leading to a master’s degree is available in a range of specialities after four years of an approved internship. In education a diploma may be obtained after one year’s postgraduate study by those intending to teach in upper-secondary education. The third stage leads, after three years’ study following upon the master’s degree, to a

doctorate (PhD). Candidates are required to submit a thesis. Professional qualifications in the form of a diploma may be obtained in one year following certain degrees or qualifications (e.g. in anaesthetics, education, international relations).

JAMAICA 155

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, general certjficate of education)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Education Arts Theology Law Social sciences Administration Economics Mathematics Science Engineering Technology Medicine Agriculture

L/B

P P P

B M D

P P P/B M D P P P

B B M D

B bachelor’s degree D doctor’s degree L licentiate M master’s degree P professional qualification

G L O S S A R Y Bachelor’s degree. Degree obtained after three years of undergraduate studies (four in

medicine). In education the bachelor’sdegree may be obtained after two years’ study following upon five years’ teaching. In arts and science, there are two types of first degree: the general honours degree and the special honours bachelor’s degree.

Certificate. See professional qualification. Diploma. See professional qualijication. Doctorate. Higher degree obtained after three years’ graduate studies following upon the

master’s degree and requiring submission of a thesis. General certificate of education. Secondary-school-leaving certificate obtained after six

years of primary followed by five years of lower-secondary education. Candidates then sit examinations at ordinary level. After at least one year of upper-secondary education. candidates sit further examinations at ordinary and advanced level; subjects are chosen according to future studies. Higher degree. See master‘s degree, doctor’s degree. Honours degree. See bachelor’s degree. Licentiate. First degree in theology, awarded at the United Theological College of the West

Indies and at Codrington College, Barbados, and St. John Vianney, Trinidad, after three years’ study. Master’s degree. Higher degree of higher education obtained after two years’ postgraduate

studies following upon the bachelor’s degree. Candidates are required to submit a thesis. Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education. As a certificate it is awarded

after one year’s study in education, agriculture, nursing, and after two years in social work, management studies, etc; and after one, two, or three years’ studies in engineering and technology. Diplomas may be awarded one year after certain qualifications or degrees (e.g. in anaesthetics, education, international relations).

156 JAPAN

Japan

In Japan higher education is provided in about 430 universities (daigaku), in about 520 junior colleges (tanki-daiguku), and in 65 technical colleges (koto-senmongakko). These institutions may be public (national, prefectural or municipal) or private. The Ministry of Education must approve the foundation of institutions of higher education, and they are under its control. Seventy per cent of daigaku and 85 per cent of tanki-duigaku are private institutions. Universities comprise one or several faculties offering four-year courses in a variety of

subjects. In some universities, institutes are attached to faculties and enable students to read for higher qualification. The administrative system in Japanese universities is extremely varied. Public universities, national and local, are financed mainly from national and local funds.

Private universities and colleges are financed by students’ fees and private funds. National government provides private institutions with grants for about one-third of current expenditures. A number of organizations ensure the co-ordination and planning of higher education: the

National University Association of Japan, the Association of Public Local Government Universities, the Association of Private Universities of Japan, the Japanese University Accreditation Association as well as the Central Council for Education and the University Chartering Council (which are consultative bodies of the Ministry of Education). Junior colleges, of post-secondary level, provide two- to three-year courses which do not

lead to a first degree, but credits obtained at junior colleges may be counted as part of the credits leading to a degree. Technical colleges offer five-year courses, the last two years of which are at post-secondary

level. They train technicians, but do not grant university level qualifications. Holders of technicians’ certificates may, however, apply for admission to a university. Recently two national universities, which are to provide postgraduate courses of four years to the graduates of technical colleges, have been established. In addition, there are about 1500 special training schools (senmon-gakko), which require

completion of upper-secondary school for admission. They are institutions giving courses of more than one year for the acquisition of necessary skills and knowledge in vocational as well as daily life. Around 85 per cent are privately established and completion of these courses is not relevant to study in university or junior college. Teacher-training is part of higher education. Pre-primary, primary and secondary teachers

are trained in institutions of higher education, mostly in four-year teacher-training courses in national universities; others are trained in two- or four-year courses at a small number of local and private institutions of higher education. There are also several graduate schools of teacher-training. Correspondence and evening courses offered by Japanese universities and colleges are

almost entirely for degree programmes, the chief aim being to give the possibility of obtaining a university education to working youths. In principle, evening and correspondence courses are virtually identical to daytime courses. Furthermore, the national government is going to establish a formal university to provide courses of liberal arts utilizing television and radio programmes (Broadcasting University). Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leaving certificate, obtained

after six years of primary school (shogukko) followed by six years of secondary education, divided into three years of lower-secondary (chugakko) and three to four years of upper- secondary (kotogakko) education, or equivalent qualifications. Given the extremely high

157

number of applicants, universities apply a numerus clausus and students are selected by means of the competitive entrance examination set by each institution. The upper-secondary-school record is also taken into account. From 1979, applicants to the national and public universities have been required to sit for,

as the first stage, the joint achievement test which is to be followed by the second stage examination to be administered by each university. The joint achievement test is to judge an applicant’s level of achievement at upper-secondary school and the second-stage examination is to judge an applicant’s aptitude for learning at individual institutions. Thus the system aims at providing more data concerning an applicant for selection. A growing number of institutions select a certain proportion (around 15 per cent) of

candidates solely on the hasis of the recommendations of school principals. Foreign students may enter university by the same procedures as Japanese students. There

are two kinds of foreign students studying in Japanese universities. Firstly, there are students under the Japanese Government Scholarship Programme, which again may be divided into two categories: research students and undergraduate students. The research students may receive a scholarship for two or one and a half years, including the period for Japanese language education. The undergraduate students may receive a scholarship for five years (in the case of students of medicine or dentistry, seven years). Selection of the candidates will be made at the first stage by Japanese embassies through documents, written tests and interviews. The second stage examination for the selection will be carried out by the Ministry of Education. Research students will be finally selected by the Ministry of Education after consultation with the university concerned. Undergraduate students should take basic education at a designated Japanese language school for one year and then should pass the entrance examination of the university.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, secondary-school-leaving certificate and entrance examination)

years 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Education Arts Religion, theology Fine arts Law Social sciences Economics Exact and natural sciences

Engineering Medical sciences medicine dentistry pharmacy veterinary medicine

Agriculture

G gakushi H hakushi

G S H G S H G S H G S H G S H G S H G S H G S H

G H G H

G S H G S H G S H

S shushi

158 JAPAN

Secondly, there are foreign students studyingin Japan at their private expense. They have to acquire entrance permission from the university in advance. Procedures and criteria for selection differ from one university to another (documents or written tests). The Council for International Education publishes annually a guidebook for foreign students who wish to study in Japanese universities at their own expense. The main stage of higher education consists of four-year (in medicine and dentistry, six-

year) courses. In addition to study in a specialized field, general education, which includes humanities, social sciences and natural sciences, is obligatory for every student. The credit system is followed and the minimum requirement for graduation is the acquisition of 124 credits (in medicine and dentistry, separately designated) including credits in general education subjects. In the case of junior colleges, the minimum requirement is the acquisition of more than 62 credits for two or three years. The degree awarded at the end of the first stage is that of gakushi. The second stage corresponds to further specialization. It takes place in postgraduate

schools (daigaku-in), which do not exist in every university. The degree it leads to is the shushi (postgraduate diploma), acquired after two years of study. It requires a number of additional credits, a research thesis and a final examination. There is no postgraduate diploma for medical studies, but doctorates may be obtained. The third stage of higher education in universities corresponds to a period of specialization

and individual research. It leads to the highest university degree, the hakushi (doctorate). Studies last a minimum of three years following upon the shushi (four years in medicine and dentistry). Candidates to the hakushi must submit a thesis and undergo a final examination.

GLOSSARY Doctorate. See hakushi. Entrance examination. Competitive examination organized by institutions of higher

education where the numerus clausus applies. Results obtained in the secondary-school- leaving certificate, as well as the school principal’s report, are also taken into consideration. There is no limitation on the number of institutions that the applicant may apply to and the applicant may repeat applications every year. Therefore in some universities the number of applicants greatly surpasses the enrolment capacity. O n average it is around seven times for university entry and 2.6 times for junior college entry. Gakushi. First qualification of higher education, awarded after four years’ study in most

subjects (six in medicine and dentistry). At the end of each semester, candidates must sit an examination in each subject, usually in the form of written tests, and sometimes as research progress reports. Candidates for the gakushi must obtain a certain number of credits in given subjects. In all fields except medicine and dentistry, candidates must, in the course of their four years of study, obtain 124 credits, divided as follows: 36 in general subjects (humanities, social and natural sciences), 8 in foreign languages, 4 in physical education and 76 in professional subjects. In university and junior colleges, credits are uniformly defined. A lecture class of one hour a week, requiring two hours of student preparation and of fifteen weeks’ duration, constitutes one credit. A seminar class of two hours a week requiring one hour of student preparation and of fifteen weeks’ duration, constitutes one credit, as do laboratory classes of the same duration, requiring three hours’ work per week. In medicine and dentistry, the students must complete two years of general education (64 credits) followed by four years of professional training. The qualification here is that of igakushi and is a professional one. Hakushi. The highest degree, awarded to those who have completed a doctorate course at a

postgraduate school or those who have been approved as having equivalent academic qualifications. The requirement for completion of the doctorate course is more than five years of study (which may include the two-year course for the shushi degree) at a postgraduate

JAPAN 159

school, with 30 or more credits, the submission of a dissertation and success in a final examination. Those who have completed highly qualified research work may be awarded the hakushi after three years’ study at postgraduate school. In medicine and dentistry, this qualification is awarded after four years after the gukushi; candidates are exempted from the second qualification. In medicine, this qualification is called iguku-hakushi. and corresponds to a doctorate in medical science. Igaku-hakushi See hakushi. Igakushi. See gakushi. Master’s degree. See shushi. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. Qualification obtained after six years of primary

education followed by three years of lower-secondary and three years of upper-secondary education. The structure of studies is based on the American system (see the entry for the United States of America). Candidates for higher education must sit a competitive entrance examination (see entrance examination) before gaining access to most universities. Shushi. Completion of the shushi degree requires two years of full-time study, including 30

credit hours and a substantial amount of research culminating in a thesis.

Jordan

In Jordan higher education is given principally in the University of Jordan a! Amman, at Yarmouk University at Irbid and at the Agricultural Institute Al-Hussein. There are also several teacher-training institutions, an institute of public administration and an institute for industrial administration, university colleges ofnursing, a centre for statistics. and a college of Islamic law. These institutions are scattered around the country in various towns. Teaching is in Arabic, but at the university teaching is also given in English. The University of Jordan was founded in 1962 and has faculties of arts (including

archaeology, education, sociology), engineering, medicine, science. agriculture, economics and business administration. Yarmouk University was established in 1976 with one faculty called ‘Faculty of Arts and Science’ which includes the following departments: science, Arabic literature, English literature, humanities, education, and economics and business administration. A faculty of technology will be opened in 1980. The Agricultural Institute is divided into two departments: agriculture. and science. It

trains qualified specialists in agriculture or specialized teachers of agriculture. The Institute for Industrial Administration trains secretaries and accountants and also teachers in those fields. Technical schools offer a form of post-secondary education aimed at training middle- grade technicians. Teacher training takes place in various institutions, separately for young men and women.

Certain teacher-training institutions specialize in rural education and train teachers for rural primary schools as well as leaders of village community programmes. Other institutions train primary teachers and teachers in lower-secondary education for work in urban areas.

160 JORDAN

Technical secondary schools give post-secondary courses which train teachers of handicraft techniques in primary classes or lower-secondary classes. The university trains other secondary teachers. Most institutions are state-run. The university is an autonomous body with a definite legal

status; it depends on a state budget. Most of the teacher-training schools are placed under the direct authority of the Ministry of Education on whom they depend in all financial matters. Some of them are managed by organizations linked to the United Nations. Access to higher education is given by the general secondary-school certificate, which is

awarded after six years of primary education and six of secondary education. Certain institutions of higher education, such as the Agricultural Institute, require their

future students to be holders of a general secondary-school certificate with specialization in science. For university studies, applications from candidates go before a selection committee. The secondary-school-leaving certificates of other Arab countries, as well as those awarded by the universities of Oxford, Cambridge and London are recognized also for admission purposes. Secondary studies followed in the second phase of agricultural or technical institutions give the right to enter one of the corresponding fields in higher education. The courses in teacher-training institutions last two years and lead to a certificate. The post-

secondary courses in technical schools for the training of middle-grade technicians last three years. The first year of university may be spent following courses common to all subjects (e.g. in

the faculty of humanities). The principal stage lasts four years and leads to a bachelor’s degree. A further stage, reached two years after the bachelor’s degree, leads to the master’s degree. In

the faculty of education this leads to the diploma of education. Here afurther year is necessary in order to obtain the qualification of master of arts in education. The diploma of education must not be confused with the diploma awarded by primary teacher-training institutionS. The degree of doctor of medicine (MD) is awarded after a seven-year course followed by one year’s internship.

PROFILE OF H I G H E R STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, general secondary-school certificate)

years 2 3 4 5 6

Education Di B DE MA Arts B Economics B Exact and natural sciences B Technology Di Agriculture Di

B bachelor’s degree DE diploma of education Di diploma MA master of arts

GLOSSARY Bachelor’s degree. University degree usually awarded after four years’ study. Diploma. Qualification awarded in various institutions after courses lasting usually two or

three years. The teacher-training institutions and the Agricultural Institute award a teaching qualification after two years and the technical schools a technician’s qualification after a three-year post-secondary course.

JORDAN 161

Diploma of education. Postgraduate qualification awarded in a faculty of education after a one-year course following upon the bachelor’s degree. General secondary-school certificate. Certificate awarded at the end of three years in the

second phase of general secondary education, following upon a three-year secondary course in an intermediate school and six years of primary education. Master’s degree. University degree awarded two years after the bachelor’s degree. In

education this degree is awarded one year after the award of the diploma of education.

Kenya

In Kenya higher education takes place at the University of Nairobi and at Kenyatta University College which is a constituent college of the University of Nairobi. The University of Nairobi. formerly a constituent college of the University of East Africa

(Nairobi, Makerere and Dar es Salaam) is the main institution of higher education in Kenya. It offers courses in arts and social sciences, physical sciences, engineering, law, surveying and photogrammetry, medicine, veterinary medicine, agriculture, architecture and related subjects, education (at Kenyatta University College), commerce and journalism. In addition there are four institutes functioning within the University: the Institute of African Studies, Adult Studies, Development Studies, and Population Studies and Research. The University is governed by a Council composed of lay and academic members. The senate is responsible for academic matters and is composed of the heads of departments and staff members, grouped in faculties. Government grants provide 88 per cent of resources, with three per cent coming from foundations and nine per cent from other sources. The Government has now introduced a loan scheme to enable students to finance the non-tuition portion of their education. Other specialized institutions of higher education include: two polytechnics (Kenya

Polytechnic and Mombasa Polytechnic), which offer training at both professional and sub- professional level; three national vocational and industrial training centres (Nairobi, Mombasa and Kisumu)-these institutions are under the authority of the Ministry of Education; two government secretarial colleges (Nairobi and Mombasa); the Kenya Institute of Administration; Christian industrial training centres; an institute of agriculture (Embu), animal health (Lower Kabete); the Kenya Institute of Mass Communication; a medical training centre; the Kenya Institute of Education; and various training units-these are managed by various government ministries and other bodies. Various institutes of technologies and village polytechnics have been established on self-help (harambee) basis. The Government, from time to time, gives aid in terms of personnel and funds to these technological institutes and polytechnics. They too, function like the other specialized institutions above. Teachers of primary education are trained at secondary level. A two-year course for

candidates who have completed four years of secondary education and have passed well with more emphasis on credits in English, mathematicsand at least one science subject. In addition

162 KENYA

candidates who have completed six years of secondary education and fail to get the University entry requirement or get the minimum entry requirement but are not selected for University (and fail to enrol elsewhere) and are interested in becoming primary teachers, are also trained as primary teachers. Teachers of secondary education are now trained at Kenyatta University College. (The

faculty of education was moved from the University of Nairobi to Kenyatta University College.) The teachers obtain a degree of bachelor of education in either arts or science. Teachers of technical education are trained at the Kenya Science Teachers’ College, at the

Kenya Polytechnic and at the Kenya Technical Teachers’ College which has been established recently. There are many fields which post-secondary students may enter. A student may leave

secondary education at form two (after two years of secondary education) after sitting for the Kenya junior secondary examination (KJSE) and join a village polytechnic, for instance. Most of the institutions which train professionals or sub-professionals also train form six

students who have either not qualified for University entry or qualified but have not been given entry because of the limited facilities at the University. The length of the period of training in this case depends on the type of training. However, it ranges between two years for most of the courses to five years for technical courses at Kenya Polytechnic. Graduates from these institutions find their way into either public or private sectors within

the country as electricians, mechanics, plumbers, secretaries, social workers, engineers, surveyors, etc. A number of institutions, including the University of Nairobi, organize courses of adult

education, which is concentrated in the rural areas. T h e language of instruction is English. Access to higher education is based on the East African advanced certificate of education,

obtained after a period of seven years’ primary and six years’ secondary education, the latter being divided into a four-year lower phase and a two-year upper phase. The higher school certificate is similarly organized and confers the same rights. Foreign students are admitted if they are accepted as being qualified by the senate. The

candidate must fulfil the faculty entry requirement or its equivalent. However, it is important to mention that each case is treated on its own merit given the fact that the Universityisfaced with the ever-increasing number of local candidates who qualify for entry but are not selected because of the limited facilities available to the University. The first stage of higher education leads to the bachelor’s degree. The bachelor’s degree may

be obtained in three years (humanities, education, science, engineering, law, home economics and commerce), in four years in veterinary medicine or in five years in architecture and medicine. A professional qualification may be awarded as a certificate (e.g. home economics) or diplomas (e.g. fine arts) after four years’ study following the end of the lower phase of the secondary education. An advanced professional qualification is awarded as a diploma in education, irrigation and urban and regional planning after one year’s study, in nursing and journalism after two years’ study. The second stage leads, after a period of two years’graduate study following the bachelor’s

degree to a master’s degree; this is awarded in humanities, architecture, commerce, law, science, engineering, education and medicine (where candidates have to do four years’ practical training). Candidates have to submit a thesis alone or do course-work as well, according to the field of study. A third stage leads, after a minimum period of two years’ study after the master’s degree to

the doctor’s degree (PhD: doctor of philosophy) in all faculties. Candidates for this highest degree have to submit a thesis.

KENYA 163

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 13 years, East African advanced certifcate of education)

years 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ~~ ~ ~

Education Humanities, religion. theology

Architecture Law Commercial sciences Natural sciences Social sciences Medical sciences medicine veterinary medicine

Agriculture

B bachelor’s degree qualification

B M B M

D D

P M D B M D

D D D

B M D B M D

B M D

D doctor’s degree M niaster’s degree P professional

G L O S S A R Y Bachelor’s degree. First degree obtained in three years in humanities, education, home

economics, science, engineering, law and commerce. in four years in veterinary science andin five in medicine and architecture. Certificate. See professional qualification. Diploma. See professionul qualification. Doctor’s degree. Higher degree (PhD, doctor ofphilosophy) obtained in a minimum of two

years (one in residence) after the niaster’s degree in all faculties at the University of Nairobi. General certificate of education. Secondary-school-leaving certificate obtained after seven

years’ primary school and six years’ secondary education divided into two cycles of four and two years. The examinations are at two levels: ordinary level and advanced level. The candidate takes some examinations at the end of the first cycle, and usually continues to study for a further two years to acquire the number and combination of passes required by the branch of higher education he wishes to enter. The higher school certificate is similarly organized and its results give the same rights. Higher school certificate. See General certificate of education. Master’s degree. Higher degree awarded in arts, science, engineering and veterinary

medicine after a minimum of eighteen months’ and a maximum of three years’, study after the award of a bachelor’s degree upper second or first class honours. It comprises the preparation of dissertation only, or course-work as well, according to the field of study. In medicine it is obtained by examination after at least four years’ practice. Professional qualification. Higher-education qualification awarded at the level of the first

degree (see bachelor’s degree) after four years’ study following the end of the first cycle of secondary education. It is awarded as a certificate in home economics and as a diploma in fine art. At the level of a higher degree. a professional qualification is awarded after one year’s study in education and two years in nursing, following a first degree or qualification. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See General certificate of education, higher school

certificate.

164 KUWAIT

Kuwait

In Kuwait higher education is given in the University of Kuwait. This is a state institution under the Ministry of Education, and comprises faculties of science, letters and human sciences, law and Islamic law (Shari’a), commerce and politics, a college of engineering and oil, a college of medicine, a college of graduate studies, and a community service and continuing education centre. Primary school-teachers are trained at secondary level, secondary school-teachers at the

University. In arts and science it is possible to take an education option leading to the award of the bachelor’s degree in arts or science and education. The teaching languages are Arabic, English and French. Access to higher education is based on the shahadat al-thanawia (secondary-school-leaving

certificate) normally awarded after four years’ primary followed by eight years’ secondary studies, the latter divided into two phases. The main stage of higher education leads to the bachelor’s degree, normally awarded after

four years’ study in the following subjects: law and Islamic law, science, commerce (business administration, accountancy and statistics) and politics; after four and a half years in engineering and after seven years in medicine (bachelor of medical science). The second stage leads, in some subjects only, to a more specialized qualification; to a

diploma in law or Islamic law after one, or in hydrogeology, accountancy, business administration or applied statistics after two, years’ further study. Two kinds of diplomas of education are awarded at this level: the general diploma of education after one, and the special diploma in education after two, years’ study after the award of the bachelor’s degree.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, shahadat al-thanawia)

years 4 5 6 7

Education B GDE S D E Arts B Law, Islamic law B - Political sciences Commercial sciences (administration, B Di

Di B

accountancy, statistics) Sciences Engineering Medicine

B B

B

B bachelor’s degree Di diploma GDE general diploma in education SDE special diploma in education

GLOSSARY Bachelor’s degree. First degree of higher education awarded after four years’ studies except

in engineering (four and a half years), and medicine (seven). It is normally designated by the abbreviation B followed by the speciality in which it has been obtained: BSc (science), BPSc (political science), etc.

KUWAIT 165

Diploma. Higher education qualification awarded after one or two years’ study subsequent to the bachelor’s degree, as are the general (one-year) and special (two-year) diplomas in education. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See shahadat al-thanaicia. Shahadat al-thanawia. Secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded after twelve years’

primary and secondary education.

L a o People’s Democratic Republic

Higher education in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic is given in the Sisavangvong University, which was founded at Vientiane in 1973. and which comprises an institute of law and administration. a school of medicine, an institute of Buddhist studies and a higher teacher-training institution, which were founded between 1958 and 1964. All the above institutions are financed by the State. but certain expenditure, in particular the salaries of people who teach in them, comes from aid provided to the Lao People’s Republic through bilateral arrangements and through international organizations. The school of medicine comprises two sections: one for medical ancillaries (nurses,

midwives, auxiliary doctors and pharmacists), and the other for doctors. The languages of instruction are French and English. Primary teachers are trained in teacher-training institutions and in one section ofthe higher

institution for teacher-training. Teachers for lower-secondary education are also trained in this latter institution. Courses last three years. It also organizes in-service and other courses for teachers. Access to higher education is based on the baccalauréat. This qualification is required for

entrance to that section of the higher teacher-training institution which trains secondary teachers, as well as the section of the school of medicine which trains doctors. Candidates for entrance to the institute of law and administration must also pass an entrance examination. On the other hand, the studies which lead to medical ancillary qualifications, which last roughly four years, may be entered by holders of the brevet d’études du premier cycle. The University awards diplomas after three to four years’ study. Final studies at the institute of law and administration lead to a doctorate (doctorat de

troisième cycle), and studies at the school of medicine lead to the doctorate in niedicine (doctorate en médecine), which is awarded after seven years of study.

GLOSSARY Baccalauréat. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. Secondary schooling is divided into a

first phase of four years and a second phase of three years. following upon six years of primary education. The baccalauréat admits to higher education: an entrance examination must be passed to enter the institute of law and administration.

LAO PEOPLE’S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

Brevet d’études du premier cycle (BEPC). Qualification awarded at the end of the first phase of secondary education. It gives entrance to certain courses at the school of medicine (nursing, midwife, medical auxiliary). Diploma. Qualifications awarded by the University after three or four years’ study. Doctorat. Qualification of higher education awarded by the institute of law and

administration (doctorat de troisième cycle). In medicine, the doctorat is awarded after seven years of study at the school of medicine. Secondary-schoot-leaving certificate. See baccalauréat.

Lebanon

In Lebanon higher education is provided in five universities (the Lebanese University, the American University of Beirut, St. Joseph University, the Arab University of Beirut and the University of the Holy Spirit), and in five institutions of higher education which offer a wide variety of courses. The Lebanese University is a state institution, under the control of the Ministry of

Education, financed by the State, and autonomous. It comprises faculties of arts and humanities, education, law, public administration and science, as well as institutes of social sciences, fine arts and journalism. Teaching is given in Arabic, as well as in French and English. The American University of Beirut is a private institution comprising faculties of arts,

science, medical sciences, health sciences, engineering and architecture, agricultural sciences and nutrition. A division of education and programmes of lifelong education was founded there in 1976. Its purpose is to promote the study of education by teaching and research. Teaching is given in English and Arabic. Saint Joseph University is a Catholic university which has enjoyed full administrative,

financial and academic autonomy since 1975. It comprises faculties of theology, medicine, pharmacy, dentistry, engineering, law and political science, economics and business administration, and arts and humanities. The following institutes are also part of this university: a school of nursing and midwifery (affiliated to the faculty of medicine), a centre for modern languages, the Lebanese school of social work, a centre for studies of the modern Arab world, and the Lebanese Institute of Educators (Institut libanais d’Educateurs), affiliated to the faculty of arts and humanities. The regional centres at Tripoli and Zahlé also offer first phase university courses. Lastly, the University helps the autonomous institutions (institutes or centres for research) which were founded in its buildings in collaboration with the professions concerned. They are under an autonomous régime (Lebanese Law Association, Centre for Banking Studies, Centre for Insurance Studies, Institute of Research in Applied Economics). The University awards degrees in theology, medicine, nursing, pharmacy and biology, dentistry, engineering, law and political science, economics and

LEBANON 167

business administration, commercial studies, and arts and humanities, as well as high-level technician degrees. Teaching is given in French and Arabic. The Arab University of Beirut is a Moslem-inspired institution which is affiliated to the

University of Alexandria. It is financed by the Moslem Society of Social Work, Beirut, and by the fees paid by the students. It comprises faculties of arts (including sociology), law, commercial studies. architecture, science and engineering. The language in which teaching takes place varies according to the subject: Arabic for arts, and English for science and engineering. Lastly, the University of the Holy Spirit was founded in 1949 by the Lebanese Maronite

Order and was recognized by the Government in 1962. This private institution of higher education comprises faculties of theology, philosophy and humanities, arts, law, commercial studies, fine arts and applied arts, as well as institutes of liturgy, musicology and history. Teaching is mostly given in French, but English is used in certain subjects. It awards licences, DEAs and doctorates, as well as diplomas in engineering, architecture and decoration. Other institutions of higher education include: the Haïkajan College, a ‘liberal arts college’,

which gives teaching in English and awards bachelor of arts and bachelor of science degrees; the Beirut University College which is the only institute in the region conceived to meet the needs for education of women who have followed high-level training, and which is now open to men students. Teaching takes place in English and Arabic. The Lebanese Academy of Fine Arts,a higher institute of law and the Middle East College also provide courses. Teachers of primary education are trained in colleges located throughout the country.

Secondary education teachers are trained in the universities. In the American University, studies in education are taken in parallel specialized courses in the faculties of arts and science. Access to higher education is usually based on the Lebanese baccalauréar IIe partie or

equivalent quaiification obtained at the end of seven years of secondary education; however, conditions for access to institutions of higher education may vary. A competitive entrance examination must be taken by students who wish to enter the faculty of business administration at the Lebanese University and by those who wish to enter the faculties of medicine, dentistry, pharmacy and engineering at the St. Joseph University. This university also organizes entrance examinations to other faculties. Foreign students are admitted to Lebanese universities under the same conditions as Lebanese students if they hold a qualification which is equivalent to the Lebanese baccalairréat. Because of the wide range of types of institutions of higher education, courses and

qualifications are very varied. Some institutions award professional qualifications at the end of two- to three-year courses: the laboratory technician’s diploma at the American University and at the St. Joseph University is awarded after two years’ study. This is also the case for the qualification of associate awarded by the Beirut University College in arts and applied arts. The advanced technician’s diplomas in social work and in infant and primary education are awarded after three years’ study at the St. Joseph University. This is also the case for the diploma in nursing at the American University. Studies for the bachelor’s degree in medicine or engineering at the American University require one or two years’ preparation at the University beforehand. In the course of longer studies, the main stage leads, after three to five years’ study, to the

licence, bachelor‘s degree or a maîtrise, or a diploma serving as a professional qualification (doctorate in dentistry). In medicine, the doctorate is both the first degree and the professional qualification. It is awarded after seven years’ study at the St. Joseph University. This stage corresponds to the period of study in depth and the acquisition of wide practical experience, or a high level professional qualification. The second stage, corresponding to a period of specialization and individual work, leads

(usually in one or two years’ study following upon the first degree) to the master’sdegree at the American University, a magistère, a diplôme d’études approfondies (DEA), a diplôme d‘études

168 LEBANON

supérieures (DES) or a doctorat de troisième cycle. The faculty of pharmacy at the St. Joseph University awards a diplôme d'études supérieures in biology after three years' study following the diplôme de pharmacien or docteur en médecine.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, baccalauréat)

years 2 3 4 5 6 I

Religion, Catholic L M theology

Arts A/DEUG L L DEA/ D M/B Ma/Md

Commercial sciences Information Social sciences Exact and natural sciences

Engineering Medical sciences medicine dentistry pharmacy nursing

Agriculture

A associate B bachelor's degree D doctorat

Fine arts, applied arts A DES DE S Architecture B D E S B Economics, law DEUG L L/M DEA/ political sciences DES

Administration, management L/B M d B L - L/B Md

DESP B/Di

DTC B Md/D

L M B M d

DEA DES DESP DEUG Di DTC L M M a M d

diplôme d'études approfondies diplôme d'études supérieures diplôme d'études scientifiques préparatoires diplôme d'études universitaires générales diploma diplôme de technicien de laboratoire licence maîtrise magistère master's degree

(The higher educational system in Lebanon is very diversified and the periods of study indicated in the profile are therefore approximate.)

LEBANON 169

The third stage corresponds to a period of individual research. The results of this research lead to the doctorat, and to the title of doctor of philosophy (PhD), after presenting and defending a thesis.

GLOSSARY Associate. University qualification awarded by the Beirut University College after two

years’ higher education in arts and applied arts, for example. Baccalauréat. Secondary-school-leaving certificate obtained after five years of primary and

seven years of secondary education divided into two phases. The baccalauréat is taken in two parts. the first part after three years of upper secondary education, the second part after another year. Bachelor’s degree. First degree, awarded by the American University at the end of three to

four years of higher education. It is usually represented by an abbreviation: BA (bachelor of arts); BBA (bachelor of businessadministration); BE(bachelor in engineering); BEd (bachelor in education); BS (bachelor of science). Competitive entrance examination. Entrance examination organized by certain institutions

of higher education, for example the faculties of medicine, pharmacy and dentistry of the St. Joseph University, as well as the faculty of engineering. Candidates who wish to enter the faculty of business administration at the Lebanese University must also sit for this examination. Diploma. Title of higher education or professional qualification obtained after a varying

number of years of study in certain subjects and institutions of higher education (nursing diploma, engineer’s diploma, dental surgeon’s diploma, etc.). Diplôme d’études approfondies (DEA). Qualification awarded after the maîtrise by St.

Joseph University on submission of a short dissertation which shows the results of individual work and constitutes an initiation to scientific research. Diplôme d’études scientifiques préparatoires. Diploma awarded, for example, at the

engineering faculty of the St. Joseph University, after the first two years of higher studies in higher mathematics and special mathematics. Diplôme d‘études supérieures (DES). Qualification awarded by the Institute of History of

the faculty of arts of the University of the Holy Spirit after the licence and on submission of a short dissertation. Diplôme d’études universitaires générales. Diploma awarded after the first two years of

university study at certain faculties of the St. Joseph University. Diplôme universitaire de technologie (DUT). Qualification which used to be awarded by the

St. Joseph University. Candidates spent two years acquiring a wider knowledge than that of technician and higher specialization than that of engineer. Doctorate. Qualification of higher education obtained in different institutions of higher

education under varying conditions, according to subjects and types of institution. A doctorate in philosophy (PhD) is awarded by the American University in Arab history, Arab literature, medicine and agricultural studies, usually after three years’ research following upon the bachelor’s degree. The University of the Holy Spirit confers doctorats de 3ème cycle after two years’ study following upon the diplôme détudes approfondies in philosophy, humanities and musicology and after two years’ study following upon the diplôme détudes supérieures in history. It awards doctorats dEtat after two years’ further study. St. Joseph University awards doctorates in theology, medicine, pharmacy, law, political sciences, economics and arts upon submission and defence of a thesis. Students in the faculty of medicine obtain the title of docteur en médecine after seven years’ study-in this case, the doctorate is a first degree. Licence. University degree awarded after three years of higher education in every subject

except law (four years) at St. Joseph University and at the University of the Holy Spirit

170 LEBANON

(institute of liturgy, institute of history) after four years in philosophy and humanities, musicology, musical education. The University of the Holy Spirit awards licences in teaching after four years, the licence in commercial studies after five years, the licence in theologyafter six years. Magistère. University degree awarded following the licence, after five years’ study and the

presentation of dissertation (faculty of arts and humanities of the Lebanese University). Maîtrise. Higher degree obtained after one year’s study following upon the licence. Master’s degree. Higher degree awarded by the American University after one year’s

specialization following upon the bachelor’s degree. It is usually designated by an abbreviation: MA (master of arts); MBA (master in business administration); MS (master of science).

Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See baccalauréat.

Lesotho

In Lesotho higher education takes place in the National University of Lesotho, Roma, which was founded in 1975 after the division of the University of Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland (see also sections on Botswana and Swaziland). The University is administered by a council and, in academic matters, by a senate, and is made up of four faculties: education, arts and humanities, science, and social sciences. The language of instruction is English. Teachers of primary education are trained at secondary level. Teachers of secondary

education are trained at the university. The certificate in primary education is conferred after two years ofpart-time study, and the diploma in education is conferred after two years of part- time study following upon the certificate in primary education. At the higher level, the postgraduate certificate in education is awarded to holders of a bachelor’s degree of a recognized university after one year (full-time) or two years (part-time). Access to higher education is based on the Cambridge overseas school certificate obtained

after seven years’ primary and five years’ secondary education. This examination is organized in the United Kingdom. Holders of the general certificate of education and adults over twenty- five having successfully passed the special entrance examination may also gain entrance to the university under certain conditions. The main stage in higher education (undergraduate studies) lasts four years, divided into

two two-year phases. It leads in humanities, in science, in commercial studies and in education to the award of the bachelor’s degree (first degree). In law, the bachelor of law degree is awarded after obtaining the bachelor of artJ degree and a minimum of two years’ full-time study. Students who wish to follow specialized studies not offered at the University (e.g. anthropology, fine arts, dentistry, engineering, architecture, medicine, pharmacy, social

LESOTHO 171

work, veterinary medicine) may, after satisfactory completion of the first phase. pursue their studies further in another African or foreign university. Professional qualifications are awarded as certifïcates in statistics (after two years’ full-time

study) and in business studies (after two years’ part-time study). A second stage, open to the holders of a bachelor’s degree, leads to the award of the master’s

degree after two years of study in arts (MA) and in science (MSc). The master ofeducation degree may be obtained by holders of a bachelor’s degree in a teaching subject on submission of a thesis, and after one year’s full-time study and one and a half years’ research work, or after two years’ part-time study and one or two years’ research work.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, Cambridge overseas school certificate)

years 4 5 6

B M/BL

BL bachelor’s degree in law B bachelor’s degree M master’s degree

GLOSSARY Bachelor’s degree. First degree (undergraduate studies) obtained after four years’ study in

arts, science, commercial studies and education. In law, the bachelor of law degree is awarded after obtaining the bachelor of arts degree and a minimum of two years‘ full-time study, Cambridge overseas school certificate, Secondary-school-leaving certificate obtained after

seven years’ primary and five years’ secondary education. The examination is organized in the United Kingdom and gives access to higher education.

Certificate. See professional qualification. Diploma. See professional qualification. Master’s degree. Higher degree of higher education awarded at the end ofgraduate studies.

It is conferred on holders of a bachelor’s degree after two more years of study in arts and science. The master of education degree is awarded to holders of a bachelor’s degree in a teaching subject on submission of a thesis. and after one year’s full-time study and one and a half years’ research work, or after two years’ part-time study and one or two years’ research work. Professional qualification. Higher education qualification obtained as a certifcateafter two

years’ study in business studies and statistics, or as a diploma in theology after two years. A certificate in education usually takes one year (graduate studies) after a bachelor’s degree in a teaching speciality. Çecondaryschool-leaving certificate. See Cambridge overseas school certficate.

172 LIBERIA

Liberia

In Liberia higher education takes place in three degree-granting institutions. The University of Liberia is made up of colleges and schools (social sciences, humanities,

science and technology, law, education, agriculture and forestry, and medicine). It also includes a department of extra-mural studies and an institute of African studies and research. It is directed by a board of trustees, made up of governmental representatives and of representatives from industry. The advisory council, which comprises all heads of administration and of the colleges and schools, advises the president on matters relating to internal administration. The University is under the authority of the visitor and the board of trustees. Cuttington University College, which is administered by the Episcopalian Church, has

divisions for science, for the human and social sciences, nursing and education, and technology. It acquired its present title in 1976. In 1978 the William V.S. Tubman College of Technology opened. It is controlled by the

State and offers a three-year associate degree course in engineering technology. Financial provision for the University of Liberia comes almost entirely from the State and

student fees make up only a small part of it. Cuttington University College is financed by the Episcopalian Church and a government subsidy. Lower-primary teachers are trained in institutions which are of upper-secondary level, in

two years for fundamental education teachers, and in three years in the teacher-training institutes. The courses lead to the award of the lower-primary teacher’s certipcate. A bachelor’s degree, obtained after four years of higher education, is a necessary qualification to teach in secondary schools. The language of instruction is English. Access to higher education is based on the upper-secondary certificate, awarded after six

years of primary and six years of secondary schooling in a senior higher school or in a technical school. The lower-primary teacher’s certificate also gives access to higher education. All candidates for higher education have to pass an obligatory entrance examination. Four years of higher education lead to the award of the bachelor’s degree. Entry to legal

studies requires at least two years of previous higher education and then the degree ofbachelor of law is awarded after three years. The doctorate of medicine is conferred after seven years.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, upper-secondary certificate and entrance examination)

years 4 5 6 7

B D

B bachelor’s degree D doctorate (medicine)

GLOSSARY Bachelor’s degree. Degree of higher education awarded after four years of higher education.

In order to study law at least two years of previous higher education are required. In order to begin the study of theology a bachelor’s degree is required.

LIBERIA 173

Doctorate. Professional title awarded in medicine after seven years’ study. Entrance examination. See lower-primary teacher’s cert@ate and upper-secondary

certificate. Lower-primary teacher’s certificate. Secondary-school-leaving certificate which gives the

right to teach in lower-primary classes. It is obtained after six years of primary education and six years of secondary education, the latter being divided into two phases of three years each. The second phase may be undertaken through a three-year course in a teacher-training institute. The last two years of the second phase may be spent in preparation for becoming a fundamental education teacher. In both cases the courses lead to the award of the lower- primary teacher’s certificate which, after success in an entrance examination, gives a right to higher education. Upper-secondary certificate. Secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded after six years of

primary education and six years of secondary education. The latter is divided into two phases of three years given respectively in the junior and senior high school. The first phase of secondary education is considered a guidance phase. The second phase may also be followed in a technical school. In both the senior high school and the technical school studies lead to the award of the upper-secondary certificate. (See also lower-primary teacher’s certificate.) In order to enter higher education there is a compulsory entrance examination.

Luxemburg

In Luxemburg higher education is provided in the University Centre, in the International University Institute, as well as in a pedagogical institute. The University Centre, which acquired its present name and status in 1974, is entirely

financed by the State but enjoys wide autonomy. It comprises three departments (law and economics, arts and humanities, science) and two training departments. one for training teachers, the other in law. A mathematics seminar for lifelong training for teachers in this subject and for research is affiliated to the Centre. In the departments, students may follow first-year university courses which are adapted to those of neighbouring countries and which, according to the choice of subject, lead to a certijïcat dérudes juridiques et éconorniques, a certificat d’études littéraires et de sciences humaines. or a cerrijïcat déîudesscienti3ques. Since these qualifications are recognized by the governments or the universities of the German Federal Republic, Austria, Belgium. Canada, France and the United Kingdom. holders may easily go abroad to pursue their studies further. The courses of the legal training department, which are compulsory for candidates to the bar, magistracy and notary studies, are centred on the specificity of Luxemburg law in various fields. Since the Centre is an institution of higher education, it is also concerned with promoting scientific research, both in its departments and in collaboration with the research institutes of neighbouring universities. The International University Institute is composed of a faculty for comparative law,

political science and a centre for European studies and research. Every year, the Institute

174 LUXEMBURG

organizes postgraduate courses and colloquia concerned with the scientific and practical problems arising from the growth of the economy and the evolution of laws, especially in the European Community. The legal training department of the University Centre organizes a course of short-term

studies (two years) in economics and law which enables students to re-cycle and to orientate themselves more quickly towards professional practice. This course leads to a diploma. Primary teachers are trained at post-secondary level in two years at the pedagogical

institute of Luxemburg-Walferdange. Courses lead to the primary teacher's certificate (brevet d'aptitude pédagogique). After further studies, holders of the brevet d'aptitude pédagogique may obtain a brevet d'enseignement complémentaire or the brevet d'enseignement moyen. The first year of practical training of future secondary school teachers takes place at the teacher-training department of the University Centre. The language of instruction is French. Access to higher education is based on the examen de fin d'études secondaires (secondary-

school-leaving certificate), which admits students to universities in Belgium, France, Germany and Switzerland. Entrance to the pedagogical institute is based on the level of results in the examination.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 13 years, examen de fin d'études secondaires)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6

Education BAP BEC BEM Law Cer Di Arts, humanities Cer Science Cer

BAP brevet daptitude pédagogique BEC brevet d'enseignement complémentaire BEM brevet d'enseignement moyen Cer certificat d'études juridiques et économiques

certificat d'études littéraires et de sciences humaines certificat d'études scientqiques diplôme d'études universitaires pratiques en économie et en droit Di

GLOSSARY Brevet d'aptitude pédagogique. Qualification obtained after a two-year training course at the

pedagogical institute. Holders are allowed to teach in primary education. Brevet d'enseignement complémentaire. Holders of the brevet d'aptitude pédagogique may,

after a further two years' study, take the examination for the brevet d'enseignement complémentaire, which entitles them to teach in the schools giving a three-year post-primary course which, following upon six years of primary education, terminates the period of compulsory schooling. Brevet d'enseignement moyen. Holders of the brevet d'enseignement complémentaire who

study for a further two years may sit for the brevetd'enseignement moyen. This enables them to teach in a collège d'enseignement moyen. Certificat d'études juridiques et économiques; certificat d'études littéraires et de sciences

LUXEMBURG 175

humaines; certificat d’études scientifiques. Qualifications obtained after one year’s study at the University Centre in law and economics, arts and humanities, and science, giving access to further studies abroad. Diplôme d‘études universitaires pratiques en économie et en droit. Qualification awarded at

the end of short-term studies (two years) at the legal training department of the University Centre. Examen de fin d’études secondaires. Examination taken at the end of seven years of

secondary education following upon six years of primary education. Secondary education is divided into a first phase lasting three years and a second phase lasting four. Holders of this qualification gain access to higher education; entrance to the pedagogical institute, however, is based on the level of results in the examination. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See examen de fin d’études secondaires.

Madagascar

In Madagascar, higher education is provided by the University of Madagascar, subject of the comprehensive reform set out in the directive 76-043 of the 27th of December 1976. This directive states that ‘the University of Madagascar is constituted by the regional university centres distributed throughout the nation. each of which comprises both higher education establishments and university research bodies thereto affiliated’. The application of this directive took the form of the April 1977 decree of foundation of six regional university centres-those of Antanarivo, Antsirannana, Fianarantsoa, Mahajanga, Toamasina and Toliary. In conformity with the aims of the Charter of the Socialist Revolution, the University of

Madagascar participates in the establishing of priorities for the programmes of research to be carried out under its auspices.

It is a public institution of a cultural, scientific and technical kind, a legal entity in its own right enjoying administrative and financial autonomy. Its funding is undertaken by the Madagascar government. The regional university centres were founded with the following aims: to accelerate the

development of the provinces, to consolidate national unity and to pave the way for a real democratization. The centres comprise: (a) higher education establishments offering instruction in law, economics, administration, sociology, science, health sciences, engineering, humanities, and agriculture; and (b) research institutes whose rôle is to govern the development of regional resources and the social, economic and technical infrastructures this requires. The teaching languages are French and Madagascan. Teachers are trained within the framework of the University under the guidance of the

Higher National Institute for Research and Education. Primary school-teachers are trained over two years, secondary teachers over three or four years. Higher education teachers and

176 MADAGASCAR

research workers are selected from students in the third cycle of university; they are required to have received instruction in education. The University also includes an institute for research into the teaching of mathematics. Access to higher education is normally based on the baccalauréat which is awarded on

completion of seven years of secondary studies. A special entrance examination allows candidates who do not have the baccalauréaf to enter higher education under certain circumstances. Various foreign diplomas are recognized as equivalent to the baccalauréat. Access t? courses for the capacité in law or management is open to those who do not have

the baccalauréat, subject to a compulsory entrance test. These courses last two years, and holders of the capacité may then enrol for the corresponding degree course. The first stage of higher education comprises two years' study devoted to the acquisition of

knowledge on a broad multi-disciplinary basis. It leads to the diplômes universitaires d'études

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 13 years, baccalauréat)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 ~ ~~

Education P P/L P Arts DUEL L M DEA D3C Law C/ L M D3C

Economics DFEPC L M D3C Administrative C/ L M D3C

DFEPC

sciences DFEPC Sociology DFEPC L M Science DUES L M DEA D3C Engineering DUET P D3 C Medical sciences health sciences DUEPS L M medicine DM

Agriculture, forestry DUET P

C D D3C DEA DES DFEPC DI DM DUEL DUEPS DUES DUET L M P

capacité doctorat d'Ela1 doctorat de troisième cycle diplôme d'études approfondies diplôme d'études supérieures diplôme de jïn d'études du premier cycle diplôme d'ingénieur (titre professionnel) doctorat en médecine diplôme universitaire d'études littéraires diplôme universitaire d'éducation physique et sportive diplôme universitaire d'études scientifiques diplôme universitaire d'études technologiques licence maîtrise professional qualification

MADAGASCAR 177

littéraires in humanities, détudes scientifiques in science, d‘éducation physique et sportive in health sciences, physical education branch; in the higher polytechnical school to the diplôme universitaire détudes technologiques; and in law, economics, management and sociology to the diplôme de fin d‘études du premier cycle in the relevant subject. The second stage reflects greater knowledge and experience of the subject-matter. In law,

economics, management, sociology, humanities, science, and physical and sports education the licence is awarded after three years, the maîtrise after four. The professional qualifications of engineer and agricultural engineer are also awarded after

four years. The third stage involves a high degree of specialization, and initiation in research work. The

award of the diplôme d’études supérieures in law and economics allows the candidate to proceed to the doctorat. while in science, humanities and engineering the diplôme d‘études approfondies leads after a minimum of one further year to the doctorat du 3è cycle. Studies in the higher institution of health sciences (in the faculty of medicine) last seven

years (including the period of clinical experience) and lead to the doctorate in medicine.

GLOSSARY Baccalauréat. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, obtained after six years of primary

Ïollowed by seven years of general or technical secondary education. The latter is divided into two phases, a four-year ‘lower’ and a three-year ‘upper’ phase, when candidates choose a literary or scientific option. The baccalauréat gives access to higher education. Capacité en droit/en gestion. Qualifications of higher education, awarded at the end of two

years’ study in law or management. Candidates are not required to hold a baccalauréat. Diplôme d’études approfondies (DEA). Qualification of higher education, awarded on

submission of a mémoire (short thesis) in science, humanities and engineering, one year after the maîtrise, that is, after five years in higher education. It is required for the doctorars de troisième cycle and d‘Etat (the latter not yet awarded). Diplôme d’études supérieures. Qualification awarded in law and economics, required for the

doctorats de troisième cycle and d‘Etat. It includes written examinations and the submission of a mémoire (short thesis). The course is of two years, and open only to those who already have the maîtrise. Diplôme d’ingénieur. See professional qualification. Diplôme universitaire d’éducation physique et sportive (DUEPS). Qualification obtained

after the first cycle (of two years) of higher education in health sciences (physical and sports education branch). Diplôme universitaire d’études littéraires (DUEL). Qualification obtained at the end of the

first phase of studies (two years) in humanities. Candidates must pass an examination at the end of each year. Diplôme universitaire d’études scientifiques (DUES). Qualification obtained at the end of the

first phase of studies in science. Candidates have to pass an examination at the end of each year. Diplôme universitaire d’études technologiques (DUET). Qualification awarded after two

years’ studies at the higher polytechnical school. Doctorat de troisième cycle. Qualification of higher education awarded at least one year

after the diplôme d‘études approfondies and reflecting specialization and research work. Doctorat en médecine. Qualification of higher education awarded by the Higher Institution

of Health Sciences (faculty of medicine) after seven years (including clinical experience). Licence. First degree of higher education, obtained after three years’ study. Studies are

divided into two phases. In humanities, the first phase (consisting of two years’ study on a broad multidisciplinary basis), leads to the diplôme universitaire d‘études lirtéraires (DUEL). The second phase, of one year’s study, leads to the licence.

178 MADAGASCAR

Maîtrise. Second degree of higher education, awarded after four years’ study. The first two years (first phase) are common to the licence and the maîtrise, and give basic knowledge on a broad multidisciplinary basis. The second phase also spans two years, during which students acquire deeper knowledge of their subject. The first year leads to the licence and the second year to the maîtrise. Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education awarded after four years’ study

by the higher polytechnical and agricultural schools. The qualification is diplôme d‘ingénieur. Special entrance examination. Examination giving access to higher education to candidates

who do not hold a baccalauréat or equivalent qualification.

Malawi

In Malawi higher education takes place in the three constituent colleges of the University: college of agriculture (Bunda College), college of arts, education, science, social sciences, law and public administration (Chancellor College), and the Polytechnic. Plans are well under way for the inclusion of a college of nursing. The aim of the University is to bring together all post-secondary education in the country and to encourage the exchange of students, professors and courses between the constituent institutions. The University is governed by a council, most of whose members are appointed by the Government. The senate, composed of academics, is responsible for academic matters. The University awards diplomas and degrees, as well as various certificates for short part-time courses. T h e University is mainly supported by government grants (95 per cent) with benefactions (two per cent) and external aid (three per cent). The language of instruction is English. Access to higher education is based on the Malawi certijïcate of education in which normally

at least five credits must be obtained, or the general certificate of education, ordinary level. Both may be taken after eight years of primary and four years of secondary education. The results in these examinations must be excellent, and the subjects must be those required by the branch of higher education which the candidate wishes to enter. One secondary school offers courses at the upper level of secondary education, leading to the general certificate of education, advanced level. Teachers of primary education are trained at the lower-secondary level in teacher-training

colleges; the courses last two years. Teachers of secondary education are trained at the post- secondary level at Chancellor College: a three-year course leads to a diploma in education; a five-year course leads to a degree ofbachelor of education of the University. Technical teachers are trained jointly at the Polytechnic and Chancellor College.

The first stage (undergraduate studies) leads to the award of the bachelor’s degree (first degree) or a professional qualification. The bachelor’s degree is usually obtained after four years of study, but after five in agriculture, commerce, and law, and six years in engineering. At present, honours degrees have been introduced in a few subjects. A professional

MALAWI 179

qualification is awarded as a diploma after three years of study (e.g. agriculture, business studies, administration, etc.). The second stage leads, after two to four years of graduate studies, to a master’s degree ora

professional qualification. The muster’s degree is available in humanities and science. A professional qualification is awarded as a diploma in public administration (one year) and in education. A third stage may lead, subject to the availability of supervisors, to a doctor’s degree (PhD,

doctor of philosophy) after three to five years. Candidates have to submit a major thesis.

PROFILE OF H I G H E R STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, Malawi certificate of education or general certificate of education)

years 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education Arts Law Social sciences Administration Commercial sciences Exact and natural sciences

Engineering Agriculture

B bachelor’s degree qualification

P P B H M M M

P P ~

B M

P B P B

H honours degree M master’s degree P professional

G L O S S A R Y Bachelor’s degree. First degree (undergraduate studies) usually obtained after four years’

study, but five in agriculture, education, and law. At present, it exists largely as an ordinary degree, but a number of subjects are introducing an honours degree. Certificate of education. A secondary-school leaving certificate is obtained after eight years

of primary and four years of secondary education. The candidate takes ordinary level examinations in subjects required by the branch of higher education he wishes to enter. Very good results must be obtained. Some schools enter their pupils for the school Certificate instead, but these examinations have the same validity. Thegeneral certificate ofeducation and the school certijïcare are organized in the United Kindgom (see the entry for United Kingdom). Diploma. See professional qualification. First degree. See bachelor’s degree. Honours degree. See bachelor’s degree. Master’s degree. Higher degree (graduate studies) at present available only in humanities

Ordinary degree. See bachelor’s degree. Professional qualification. Higher education qualification awarded as a diploma after three

and science.

180 MALAWI

years’ study at the undergraduate level, and after one year’s study at the graduate level, in public administration and in education. School certificate. See certificate of education. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See certificate of education.

Malaysia

In Malaysia higher education is provided in five universities and in various colleges. The University and University Colleges Act of 1971 provides a common legislative framework for all universities in Malaysia. All institutions of higher education are under the supervision of the Minister of Education. All universities administer themselves and are government- financed. The Act also provides that no university or university college may be established except in accordance with the Act (s. 5) and that a university or a university college is to be established in accordance with an Incorporation Order signed by the King. The languages of instruction in institutions of higher education are Bahasa Malaysia

(national language) and English. The University of Malaya has faculties of arts, economics and administration, education,

engineering, medicine, dentistry and law. The University of Science Malaysia at Penang offers courses in natural science, social sciences, humanities, education, pharmaceutical science, applied sciences, building science and technology. The University is divided into schools. Within each school it is possible to study for a degree in a specialized field whilst at the same time becoming acquainted with other fields of study. The National University has faculties of social sciences and humanities, science, Islamic

studies, medicine, economics and business administration, and an Institute of Bahasa and Kesusasteraan Melayu (Malay language and literature). The University of Agriculture provides courses both at degree and diploma level in the

fields of agricultural sciences, veterinary medicine and animal science, business studies, environmental studies, as well as diploma courses in science with education. The University of Technology has faculties of engineering, architecture and surveying. It

also provides courses at both degree and diploma level. There are other institutions which provide technical education such as polytechnics, the

MARA Institute of Technology and the Tunku Abdul Rahman College and a large number of teacher-training colleges train lower-secondary and primary teachers. The minimum entry requirement for admission into the teacher-training colleges is the

Malaysian certificate of education, with a credit in Bahasa Malaysia (the national language), and two other subjects. The course is of two years’duration. Teachers for the upper-andpost- secondary levels are trained at university. The University of Malaya through its faculty of education offers two types of programmes: a one-year postgraduate course leading to a diploma in education; and a four-year undergraduate programme leading to a bachelor’s degree in education. The University of Science and the National University also offer a four-

MALAYSIA 181

year degree course with concurrent professional training. The University of Agriculture and the University of Technology also offer a three-year diploma course in science with education. The first level for access to higher education is the Malaysian certificate examination (taken

by pupils in grade 11). This examination is used for selecting pupils for post-secondary education or for entry into the various diploma and certificate level courses in higher educational institutions. At the post-secondary level two years of education (grades 12 and 13) is provided to pupils selected on the basis of their performance in the Malaysian certifïcate of education. At the end of the two years pupils sit for the higher schoolcertificate examination. This examination is largely used for entrants into the universities. It is also a qualification for appointment to certain jobs in the private and public sectors. The main stage of higher education leads either to a diploma (at the University of

Technology and the University of Agriculture) or to a bachelor’s degree. The structure offirst degree courses presents a varied pattern. Both honours and pass degree courses in the humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences may be either of three or four years’ duration while for medicine, dentistry, and veterinary science five or six years are required. An exception to the normal three-year period is in the National University where a student on completion of the three-year course is awarded a puss degree and if selected continues for another year to obtain honours. In other universities a puss degree may be awarded to those who fail to reach an honours standard in the examinations. A second stage leads to a master’s degree after one or two years of study. A third stage is

reached after a further two years’ study and individual research leading to the degree ofdoctor ofphilosophy (PhD). A higher doctor’s degree may be awarded after five years in literature, and seven years in law

and science.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 11 years + 2 years, higher school certijïcate examination)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Education Letters Economic sciences Administration Commercial sciences Natural sciences Engineering sciences Medicine Agriculture

P M B M D B B M D

P B M D B M D

B M D

P B M D

B bachelor’s degree D doctor’s degree M master’s degree P professional qualijïcation

GLOSSARY Bachelor’s degree. First degree awarded after undergraduate studies lasting three years

(pass degree) or four years (honours degree). Professional qualifications are also awarded after four years (agriculture, engineering) to six years (medicine, dentistry). Doctor’s degree. Highest degree, awarded at two levels: (a) the degree of doctor ofphilosophy

182 MALAYSIA

(PhD) is awarded after two years’ research following upon the master’s degree and submission of a thesis; (b) the doctor’sdegree in literature (DLit), science (DSc) and law (LLD), awarded after five to seven years’ study following upon the master’s degree or P h D leading to a thesis. Exceptionally, the doctor’s degree may be awarded after studies following directly upon a bachelor’s degree with honours. Higher school certificate examination. Secondary-school-leaving qualification, obtained

after six years of primary education followed by five years of secondary education leading to the Malaysian certificafe of education examination, then followed by two years’ post- secondary education (13 years in all). Subjects are chosen to correspond with the ones that candidates wish to study at university. Malaysian certificate of education examination. Secondary-school-leaving qualification,

obtained after six years ofprimaryeducation followed by five years of secondary education. It entitles holders to enter technical, agricultural and teacher-training colleges, then continue to higher education. It also entitles candidates to enter post-secondary education. Professional qualification. Awarded as a certificate after two to five years’ technical or

professional training, the last one to three of which are at higher education level. Postgraduate certificates and diplomas are awarded one to two years after the bachelor’s degree. The bachelor’s degree may be a professional qualification (dentistry, veterinary medicine, medicine, law).

Mali

In the Republic of Mali higher education is given in ten institutions of higher education. T h e National School of Administration trains for careers in administration, magistracy and diplomacy, as well as for the legal, social, economic and financial services. The National School of Engineers is a higher institution of education comprising sections for civil engineering, mechanical engineering, surveying, geology and electrical engineering. The Rural Polytechnical Institute at Katibugu, Kulikoro, is devoted to the training of technicians and engineers in agriculture, husbandry, forestry, and rural engineering. The Higher Institute of Rural Studies and Applied Research, Bamako (Institut supérieur de Pédagogie rurale et de Recherches appliquées, Bamako) trains doctors in agricultural studies in three years. The School of Medicine, Pharmacy and Dentistry trains medical doctors and pharmacists. The higher teacher-training institution, which is financed by a special fund of the United Nations and by the State, trains secondary school-teachers and inspectors for basic schools in three years. Teaching is given in French. Training of primary school-teachers is given at secondary level in teacher-training

Short courses of two years are offered at the Rural Polytechnical Institute; they lead to a institutions. Secondary teachers are trained in the higher teacher-training institution.

qualification as a technician.

MALI 183

Access to higher education is given through the baccalauréat, awarded after nine years at the basic school followed by three years of secondary schooling. Although this qualification is as a general rule necessary, it is not always sufficient, because anumber of institutions also require success in a competitive entrance examination. Candidates wishing to enter the Institut de Productivité et de Gestion prévisionnelle must hold a licence or an equivalent qualification. In the various institutions of higher education in Mali, themain stageof studies comprises a

three- or four-year course which entails study in depth of subjects and practical experience. This stage leads at the end to a diploma or a professional qualification as engineer, secondary teacher, doctor in medicine and pharmacist (both after five and a half years’ study). A further stage is reached at the Centre pédagogique supérieur, an institution which was

founded in 1970 and which comprises sections for ecology, entomology, microbiology, comparative literature, geology, applied linguistics and animal biology, and which gives training at the postgraduate level. Studies corresponding to a third stage are offered at: the Institut de Productivité et de

Gestion prévisionnelle, leading to a doctorat; and at the Rural Polytechnical Institute at Katibugu leading to a diplôme de docteur-ingénieur et sciences.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, baccalauréat)

years 4 5 6 7

P/Di DM/P D

D doctorat (including docteur-ingénieur) Di diplôme DM docteur en médecine P professional qualification

GLOSSARY Baccalauréat. Qualification awarded as a leaving certificate after three years of secondary

education following upon nine years in a basic school. In the latter, a first phase of four years is followed by a second phase of five years. The baccalauréat gives access to higher education, but entrance sometimes depends also on success in a competitive entrance examination. Diplôme. Diploma awarded after a course in various institutions, such as the National

School of Administration, to those students who pass the final examinations. A diploma of docteur en médecine and a diploma of pharmacien are awarded after five and a half years (see professional qualification). A diploma of docteur-ingénieur is awarded at the Rural Polytechnical Institute at Katibugu after three years’ study after the award of the first degree. Doctorate. Degree of higher education awarded as a doctorai de troisième cycle in

agricultural studies by the Higher Institute of Rural Studies and Applied Research (Institut supérieur de Pédagogie rurale et de Recherches appliquées). A doctorate is also awarded by the Institut de Productivité et de Gestion prévisionnelle, and a diploma ofdocteur-ingénieuris conferred by the Rural Polytechnical Institute at Katibugu. Entrance examination. Competitive entrance examination organized in certain institutions

of higher education to select the best candidates (concours d‘entrée). Professional qualification. Qualification awarded after courses in certain institutions of

higher education, e.g. as engineer, teacher, pharmacist, medical doctor, etc. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See baccalauréat.

184

Malta MALTA

In Malta higher education takes place in three institutions, the Old University, the New University* and the Faculty of Theology. The Old University is assigned four branches of learning, namely science, the humanities, law and theology. The New University is assigned ten branches, namely accountancy, administration, business management, architecture, engineering, medicine, surgery, dentistry, pharmacy, education and related branches of learning. As regards theology, the Old University does not provide instruction but it is empowered to confer degrees at the end of the course of studies which is pursued at the Diocesan Faculty of Theology. Admission to the universities is governed by the provisions of the Education Act 1974. In

allowing admission to any course, the universities are required to give preference to worker- students. Subject to availability of places, other students may, however, be allowed to pursue courses held at the universities. Access to higher education is gained by the possession of the necessary academic

qualifications required by the applicable statutes and rules, and selection for admission by the Students' Selection Board. The academic qualifications required are the Malta matriculation examination, the general certificate of education of UK examining bodies and/or equivalent educational certificates of other countries. The entry requirements normally consist of a number of subjects which the candidate chooses according to the requirements of his chosen field of higher education. Candidates must qualify in either eight subjects-two of which must

*The Old and New universities have recently been combined to form the University ofMaka.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, Malta matriculation examination or general Certificate of education)

years 3 4 5 6 7' 8

Education Accountancy Administration Architecture Arts Business management Engineering Law Medical sciences medicine dentistry pharmacy

Science Theology

B B

B/P M B M

~

B P

P B

B B M

B bachelor's degree D doctor's degree M master's degree P professional qualification

MALTA 185

be passed at advanced level and the rest at ordinary level-or seven subjects, three of which must be passed at advanced level and four at ordinary level. These subjects must include English language, a second language and mathematics, as well as Maltese (overseas students may offer another language instead of Maltese). These represent minimum requirements. In addition, individual faculties impose special requirements also. The matriculation is taken after six years of primary education followed by five years of secondary and two years of upper-secondary (sixth-form) studies. The first stage of higher education leads to the award of the bachelor’s degree or of a

professional qualification. The bachelor’s degree is obtained in three, four or five years according to the field of study. In the faculty of arts, it is awarded after three years as ageneral degree. Professional qualifications are obtained after five years’ study (doctor of medicine and of law). Other qualifications are marked by certificates or diplornas. The second stage leads, after a period of postgraduate studies lasting one year (science), two

years (arts) or two years (architecture), to the master’s degree. The third stage leads. after at least three years following upon the master’s degree, to the

doctor’s degree (doctor ofphilosophy, PhD). Candidates are required to submit a thesis after a period of research on an approved topic. In theology, the doctor’s degree is awarded after a minimum of one year’s study after the mastership in sacred theology.

GLOSSARY Bachelor’s degree. First degree of higher education, awarded after three, four or five years’

study according to the subject. The qualification is either a bochelor’s degree (general) for which students study various subjects for a minimum of three years, or a bachelor’s degree (honours), for which students study one subject for two additional years. Certificate. See professional qualification. Diploma. See professional quatifcation. Doctor’s degree. Higher degree of higher education. In theology, it is awarded after a

minimum of one year’s graduate studies following upon the mastership. In other subjects, candidates have to spend at least three years on research on an approved topic leading to the submission of a thesis. General certificate of education. Secondary-school-leaving certificate issued in the United

Kingdom and recognized by the senate of the University of Malta as equivalent to the matriculation. General degree. See bachelor’s degree. Honours degree. See bachelor’s degree. Master’s degree. Higher degree of higher education following graduate studies, normally

awarded after at least two years’ study following upon the bachelor’s degree (one year in science) and the submission of a dissertation. Matriculation examination. Secondary-school-leaving examination held by the University

for pupils having completed six years’ primary school and five to seven years of secondary education. The examination comprises papers in a number of subjects at two levels: ordinary level and advanced level. After the fifth year of secondary studies, candidates usually sit for various papers of the United Kingdom (London or Oxford) general certificate of education, ordinary level. They then continue their studies for one or two years to obtain the number and combination of examination passes at advanced level required for admission to higher education in their chosen field of study. Professional qualification. Higher education qualification obtained after one to five years’

study. In medicine and law, the qualification is obtained after five years’ study and is that of doctor (see doctor’s degree). Professional qualifications are normally marked by the award of a certificate or a diploma. Other professional qualifications are: diplomas in administration (DBA, DPA) after three years’ part-time study; notary public after four years; diploma in

186 MALTA

architecture and civil engineering after five years (taken concurrently with the qualification of bachelor of architecture). Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See general certificate of education, matriculation

examination.

Mauritania

In Mauritania higher education is provided in the teacher-training college, Nouakchott, founded in 1970, which trains secondary teachers. The college has links with Tunis University, where holders of the secondary teaching diploma may continue their studies. There is also a school of administration. The teacher-training college, which includes departments of human and natural sciences,

letters and education, is under the authority of the central government, and financed mainly from the public budget. Some aid comes from the French government, as well as from Algeria and Canada. All students receive substantial scholarships. Teaching takes place in French and Arabic. Access is obtained through the baccalauréat (secondary-school-leaving qualification) or

There is also a national school of management, founded in 1966, which confers a diplôme through an entrance examination.

after five years' study.

Mauritius

Higher education in Mauritius is offered inter alia by the University which comprises three institutions, the school of agriculture, the school of administration and a school of industrial technology. Most formal teaching takes place in English, but extensive use is also made of French. The school of agriculture is divided into six sections: botany, chemistry, management,

MAURITIUS 187

zoology, animal production and crop production. Its teaching concentrates mainly on sugar agriculture and technology. The school of administration is divided into five centres: accountancy studies, applied

social and technical studies, business management studies, economics and social studies, public administration. The school of industrial technology is divided into five divisions: civil, electrical,

mechanical, physics and electronics, sugar technology. Shorter studies are offered leading in one year approximately to a certificate (e.g. co-

operatives, library, electronics). Other courses lead after two years’ part-time study to a diploma (e.g. personnel management, social work). The school of agriculture confers an in- service government laboratory technician’s diploma in medical laboratory technology after successful completion of four years’ part-time study. At the school of industrial technology, two years’ full-time study in civil or mechanical and

electrical engineering lead to an ordinary technician’s diploma (City and Guilds of London Institute). Access to higher education is based on the general certificate of education ‘O’ and ‘A’ levels

obtained at the end of 1 1 to 12 years of primary and secondary education. The main stage in higher education leads normally after three years’ study either to a

diploma (agriculture, engineering, accountancy) or to a bachelor’s degree (agriculture and sugar technology, administration, engineering-the latter requiring four years’ study). A further stage may be reached after research and presentation of a thesis. This leads to a

master ofphi1osoph.y or a docfor ofphilosophy. The period of study for MPhil is two years full- time or three years part-time and for PhD is three years full-time or five years part-time. Candidates are expected to hold at least a first degree of the University (second class honours).

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 11/12 years, general certificate of education)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Personnel management, social work, Di*

Agriculture and sugar technology B/Di MPhil PhD Administration des entreprises Di* Di

co-operatives

Administration and accountancy Di B/Di MPhil PhD Engineering OTD Di B MPhil PhD

B bachelor’s degree Di diploma, diplôme MPhil niaster of philosophy OTD ordinary technician’s diploma PhD doctor of philosophy

* Part-time

GLOSSARY Bachelor’s degree. A bachelor ofscience honours may be obtained in agriculture or in sugar

technology after a minimum of three years’ study. Degrees are divided into four classes: first, second (i), second (ii), third. The BA(Hons) Administration is awarded after three years’ study, the BTech Honours Certificate in civil, electrical, electronic and mechanical engineering after four years’ full-time study. It may be obtained in various subjects after one

188 MAURITIUS

year’s study, after a diploma-often part-time (in sugar-cane production, road construction, electronics, co-operative studies). Diploma. Professional qualification obtainable in various subjects. In agriculture, diplomas

are awarded after three years’ study. In industrial technology, the diploma in engineering is also awarded after three years’ full-time study. In the school of administration, diplomas may be obtained after two years’ part-time study, e.g. social work, co-operative administration, personnel management, diplôme supérieur universitaire en administration des entreprises. Three years’ full-time or part-time studies in accountancy lead to a diploma recognized by the Association of Certified and Corporate Accountants (London). The diplôme supérieur universitaire en gestion des entreprises is awarded after three years’ full-time study. Doctor of philosophy. Higher degree obtainable after three years’ full-time study or five

years’ part-time study and the presentation of a thesis in agriculture (including zoology and agricultural management) and sugar technology, civil and electrical engineering. General certificate of education. Secondary-school-leaving certificate obtained at the end of

11 to 12 years of primary and secondary education. Ordinary level passes are obtained after the fifth year of secondary education. Advanced level passes after one or two years’ further studies. Master of philosophy. Higher degree obtainable after two years’ full-time study or three

years’ part-time study and the presentation of a thesis in agriculture, zoology, sugar technology, agricultural management, civil and electrical engineering, administration and economics. Ordinary technician’s diploma. The University diploma is obtained after three years’ full-

time study in civil engineering and in mechanical and electrical engineering. At the end of the second year of study, candidates obtain the diploma of the City and Guilds of London Institute.

Mexico

Higher education in Mexico has set itself these objectives: to train its students for professional activities, for research work, for university teaching and for technical employment; to organize and inaugurate research work; and to obtain the maximum possible diffusion of cultural values. It is provided in a variety of establishments. The number of technical and teacher-training colleges in the country is increasing annually, and within these techno- logically orientated institutions are sometimes to be found departments normally considered to come under the province of the universities. Among some 250 institutions of higher education in Mexico, the following categories can be

distinguished: public universities, autonomous universities and those supported by one of the states of Mexico; autonomous private institutions, recognized by the Ministry of Education, the state governments or the public universities; and teacher-training and technical institutions and decentralized public institutions coming under various secretariats of state.

MEXICO 189

The total number of universities, private and public, in Mexico, is sixty, of which the oldest is the National Autonomous University of Mexico, founded in 1551 as the Universidad Real y Pontificia de México. Some dozen universities have been founded since 1972 (Aguascalientes, Baja California, Chapingo, Metropolitana, etc.); the most recent of these is the National Pedagogical University (1979). Similarly, several new regional technological institutes have been founded since 1975. The National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), the most important of Mexican

universities, is a public body regulated by federal law and enjoying educational and administrative autonomy. It comprises schools, faculties, professional schools, a college of science and humanities and an open university. The traditional schools are those of medicine, law, engineering, etc.; the faculties also offer traditional style instruction; the professional schools are multi-disciplinary and their instruction innovatory (health sciences, administration, etc.); while the College of Science and Humanities is an interdisciplinary system offering instruction in new subjects. The public, autonomous and state-dependent universities comprise the UNAM, the Autonomous Metropolitan University (whose seat is in Mexico), public universities of each Mexican state. The teacher-training establishments include: the National Pedagogical University, which is a federal institution; the advanced and specialized teacher-training colleges, and other teacher-training colleges coming under state governments; and private institutions. Private institutions include the College of Mexico, the Autonomous Technical Institute of

Mexico, the Institute of Technical and Higher Studies of Monterrey, plus those establishments officially recognized by the Ministry of Education, by the state governments or by the public universities. Public institutions of higher education are almost entirely financed by the State. Private

institutions are financed for the most part by students’ fees. The universities are divided up into faculties and schools concentrating upon one or more

subjects, and these, with the research institutes, are the basic teaching units. The schools offer instruction up to licenciaturu level, while the faculties offer postgraduate instruction up to the level of the dociorado. Higher education in the technological field is offered above all by the National Poly-

technical Institute, founded in 1946, but also by the regional technological institutes founded since 1948 to meet the need for professional training, in particular in engineering and administration. The National Polytechnical Institute includes a centre for research and higher studies which contributes to the training of research workers and teaching staff for scientific and technical subjects. Primary school-teachers are trained in teacher-training colleges at secondary level.

Secondary teachers are trained in public institutions of higher education, chief of which is the Universidad Pedagogica Nacional, or in private institutions. The legal status of institutions of higher education varies considerably. The National Association of Universities and Institutions of Higher Education was

founded in 1950 to co-ordinate internal relationships among the various institutions of higher education and their external relationships with the educational authorities of the Government or the state governments. In 1978, the Association drew up and put into practice the national plan for higher education. This plan, which comprises the totality of measures defining the conditions under which higher education in Mexico is now and in the long term to advance, has the following purposes. It aims to reinforce the existing contacts between the Ministry of Education and the higher education institutions themselves and thus to ensure the harmonious and unified development of higher education. The bodies responsible for co- ordination within the plan are the following: (a) the National Committee for Co-ordination in Higher Education, whose president is the Secretary of State for Education, and which is made up of the National Council of the National Association of Universities and Institutes of

190 MEXICO

Higher Education along with representatives from the Ministry of Education; (b) eight regional councils for the planning of higher education whose function is to apply in detail the programmes required by the national plan; (c) thirty-one state committees for planning in higher education, whose function is to fix the overall pattern of higher education in the conditions particular to each area; and various planning bodies within the higher education institutions of the country which are intended to reinforce the planning system as a whole. The award of professional qualifications is subject to legislation governing the exercise of

the liberal professions in general. The language of instruction is Spanish. Access to higher education is based on the bachilleraio, the secondary-school-leaving

certificate. This is awarded after six years of primary followed by two cycles of secondary education, each of three years, the ensefianza media bhica and ensefianza media superior. The second cycle involves a general education orientated towards university entrance. It leads to the bachilleraio, which allows access to all the establishments of higher education (universities, the National Polytechnical Institute, regional technological institutes, institutes of economics, animal husbandry and fish-farming and colleges of education). Certain establishments require either a minimum grade for the second cycle of secondary

education or that the candidate sit an entrance examination. This may be an aptitude test or a test of the candidate’s knowledge. Short courses, of two or three years as a rule, are provided in certain establishments. They

lead to professional diplomas for interpreters, secretaries, archivists, journalists, accountants,

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, bachillerato)

years 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education Arts Fine arts Law Social and economic sciences Administration, accountancy Exact and natural sciences Technology, engineering Architecture Medical sciences medicine dentistry pharmacy veterinary medicine

Agriculture

B bachiller D doctorado fication

P L M D L M D B M

L M D

P P M D P

P M D P P D P

L licenciatura M maestria P professional quali-

(The duration of studies and the names of degrees vary according to the institution, in literary studies in particular.)

MEXICO 191

nurses, social workers, physiotherapists, laboratory technicians, medical auxiliaries, topo- graphists, etc. The main stage of higher education differs in length between different institutions and

subjects. It normally leads to a university diploma (licenciatura, maestrja) or a professional qualification (in three to five years). The maestria. however, is normally reserved for postgraduate (postgrado) studies. It is then

awarded after a second stage of studies, for example (at the UNAM) in engineering, social sciences, politics, and law. Postgraduate study is open only to holders of a professional or equivalent qualification. In some universities and some subjects preparatory courses and selection procedures are imposed. A third stage, lasting between one and three years, is available in most public and certain

private universities (in the humanities. social sciences, science and education). This leads, on submission of a thesis, to the degree of doctorado.

GLOSSARY Bachillerato. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, awarded after six years of primary

education followed by a first phase of secondary education lasting three years and a second phase (for general education) lasting three years; it gives access to all faculties (cf. enfrance examination. certificado de estudios preparatorios). Cerîificado de estudios preparatorios. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, awarded after

six years of primary education followed by a first phase of secondary education lasting three years and a second phase of three years’ duration in a specialized institution. It gives entrance to higher education in certain faculties. Thus, for example, pupils leaving a teacher-training institution may enter the faculty of philosophy and humanities and the faculty of education; those leaving a technical institution may enter the majority of scientific and technological faculties (see bachillerato. entrance examination). Diploma. See professional qualification. Doctorado. The highest degree of higher education, awarded on submission of a thesis in the

following faculties; medicine, dentistry, veterinary medicine, administration, philosophy and letters, law, science. engineering, international relations, biology and education. Studies last three years, and are undertaked in the same conditions as those applying for the licenciaturu. Entrance examination. Entrance examination for certain faculties of higher education. It

may consist of a scholastic aptitude test to evaluate the candidate’s ability or examination papers to test their level of knowledge. The scholastic aptitude test is the more frequent. The formal examination is used more for entry to private institutions and to the faculty of medicine (cf bachillerato, certifcado de estudios preparatorios). Licenciatura. First university degree awarded in the following faculties: business

administration, philosophy and letters. law, economics, politics, commerce, social sciences, and fine arts. Courses last from three to five years. The university year is divided into semesters. The entire examination takes place in the presence of three professors who pose oral questions to the candidates and determine the nature of the written and practical papers they must also take. In order to take this final examination the candidate must have followed the whole course and, in the case of professional studies, have undergone the necessary practical courses. Candidates must also submit a thesis on an original subject to be sustained publicly before five examiners. Maestria. Sometimes the first degree awarded in some subjects by some universities, but

usually a higher degree awarded one to two years after the licenciaturu or a professional title (longer courses, four to five years). Professional qualification. First qualification of higher education (sometimes termed

diploma) awarded in those fields of study in which thelicenciatura is not awarded. Coursesare of varying length and are subject to the same conditions as those for the licenciatura. A

192 MEXICO

professional qualification may be the sole qualification awarded or may be followed by the licenciatura and the doctorado. Professional qualifications are also awarded after short courses of two or three years, as for example those leading to careers in nursing, physio- therapy, topography, as laboratory technician, medical assistant, archivist, etc. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See bachillerato, certificado de estudios preparatorios.

Mongolia

No information having been received recently, the present text is repeated from the 1976 English edition of this Guide.

In Mongolia higher education takes place in a state university at Ulan Bator, a medical institute, an agricultural institute, a polytechnical institute, and various institutes of education. All these institutions (with the exception of the medical and agricultural institutes) are controlled by the Minister of Education, who has under his immediate authority the Council of Science and Higher Education. All institutions are financed by the State. The State University at Ulan Bator is the most important institution. It has the following

faculties: mathematics and physics, biological sciences, philology, social sciences, economics, power engineering, civil engineering, geology and mining, engineering economics, mechanics and technology. The teacher-training institutions (of secondary level), which are distributed over the whole

country, are responsible, in conjunction with the University of Ulan Bator, for the training of teachers. They are normally divided into departments: languages and literature, history, physical and biological sciences, mathematics. There is also a state pedagogical institute. The language of instruction is Mongolian, but dissertations and theses may be presented in

Russian. Access to higher education is based on the gerchilgee (secondary-school-leaving certificate).

Secondary education may take place in general schools of polytechnical education (five years following upon five years of primary education), which combine together general subjects with those relating to production in a specified sector of agriculture or industry. Another method of entry to higher education is that which follows upon a three-year vocational course given at the end of eight years’ general schooling. Institutions of higher education have many students who have attended evening classes or secondary schools for adults. The main stage of higher education leads to the acquisition of a specialist diploma, which

may also entitle the holder to exercise a profession, and is awarded after a five-year course (four to five years at the state pedagogical institute, five to six years at the medical institute). A further stage may be undertaken, usually by those already teaching in the university. A

course of three years’ duration at least is taken, during which individual research is under- taken and at the end of which examinations are taken in the relevant fields. Candidates also have to submit a thesis.

MONGOLIA 193

GLOSSARY Secondary-school-leaving certificate. Certificate awarded after eight years’ primary general

education followed either by a period of three years in a secondary institution or a vocational institution of secondary level, or in a full general and polytechnical school making up 1 1 years of study in all. The latter schools combine general education with training for agricultural or industrial production. Specialist qualification. Qualification of higher education awarded after a period of study in

the particular field.

Morocco

In Morocco higher education is provided in the following six universities: the Quaraouyine University, the Mohammed V University, Rabat, the Hassan II University, Casablanca, the Mohammed ben Abdellah University, Fez, the Cadi Ayad University, Marrakesh, the Mohammed I University, Oujda (the last two universities were founded in October 1978). It is also provided in specialized institutions. The Mohammed V University is a state university; it comprises faculties of arts and

humanities, law and economic and social sciences, science, medicine and pharmacy, as well as the Mohammadia School of Engineering, an advanced teacher-training college, a research institute of arabization, a national teacher-training college (institut pédagogique national), an institute of science, and a university institute of scientific research. The Quaraouyine University. which mainly offers courses in Islamic law and Islamic

studies, and Arab language and theology, comprises five faculties located respectively at Rabat, Fez, Agadir (Islamic law), Tetouan (theology), and Marrakesh (Arab language and literature). Morocco also has a large number of specialized institutes and schools, such as the National

Institute of Statistics and Applied Economics, the Institute of Agricultural Studies and Veterinary Medicine, the National School of Public Works, the Higher Institute of Commerce and Business Management, the National School of Administration, and several nursing schools. The languages of instruction are Arabic and French. Arts, theology, educational science

and Muslim law are taught in Arabic. Exact sciences, medicine and engineering are taught in French. Law is taught in Arabic: however, teaching also takes place in French for the time being. Economics is also taught in French for the time being. However, economic terminology, economic geography and the economy ofMorocco, of the Arab world and of the Maghreb must be taught in Arabic. Primary education teachers are trained in primary teacher-training centres (centres de

formation d’instituteurs). Secondary education teachers (lower-secondary education) are trained in regional teacher-training colleges in two years after the baccalauréat. At the end of their studies, candidates sit for the written papers of the certificat d‘aptitude professionnelle à

194 MOROCCO

renseignement secondaire (chahàdet al-kafa'a litta 'lïm althànawi). They are then recruited as professeurs stagiaires in a secondary school where they sit for the practical part of the CAPES at the end of their first year. Secondary teachers (upper-secondary education) are trained in advanced teacher-training colleges. The Advanced Teacher-training College (Ecole normale supérieure), (former system), trains candidates recruited after a competitive entrance examination for licenciés, engineers and holders of an equivalent qualification, during one university year. Theory and practice alternate. Moreover, because of the growing need for teachers and because of the need to 'moroccanize' the teachers in view of the arabization policy, the Government has decided to elaborate a new system of training secondary teachers at upper-secondary level. In September 1978, advanced teacher-training colleges, which recruit candidates after the baccalauréat and offer four years of basic and pedagogical training, were created for this purpose in four different centres. Access to higher education is for the most part based on the baccalauréat which is awarded at

the end of secondary education, or a qualificationrecognizedas equivalent. In law, those who do not hold the baccalauréat, but who have finished upper-secondary education and exercise a profession, may obtain a capacité en droit (kafiafil huqiZq) after two years' study. In medicine, holders of the baccalauréat must pass a competitive entrance examination. But the advanced teacher-training college recruits its students after the licence ès lettres or ès sciences. The International Centre of Health Sciences (Centre international de Génie sanitaire), which was founded in 1970 with the help of the World Health Organization at the Mohammadia School of Engineering, recruits its students after the diplôme d'ingénieur or the doctorate in medicine. Moreover, decisions concerning access to, or pursuit of, studies in the various Moroccan

faculties are taken by each university. At the international level, Morocco has taken part in several international conferences concerning the problem of the equivalence of degrees of higher education, and has adopted the convention of Nice, December 1976-at an international conference of states, organized by Unesco. Three stages may be distinguished in higher education as a whole. In the faculties, the main stage leads to the licence. Although the system of studies and of

licence examinations has been reorganized and varies from one institution to another, the duration of studies has been made uniform: it is of four years in every faculty and is divided into two phases of two years. The first phase is devoted to broadly based studies and leads to a certificat universitaire d'études (chahadet ad dirZsZt alulya) littéraires (CUEL), de droit (CUED), scientifiques (CUES) and économiques (CUEE). The second phase is a phase of training in depth. In the arts and in law, the two years of the first and second phase lead to an examination. In the arts, students must write a dissertation of approximately fifty pages and the mark they obtain counts for the examination for which they sit at the end of the year. Attendance at the courses is compulsory (theoretical and practical). After the licence, the diplôme de I'Ecole normale supérieure may be gained in one university year and enables the holder to teach in secondary education (upper-secondary education). The second stage leads to the diplôme d'études supérieures (takhsis in Islamic teaching). In

accordance with the reforms carried out in science and in arts, it is usuallyawarded at the end of a minimum of two years of study (in arts), or three years of study (in science) and comprises both theoretical courses and individual research work. In the other faculties, the reforms were introduced at the beginning of the 1980-81 university year. Candidates preparing for the diplôme d'études supérieures must write a dissertation and defend it before a jury. The final stage leads to the doctorat (alimiyah), which is obtained by holders of the diplôme

d'études supérieures (takhsis) after having defended a thesis. In medicine, the doctorate is awarded after six years of study (following upon a first year leading to the propédeutique médicale) and it is a professional qualification. In law, science and arts the period of research for the thesis may be very extended.

MOROCCO 195

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 11 years, baccalauréat)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education Arts Philology and linguistics of Arabic and Semitic

CAPES DiENS DiENS CUEL L DES D

L DEWT D/A

languages (al-logha al-arabiya)

allied subjects (ossol ad-dine)

subjects (ach-sharia)

History of religions and L DES/T

Islamic law and allied L DES/T

Law C/CUED L DES Economics CUEE L DES Exact and natural CUES L DES sciences

Technology, engineering P Medicine D/P

D/A

D/A

D D D

A alimi-vah (doctorat) C CAPES certificat d'aptitude professionelle à l'enseignement secondaire (chahadet al-kafa'a

capacité en droit (kafa'a fil huqüq)

CUED CUEE CUEL CUES D DES DiENS

L P T -

litta 'lim althEnawT) certificat universitaire d'études de droit certificat universitaire d'études économiques certificat universitaire d'études littéraires certificat universitaire d'études scientifiques doctorat ('alimiyah) diplôme d'études supérieures (takhsis) diplôme de l'Ecole normale supérieure (old system); diplôme des écoles normales supérieures (new system) licence professional qualification takhsis

GLOSSARY Alimiyah. Degree of higher Islamic education corresponding to the doctorate. Baccalauréat. Certificate of secondary education, obtained after five years of primary

education followed by six years of secondary education, divided into two phases. Capacité en droit (Arabic: kama fil huqüq). Diploma granted after two years' study of law

and open to those who do not hold the baccalauréat but practise a profession. Certificat d'aptitude professionnelle à l'enseignement secondaire (Arabic: chahadet al-kafa'a

litta 'Iim althZniiwi). This certificate, obtained after two years' study, gives the right to a teaching post in the lower phase of secondary education.

196 MOROCCO

Certificat d'études supérieures (Arabic: chahâdet ad-dirasct al-'ulya). Qualification of higher education awarded after two years' study and denoting a stage in the course leading to the licence in arts, science, law or economics. Chahadet ad-dirasât al 'ulya. See certificat d'études supérieures. Chahadet al-kafa'a litta 'Jim althànawï. See certificat d'aptitude professionnelle à

l'enseignement secondaire. Diplôme d'études supérieures (Arabic: takhsis). Qualification of higher education normally

conferred after two years of study following upon the licence. Diplôme de 1'Ecole normale supérieure. Degree of higher education awarded to holders of

the licence after one year's study at the Ecole normale supérieure (advanced teacher-training college) (former system) or to holders of the baccalauréat after four years of study in the écoles normales supérieures (new system) and which gives them the right to a teaching post in the upper phase of secondary education. Doctorat (Arabic: 'alimiyah). Degree of higher education conferred upon candidates who

have submitted and sustained a thesis (which was considered satisfactory by a jury) on research undertaken following upon the obtaining of the diplôme $études supérieures. The doctorat en médecine is awarded after six years of study (following upon a year of propédeutique médicale) and represents also a professional qualification.

KafS'a fil-huqüq. See capacité en droit. Licence. First degree of higher education conferred after four years' study, divided into two

phases of two years each. The first phase leads to: certificats universitaires d'études littéraires (CUEL), arts; scientifiques (CUES), science; de droit (CUED), law; andéconomiques (CUEE), economics. The second phase leads to the licence. Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education conferred after a variable

number of years' study in an institution which does not grant a licence or a diplôme d'études supérieures (see also doctorat). Takhsis. Degree of higher Islamic education, equivalent to the diplôme détudessupérieures.

Mozambique

In Mozambique higher education is given in the Eduardo Mondlane University, Maputo. It was founded in 1962, acquired university status in 1968, and was given its present name in 1976. It is a state institution, financed by the State and governed by a university council, made up of the rector, administrative and academic directors and party representatives. The University comprises faculties of agricultural studies, law, economics, civil

engineering, arts, medicine, veterinary medicine and various branches of exact and natural sciences. It also comprises a preparatory faculty which trains teachers, a centre for African studies, a centre for ecology, a centre for studies in communication and a centre for the development of natural resources. The language of instruction is Portuguese.

MOZAMBIQUE 197

Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leaving certificate (certificado de habilitaçoes iiterarias), holders of which may sit for the entrance examination to the University. A special commission has been set up to examine applications for diploma equivalences. The first stage of higher education leads to the bacharelaio at the end of three years’ study in

most subjects. The second stage leads to the licenciaiura after two years following upon the bachureluto.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies (Previous education: ceriifirado de habilitaçoes literarias and entrance examination)

years 3 4 5

B L

B bacharelato L licenciatura

Nepal

In Nepal higher education is given in seventy-one campuses under the umbrella of one university called Tribhuvan University. Six campuses, including a central campus located at Kirtipur, provide postgraduate courses and others are restricted to undergraduate courses. This whole university system is entirely financed by the Government. The Tribhuvan University comprises ten institutes and four research centres: these are the

Institute of Humanities and Social Science, the Institute of Science, the Institute of Commerce, Business and Public Administration, the Institute of Law, the Institute of Sanskrit, the Institute of Engineering, the Institute of Medicine, the Institute of Animal Science and Husbandry, the Institute of Forestry, and the Institute of Education. The research centres are: the Research Centre for Economic Development and Administration, the Research Centre for Applied Sciences and Technology, the Research Cehtre for Nepal and Asian Studies. and the Research Centre for Educational Research and Innovation Development. The University organizes its own examinations and has the sole right to award qualifications. Teaching is in English and Nepali, except in four campuses where it is in Sanskrit. Access to higher education is given through the school-leaving certificate, awarded after

three years of primary followed by four years of lower secondary and three years of secondary education. The examination is organized by the School Leaving Certificate Examination Board.

198 NEPAL

Higher education is divided into three phases named as certificate, diploma and degree level. The first phase is the certificate level, a two-year (or four-semester) programme after completion of the school-leaving certificate (except medicine where it takes two and a half to three years). Then, the second phase or diploma level is also a two-year (or four-semester) programme

after completion of the certificate level studies. In law and engineering, however, it is of three years’ duration, in medicine, four years. The third phase or degree level is a three-year programme after the diploma, two years for

course-work and one academic year for National Development Service (NDS). The NDS programme is an integral part of the degree programme during which the students have to stay for one academic year at an assigned place in the country and perform a particular job.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 10 years, school-leaving certificate)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Education Humanities, social sciences

Law Commerce, business administration

Sciences Engineering Medical sciences medicine veterinary medicine

C Di C Di

C Di C Di De

C Di D e C Di D e

C Di D e C Di D e

C certificate D e degree Di diploma

GLOSSARY Certificate, First qualification of higher education conferred after two years (two and a half

to three years in medicine) of university study after the school-leaving certificate. Diploma. Qualification conferred at least two years after the certificate, except in law and

engineering (three years) and in medicine (four years). Degree. Higher qualification conferred after a period of two years’ course-work following

the award of the diploma and one academic year for the National Development Service (NDS). National Development Service. The NDS is an integral part of the degree programme for a

period of one academic year under which degree students participate in national development activities in various fields such as education, health, construction and agriculture. School-leaving certificate. Secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded after three years of

primary followed by four years of lower secondary and three years of secondary education. The examination is organized by the School Leaving Certificate Examination Board, Education Ministry, His Majesty’s Government.

NETHERLANDS

Netherlands 199

In the Netherlands there are nine state and three private universities and institutions of university rank (hogescholen) and one municipal university. Universities, which by law must have at least three faculties, offer courses in humanities, economics, law, medicine, dentistry, mathematics, science, social sciences, theology and veterinary medicine. The hogescholen include three state technological universities, a state agricultural university and a private school of economics. Although state universities do not enjoy as much autonomy as private universities, they are

independent in university administration and management and in promoting university education and research. Private institutions of higher education, most of which are denominational, enjoy financial equality with state universities and have to comply with the general rules laid down in the University Education Act (Wet op het wetenschappelijke ondewijs) of 1960 and the Further Education Act (Wet of op voorgeset onderwijs) of 1963. The University Council (Akademische Raad), a consulting and co-ordinating body which

encompasses all the university institutions, has the task of developing university co-operation, co-ordinating universities and society and promoting the adaptation of university courses and research to the development of science and knowledge, as well as to the needs of society. The training of primary teachers takes place in teacher-training colleges; teachers for lower-

secondary education are also trained in specialized institutions. Teachers for upper-secondary education are trained in the universities and in higher teacher-training institutions. Teaching is given in Dutch. Access to higher education has generally been open to all those who have a secondary-

school-leaving certificate (eindexamen) from a pre-university school and who have the prerequisite courses for their intended field of study. The six-year university preparatory

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 11/12 years, eindexamen)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education Arts Law Social sciences, economics Exact and natural sciences Technology, engineering Medical sciences medicine dentistry pharmacy veterinary medicine

Agriculture

~ ~

K Drs K Drs D

K Mr Mr D K Drs D

K Drs P I2 K Drs P D K Drs P D K Drs P D

D docioraat (or graad van doctor) Drs docrorandus Ir ingenieur K kandidaar Mr meester in de rechren P professional qualification

200 NETHERLANDS

schools are subdivided into two types, the ‘gymnasium’ and the ‘atheneum’. The ‘gymnasium’ offers classical education and Latin and Greek are obligatory subjects. The ‘atheneum’ emphasizes modern languages and economics. In order to meet the problems of overcrowding, temporary legal provisions have empowered the Government, since 1972, to restrict admission to certain faculties (numerusfixus). Numerusfivus decisions are taken year by year. The first stage, at present (see note at end of Glossary), normally leads to the intermediate

qualification of kandidaat, awarded after three years’ study. This qualification does not confer the right to exercise the corresponding profession, but gives access to further studies. The second stage is completed after two to three years’ study following upon the kandidaat

examination. It culminates in the doctoraal examination, after which candidates are awarded the title of doctorandus; in law, the title is that of meester in de rechten, and in agriculture and engineering the title is that of ingenieur. The title of doctorandus usually gives the right to practise a profession. In order to practise, students in medicine, dentistry, veterinary medicine and pharmacy must pass an additional professional examination after one or two years of further training. The third stage leads to the doctoraat. There are no formal doctorate programmes provided

at Dutch universities. Students who receive the doctorandus degree or an equivalent may submit a research project to a department. O n acceptance of the project, the student is assigned a supervisor. After a thesis has been accepted and defended, the degree of doctor is awarded.

GLOSSARY Doctoraal examen. Examination for the second stage of higher education taken after two to

three years of further study following upon the kandidaat degree. Students who are successful in this examination are awarded the title of doctorandus. Doctoraat (or graad van doctor). The highest degree of higher education awarded after the

qualification of doctorandus, ingenieur or meester, upon the successful presentation of a thesis based on research. Doctorandus. Qualification of higher education, usually conferred two or three years after

the kandidaai, i.e. after some six years’ study. It is awarded upon the results of the doctoraal examen and carries with it the right to exercise the corresponding profession. However, in medicine, dentistry, veterinary medicine and pharmacy the doctorandus degree must be followed by a further professional examination after one or two years of complementary practical training. Eindexamen. Secondary-school-leaving certificate obtained after six years of primary

education followed by five or six years of secondary education in a classical institution of general education (gymnasium) or in a modern institution (atheneum). This certificate gives access to higher education. ingenieur. Degree of higher education awarded in the technological universities and at the

agricultural university at the same level and under the same conditions as the doctorandus degree, after five or six years of study. This qualification gives the right to exercise the profession. Kandidaat. First degree of higher education normally awarded after three years’ study. It

does not give the right to practise a profession but it gives access to further studies. Meester in de rechten. Qualification of higher education awarded to students of law at the

same level and under the same conditions as the doctorandus, after four to six years of study according to the university. This qualification gives the right to exercise a profession. Professional qualification. See doctorandus, ingenieur, meester. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See eindexamen.

Note. The present structure of higher education will undergo far-reaching changes if the

NETHERLANDS 20 1

proposed new structure is accepted by Parliament. This structure will be put into practice as from September 1980. The first stage is intended, in principle, to be a final degree course and the curricula should be so designed that students who have completed them are qualified to do responsible and demanding jobs in society and the teaching will be more suited to the preferences and talents of the students. Under the proposed new structure the first stage will last four years ending with the ‘doctoraaï examination. At the end of the first year there is a preliminary examination which is an entrance examination to the ‘doctoraal’ stage and which has a threefold function of orientating, selecting and advising another course when deemed necessary. The ‘doctoraal’ stage may include many different courses, which train students for professions suitable for graduates and which are also meant to cater for the more general interests of students. This stage leads to the ‘doctoraal examen’. After passing this examination some of the graduates from the first stage will be able to continue their studies in the second (postgraduate) stage, where the emphasis is very much on specific training for a future profession like that of doctor, teacher, university teacher or research worker. As a rule, courses in this stage will last one year for teachers and research workers and two years for doctors, dentists, veterinary doctors, and pharmacists. The intention is that those who satisfactorily complete the second stage of any course are awarded a certificate or an endorsement is made to their ‘doctoraal’ diploma.

New Zealand

In New Zealand higher education takes place in two types of institution: autonomous universities and other specialized state-run institutions. On the whole, the universities (Auckland; Canterbury and Lincoln College; Massey; Otago;

Victoria University of Wellington; and Waikato) are divided into faculties and departments, except for the University of Waikato, which is divided into schools. Each university is governed by a council which receives advice in academic matters from the professorial board or senate. The council, usually a body of about 20 members, comprises nominees of the Government, representatives of the body of graduates, the students’ association, local authorities, teaching staff, the professorial board and the vice-chancellor. The vice- chancellor, who is the academic and administrative head of the university, acts as the main link between the council and the professorial board or the senate. Although the universities are virtually independent of government, their accounts are subject to government audit. In this respect the University Grants Committee acts as a buffer between the universities and the Government and negotiates with the Government to ensure a balanced development of university education. The university finances are made up of government grants (85 per cent), tuition fees (12 per cent) and miscellaneous income (three per cent). Other state-financed institutions of post-secondary education are the technical institutes

and community colleges, which prepare students for New Zealand certificates in engineering, draughting, building, science and commerce, and the teachers’ colleges which provide

NEW ZEALAND

professional training for intending pre-school, primary and secondary school-teachers. The teaching at the two kinds of institutions is becoming increasingly co-ordinated with that of the universities. Short courses have been taught in N e w Zealand universities for many years particularly in

relation to agricultural studies such as meat inspection and wool classing at Lincoln College and seeds and fertilizers at Massey University.

Distance education is concentrated at Massey University which offers courses which may be credited to a range of sevendegrees and thirteen diplomas. Massey papers may also be credited to the qualifications of other New Zealand universities in accordance with their regulations. Study is on a part-time basis. In addition each university institution has its own centre concerned with taking university

level education to the wider community. This is essentially a continuing education function and recently considerable emphasis has been given to the continuing education needs of professional groups in the community. The level of entry to higher education varies. In the case of technical institutes, for some

trade courses as little as two or three years’ secondary education is sufficient. For technician courses leading to the N e w Zealand certificate, which normally take five years of part-time study to complete, no minimum entry requirements are laid down. However, students who enter these courses with the school certificate or university entrance examination are exempted from the relevant first and second year subjects of the course respectively. For training at a teachers’ college as a primary school-teacher, the student must have the

sixth-form certificate and undertake three years’ study at the college. For training as a secondary school-teacher the student must have university entrance or better and undertake up to three years of concurrent study at a teachers’ college and a university; or he must have a universitydegree and undergo a one-year course of training at a teachers’ college. T o gain the trained teacher’s certificate which is the basic qualification for a teacher in N e w Zealand, the student must, on completion of the appropriate course of training, give satisfactory evidence of his practical competence as a teacher during a year which he spends as an assistant in a school. For entry to a university, the student must, as a minimum, have passed the university

entrance examination taken after eight years of primary and four to five years of secondary education. T o obtain the university entrance qualification the student must pass English and at least three other subjects. The Universities Entrance Board has approved the right to most schools to accredit students who in the opinion of the principal of the school are fit to undertake university studies; these students are not required to sit the university entrance examination. Although the university entrance examination makes a student eligible to enter a university without further examination, increasing numbers of students (at present about 50 per cent) remain at school for an additional year (form 7) and obtain a higher schooI certificate or sit for the universities bursaries examination or entrance scholarships to prepare themselves better for university studies. Students who have their universityentrance and who proceed to university are entitled to a bursary (grant). A pass in the scholarship or bursaries examination qualifies students for additional financial assistance from the Government. Provisional admission may be granted to mature students, over the age of 21, who do not have the minimum qualifications. At present there is no restriction on entry to the universities for N e w Zealand citizens, and

candidates with the basic university entrance qualification have automatic right of entry. However, in some faculties, where there are more candidates than places (e.g. medicine and veterinary medicine), preference is given to students with the best examination results in specified subjects at the end of their first year of university study (intermediate year). Overseas students may be divided into two broad categories: private and government-

sponsored. For the purposes of administration, the term ‘private’ includes those students who

NEW ZEALAND 203

have been awarded scholarships which are financed and administered by their home governments as well as those who are supported by their family or by private means, and ‘government-sponsored’ means financed by the New Zealand Government. Private students from the South Pacific and Asia are generally accepted. Those from other areas are normally accepted only for study at postgraduate university level. Government-sponsored students are accepted primarily from countries in the South Pacific and Asian regions. Small numbers are also accepted from Commonwealth African countries, the Middle East and from some other areas. Overseas students who wish to be admitted to a university course for a first degree or

diploma must apply to the Overseas Students Admissions Committee. Those applying for

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 to 13 years, university entrance examination)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 varied duration

Education Arts Theology Architecture Fine arts Music Law Science Commercial sciences Engineering Technology Medical sciences medicine dentistry pharmacy veterinary medicine

Agriculture

P B B h M D

B M D

B M B BH M D MusD

B M D LLD B Bh M D DSc B Bh M D

I B M D

B Bh M D DLitt

I B M D

B M

B M D B M D

P B M D B M D

P B B h M D

B Bh D DLitt DSc I LLD M MusD P

bachelor’s degree bachelor’s degree (honours) doctor’s degree (PhD) doctor of letters doctor of science intermediate year doctor of law master’s degree doctor of music professional qualification

(Since the duration of study may vary from university to university, this profile is only approximate.)

204 NEW ZEALAND

admission to university with credits or at postgraduate level, should apply direct to the university of their choice as early as possible. The main stage of university education leads to the bachelor’s degree. The length of the

course of study may differ from faculty to faculty. The course for a bachelor’s degree is typically three years for arts, science, horticulture, agriculture and commerce; four years for engineering, horticultural science and agricultural science; five years for architecture, dentistry and law; six years for medicine. A bachelor (honours) degree usually requires an additional year of study. In some faculties, e.g. architecture and engineering, students must pass the subjects of an ‘intermediate year’ which is followed by several years of professional training. Degree courses are made up of an extremely diverse array of structures and vary from faculty to faculty and from university to university.

The second stage of university education leads to the master’s degree. This is usually obtained one or two years after the bachelor’s degree. Credit may be given for study carried out at teachers’ colleges and technical institutes and vice versa. The master’s degree may or may not be awarded with honours or distinction and may entail course-work, a thesis or a combination of the two. The third stage leads to two types of doctor’s degree. The qualification of doctor of

philosophy (PhD) is usually obtained after a minimum of two years’ supervised advanced study and research and the presentation of a thesis. The degree of doctor of literature (DLitt), doctor of science (DSc) or doctor of law (LLD) is obtained eight years after the first degree (five in music, MusD). Candidates are required to submit published work.

GLOSSARY Bachelor’s degree. First qualification of higher education, awarded after three (arts,

commerce, science, music) to six years’ study (medicine). In some faculties, the first year is devoted to preparatory studies. Usually, the degree is awarded after candidates have followed courses and passed examinations in a number of ‘units’-a ‘unit’ being a year’s work in a subject. In general, candidates are required to obtain eight or nine units, which must invariably be distributed so as to permit advancedstudy in at least two subjects and study at all three levels or ‘stages’ in at least one subject. This structure of study leads to thepass degree. In some faculties, candidates may obtain an honours degree after a further year’s study. Bursaries examination. Examination sat by candidates at the end of the fifth year of

secondary education. Successful candidates obtain grants (bursaries) for full-time university study. The grants vary according to level of attainment in the examination and whether the student is required to live away from home. Certificate. See professional qualification. Diploma. See professional qualification. Doctor’s degree. There are two types of doctor’s degree: the degree of doctor ofphilosophy

(PhD) and the doctorate in literature (DLitt), science (DSc), law (LLD) and music (MusD). The degree of doctor of philosophy (PhD) is awarded to holders of an honours degree after at least two years’ supervised advanced study and research and presentation of a thesis. The doctorate is awarded after eight years following upon the first degree (five years in music)e.g. DSc, DLitt and MusD. It may be conferred as either an ‘honorary’ or an ‘earned’ degree. Higher school certificate. Secondary-school qualification, obtained automatically and

without examination on completion of form 7, i.e. after eight years of primary and five years of secondary education. For those who do not sit or are unsuccessful in the scholarship examination or bursaries examination, the higher school certificate serves to verify that the students have attended school for one year after gaining the university entrance examination. Honours degree. See bachelor’s degree. Master’s degree. Qualification of higher education, awarded after one or two years after the

bachelor’s degree, based on a prescribed course of study and/or presentation of a thesis. May

NEW ZEALAND 205

be awarded as an honours degree or, if student’s achievement is insufficient, as a pass degree. Pass degree. See bachelor’s degree. Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education, awarded in many faculties and

specialized institutions of higher education (technical institutes and teachers’ colleges) after studies of varying length. This title is normally awarded as either a certificate or a diploma. Scholarship examination. Examination taken by candidates to university education.

Successful candidates obtain supplementary financial assistance for university study. In cases where the number of places available is smaller than the number of candidates, preference is given to those holding higher qualifications such as the scholarship examination. School certificate. Secondary-school examination, usually obtained following eight years of

primary and three years of secondary education. Gradedpasses are awardedin single subjects of the examination. Sixth-form certificate. Secondary-school qualification, obtained without examination on

completion of form 6, which is normally after eight years of primary followed by four years of secondary education. University entrance examination. Secondary-school qualification, gained by accreditation

or examination at the end of Form 6, i.e. after eight years of primary followed by four to five years of secondary education. It gives access, in principle, to universityeducation. Candidates must enter in four (but may do five or six) subjects including English, the only compulsory subject of the examination. Since 1974, candidates have been able to enter in from one to six subjects but grades gained are on a single-subject basis. O n this basis, candidates must gain acceptable grades, in one or more years, in English and at least three other subjects.

Nicaragua

In Nicaragua higher education is given in two types of institutions: the Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Nicaragua (UNAN), which is an institution of higher education under the control of the State; and private institutions. The Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Nicaragua comprises the following faculties:

medicine, law, pharmacy, dentistry, engineering, economics, humanities, chemistry, science. and arts. Various institutes and schools are also affiliated to it. The University is a public body which enjoys full administrative, financial, and academic

autonomy. It is an autonomous entity which is independent of the State; it is mainlyfinanced by government funds but it is also financed by registration fees, which have considerably decreased since August 1979, when it was decided that state higher education should be free. The main governing body of UNAN is the university council which comprises the Rector,

who is its chairman, the Vice-rector, the Secretary-General, the deans of the faculties, a representative of the students and a representative of the Ministry of Education. A decree of the Assembly of the National Restoration Government of Nicaragua (August

1979) stipulates that every institution of higher education which was under the control of

206 NICARAGUA

various ministries should now be integrated within the Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Nicaragua. Another government decree stipulates that professional qualifications of public and private higher education should now be exclusively awarded by UNAN, which would also recognize professional qualifications of Nicaraguan and foreign students awarded abroad. The following institutions are private: the Universidad Centroamericana, which was

founded by the Society of Jesus and is financed by students’ fees and donations, offering courses in engineering, veterinary medicine, economics and administration, law and social sciences, the humanities and science; an institute of technology, which offers short-term studies; and the National Seminary, which offers courses in theology.

T h e Nicaraguan Association of Institutions of Higher Education, founded in 1968, has the task of co-ordinating activities between its member institutions and also of liaising between them and the various national and international bodies. It is concerned with all problems relating to higher education. Teachers are trained in teacher-training institutions, following upon primary education.

Courses last five years, the first three of which are devoted to general education and the last two to training proper and to specialized study. The courses lead to the diplomademaestrode educacidnprimaria, possession of which gives entrance to higher education for further work in education. The titulo deprofesor de ensefianza media (qualification for secondary education) is awarded, together with the licenciatura, after four years of higher education. This course

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 1 1 years, bachillerato en ciencias y letras)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 ~~

Education Arts Architecture Accountancy Law Social sciences, economics

Business administration, management

Commercial studies Social work Exact and natural sciences

Technology, engineering Medical sciences medical technology, medicine

nursing dentistry pharmacy veterinary medicine

Agriculture

P L/P L L L P

L L D

L

P L L L

P G/P

D

D doctorado G grad0 L licenciatura P professional qualification

NICARAGUA 207

requires as an entrance condition the possession of a bachilleruto en ciencias y letrus or the diploma de maestro de educacidnprimaria. At the Universidad Centroamericana a further one- year course leads to a licencia degree in educational administration. Teaching is given in Spanish. Access to higher education is by the bachillerato en ciencias y letras, normally awarded after

six years of primary followed by five years of secondary schooling. An examen de ingreso (entrance examination) is also required for entry to courses in medicine, engineering, veterinary medicine and humanities. The diploma de maestro de educacibn primaria gives access to high-level courses in education, social work and nursing. The diploma de bachilier agricolu, awarded after five years’ study at secondary level in the Escuelu Nucional de Agricultura, gives access to higher education in agriculture and veterinary medicine. A n entrance examination is required for access to the Universidad Centroamericana. The length of courses varies according to the choice of subject. Courses lead to the

licenciutura degree (sometimes also termed the licencia) or to a professional qualification. The licenciaturu degree is usually awarded after four or five years’ study. Professional qualifications, however, may be awarded in accountancy and technology after a one-year course, although the length of course varies from one field to another and may be as long as seven years in medicine, where the professional qualification awarded is that of doctor. The qualification in engineering and agriculture is termed grudo.

G L O S S A R Y Bachillerato. Secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded after six years of primary

education followed by five years of secondary schooling. Usually secondary education is of the general type and leads to a bachilleruto en ciencias y letras giving entrance to all forms of higher education, although in medicine, engineering, veterinary medicine and the humanities an examen de ingreso (entrance examination) must be taken in addition. Secondary studies undertaken at the Escuela Nacional de Agricultura lead to the diploma de buchiller agricola, which gives access to higher education courses in agriculture and veterinary medicine. Diploma. See bachillerato, diploma de maestro de educucibn primaria, professional

qualification. Diploma de maestro de educacih primaria. Secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded

after six years of primary education. Courses last five years in teacher-training institutions, the first three of which are devoted to general education and the last two to training proper and to specialized study. It enables holders to teach in primary schools and gives entrance to higher education for further work in education, social work and nursing. Doctorado. See professional qualification. Entrance examination. See bachillerato. Examen de ingreso. See buchillerato. Grado. See professional qualification. Licenciatura. Degree of higher education awarded usually after a course lasting four to five

years. Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education awarded after two to five years

of study, according to the field of study (seven years in medicine). In medicine the professional qualification awarded is that of doctor. In engineering and agriculture the qualifications awarded are those of grado de ingeniero and grado de ingeniero agrbnomo. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See bachillerato, diploma de maestro de educacibn

primaria. Titulo de profesor de enseiianza media. Secondary-school teaching qualification awarded,

with the licenciatura, after four years of higher education.

208 NIGER

Niger

In Niger higher education is provided by the University of Niamey, which was foundedin 1971 as a 'centre d'enseignement supérieur' and which became a university in 1973. It is a state institution under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education. It comprises five schools: a school of science; a school of letters; a higher school of agricultural technology, which awards a maîtrise in agricultural sciences (maîtrise ès sciences agronomiques) after four years of study; a school of health sciences, which awards a doctorate in medicine (docteur en médecine) after six years of study; and a school of education, which trains CEG teachers in two years and awards the diplôme d'aptitude pédagogique au professorat des collèges d'enseignement général (DAPCEG), and trains pedagogical counsellors in two years. These studies lead to the diplôme de conseiller pédagogique de l'enseignement primaire (DCPEP). The language of instruction is French. Access to higher education is gained through the baccalauréat de l'enseignement secondaire

(series C, D, E, for the school of science; C, D, for the school of health sciences) or an equivalent qualification. Entrance to university may also be gained through a special examination 'A' for the school of letters, or a special examination 'B' for the school of science and the school of health sciences. The first stage of higher education lasts two years and leads to the diplôme universitaire

d'études scientifiques in science and agricultural studies, and to the diplôme universitaire d'études littéraires in the arts.

T h e second stage lasts two years. The first year leads to the licence (in science and the arts) and the second to the maîtrise (in physics and agricultural sciences for the time being).

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 13 years, baccalauréat)

years 2 3 4 5 6

Education DAPCEG/

Arts DUEL L Exact and natural DUES L M

Medicine D

DCPEP

sciences

Agriculture DUES M

D doctorat DAPCEG diplôme d'aptitude pédagogique au professorat des collèges d'enseignement général DCPEP diplôme de conseiller pédagogique de t'enseignement primaire DUEL diplôme universitaire d'études littéraires DUES diplôme universitaire d'études scientifiques L licence M maîtrise

NIGER 209

GLOSSARY Baccalauréat. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, obtained after six years of primary

followed by seven years of secondary education (divided into two phases of four and three years). The baccalauréai gives access to higher education. Diplôme d’aptitude pédagogique au professorat des collèges d’enseignement général

(DAPCEG). Qualification awarded by the school of education after two years of study (science and letters). Diplôme de conseiller pédagogique de l’enseignement primaire (DCPEP). Qualification

awarded by the school of education after two years of study following upon a competitive entrance examination, the quota of which is fixed by the Ministry of Education. Diplôme universitaire d’études littéraires (DUEL). Qualification awarded at the end of the

first phase (two years) of university studies in letters. Diplôme universitaire d’études scientifiques (DUES). Qualification awarded at the end of

two years of university studies in science and agricultural studies. Doctorate. Only awarded as a professional qualification in medicine, after six years of

study. Licence. First degree of higher education, awarded after three years of study in science and

in letters. The first phase of studies lasts two years and leads either to the DUES or to the DUEL, according to the subjects chosen. The second phase leads to thelicence after one year. Maîtrise. Degree of higher education awarded after the licence in science (in physics at

present) and in agricultural studies after a fourth year of study and research (maîtrise de recherche).

Nigeria

Higher education in Nigeria is provided by four different kinds of institution: thirteen universities, twenty-two technical and polytechnical colleges, twenty-four advanced teacher- training colleges and five professional institutes. Seven of the thirteen universities have been created since 1975: Abdullahi Bayero (Kana),

Calabar, Ilorin, Jos, Maiduguri, Port-Harcourt, Sokoto. Each of these includes a medical school. Until 1979, all the universities were dependent on the federal government, being administered by the Federal Ministry of Education and financed by the National Universities Commission, a body founded by the federal government to allocate federal funds to the universities. The further objectives of the Commission include overall planning of Nigerian universities, and ensuring their harmonious development and co-ordination, with particular reference to the planning of curricula such that these correspond to national and professional requirements. Since the application of the new constitution in 1979, the Nigerian states are henceforth enabled to found their own universities. The National Universities Commission nevertheless supervises their funding. Each university is administrated by a council whose members are either co-opted or chosen either by the Government or by the senate. The senate

210 NIGERIA

is the supreme arbiter in academic affairs, and is composed of faculty or department heads and representatives of the teaching body. Within the universities, schools, institutes and colleges are more or less autonomous. Noteworthy among the remaining institutions of higher education are: the five federal and

nineteen state-directed advanced teachers’ colleges; the institutes or colleges of education forming part either of the universities or the polytechnical colleges or affiliated to one or other of these; Yuba College of Technology; the Technical Teachers’ College, Lagos; the Technical Teachers’ College, Combe; the Polytechnic, Ibadan; Kaduna Polytechnic; and a law school in Lagos where those qualified in law must spend one year before being allowed to take up their profession in Nigeria. The Universities of Ibadan and Lagos have adult and continuing education departments.

The University of Lagos also offers part-time courses leading over five years to the LLB (bachelor of law). Four universities, Lagos, Ahmadu, Bello, Ife and Abdullahi Bayero, organize correspondence and ‘open’ instruction courses. The teaching language is English. Primary school-teachers are trained for the grade II teacher’s certificate over four years’

study at secondary level. The advanced teachers’ colleges offer three-year training courses open to candidates who have completed five years’ secondary education. They lead to the Nigerian certificate of education (NCE), which qualifies students to teach the top three classes of secondary education. The universities organize courses in education leading after one year to a diploma and after three to the bachelor of education (BEd). Access to higher education is based on the schoolcerrificate, awarded after six years’ primary

and five years’ secondary education (six years as from 1982) or the higher school certificate at present awarded after two further years of secondary education (sixth form) which was to be abolished in 1980, as the higher school certificate itself will be in 1982. Holders of the school certificate are eligible to sit the concessional entrance examinarion; they then enrol for a preliminary course lasting one year. Successful students then continue their studies for the bachelor’s degree. Admission for holders of the higher school certijicate is direct. Other qualifications enabling the holder to enter Nigerian higher education are the West African school certificate which entitles the candidate to sit the concessional entrance examination; the general certijïcate of education ordinary level and the Nigerian certificate of education awarded after a three-year course in education following the award of the school certificate. Foreign students of equivalent qualifications may also enter Nigerian Universities. Owing to the shortage of places, university entrance is highly competitive. The main stage of higher education leads, after a period of undergraduate studies lasting at

present three years (to be increased to four years as from 1982) to the bachelor’s degree (first degree) or to a professional qualification. The bachelor’s degree with honours denotes a higher level of achievement than the pass degree despite the similarity of the courses. In several professionally orientated subjects, the courses are longer: four years in fine arts, five years in medicine, architecture, and veterinary studies. Professional qualifications-cerrijicates or diplomas-are awarded after one- two- or three-

year courses. In veterinary medicine, the professional qualification at first degree level is doctor. The second stage of higher education leads, after a period of postgraduate studies lasting

one to two years, to the master’s degree. Candidates must hold a bachelor’s degree with honours. Candidates usually have to submit a dissertation, as well as follow courses. A third stage may lead to the degree of doctor of philosophy (PhD) after two to three years’

study following upon themaster’s degree. This qualification is not offered by all universities. It requires the submission of a thesis. Ibadan University awards a higher degree of docror of literature (DLit) or doctor of science (DSc) on published work not less than 10 years after the bachelor’s degree or seven years from a postgraduate degree (master’s degree, PhD). In

NIGERIA 21 1

medicine, the degree of doctor of medicine is awarded after four to five years’ study following upon the bachelor’s degree. Higher professional qualifications are marked by the award of certijicates or diplomas obtained after postgraduate study varying between several months to one year.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 1 1 years, school certificate; 13 years, higher school certificate)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10.. . 14

Education Arts Fine arts Architecture Law Science Economic and social sciences

Engineering Medical sciences medicine veterinary medicine

Agriculture

Di B M PhD B M PhD DLit

B M PhD

B M PhD B M PhD

B M PhD DSc B M PhD

B M PhD

B D D/P M PhD

B M PhD

B bachelor’s degree D doctor Di diploma DLit doctor of literature DSc doctor of science M master’s degree P professional qualification PhD doc- tor of philosophy

GLOSSARY Bachelor’s degree. First degree of higher education, awarded after three to four years of

undergraduate studies. The award of an honours degree indicates greater achievement than that of a pass degree, but courses are usually similar. Holders of the school certificate are required to pass the concessional entrance examination and do one year’s preliminary course before proceeding to the bachelor’s degree. Professional studies may take longer: four years in fine arts, five in medicine, architecture and veterinary science. In veterinary studies, the first qualification is that of doctor. Certificate. See professional qualification. Concessional entrance examination. Special entrance examination of the Nigerian

universities organized by the Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB). Holders of the school certificate having passes in at least five subjects including English language, and of the West African school ceriifirate (WASC) are eligible to sit the concessional entrance examination. It gives access to a preliminary course of one year. Successful students may continue their studies for the bachelor’s degree. Diploma. See professional qualification. Doctor’s degree. Higher degree of higher education awarded in certain universities after

between two and three years’ studies subsequent to the award of the master‘s degree and upon submission of a thesis. The University of Ibadan offers a higher doctor’s degree in letters

212 NIGERIA

(DLit) or science (DSc) for work published at least ten years after the bachelor’s degree or seven years after the MA, MSc, or PhD. General certificate of education. See higher school certificate. Higher school certificate. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, at present awarded after six

years’ primary followed by five years’ secondary education, plus two years of study preparing for higher education (sixth form). The sixth form studies were due to be abolished in 1980, the higher school certifïcate itself as from 1982. Students must pass in at least two of the three subjects taken. It is organized by the West African Examinations Council (WAEC). Holders are admitted directly to the universities. Honouis degree. See bachelor’s degree. Master’s degree. Higher degree of higher education, obtained after one or two years’

postgraduate study following upon the bachelor’s degree (honours) (five years in medicine). Candidates have to submit a dissertation. Pass degree. See bachelor’s degree. Professional qualification. Higher education qualification marked by a certificate or a

diploma either at bachelor’s degree level or at postgraduate level, after studies of variable duration but usually of one, two or three years. In veterinary medicine, the qualification awarded is that of doctor. School certificate. Secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded after six years’ primary

followed by five years’ secondary education (six as from 1982). Holders of the school certificate having passes in at least five subjects are eligible to sit the concessional entrance examination organized by the Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB). Until 1980 they could also take the two-year course of preparation for higher education that leads to the higher school certificate, which will be phased out in 1982. Students who pass the entrance examination enrol for a probationary course of one year. As from 1982 this year will constitute the first of the four required for the first degree. Success in this course allows the student to continue with undergraduate studies for the bachelor’s degree.

Norway

In Norway all education is state-controlled. The Ministry of Church and Education is responsible for all institutions of higher education, except those for agricultural and veterinary studies, which fall under the Ministry of Agriculture. With few exceptions all expenses are borne by the State. However, the institutions of higher education are quite autonomous, but the State must approve professorial appointments. The Conference of Rectors, composed of rectors of universities and colleges together with invited representatives from the Ministry of Education and from the Ministry of Agriculture, examines subjects of common interest. Higher education takes place in universities and other institutions of university rank. There

are four universities in Norway, at Oslo, Bergen, Trondheim and Tromse.

NORWAY 213

The University of Oslo has faculties of theology, law, medicine, humanities, mathematics and science, dentistry and social sciences. The University of Bergen has faculties of medicine, humanities, mathematics and science, dentistry. The University of Trondheim comprises the Norwegian Institute of Technology, the

College of Arts and Science (Advanced Teachers’ College) and the Royal Norwegian Society of Science and Letters (the Museum) with departments of humanities, mathematics and science, social sciences, engineering and architecture. The University of Troms~ has a faculty of medicine, and institutes of humanities, mathematics and sciences, bioiogy and geology, social sciences and a school of fisheries. The universities of Bergen and Troms~ offer distance education courses (correspondence

courses and summer schools) in economics and humanities, leading to the same examination as the corresponding ordinary courses. Also offering education of university rank are: Oslo School of Architecture, the Free

Faculty of Theology, the Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration, the Norwegian College of Physical Education and Sport, the Agricultural University of Norway, and the Veterinary College of Norway. Regional colleges (distriktshsgskoler) were created in the 1960s to relieve pressure on the

universities and enable young people to study near home. These institutions offer two-year post-secondary courses in economics, administration, social sciences, humanities, tech- nology, natural sciences, environment, tourism, etc., providing terminal higher education (diplomas) or enabling the student to transfer to universities or other university-level institutions, often without loss of recognition of studies completed. Teachers at regional colleges must have the same qualifications as university lecturers. The colleges maintain a high standard of education, but are not research institutions to the same extent as universities. Since 1973, nine new regional colleges have been created in Norway. Many institutions offer medium-term courses: technical schools (tekniske skoler), schools

of nursing. schools for social workers, physiotherapists, laboratory technicians, journalists, librarians, accountants or business managers. Many of these professional schools require the secondary terminal examination as a basis for admission, or a combination of secondary education and practical skill. The education offered does not lead to an academic degree, but these schools or colleges offer several years of study and prepare the students for responsible positions. Examinations from several of these schools may be integrated in a university degree. The language of instruction is Norwegian. Teacher training for primary education takes place in teachers’ colleges which offer courses

of three years’ duration. Primary school-teachers with one additional year of studies obtain adjunkt status and are thus qualified to teach in lower-secondary schools. Teachers of upper- secondary education (videregiende skole) in humanities and mathematics and science are trained in universities. This education requires six to seven years of study. Access to higher education is primarily based on the secondary terminal examination

(videregiende skole allnienfaglig studieretning, studenteksamen j which is obtained at the end of three years of upper-secondary education following upon nine years of primaryand lower- secondary school. Access to higher education may be limited by a numerus clausus in many fields of study. Here the candidates are selected on their performance in the secondary-school- leaving examination, sometimes combined with other qualifications (e.g. practical experience). All foreign students who fulfil the minimum entrance requirements are eligible for

admission. The faculty of arts and the faculty of social sciences, however, have one additional requirement. Before a foreign student may begin studying at either of these faculties, he/she must be able to document a knowledge of Norwegian comparable to the University of Oslo’s Norwegian language course, level III, passed with a grade of 3.0 or better.

214 NORWAY

After matriculation and registration the students begin their studies towards the embetseksamen, an old term for any Norwegian university degree. The final examination (embetseksamen) is taken after a period of years varying between four to seven according to the nature of studies.

T h e first period of studies at the universities is, with few exceptions, devoted to the acquisition of basic knowledge in philosophy and related subjects (examen philosophicum). This examination is not required in the other institutions of higher learning. It consists of a one-semester course. In many fields of study the first degree is the candidatus magisterii (cand. mag.) degree. The

cand. mag. degree is usually obtained after three to five years of study. After this degree is conferred upon the successful candidate he may proceed for the next degree, which may be

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, studenteksamen (gymnaseksamen))

y e a r s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Education Arts Religion, theology Fine arts Architecture Law Political science Economics, commercial

Exact and natural

Technology, engineering Medical sciences

sciences

sciences

medicine dentistry pharmacy veterinary medicine

Agriculture

C candidatus C m g candidatus magisterii

LS C m g C C m g M C/M D

C D Di

Di C L D C/M M D

P C L D

Cmg Cmg CSc DSc D

P L D

P C D C D

P C D *

D

CSc candidatus scientiarum D doktor Di diplom DSc doctor scientiarurn L licenciatus LS laererskoleeksamen M magister P professional qualification

* Plus one-year course. (The duration of studies varies according to the institution. The degrees of licenciatus and doktor are awarded after a varying period of years.)

NORWAY 215

considered the final one; e.g. candidatus philologiae (cand. philol. ), candidaius scientiarum (cand. scient.). This degree is acquired after more advanced but shorter studies lasting two to three years. In some fields of study a licentiate’s degree is offered (e.g. Iiceniiarus odoniologiae). The

right to present oneself for the licentiaius is possessed by those who hold one of the regular higher degrees and otherwise fill the requirements set in each case. Only a few institutions of higher learning offer courses especially designed for study towards a licentiate’s degree. A Dr. Scient. degree (doctor scieniiarum) is offered by the faculties of mathematics and

science. Work towards the degree of Dr. Scient. consists of two years of study above and beyond the cand. scient. degree and corresponds to the Dr. Zng. degree at the Norwegian Institute of Technology, the University of Trondheim. The docror’s degree may be obtained by submitting a dissertation to a committee of

specialists appointed for each individual case. The docior’s degree, which is awarded after a varying period of years of specialization and personal research, is the highest academic qualification awarded by Norwegian universities.

GLOSSARY

(seventh, eighth and ninth grades). Adjunkt. A teacher qualified for teaching in the lower part of the secondary school system

Autorisasjon. A professional qualification. Candidatus. Term indicating an academic degree, seldom used alone. Candidatus magisterii

is the degree conferred upon the successful candidate after three to five years of study in liberal arts, sciences and social sciences. It is the first degree in the Norwegian university system, offered by the faculties of liberal arts, sciences and social sciences. The following are higher degrees in special fields of study: candidatus iheologiae (cand. theol.), candidarus juris (cand. jur.), candidatus niedicinae (cand. med.), candidaius philologiae (cand. philol.), candidaius actuarus (cand. act.), candidatus pharmaciae (cand. pharm.), candidaius scieniiarum (cand. scient.), candidaius odontologiae (cand. ondont.), candidatus oeconomiae (cand. oecon.), candidatus paedagogiae (cand. paed.), candidatus poliiicarum rerum (cand. polit.), candidatus psychologiae (cand. psychol.), candidarus sociologiae (cand. sociol.).

Doctor scientiarum. Qualification awarded in mathematics and science two years after the cand. scient. Doktorgrad. The highest qualification in higher education, granted in all faculties after a

period of research and submission of a thesis. Candidates must also give two public lectures. Embetseksameu. An old term for any Norwegian university degree. Examen artium, eksamen fra skonomisk gymnas, or gymnaseksamen. Secondary terminal

examination giving formal admission to higher education. Okonomisk gymnas is a three-year course in a gymnas with emphasis on business and economics on the same level as theexamen ariium. Ingenier. Title indicating graduation from a technical college or similar institution. Lærerskole. Teachers’ college, educating teachers for primary schools in courses of three

years’ duration. Licentia practicandi. Term denoting a professional qualification, e.g. authorization to

practise medicine conferred on medical graduate (cand. med.) on completion of internship. Licentiatus. Second higher degree for which the prerequisite is a higher candidarus (see

above). Magistergrad. Magister artiurn/Magister scientiarum = master’s degree, on equal level with

higher degrees indicated by the word candidatus. Sivilingenier. Academic degree representing graduation from the University of Trondheim

(Norwegian Institute of Technology). Studenteksamen (gymnaseksamen). Secondary terminal examination.

216 PAKISTAN

Pakistan

In Pakistan higher education is given in universities and technical universities and their constituent colleges, and in colleges affiliated to universities. There are fifteen universities in Pakistan, several of which comprise colleges which are

integrated with them, and others which comprise colleges which are affiliated to them. Several universities were founded during the last decade: the University of Baluchistan (1970), Gomal University (1974), Allama Iqbal Open University (1974), Islamia University, Bahawalpur (1975), the University of Multan (1975), and the Sind Agricultural University (1977). The universities are usually divided into faculties and departments teaching one or several subjects or providing professional education. The three following universities are devoted to engineering and technology: the Ned University of Engineering and Technology, Karachi; the University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore; the Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Nawabshah. There are two agricultural universities, one at Sind and the other at Faislabad. The Allama Iqbal University at Islamabad is an open university which uses the radio and television, as well as other extra-mural methods of teaching. Universities are autonomous organizations, founded by the central or provincial parliament. The syndicate and the academic council are the university bodies responsible for matters concerning studies. Inter-university activities are co-ordinated by the University Grants Commission created in

1974 to replace the Inter-university Board for Pakistan. Its functions are the same. The Commission examines the financial needs of the universities and fixes five-year programmes for their development; it grants credits to universities for those projects which have been approved and makes sure they are properly used; it gathers information and facts on all questions concerning higher education in Pakistan; it creates grants, especially for visiting professors to the universities in the country; it generally controls the courses of educationand the development of the various institutions of higher education in the country; it makes recommendations to the universities concerning necessary measures for the improvement of higher studies and is also responsible for the equivalence of degrees and diplomas conferred within the country and abroad. Affiliated colleges depend entirely on the university to which they are attached for their programmes, their application, examinations and qualifications. Since 1979, the federal government has decided to cover all the expenditure of universities,

in order to solve their financial problems. Teaching takes place in English and Urdu. Teachers of primary education are trained at post-secondary level in normal schools (in two

years) and primary training schools (in three years). Teachers of secondary education are trained in university departments of education or in affiliated colleges. The University of Sind awards a doctorate in education three to five years after the master’s degree. A National Academy of Higher Education has also been created to train high-level teachers before they take up their functions or during their careers.

Access to higher education is based on the intermediate examination or higher secondary examination, awarded after eight years of elementary education and four years of secondary education, divided into two phases. Candidates take the matriculation examination at the end of the first phase of secondaryeducation (high school).Holders may obtain a bachelor’sdegree in an agricultural university after five years’ study. The second phase of secondary education leads, after two years’ study in an intermediate college to the intermediate examination which prepares for higher education. Success in this examination, however, only constitutes one prerequisite for entrance to university-access to certain universities (Gomal University and Quaid-i-Azam University) requiring a first university degree in the subject chosen.

PAKISTAN 217

The first stage of higher education (undergraduate studies) leads to the bachelor’s degree (first degree) or a professional qualification. The bachelor’s degree is awarded after two years as a pass degree or after three years as an honours degree in arts and science. Professional studies for a bachelor’s degree are of variable length, four years in engineering and five years in architecture and medicine, for example. Other professional studies lead to a certificate or a diploma after one or two years. The second stage of higher education leads to a master’s degree or to a professional

qualification. The master’s degree is usually obtained after two years’ study following upon the bachelor‘s degree @ass) or one year’s study following upon the bachelor’s degree (honours). The master’s degree in education requires one year’s study beyond the bachelor’s degree in education. Several universities (Quaid-i-Azam, Karachi and Sind) award the qualification ofmaster of

philosophy, which is at a level between the master‘s degree and the degree of doctor of philosophy, after a period of one to four years’ study and submission of a thesis. A third stage may lead to the doctor’s degree (PhD, doctor ofphilosophy). Candidates must

study for another three years after a good master’s degree. The Agricultural University of Lyallpur awards a doctorate two years after the master’s degree. There are doctorates at a higher level than the PhD in several universities: at the University

of Karachi, at the Pendjab University, Lahore, and at Sind University, where the title ofdoctor in literature (DLit), doctor of science (DSc) and doctor of laws (LLD) are awarded respectively by the faculties of arts and science after five to seven years of study (according to the university) following upon the PhD.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, intermediate examination)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 varied duration

Education Arts Architecture Law Commercial studies Science Engineering Medical sciences medicine dentistry pharmacy veterinary medicine

Agriculture

B/M M D B B M PhD D

B M PhD D B B M Ph D D B B M PhD D

B M

B M M B/M

B bachelor’s degree D doctorate M master’s degree P professional qualification PhD doctor of philosophy

GLOSSARY Bachelor’s degree. First degree of higher education, awarded in arts and science after two

years’ undergraduate study as a pass degree and three years as an honours degree. Professional

218 PAKISTAN

studies for a bachelor’s degree vary in length (four years in engineering and five years in architecture and medicine). Sometimes a bachelor’s degree is obtained following upon another degree: this is the case in education where it is awarded after one year’s study following upon the bachelor’s degree in arts and science and in law where the degree is conferred two years after a first degree. Certificate. See professional qualipcation. Diploma. See professional qualification. Doctor’s degree. Higher degree of higher education, obtained after three years’ research

following upon the master’s degree. Candidates have to submit a thesis. Three universities (Karachi, Lahore and Sind) award higher doctor’s degrees in literature and science after five to seven years following upon the degree of doctor of philosophy (PhD). Higher secondary examination. See intermediate examination. Honours degree. See bachelor’s degree. Intermediate examination. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, awarded after eight years’

primary and four years’ secondary education divided into two phases. The first phase (high school) leads, after two years to the matriculation examination. The second phase leads, after two years in an intermediate college, to the intermediate examination or the higher secondary examination. Master of philosophy. Qualification awarded by several universities at an intermediate stage

between the master’s degree and the doctor of philosophy. Master’s degree. Qualification of higher education obtained on submission of a thesis two

years after a bachelor’s degree (pass) and one year after a bachelor’s degree (honours). This qualification is a graduate qualification of higher education. Matriculation examination. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, awarded after eight years

of primary education followed by two years of secondary education in a high school. This qualification gives access to agricultural universities where candidates obtain a bachelor’s degree after five years’ study (see intermediate examination). Pass degree. See bachelor’s degree. Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education, awarded after one or two

Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See higher secondary examination, intermediate years’ study at first degree level, as a certificate or diploma.

examination, matriculation examination.

Panama

University higher education is provided in Panama by the country’s two universities, the University of Panama and the Universidad Santa Maria La Antigua. The former is a state, the latter a private institution. Both have regional centres: the University of Panama in the provinces of Coclé, Colon, Chiriqui, Veraguas and Herrera, and the Universidad Santa Maria la Antigua in the province of Colon.

PANAMA 219

The University of Panama comprises faculties, institutes, research centres and the regional centres mentioned above. Faculties are: agriculture, civil administration and commerce, architecture, natural sciences and pharmacy, law and politics, philosophy, letters and education, medicine and dentistry. The institutes are: the Instituto Politécnico and the Instituto Centroamericano de Administracion y Supervision de la Educacion (ICASE). The Universidad Santa Maria La Antigua comprises the following departments:

administration, law and politics, technology and natural sciences, social sciences, human sciences, and fine arts. Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leaving certificate, which is

normally awarded after nine years’ hasic and three years’ secondary education. (The previous system of six years’ primary followed by two cycles of secondary education, each of three years, still exists.) The second cycle is sub-divided and open only to those who have passed the first or basic stages. The options are: education (teacher-training in three years), bachillerato (three years); peritos industriales (industrial technicians, two or three years) and domestic teacher-training (two or three years). Preparatory courses of training and orientation are an obligatory preliminary to

Panamanian higher education. Foreign students must apply to enrol six months in advance and send their secondary or

university qualifications authenticated by the Panamanian consul of the country of origin. The Universidad Santa Maria La Antigua offers special short courses (from one to three

years) leading to a diploma or certijkado profesional in executive secretaryship, bank administration, commercial teacher’s certificate, etc. The University of Panama awards the professional qualification of técnico (technician) in various specialities such as agriculture, commerce, architecture, etc.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, secondary-school-leaving certificate)

years 2 3 4 5 6

Education Arts Fine arts Architecture

L L/Pr Pr L L/Pr Pr

P P L

Law L Public administration, P L L commercial sciences

sciences

medicine D

Mathematics, natural P L PG

Medical sciences

dentistry D pharmacy L

Agronomy P L L

D doctorado L licenciatura PG post-grado Pr titulo de profesor P pro- fessional qualification

220 PANAMA

Higher studies lead to the licenciatura or a professional qualification. The licenciatura

There are also postgrado (postgraduate) courses, for example, in mathematics, which last normally requires between four and six years.

two years and are open to holders of the licenciatura.

GLOSSARY Bachillerato. Secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded after nine years’ basic and three

years’ secondary (or six years’ primary and six years’ secondary) education. It is awarded in letters, science and technology, commerce, industry and animal husbandry. Certificado. See professional qualification. Certificado de maestro. Secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded at the end of the

second phase (lasting three years) of secondary education in a teacher-training institution (escuela normal). The certificate gives access to the same faculties as the bachillerato de letras. Diploma. See professional quahpcation. Doctorado. See professional qualification. Entrance examination. See examen de ingreso. Examen de ingreso. See bachillerato. Licenciatura. Degree of higher education, awarded for studies lasting between four and six

years. Access is normally by secondary-school-leaving certificate. Perito industrial. Professional qualification of industrial technician awarded after the

second cycle of secondary education (see bachillerato) in plumbing, mechanics, electricity, etc. Profesor. See professional qualipcation. Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education awarded after between two or

three years’ study after the award of the secondary-leaving certificate. It may take the forms of certificado, or diploma, or técnico. The University of Panama awards the titles of doctor of medicine and doctor of dentistry after six and five years respectively. The qualification of profesor may be obtained simultaneously with the licenciatura if the student follows the courses for both subjects. It may also be obtained after the licenciatura after two further semesters’ study in the faculty of philosophy, letters and education. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See bachillerato. Técnico. See professional qualification.

Papua New Guinea

In Papua New Guinea higher education takes place in two universities and other specialized institutions of higher education. The University of Papua New Guinea, founded in 1965, is financed by the Government and

governed by a council. The academic board controls the academic affairs of the University. The University has faculties of agriculture, arts, education, law, medicine and science. The Papua New Guinea University of Technology was given university status in October

PAPUA NEW GUINEA 22 1

1973. It offers courses in architecture and building, accountancy and business studies, civil engineering, electrical and communication engineering, surveying, chemical technology and forestry. Other institutions of higher education are nine primary teacher-training colleges, one in-

service teacher-training college, one secondary teacher-training college (Goroka, which is part of the University of Papua New Guinea) and other vocational institutions administered by Department of Education, Health, Primary Industry, F’ublic Service Commission and Post and Telegraph (colleges and institute of nursing, paramedical studies, technical colleges, administration training colleges, etc.). There are 66 of these facilities of which 41 receive direct funding through the national budget. Teachers of primary education are trained at the nine primary teacher-training colleges,

where they take a two-year course after successfully completing grade 10. Teachers of secondary education are trained at Goroka Teachers’ College or at the University of Papua New Guinea after successful completion of grade 10 or 12. Courses at Goroka Teachers’ College are of three years’ duration for grade 10 entrants and two years for grade 12 entrants. At the University of Papua New Guinea teachers may obtain a bachelor of education through the university’s four-year BEd programme or a diploma of education (one year of postgraduate study). The language of instruction is English. In-service training is provided at the in-service teacher-training college for those teachers

seeking advancement or lacking adequate qualifications and teacher-training. The basic level for access to higher education is that of secondary-school-leaving certificate,

obtained after four years of secondary education in a high school. Courses at four senior high schools lead, after a further two years’ study, to the higher school cerfijicaie. Access to university studies is open to holders of the school-leaving-certificate who follow a one-year preliminary course at the University, or to holders of the higher school certifïcate without any further requirement. The entry level for foreign students at the University of Technology depends on the entry

level to higher education for the country of origin. The University of Technology also recognizes the school-leaving-certificate of foreign students. Most of the foreign students admitted are from the Pacific countries. At the University of Papua New Guinea, the main stage of higher education leads, after a

four-year course, to the bachelor’s degree. The bachelor’s degrees of arts, economics and science may be awarded with honours after a fifth year’s study. The Papua New Guinea University of Technology awards bachelor’s degrees after three to five years, as well as certificates and diplomas after two to three years. The Papua New Guinea University of Technology awards bachelor’s degrees after four or

five years after form IV secondary schooling. Bachelor of technology degrees are awarded in surveying, engineering and commerce after four years’ study while more senior bachelor’s degrees in engineering, architecture, commerce, chemical technology and forestry are awarded after five years’ study. Diplomas in valuation, cartography and communication are awarded after three years’ academic study while certificates in surveying and draughting may be awarded after two years’ academic study. The second stage leads after one year’s study following upon preliminary studies after an

appropriate first degree to the master’sdegree. Candidates have to submit a thesis. Candidates for a master’s degree in education must have obtained an appropriate bachelor’s degree, completed one year’s graduate work in education and have two years’ experience in teaching or other educational work: initial preliminary studies and qualifying examination may be waived for candidates with honours degrees. Diplomas in teaching English as a second language or education in developing countries may be obtained after one year’s grzduate study.

222 PAPUA NEW GUINEA

A third stage leads, after a minimum of three years’ study to the degree of doctor of philosophy (PhD) which is open to holders of a master’s degree, or a bachelor’s degree after an additional minimum preliminary training period.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies (Previous education: secondary-school-leaving certificate)

years 4 5 6 7 8 9

B BH M D

B bachelor‘s degree BH bachelor’s degree (honours) D doctor of philosophy M master’s degree

GLOSSARY Bachelor’s degree. First qualification of higher education, obtained after four years’ study.

A bachelor’s degree with honours may be awarded in arts, economics and science after a fifth year. At the University of Technology, the bachelor’s degree is awarded after five years’ study. Certiîïcate.See professional qualification. Diploma. See professional qualification. Doctor’s degree (doctor of philosophy, PhD). Qualification awarded after a minimum of

three years’ study following upon a master’s degree or bachelor’s degree with additional minimum preliminary training period. Higher school certificate. Secondary-school-leaving qualification, obtained after six years

of secondary education, the last two of which are in a senior high school. This qualification gives direct access to university. Honour’s degree. See bachelor’s degree. Master’s degree. Higher degree, awarded after one year’s full-time study following

preliminary studies undertaken after a bachelor’s degree. Candidates have to submit a thesis. Professional qualification. Diploma or certificate, awarded after one to three years’ study at

university or in other institutions of higher education. Diplomas or certificates may be awarded at subgraduate or graduate level. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. Qualification awarded after four years’ secondary

education in a high school. Holders of this qualification may gain access to universityafter a preliminary year of study at the university.

PARAGUAY

Paraguay 223

No information having been received recently, the present text is mainly repeated from the 1976 English edition of this Guide.

In Paraguay higher education is given in two universities and three institutions of higher education, one of which is a teacher-training college. The Universidad Nacional de Asuncion is a state university, financed by the State and completely autonomous in its academic aspects. Its governing body is the higher university council (consejo superior universitario) comprising the rector, the dean of each faculty, and representatives of the teaching staff, graduates and students. It comprises faculties of law and social sciences, philosophy, chemistry and pharmacy, physics and mathematics, architecture, medicine, dentistry, economics, agricultural studies and veterinary medicine, as well as a school for librarians. institutes of social work, and training in nursing and midwifery. The Universidad Catolica ‘Nuestra Senora de la Asuncion‘ is a private university, under the authority of the Episcopal Conference of Paraguay. It is directed by the Archbishop of Asuncion (who IS Chancellor of the University), the rector, the vice-rector and the higher university council. It is mainly financed by fees paid by students and is autonomous in academic matters. It comprises faculties of accountancy and administration, law and diplomacy, philosophy and humanities, a teacher-training college and a higher institute of theology and religion. A centre for anthropology and a nursing school are also affiliated to it. Some of the faculties are in two or three other towns. The degrees it confers are recognized by the state. Besides these universities there is a national institute for scientific research (Instituto

Nacional de Investigaciones Cientificas) which was founded under the auspices of Unesco and which comprises departments of physics, chemistry, mathematics, psychology and education, and a higher school of philosophy, sciences and education (Escuela Superior de Filosofia, Ciencias y Educacion). The language of instruction is Spanish. Teacher-training takes place at the Instituto Superior de Educacion (ISE) which has

replaced the Escuela Normal Superior. Since 1974 it has offered two post-secondary level courses, one for training primary teachers (in two years) and one for training secondary teachers (in four years). Access to higher education takes place after six years of primary schooling followed by six

years of secondary schooling. Secondary education is divided into two phases: a first phase of general education (ciclo busico) and a specialized phase lasting three years, which leads to the award of the certificates of barhiller en ciencias y lerras. bachiller en comercio, barhiller iécnico- indusrrial or bachiller agropecuario, according to subject chosen. These certificates give access to higher education after passing the examen de admisibn (entrance examination). Length of higher education varies according to the university and subject chosen, and to

whether it constitutes a terminal phase leading to a professional qualification (short-term studies) or the first stage of long-term studies. In the first case, the Universidad Nacional de Asuncion confers a professional qualification in topography, midwifery and nursing after three years’ study, and in chemistry and agriculture after four years’ study. In the second case, the fist main stage of long-term studies leads to the Iicenciado degree or to a professional title after three, four or even five years’ study (in psychology at the Universidad Nacional). In law, accountancy and administration, social sciences, theology and religion, courses last six years. The professional title awarded is that of doctor in dentistry and médico vererinario in veterinary medicine (after five years); doctor in medicine, biochemistry and industrial

224 PARAGUAY

chemistry, (after six years) arquiteclo in architecture, and abogado in law (after six years). A thesis must be submitted for the professional title of engineer. A further stage leads to the doctorado degree, awarded after submission of a thesis; for

history it entails one year’s further study beyond the licenciatura, two years’ further study beyond the licenciatura in philosophy, humanities, mathematics and education. After the licenciatura the Universidad Catolica ‘Nuestra Senora de la Asuncion’ also confers doctorates in law, history, education, accountancy and administration.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, bachillerato)

years 3 4 5 6 7

Education Humanities Religion, theology Architecture Law Social sciences, economics Administration Mathematics Chemistry Engineering Medical sciences medicine dentistry veterinary medicine

Agriculture

L L D D L L D D

L L P L/P D

L D P P

L D P P

D

P P P

D doctorado L licenciatura P professional qualification

GLOSSARY Bachillerato. Certificate of secondary education awarded after six years of primary

schooling followed by six years of secondary schooling divided into two phases. The first phase (ciclo bbsico) comprises three years of general education. The second phase leads to the title of bachiller en ciencias y letras, of bachiller en comercio, of bachilIer técnico-industrialor of bachiller agropecuario, according to the option chosen. The award of any one of these certificates gives the right to sit for an entrance examination (examen de admisibn) to an institution of higher education. Doctorado. The highest degree of higher education, awarded after submission of a thesis

one year (in history) or two years (in philosophy, humanities, mathematics and education) following upon the licenciarura (cf. also professional qualification). Examen de admisibn. See bachillerato. Licenciatura. First degree of higher education awarded after studies, the length of which

varies (three or four years in certain subjects, according to the university, or six years in others such as accountancy and administration, law, social sciences and theology). Professional qualification. Title awarded after a course which lasts three years (for

topography, midwifery), four years (for nursing) or six years (for ingeniero civil, for example).

PARAGUAY 225

In industrial engineering a thesis is required. The title awarded is that of doctor (cf. doctorado) in dentistry, medicine, veterinary medicine, biochemistry, and industrial chemistry, or that of arguifecto in architecture, or that of abogado in law. The submission of a thesis is necessary. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See bachillerato.

Peru

Higher education in Peru is given in universities and university level institutions which are legally recognized. There are 34 universities (22 national universities and 12 private universities). The Catholic

Pontifical University of Peru is a national university in terms of law. The National Council of the Peruvian University is the governing body which co-ordinates their activities on a national scale. The regional councils are bodies for integration at the regional level. Universities are autonomous in academic and financial matters (although the State covers all or part of their expenditure, in the relevant cases) and in matters concerning the recruitment of the teaching staff. The universities offer varied courses in traditional subjects and in certain technical branches. Some universities, such as the agricultural and technical universities, are more specialized. Universities used to be divided into faculties but their structure has been modified. They

now comprise departamenios académicos (academic departments) and programas académicos. The units called academic departments constitute operational modules of research, teaching and preparation for a profession. Aprograma académico consists of a set of functional courses offered by various departments, which are co-ordinated in order to achieve specific goals in the academic, professional or training fields. The General Law of Education (legal decree no. 19326, 1972) set up ‘vocational higher

education’; this type of education is offered in escuelas superiores de educacibn profesional (ESEP); these institutions offer broadly-based courses lasting between six and eight semesters and leading to professional qualifications. The title awarded is barhiller profesional. The language of instruction is Spanish. Teachers for the three levels of education (initial, basic and first phase of higher education)

are trained at universities and in the professional schools at the first and second phase of higher education. University teachers are trained at university by successive integration and promotion from heads of practical work to assistants, to associate professors and to titular professors. Access to university education is based either: (a) on the cerfifirado de educacibn secundaria

completa (old system) awarded after six years of primary education followed by five years of secondary education in an institution of general education, and complemented by a competitive entrance examination; or (b) on the degree of bachiller profesional(new system) conferred after six to eight semesters in escuelas superiores de educaribn profèsional (ESEP) which admit holders of the diploma de educacibn basica regular or de educacibn basica laboral,

226 PERU

both taken after nine years of basic education. These schools provide a non-university higher vocational education leading to the bachiller profesional in a number of specializations (agri- cultural studies, husbandry, commercial studies, nursing, education, etc.). For certain candidates this title (which, since the 1972 General Law of Education, is calledfirst stage of higher education) marks the end of training and constitutes a professional qualification with which they can enter the labour market. For the other candidates, it gives access to the universities and to specialized professional schools but they are first required to sit a competitive entrance examination. The first phase of university education, which is now called the second stage of higher

education, is given in escuelas profesionales especializadas (specialized professional schools), politécnicos (polytechnical institutes) and universidudes (universities). The studies lead to professional qualifications awarded by specialized professional schools and polytechnical institutes in four or five years according to the specialization (technical engineer, teacher, nurse, etc.), or by universities after five to seven years (licenciaturas in sociology, engineering, medicine, law and architecture). The title of iicenciudo covers those of socidogo, ingeniero, abogado, médico etc. Further professional or interdisciplinary studies lead to specialized cerrificates and diplomas. Another degree (academic in character)-a university prerogative-awarded at this stage of higher education is the bachiller académico. The last stage (third stage in the new system, or graduate studies), which is only open to

holders of the licenciatura or of the bachiller académico, comprises studies for the maestria and the doctorado. It corresponds to a period of study in depth and requires a major contribution to knowledge, or technology, or to interdisciplinary studies. These studies are carried out in two or three years in certain universities or in centres of graduate studies (national institute for graduate studies).

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies (Previous education: 9 years (for ESEP), or 11/12 years, certifcado de educacidn secundaria completa or bachiller profesional, and entrance examination (for EPE and universities))

years 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

BP BP escuelas superiores de

P P escuelas profesionales educacibn profesional

especializadas BA/ 1 L/P M D universidades

BA bachiller académico BP bachiller profesional D doctorado L licenciatura M maestria P professional qualification

(This profile is approximate since the duration of studies varies according to the universities and the fields of study.)

GLOSSARY Bachiller académico. First university degree awarded after a phase of specialization which

has been judged satisfactory. The bachillerafo académico is a prerequisite for courses leading to the corresponding licenciatura.

PERU 227

Bachiller profesional. Degree of higher education (non-university type) awarded after six to eight semesters in escuelas superiores de educacibn profesional which admit students after nine years of basic education and are devoted to acquiring basic knowledge and professional qualifications. Holders of the bachillerato profesional may sit the competitive entrance examination which gives access to specialized professional schools, polytechnical institutes and universities. There is a numerus clausus and admission depends on results obtained in the examination. Certificado de educacih secundaria comfin completa. Secondary-school-leaving certificate

(former system) awarded after six years of primary education followed by five years of secondary education in an institution of general education. The period of secondary education is divided into two phases of three and two years respectively. Holders of the certificado de educacibn secundaria comiin cornpleta may, in principle. gain access to higher education in every speciality. However, in practice, they must also pass an entrance examination. Diploma de aptitud a la ensefianza. Secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded after six

years of primary education followed by three years of secondary education (first phase) and three years of education in a teacher-training institution. The qualification gives the right to teach in primary education and qualifies for access, after an entrance examination, to further educational studies. Diploma de aptitud profesional. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, awarded after six

years of primary education followed by five years of secondary education in an agricultural, commercial or industrial technical institution. Secondary education is divided into two phases. The first phase, which lasts three years. is common to all pupils. The second phase, lasting two years, allows them to specialize. The qualification gives the right to enter higher education in the field of studies chosen as option in the second phase ofsecondaryeducation. However, candidates must usually pass an entrance examination as well. Diploma de educacih bisica laboral and diploma de educacih basica regular. School-

leaving certificates awarded in the new system after nine years of basic education. Doctorado. Highest degree of higher education awarded to candidates who have submitted

a thesis, after two or three years’ study following upon the licenciaturu or a professional qualification. This degree is awarded to candidates whose work constitutes a major contribution to knowledge or who have carried out interdisciplinary work. Entrance examination. Examination set by most university academic programmes for

candidates for higher education who are already in possession of the cerrificado de educacibn secundaria comun conipleta (former system) or of the bachiller profesional. Licenciatura. Degree of higher education awarded after the bachilleratoacadémico. The title

of licenciado is a generic one. Specific titles include sociblogo (sociologist), ingeniero (engineer), abogado (lawyer), médico (doctor), arquitecto (architect). Maestria. Degree of higher education awarded after two years’ study following uptm the

licenciatura (see doctorado). Holders of the maestria may exercise the functions of associate professor in education. However, the interaction between the university and society increases the number of cases where the maestria does not lead to teaching but leads to professional advanced training, e.g. magister in business administration, magister in chemistry, etc. Professional qualification. Qualification awarded by specialized professional schools and

polytechnical institutes in four or five years according to the specialization (technical engineer, teacher, nurse, etc.) or by universities after five to seven years.

228 PHILIPPINES

Philippines

In the Philippines higher education is given in 291 public institutions (including 48 universities and colleges on which charters have been conferred, 108 technical institutes, 96 technical/professional schools) and 707 private institutions (46 universities, 490 colleges and 171 technical/professional schools). The Constitution stipulates that all these public and private institutions come under the control of the State and may only operate if they have already received governmental approval through the Ministry of Education and Culture. This is conferred upon them if they respect the basic national norms in matters of their programmes, equipment, teaching staff and institutional structures. The 48 universities and colleges on which charters have been conferred (among which figure

the University of the Philippines and the Mindanao State University) are autonomous. The 108 technical institutions on which charters have not been conferred offer two-year post- secondary courses and four-year programmes leading to a diploma in commercial studies, agricultural studies and fishery studies; the 96 technical/professional schools offer two-year post-secondary courses. The private institutions of higher education meet the educational needs of almost 85 per

cent of all the students enrolled in tertiaryeducation. Almost half of these students belong to religious groups (they are mainly Roman Catholic, but some are also Protestants). Three accreditation associations which are recognized by the Ministry of Education and organized into a federal system encourage the private institutions to raise the level of their courses above minimum requirements. They accredit the programmes, not the institutions, for three years, based on reports and recommendations made by their specialist teams. The institutions whose programmes have been recognized have high prestige and a wide measure of autonomy. Teaching is in Pilipino and English. Primary school-teachers are trained in higher education institutions. The course lasts for

four years and leads to the award of a bachelor’s degree. A certificate or an associate’s degree may be obtained by students following only part of the course. Other teachers obtain a bachelor’s degree and then go on to obtain a master’s degree after one or two years’ further study. Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leaving certificate obtained

after six years’ primary and four years’ secondary education and success in the national college entrance examination (NCEE). Since the public and private institutions of higher education have very selective admission procedures, candidates must obtain a mark which is above the minimum mark required by the NCEE. Many institutions set entrance examinations. Some require an interview and a letter of recommendation. Foreign students who wish to enter higher education in the Philippines must obtain the minimal marks set by the Ministry of Education and Culture in the NCEE and in the test of English as a foreign language (TOEFL). The main stage of higher education (undergraduate studies) is marked by the award of a

bachelor’s degree or a professional qualification. The total number of units required for the title varies according to the institution and the subject chosen. The bachelor’s degrees in science require four years’ study, except in engineering where studies last for five years. In law and medicine students must already hold a bachelor’s degree before going on to the studies proper. In order to exercise the following professions-teaching, accountancy, architecture,

engineering, dentistry, dietetics, nursing, medicine, medical technology, obstetrics, pharmacy, veterinary medicine, law and forestry-students must succeed in examinations held by the order or council of the profession. These examinations are set and organized by

PHILIPPINES 229

councils composed of specialists appointed by the Government. These councils may make recommendations concerning modifications in the programmes. The advanced level of higher education (postgraduate studies) may lead to: a certificate

after one or two years’ study following upon the bachelor’s degree; a master’sdegree, after two years’ study and submission of a thesis (or without submission ofa thesis in the case of the master of arts degree in education); or a doctor’s degree (in education and philosophy, for example) after three years’ study and the defence of a thesis in public. Non-formal education for school-leavers, workers and professionals is being developed.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 10 years, secondaryschool-leaving certificate and entrance examination)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Education Letters Fine arts Architecture Law Business management Commercial studies Exact and natural sciences Engineering Medical sciences medicine dentistry pharmacy veterinary medicine

Agricultural studies

B M D B M

A B M B

B B D B M D

B M A B

B P P

B M P

A B M

A associate’s degree B bachelor’s degree D doctor’s degree M master’s degrce P professional qualification

GLOSSARY Associate’s degree. Degree obtained at the end of two years’ studies, in agricultural

technology, secretariat studies, business studies and fine arts. Bachelor’s degree. Degree of higher education awarded after a minimum of four years’

undergraduate studies in a university or other institution of higher education. Certificate or diploma. At the level of undergraduate studies. delivered at the end of

programmes requiring a minimum of six months’ study. At the level of graduate studies. conferred at the end of a minimum of one year’s study following the bachelor’s deyee. Doctor’s degree (doctorate). The highest university degree. It is conferred at the end of at

least two years’ study following the masfer’s degree and requires research work and the defence of a thesis. In medicine, veterinary medicine and dentistry, the title ofdoctor is the first professional qualification. Master’s degree. Degree conferred, according to the field of study, after a minimum year (or

years) of graduate study. Presentation of a dissertation may or may not be compulsory, according to the programme of study. Professional qualification. Qualification awarded as a cert$cate, a diploma or other

230 PHILIPPINES

professional qualification after studies of variable length, from one year to eight in medicine. It may be a first professional qualification or an advanced one. In medicine, veterinary medicine and dentistry, the title of doctor is a first degree (see doctor’s degree). Secondary-school-leaving certificate. Certificate obtained at the end of six years’ primary

and four years’ secondary education and giving access to higher education. Special order. Power enjoyed by a private establishment to confer a diploma on a student

who has successfully followed a determined course of study, at a given date, the award being subject to the fulfilment of all required conditions (the programme followed must be of a minimum level, at least, set by the Ministry of Education and Culture).

Poland

In Poland higher education is given in 10 universities and 17 technical universities (politechniki), as well as in specialized technical and professional institutions (12 higher teacher-training institutions, six higher schools of fine arts, seven academies and higher musical schools, three higher schools of drama and film, six academies and higher schools of physical training, two higher maritime schools). The universities and technical universities offer courses in law, humanities, political sciences, exact sciences, natural sciences, pure and applied sciences, technology and architecture. The Catholic University at Lublin (Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski) offers courses in humanities and theology. Courses in theology are also offered in two theological academies. Most institutions of higher education are under the authority of the Ministry of Science,

Higher Education and Technology. There are some exceptions: medical schools (Ministry of Health and Welfare); fine arts, drama, music (Ministry of Culture and Art); physical training (Central Committee of Physical Culture and Sport); higher maritime schools (Ministry of Foreign Trade and Maritime Economy). The state institutions of higher education are entirely government-financed. The Catholic

University at Lublin is a private institution approved and financed by the Polish Episcopate and by gifts. The Ministry of Science, Higher Education and Technology prepares long-term

development plans, oversees the organization and administration of institutions of higher education at government level, and co-ordinates relations with foreign organizations. The Ministry also co-ordinates decisions relating to institutions of higher education dependent on other ministries. The Ministry is assisted in its task by the General Council for Science, Higher Education and Technology, a collective advisory body to the Minister of Science, Higher Education and Technology, which comprises representatives of all types of higher institutions. A n especially important role is played by the Council sections and commissions which co-ordinate the teaching curricula of various schools, groups of scientific disciplines and courses of study. The basic element of higher education is the institute, where teaching and research are

POLAND 23 1

carried out within one or more scientific disciplines and/or courses of study. The majority of higher institutions are divided into faculties which incorporate the institutes engaged in particular subjects or groups of subjects. The main task of the faculties is to organize the teaching process of the institutions. Higher institutions are directed by rectors, assisted by at least two pro-rectors, respectively

responsible for teaching and research. The senate, the rector’s advisory and consultative body, comprises the pro-rectors, deadheads of faculties, directors of major institutes and other units, and representatives of the teaching staff, students, political and social organizations of the institution. Studies in higher institutions may be either full-time or part-time (correspondence or

evening), except for medicine and the maritime schools. The full-time students receive various forms of assistance from the State (scholarships, accommodation in students’ houses, cheap meals in special canteens). The extent of assistance depends on the student’s financial situation and the results of his studies. Apart from full-time higher education, there is a highly developed network of

correspondence and evening courses intended for those who are already engaged in production. Candidates for courses of this kind must not only take an entrance examination but must offer proof of a probationary period of about two years spent in their place of work and furnish a special certificate issued by the employing establishment. The latter must provide them with some fac es, such as periods of leave from work, time off to follow courses etc.; it must also assume responsibility for certain expenses. Evening courses follow the same curricula as daytime courses and are exactly equivalent. Courses are also organized for graduates who wish to keep up with new developments in modern technology: automation, management, atomic energy, farms, forest plantations. The language of instruction is Polish. Teachers of primary education, previously trained in secondary level training schools, now

attend training colleges at higher education level. Teachers of secondary education are trained in institutes of education and at universities where they obtain a magister after four and a half years. Technical and vocational teachers study education concurrently with their courses at polytechnic colleges or technical universities, or attend postgraduate courses in education after taking their final examination. Besides the system of higher education described above, several hundred post-secondary

schools offer a short cycle (one or two years) of vocational training. The qualification awarded is a technician‘s diploma (or equivalent). Access to higher education is based on the matura or Swiadectwo dojrzaioki, (secondary-

school-leaving certificate) obtained after 12 or 13 years of primary and secondary education. Holders of this qualification must sit the competitive entrance examinations set by individual faculties. The prize-winners of national competitions (olimpiada) in various secondary-school subjects are exempt from the entrance examinations. Besides, every secondary school has the right to place its best pupils in some chosen and some recommended courses of study. Excellent or good marks in the secondary-school certificate give priority in access to respective disciplines of study. The selection of future students is based on the results of the entrance examinations, the average of secondary-school certificate marks and the marks received in the secondary school for the subjects which are obligatory at the entrance examinations. Preference is given to candidates who have done their military service, have worked for at least one year as well as to those whose families are industrial and agricultural workers, as well as to youth from small towns and villages. Access to higher education for foreigners is regulated by the respective international

agreements. The main stage usually consists of four to five years’ study (six in medicine). The first two or

three years are devoted to general studies, after which a period of specialization follows.

232 POLAND

Candidates then obtain the qualification of magister in their subject (arts, sciences, law, etc.). Students of technology and architecture obtain the qualification of injnier (I) after four years and magister injnier (MI) (master of technical sciences) after five years. In medical sciences, the corresponding qualifications are lekarz (L), lekarz stomatolog (dentist), lekarz weterynarii (veterinarian). Graduation in higher education entitles the graduate to exercise the acquired profession. In some cases, however, training is supplemented by hospital practice (medical graduates) and apprenticeship (lawyers). There are also professions, such as engineers, in which full rights are awarded after passing supplementary examinations. A further stage (studium doktoranckie, doctoral studies) may be reached after a number of

years varying from three to five according to university, by the holders of a magister or magister injnier. The qualification is obtained after submitting a thesis and passing two doktorat examinations. It is possible to prepare for the doktorat while working in an institution of higher education, a scientific institute or even in industry. In this case, studies last at least four years.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12/13 years, matura (Swiadectwo dojrzdoSci) and competitive entrance examination)

varied years 4 5 6 7 duration

Education M Arts M Theology M Fine arts, drama, music M M M Economics M M Law M Political sciences M Organization, M management

Commercial sciences M Exact and natural M sciences

Technology, I MI architecture

Medical sciences medicine L dentistry LS pharmacy M veterinary medicine L W

Agriculture, forestry MI Physical training M M

D Dhab D Dhab D Dhab D

D Dhab D Dhab D Dhab D Dhab

D Dhab D Dhab

D Dhab

S D Dhab D Dhab D Dhab D Dhab D Dhab D Dhab

D doktor Dhab doktor habilitowany (senior doctor) I inzynier L lekarz LS lekarz stomatolog LW lekarz weterynarii M magister MI magister injnier (master of technical sciences)

(Everv qualification except D and Dhab is a professional qualification (tytuY zawodowy))

S staz szpitalny (hospital practice)

POLAND 233

Another period of at least three to four years’ study leads to the highest qualification in higher education-that of doktor habilitowany (senior doctor). This degree may be obtained in higher schools as well as in the establishments of the Polish Academy of Sciences and other institutions of science and research authorized to confer scientific degrees. Candidates must already hold the qualification of doktor and prepare and submit a thesis. This qualification, like that ofdoktor, is awarded by the scientific council of the faculty. It entitles holders to teach in institutions of higher education.

GLOSSARY Doctor’s degree (medicine). See lekarz medvcyn.v or dyplom lekarza. Doktor. Degree conferred after the title of magister, magister-injnier or lekarz. The

candidate must submit a thesis containing an original solution of a scientific problem and pass two examinations for the doktorat. This qualification may be obtained after three years’study (studium doktoranckie) during which students are required to attend anumber of courses, take part in seminars and carry out research. During this period students are supported financially. The degree is awarded by authorized scientific councils of faculties or institutes. Doktor habilitowany. Degree conferred three to four years after that of doktor. The

candidate must present a thesis constituting a considerable contribution to the progress of knowledge in a given discipline. The degree is awarded by authorized scientific councils of faculties and institutes and entitles holders to teach in institutions of higher education. Egzamin wstepny. Examination organized by a faculty or an institute to select candidates

for studies in a higher institution (see matura). Usually the examination covers the subjects from the secondary-school programme: two related to the future studies and one a foreign language. The examinations are oral and written. Entrance examination. See egzamin ustgpny. Iniynier. Professional title awarded after completing usually eight semesters of technical,

economic or commercial studies. Lekarz medycyny or dyplom lekarza. First qualification and professional title awarded after

higher medical studies. In veterinary medicine, this qualification carries the title of lekarz ueterynarii. and in dentistry that of lekarz-stomatolog. Magister. First qualification of higher education. usually obtained after four to five years’

study. T h e first two or three years are devoted to general studies. In the last year, candidates must submit a thesis. During vacations, students are required to do periods of practical training in fields of employment corresponding to their field of study. Examinations take place at the end of each semester. At the end of the last year, a final examination leads to the qualification of magister. In technology and agriculture, the qualification is called magister injnier. In medicine, the equivalent of the magister, obtained after six years’ study, is the lekarz (doctor). Magister-iniynier. Professional title awarded to a student in technical and agricultural

studies who has obtained his degree of injnier. Master of technical sciences. See magister-injnier. Matura or Swiadectwo dojrzdoici. Secondary-school-leaving certificate obtained at the end

of four years of general secondary education in a liceum ogolnoksztdcpce, following upon eight years of primary education, or after eight years of primary education followed by five or six years of professional secondary education, depending on the specialization. This qualification is required for access to higher education, but candidates also have to pass a competitive entrance examination set by individual faculties. The number of candidates admitted is subordinate to a national plan which determines the needs for specialists in each subject. Preference is given to candidates with at least one year’s practical experience in the field they wish to study, as well as to candidates whose parents are industrial andagricultural workers.

234 POLAND

Post-secondary school. See szkda pomaturalna. Professional qualification. See tytuf zawodowy. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See matura or Swiadectwo dojrzafbSci. Senior doctor. See doktor habilitowany. Swiadectwo dojrzdoki. See matura. SzkOra pomaturalna (post-secondary school). School which awards professional

qualifications at a secondary level to secondary-school leaving youth (including those who did not pass the final examination). Tyt& zawodowy (professional qualification). See magister, magister-injnier, lekarz,

iniynier . (All higher education qualifications give the right to exercise the corresponding profession.)

Portugal

In Portugal higher education takes place in both public and private institutions. Portugal has four traditional universities (two in Lisbon, one of which is classical, the other technical, and two others in Oporto and in Coimbra). There are also a number of institutions of higher education which were founded recently: three new universities at Lisbon, Aveiro, Minho (1973), the University Institute of Evora (1973) and the University Institute of the Azores (1976). Higher education is also available in the University Institute of Beira Interior, the University Institute of Tras O Montes e Alto Douro, schools or higher institutes of dentistry, work and business management, fine arts, engineering, accountancy and administration. Lastly, there is a national conservatory. The private institutions comprise the Catholic University of Lisbon (1971), three higher institutes of social services and a higher institute of applied psychology, a higher institute of languages and administration and an institute of new professions. The Catholic University of Lisbon confers degrees whose validity is the same as those conferred in public universities and the Ministry of Education recognizes the high level of courses offered in other private institutions of higher education (without this implying correspondence or equivalence with academic degrees).

Portuguese universities are administratively, scientifically and academically autonomous. They are directly financed by credits from the State. The Minister of Education is responsible for all public institutions of higher education. Universities offer courses in arts and humanities, education, social sciences, law, exact and

natural sciences, technology, agriculture and husbandry, medicine, pharmacy, fine arts, environmental sciences and physical education. Traditional universities are divided into faculties, with the exception of the Technical

University of Lisbon which comprises several institutes and schools, each of which enjoys great autonomy. O n the other hand, the universities and institutions of higher education which were founded after 1973, with the exception of the new University of Lisbon which groups several faculties, have adopted an organization whereby the department is the main pedagogical unit.

PORTUGAL 235

Teachers of primary education are trained at secondary level in teacher-training colleges. Teachers of secondary education are trained at a university, and art teachers in fine arts academies and the arts faculties. Teaching takes place in Portuguese. Access to higher education is based on the certifcado defini de esrudos secundarios obtained

after four years of primary education followed by seven years of secondary education divided into three phases of respectively two, three and two years (the latter is the curso complemeniar). Candidates for higher education must also follow the uno propedêutico (twelfth year of schooling at present given on television with auxiliary texts which was to become the twelfth year of schooling proper in 1980181) and pass with success the concurso nacional de candidatura no ensino superior (national competitive examination), since access to higher education is not open to all candidates and a numerus clausus has been adopted in every subject. Each year the Ministry of Education fixes the number of students who are admitted to the first year of higher education, according to available places in the various institutions and the needs of the country. Once the contingent of students has been admitted, candidates are placed according to a complex system which considers the average of the marks obtained during the last two years of secondary education, the average of the marks obtained in the two basic subjects of these last two years, and the marks obtained in the two basic subjects of the uno propedêutico. Foreign students are admitted to Portuguese institutions of higher education if they have a

qualification equivalent to the uno propedêutico. There are special cases of direct access for certain categories of foreign candidates who are covered by specific agreements made by the Portuguese government. Adults over twenty-five who have not followed the required training but who exercise a

profession may also gain access to higher education if they succeed in the exame de maturidade. This examination, the aim of which is to take into consideration the candidate’s professional experience and maturity, comprises a Portuguese language paper which is taken by every candidate and specific papers set by the various faculties and schools. The first stage of higher education may in certain cases be terminal. The Ministry of

Education intends to create a new type of non-university higher education in the near future called ‘integrated’ higher education. It will combine scientific, technical and practical training and its purpose will be to offer two- to three-year training courses for high-level technicians in various fields, as well as teachers. It will be possible to pass from one type of studies to another. These studies, which will take place in regional polytechnic institutions of higher education will lead to a diploma de estudos superiores. In the case of long-term studies, the main stage is devoted to acquiring a sound training which will enable students to carry out further study in depth, in order to specialize and hold asatisfactoryjob in future. The length of these studies varies according to subject: arts and humanities, four years; law, social sciences, exact and natural sciences, technology, pharmacy, agriculture and husbandry, environmental sciences and physical education, five years; medicine and dentistry, six years. This stage at present leads to the bacharelato, a degree awarded by universities and higher institutes of accountancy and administration. With the decree 304/78 which creates two new degrees, the mesirado (posgraduaçüo) and the agregaçüo, the first stage will lead to the licenciaturu. The academies of fine arts confer a diploma of higher studies after five years’ study instead of the licenciatura. Portuguese academic diplomas and qualifications do not necessarily give access to the

professions. In medicine, veterinary medicine, agricultural studies, law and education, graduates are required to do a practical year in order to exercise the relevant profession. The second stage of higher education lasts one or two years and is only open to holders of the

licenciatura. It includes the submission of an original dissertation, written specially for the degree. If the jury is satisfied, the candidate receives a posgraduaçüo (mesirado) degree.

236 PORTUGAL

The third stage of higher education is only open to holders of theposgraduaçüo and requires a very high level of culture and a capacity for scientific research in a given fieldof knowledge. It lasts one or two years and leads to the doutoramento, after an examination and submission of a thesis. The other academic degree conferred at this stage, the agregaçüo, is only open to holders of the doutoramento; it requires a high capacity for research and special pedagogical competence in a specific field of knowledge. It is awarded after passing specific examinations.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, certificado de fim de estudos secundirios, uno propedêutico and entrance examination)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7

Education (pedagogy) B t L Pg(M) D/Ag Arts, humanities L Pg(M) D/Ag Fine arts Di Law L t Pg(M) D/Ag Social sciences B* L Pg(M) D/Ag Exact and natural sciences B L Pg(M) D/Ag Technology DES B* L Pg(M) D/Ag Medical sciences medicine B* L t dentistry B L t pharmacy L Pg(M) D/Ag

Agriculture, husbandry B L t Physical education B L Pg(M) Environmental sciences L Pg(M) D/Ag

Ag agregaçüo B bacharelato D doutoramento DES diploma de estudos superiores (polytechnical higher studies) Di diploma L licenciatura Pg(M) posgraduaçüo (mestrado)

* The bacharelatos marked by an asterisk do not lead to the licenciatura. t Practical work, see text.

GLOSSARY Agregaçâo. Highest degree of higher education, created by the legal decree 304/78. It is

reserved to holders of the doutoramento and requires high capacity for research and special pedagogical competence in a specific field of knowledge. It is obtained after success in specific examinations. Ano propedêutico. Twelfth year of schooling, at present given on television with auxiliary

texts (in 1980-81 it was to become the last year of secondary education). It is compulsory for students who have completed the curso complementar do ensino secundirio (tenth and eleventh year of schooling following upon the three years of curso geral (general course) and the six years of basic education) and who wish to gain access to an institution of higher education. Bacharelato. First university degree, which hitherto was awarded by the universities and

higher institutes of accountancy and administration after three years of study. Certificado de fim de estudos secundarios. Qualification obtained after four years of primary

PORTUGAL 237

followed by eight years of secondary education. It is required for access to higher education. Concurso nacional de candidatura ao ensino superior. National competitive examination

which must be taken by all candidates who wish to gain access to higher education and who have completed the curso complementar and the anopropedêutico. The contingent of students who are admitted to the first year of university is fixed every year for every faculty and every course, by the Ministry of Education. Candidates are classified according to the numerus clausus and by a system which considers the average obtained in the curso complementar, the average obtained in the two basic subjects during those two years and the marks obtained in the two basic subjects of the uno propedêutico. Doutoramento. Higher degree of higher education open to holders of a posgraduaçiïo

(mestrado) after one or two years’ study, requiring a high-level culture and a capacity for scientific research in a given field of knowledge. The doutoramento includes an examination and the submission of a thesis. Entrance examination. See exame de maturidade. Exame de maturidade. Examination taken by adults over twenty-five, who have not

followed the required training but who exercise aprofession. in order to gain access to higher education. The examedematuridade comprises a Portuguese language paper which is taken by every candidate and specific papers set by the various faculties and schools. Licenciatura. Usually the first qualification of higher education, awarded after studies

whose length varies between four and six years, according to subject. This qualification does not automatically or necessarily give access to the relevant profession. In agricultural studies, medicine, law and education, students must also do practical work in order to have the right to exercise the profession. Mestrado. See posgraduaç6o. Polytechnical higher studies. Short-term ‘integrated’ higher studies (combining scientific,

technical and practical training) which will soon be put into application by the Ministry of Education, the aim of which is to offer two- to three-year courses for teachers and high-level technicians in several fields. These courses will be offered in regional institutions and will lead to the diploma de estudos superiores. Posgraduaçio (mestrado). University degree created by the new legal decree of 1978 open to

holders of a licenciaturu after training which lasts between one and two years and on submission of a specially written thesis. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See certijïcado de jïm de estudos secundirios.

Qatar

Higher education in Qatar is provided in the University of Qatar at Doha. This university, which was founded as the Faculties of Education in 1973 and which acquired its present status and name in 1977, is a state institution. autonomous both in financial and academic matters. Its resources come from credits granted by the State. Its governing bodies are the University

238 QATAR

Council (which is made up of the president of the University, the vice-president, the deans, two professors and three important external academic figures), the Higher Council of Education (whose chairman is the Minister of Education) and the Board of Regents, which is made up of fifteen members (from Qatar and famous foreign universities). The University comprises faculties of education, science, arts and humanities, social sciences, and Islamic studies. A centre for scientific and applied research and a centre for educational research and development are also affiliated to the University.

T h e language of instruction is Arabic. Teachers are trained at the University, which awards a bachelor’s degree in primary

education after four years’ study as well as a certificate in this branch of study. Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school certificate, or an equivalent

qualification. The first stage of higher education, after four years’ study, leads to the bachelor of arts

degree (BA), the bachelor of arts and education degree (BAEd), the bachelor of science degree (BSc), the bachelor of science and education degree (BScEd), the bachelor of domesticeconomy degree and the bachelor of Islamic studies degree. The second stage, after one year’s further study following upon the bachelor’s degree, leads

to a muster’s degree in arts, arts and education, science, science and education and Islamic studies. In education, the University awards a general diploma of education and a special diploma of education at this level of postgraduate studies. The third stage leads to the award of a title of doctor ofphilosophy (PhD) which may only be

prepared in Islamic studies at present.

PROFILE OF H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N

Duration of Studies (Previous education: secondary-school certificate)

years 4 5 6 7

Education B GDE/ SD

Arts B M Arts and education B M Science B M Science and education B M Domestic economy B Islamic studies B M P h D

B bachelor’s degree GDE general diploma of education M master’s degree P h D doctor of phifosophy SD special diploma

G L O S S A R Y Bachelor’s degree. First degree of higher education, awarded at the end of four years’ study

in arts, arts and education, science, science and education, domestic economy, primary education and Islamic studies. Doctor of philosophy (PhD). Highest degree of higher education. For the time being it is only

awarded in Islamic studies. Master’s degree. Second degree of higher education, awarded after one year’s further study

QATAR 239

following upon the bachelor’s degree in arts, arts and education, science, science and education, and Islamic studies. Secondaryschool certificate. Secondary-school-leaving certificate giving access to higher

education.

Republic of Korea

In the Republic of Korea higher education is provided in five types of institution:

(1) Due haggyo (university): there are 29 universities: nine are national universities and 20 are private. Each university must include at least three colleges, one of which must be for the natural sciences and engineering. Each university provides courses at postgraduate level. (2) Due hag (college): there exist 56 colleges, whose courses last four years and which grant bachelor’s degrees. Some are professional training institutions, such as those for teacher- training, engineering, medicine and pharmacy, and fishery and marine science. (3) Jeonmun due hug (junior college): these offer the first two years of higher education, which leads to a great variety of qualifications of the diploma type. (4) Cy0 yug due hag (junior teachers’ college): these institutions give elementary school teacher-training courses of two years’ duration. (5) Bangsong rongshin daehag (air and correspondence college): this is an institution which provides educational opportunities to the out-of-school youth and adults unable to continue schooling for various reasons. Those graduated from this institution are admitted through qualifying examination into the third class of a college or university.

Private institutions cater for some 72 per cent of the students in higher education. They acquire their funds through endowments, gifts and fees. National universities draw their funds from the budget of the State. Teacher training is a part of higher education. Intending primary school-teachers follow a

two-year course at a gyoyug daehag (junior teachers’ college). Intending secondary teachers follow a four-year course which terminates with a bachelor’s degree; this course is given in a daehag and, more usually, in a college of education forming a part of a university. Although Korean is the usual language of instruction, some courses may be given in

English, Chinese, French and German. Those languages may often be also used in examinations and for dissertations. Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leaving cerrificare which is

obtained after six years of primary education followed by six years of secondary education divided into two phases (middle school and high school) of three years each. To be admitted to higher education success in an entrance examination is also necessary. The first stage of higher education leads to a bachelor’s degree or to a diploma. The

240 REPUBLIC OF KOREA

bachelor’s degree is awarded after four years. Junior colleges offer a variety of courses leading to certificates of state-authorized second class technician. A second stage represents a period of postgraduate study leading to a master’s degree. For a

master’s degree two years of further study beyond the bachelor’s degree are required in the same subject. There exist specialized graduate schools whose courses last five semesters (two and a half years). A third stage leads to the doctor’s degree, which is awarded in the following subjects three

years after the master’s degree: humanities, philosophy, theology, economics, law, medicine, science, pharmacy, engineering, agriculture, and veterinary medicine. Success in the examination for a foreign language is required for the doctor’s degree before submitting a dissertation.

PROFILE OF H I G H E R STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, secondary-school-leaving certificate and entrance examination)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Education P B M Arts B M D Theology B M D Fine arts B M D Law B M D Economics B M D Commercial sciences B M Science B M D

Medical sciences Engineering B M D

medicine B M D dentistry B M D pharmacy B M D veterinary medicine B M D

Agriculture B M D Marine science B M

B bachelor’s degree D doctor’s degree M master’s degree P professional quali- fication

GLOSSARY Bachelor’s degree. First degree of higher education awarded after four years’ study. Doctor’s degree. Highest degree of higher education, awarded after three years’ study

beyond the master’s degree in the following subjects: humanities, philosophy, theology, economics, law, medicine, physical and biological sciences, pharmacy, engineering, agriculture, and veterinary medicine. Entrance examination. Obligatory examinations: preliminary examination and entrance

examination for holders of the secondary-school certificate who wish to gain access to higher education. Master’s degree. Second degree of higher education awarded two and a half years after the

bachelor’s degree in the same subject.

REPUBLIC OF KOREA 24 1

Secondary-school-leaving certificate. Certificate awarded after six years of primary education followed by six years of secondary schooling. The latter is divided into two phases of three years each: middle school and high school.

Romania

In Romania the main purpose of higher education is to offer high level theoretical, practical, professional and civic courses in every specialization, in order to train highly qualified personnel. To ensure direct links between higher education and the economic, scientific and cultural activities of the country and to prepare students for their profession, teaching is integrated to production and to scientific research, mainly by means of practical work. Higher education is entirely financed by the State and is provided free. The Higher Council for Education and Teaching is responsible for guiding, controlling and

co-ordinating education at every level. Educational plans are elaborated with the help of the teaching staff, and specialists in industry, research and programming. These plans are then approved by the Congress of Education and Teaching, which takes place every five years. The Ministry of Education is responsible for guiding, co-ordinating and controlling institutions of higher education, as well as for their organization, administration, teaching and research activities. It also fixes entrance conditions, subjects and examinations and competitive examination papers, as well as their organization and the conditions in which they take place. Higher education is provided in seven universities, five polytechnical institutes, four

technical institutes (building, mining, petrol and gas, under-engineers), five institutes of medicine and pharmacy, four agricultural institutes, an institute of architecture, two institutes of fine arts, two institutes of dramatic art and cinema, three music conservatories, eight institutes of higher education (both technical and pedagogical) and an institute of physical education. Traditional universities offer courses in arts, exact and natural sciences, law, economics,

education, etc.; some universities also comprise technical faculties of medicine and agricultural studies. The institutes of higher education are divided into faculties and sections. The faculties comprise departments (chairs) composed of teachers who have the same specialization or similar specializations. Polytechnical institutes are in fact technological universities which train engineers and

under-engineers in mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, electrotechnical engineering, chemical engineering, etc. Outside regular courses (which last between three and six years), there are a number of other

possible courses (evening courses and correspondence courses). These courses last one year longer than regular courses. Post-university courses are also organized for economists, scientists, technicians and specialists in culture who already hold adegree of higher education awarded by institutions where regular studies last for more than four years.

242 ROMANIA

Teaching is given in Romanian (and in other mother tongues in certain regions where people of different nationalities live). Teachers for pre-primary and lower-primary education are trained in two years in teacher-

training colleges at post-secondary level or in teacher-training schools at secondary level. Teachers for upper-primary education are trained in three years in teacher-training institutes. Teachers for secondary education are trained in four years in teacher-training institutes or universities. Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leaving certificate or

bacalaureat obtained after eight years of primary followed by four years of secondary education and a concurs de admitere (competitive entrance examination) to select the best candidates. Candidates are admitted according to their results in the competitive entrance examination. T h e number of first-year places in higher education is fixed by the Ministry of Education, together with the other ministries concerned, according to the needs of the various branches of the economy and national life.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, bacalaureat and competitive entrance examination)

varied years 2 3 4 5 6 I 8 9 10 duration

Physical L/DS

Education LIDS education

D D' (pedagogy)

geography

music, fine arts

Languages, history, L/DS D

Theatre, cinema, VDS D

Architecture DS D Law LIDS Di Social sciences, L/DS D economics

Exact and L/DS D' natural sciences

Biochemistry L/DS D Engineering SVDS I/DS D Medical sciences

LIDS D

veterinary DS D medicine

Agriculture W DS D

D'

D'

D' D' D'

D'

D' D'

D' D'

D'

D'

, D doctor D' doctor docent in sriinte DS diplorn8 de Stat I inginer L licenfa SI sub-inginer

ROMANIA 243

The main stage of higher education is devoted to broadly-based study during the first two or three years; the length of study varies according to subject chosen: four years in education, languages, geography, theatre, cinema, music, fine arts, law, social sciences and economics, exact and natural sciences, agricultural studies; five years in biochemistry, engineering, pharmacy, veterinary medicine; six years in medicine and architecture. This stage leads to the examen de Stat, after which candidates who are successful in the examination are awarded the diploma de Stat (diploma) or the licenia and are entitled to exercise the relevant profession. A further stage (post-university courses) which is only open to holders of the diploma de Stat

or of the licenja, corresponds to a period of study in depth and to a specialization. This stage requires at least four years’ study and leads to a doctorat (awarded by institutions of higher education, academies of science and central centres of research), after passing examinations, presenting a dissertation and defending a thesis. The qualification of doctor docent in stiinte is awarded, after a variable length of study, to

holders of the doctorat who have carried out work of scientific importance and whose research and publications constitute a major contribution to knowledge, technique or culture.

GLOSSARY Bacalaureat. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, obtained after eight years of primary

followed by four years of secondary education in a general secondary school, in a school of physical education or art or in a technical secondary school. This qualification is required of candidates for the concurs de admitere (competitive entrance examination) which gives access to higher education. Concurs de admitere. Compulsory entrance examination to higher education. Each faculty

organizes its own entrance examination. Candidates are examined in three or four of the subjects they took for their secondary-school-leaving examination and which are relevant to the subject they intend to study. They are admitted according to their results in the entrance examination and to the number of students to be admitted according to needs in the various branches of the economy and national life. Diplorn8 de Stat, Professional qualification entitling its holder to practise a profession. It is

awarded after three to six years according to subject as a licence diploma, an under-engineer diploma, an engineering diploma, an architect’s diploma. Doctorat. Degree of higher education awarded to holders of a diploma or a licenia who,

after having passed the entrance examination with success and, in certain cases, exercised a profession for at least two years, continue their studies for four or five years. The last years are devoted to preparing a thesis which is then defended in public and which contributes to the advancement of knowledge. Doctor docent in stiinte. Highest degree of higher education awarded to those who are

already holders of the doctorat and who achieve distinction through academic work and publications which constitute an important contribution in the scientific, technical or cultural sphere. It is awarded by a doctoral commission, which comprises specialists appointed by the Ministry of Education, together with members of the university’s governing body. Entrance examination. See concurs de admitere. Examen de Stat. Final examination in higher education comprising in every faculty oral,

written or practical examinations and submission of a small thesis or dissertation in the chosen speciality. Success in the examen de Stat is rewarded by the diplomz. Candidates who fail three times in the examen de Stat or who fail to sit the examination within the time limit allowed (three years), are granted a certificat de studii (certificate of attendance). Licenja. First qualification of higher education awarded by institutions of higher education

after a period of four to six years’ study, according to subject chosen. The licenfa is both an academic and a professional qualification.

244 ROMANIA

Professional qualification. See diploma de Stat. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See bacalaureat.

In Rwanda higher education takes place mainly at the National University of Rwanda, and at the National Institute of Education, Butare. The University comprises six faculties: science; agriculture; medicine; arts; law; social, economic and administrative sciences. The National Institute of Education is divided into sections: modern .literature, humanities, exact and natural sciences, pedagogy and modern techniques. Teaching takes place in French. Access to higher education is based on the certificat des humanités of the Rwandasecondary

schools obtained after twelve years of primary and secondary education. The first stage of higher education (often the only one for the moment) leads in most

subjects to the baccalauréat obtained after three years' study. The National Institute of Education awards, after three years, the agrégation de l'enseignement secondaire inférieur and after five years the agrégation de l'enseignement secondaire moyen.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, certificat des humanités)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Education AS1 ASM Arts B L Law L Social, political, economic, B commercial and administrative sciences

Exact and natural sciences B L

Medicine B D Engineering L

Agriculture L/I *

AS1 agrégation de l'enseignement secondaire inférieur secondaire moyen B baccalauréat D doctorat I ingéniorat L licence

ASM agrégation de l'enseignement

* First year spent in faculty of science-see text.

RWANDA 245

A second stage exists-or is planned-in certain fields and leads to the licence after two years’ (history, geography, chemistry, civil engineering) or three years’ study (ingéniorat in agriculture). In medicine, the first three years are devoted to broadly-based studies (the first year in the science faculty for basic sciences, the other two in the faculty of medicine, for medical sciences) after which candidates spend four years on further clinical and practical training. They are then awarded the qualification of docteur en médecine.

G L O S S A R Y Agrégation de renseignement secondaire inférieur. Qualification of higher education

obtained after three years’ study at the National Institute of Education, qualifying holders to teach in the lower phase of secondary education. Agrégation de renseignement secondaire moyen. Qualification of higher education obtained

after five years’ study at the National Institute of Education, qualifying holders to teach in secondary education institutions. Baccalauréat. First degree of higher education, awarded at the National University after

three years’ study (except in medicine and law). The qualification obtained is that of bachelier ès sciences, ès lettres or ès sciences économiques et sociales, depending on the faculty. Each faculty offers a range of specialization: in science-mathematics, physics, chemistry or bio- chemistry; in humanities-modern French literature, modern English literature, history, geography; in social and economic sciences-social and political sciences, economics and commerce, law and administration. Certificat des humanités. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, obtained after six years of

primary followed by six years of secondary education (divided into a three-year lower phase and a three-year upper phase). This qualification gives access to the National University and the National Institute of Education. Docteur. Degree awarded by the faculty of medicine at the end of seven years’ study

comprising one pre-medical year in the science faculty, two pre-clinical years, three clinical years and one year’s practical training. This degree is a professional qualification. Ingéniorat. Qualification appearing in the new programme of the faculty of agriculture and

awarded after six years’ study in agriculture. Licence. Higher education qualification (second cycle) awarded two or three years after the

baccalauréat (first cycle) in certain fields. In law, the licence is conferred after three years’ study directly after a preparatory year.

Saudi Arabia

Higher education in Saudi Arabia takes place in six universities, an institute of public administration and two teacher-training colleges. All of these are state institutions whose capital and running costs are a charge on the national budget. The university rectors form part of the Supreme Council of Universities which makes proposals relative to the overall policy of

246 SAUDI ARABIA

higher education (the development of which it co-ordinates and stimulates) and supervises the application of the State’s policy in scientific research. The King Abdul-Aziz University was originally a private institution, and attained its

present status in 1971. It has two campuses, one at Mecca, the other at Jeddah, and comprises faculties of law and Islamic studies, education, economics and business administration, science, letters and human sciences, engineering and medicine. The University of Riyadh comprises faculties of letters and human sciences, science, pharmacy, commerce, agriculture, education, engineering, medicine, and Arabic literature and language. The Islamic universities of Medina and Riyadh comprise faculties or colleges of Islamic law, Koran studies, Arabic language and social sciences. The University of Petroleum and Minerals, at Dhahran, was originally founded as a college, and acquired its present status in 1975. Although in the dependence of the Ministry of Higher Education, it has internal autonomy, and is almost entirely funded by the State. It comprises colleges of science, engineering (and applied sciences), industrial management, and advanced studies, and an institute for research in the fields of petroleum and gas. The King Faisal University, D a m m a m , founded in 1975, is principally concerned with agriculture, animal husbandry and veterinary medicine, medicine, and pharmacy. The teaching languages are Arabic and English, the latter being largely confined to

technological disciplines. At the University of Petroleum and Minerals, the only language used is English. Primary school-teachers are trained at secondary level in the elementary Islamic institutes.

Secondary school-teachers are trained in the education faculties of King Abdul-Aziz and Riyadh universities, where the bachelor of arts degree in education is taken after four years. Physical education teachers are trained over three years in a special institute. Access to higher education is based on the tawjahiya (secondary-school-leaving certificate).

This is awarded after six years’ primary followed by three years’ intermediate-secondary and three years’ upper-secondary education. For the University of Petroleum and Minerals there

PROHLE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, tawjahiya)

years 4 5 6 7 8 9

Education B Di Arts B M Social sciences B M P h D Islamic and Arabic studies B M P h D Economic and B M

Exact and natural B M commercial sciences

sciences Engineering, technology B

pharmacy B

Medical sciences medicine D/B

Agriculture B

B bachelor’s degree D doctor’s degree Di diploma M master’s degree P h D doctor of philosophy

SAUDI ARABIA 247

is also an entrance examination. The Islamic University of Medina normally requires candidates to hold the leaving certificate of a religious secondary school. The main stage of higher education involves a general training in a particular discipline,

sometimes amounting to a high level professional qualification. It leads after four or five years to the bachelor’s degree. In medicine, studies last eight years and the qualification awarded is that of doctor ofmedicine (MD). The second stage reflects a deeper knowledge of the subject. It leads in one year to the

general diploma in education at the University of Riyadh, and in most universities, to the muster’s degree. This is awarded after two further years’ study, in letters and science at Riyadh, and in science and business administration at the University of Petroleum and Minerals. In the other universities it is awarded after three years’ study subsequent to the award of the bachelor’s degree (Islamic law, Arabic and social sciences). A thesis is required. The third stage takes three or four years from the award of the master’s degree and leads to

the degree of docror ofphilosophy (PhD). Candidates must submit a thesis based on individual research work. Saudi Arabian universities currently award the PhD in the following subjects only: Islamic law, Arab and Islamic studies, and social sciences.

GLOSSARY Bachelor’s degree. First degree of higher education awarded after four years’ study in

letters, science, education, economics, commerce, agriculture, Arabic and Islamic studies; in engineering, industrial engineering and pharmacy the course is five years, in medicine eight years. It constitutes a first terminal degree, and in some subjects a high level professional qualification. The bachelor’s degree is awarded in the King Abdul-Aziz, Riyadh, Medina and Riyadh Islamic Universities and the University of Petroleum and Minerals. Doctor’s degree. The highest degree of higher education, awarded after between two and

four years’ study following upon the award of the master’s degree. It is given for advanced individual research work culminating in the submission of a thesis. General diploma of education. Qualification in education awarded in the University of

Riyadh following one year’s study after the award of the bachelor’s degree. Master’s degree. Degree awarded on submission of a thesis after two years’ study in letters,

science and business administration and after three years’ studies in Islamic law, Arabic and social sciences, subsequent to the award of the bachelor’s degree. It reflects advanced knowledge in a particular subject. Religious secondary-institute-leaving certificate. Qualification obtained at the end of a three-

year course at a religious secondary institute at upper-secondary level. It corresponds to the secondary-school-leaving certificate. The institutes provide intensive studies in Arabic language and Islamic religion side by side with other general cultural studies. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See tawjahiya. Tawjahiya. Certificate awarded after six years’ primary and six years’ secondary education,

the latter divided into two phases of three years, intermediate and upper respectively, and giving access to higher education.

248 SENEGAL

Senegal

In Senegal higher education is provided in the University of Dakar and in other establishments founded for the training of scientific, technical, teaching and administrative personnel. The University of Dakar is under the supervision of the Ministry of Higher Education. It comprises seven financially independent institutions: the faculties of law and economics, of medicine and pharmacy, of science, of letters and human sciences; the basic Institute of Black Africa, the University Institute of Technology, and the Advanced Teacher- Training College; plus various other centres and institutes which are affiliated to it. Some of these are devoted exclusively to research, others are involved with teaching. The latter is the case with the School of Librarians, Archivists and Documentalists, which awards a diploma after a two-year course; with the Centre of Studies for the Information Sciences and Techniques, where courses for the professional diploma of journalism last three years; with the Institute of Applied Tropical Medicine which awards a diploma of practical tropical medicine after a post-university course of eight months; and with the Institute of French as a Foreign Language, which offers a one-year course in French language and culture leading to various certificates and diplomas. There is also an inter-state school of veterinary medicine which offers a six-year course (one preparatory year, and one year devoted to the production of a thesis) for a doctorate in veterinary medicine. In addition there are research institutes of social paediatrics; the teaching of physics,

mathematics and technology; dentistry and stomatology; applied mathematics; and research centres of: applied linguistics (Dakar); research into psychopathology; research into and documentation of African institutions and law; applied economics; biological research in relation to leprosy; higher Afro-Ibero-American studies. The teaching language is French. University degrees awarded by three of the faculties of the University are recognized as

equivalent to the relevant French qualifications. Diplomas of the medical and pharmacy faculty are fully valid in France and vice versa. Other establishments independent of the University offer instruction to holders of the

baccalauréat or higher diplomas. These are professional schools whose regulations in some cases require the passing of entrance examinations of various kinds. Among these establishments are: a polytechnical school (Thiès), which offers five-year courses in engineering under the supervision of the Ministry of Higher Education and that of the Armed Forces; the National School of Administration and Magistracy; the National School of Applied Economics; the National School of Postal Services and Telecommunications; the NatiOnal School of Fine Arts, etc.

The training of technical school-teachers takes place in two technical teacher-training colleges (female and male). Secondary school-teachers are taught in the humanities and science faculties of the Advanced Teacher-Training College. The latter provides one-year courses for intermediate secondary teachers (who must already have the licence) and for upper-secondary teachers (who must have the maitrise); the former receive the intermediate teacher's certificate (certificar d'aptitude à l'enseignement moyen-CAEM) and the latter the secondary teacher's certificate (certificat d'aptitude à l'enseignement secondaire-CAES). The College also trains teachers for the middle level teacher-training colleges over two years; entrants must have the baccalauréaf or have completed the first year of university education. Short courses in mechanics and in rural engineering are available at the University Institute

of Technology. The Institute of Social Paediatrics trains midwives, nurses and social assistants in child health protection. The Centre of Studies for the Science andTechnology of Information provides refresher courses and training for middle grade personnel. The faculty

SENEGAL 249

of law and economics trains students who do not have the baccalauréat over two years to the capacité en droit.

Access to higher education is based on the baccalauréat which is the secondary-school- leaving certificate. Those who do not have the baccalauréat may enrol in the University in one of two cases: if they have passed the special entrance examination, or if they have received dispensation from both of the former by a special committee. Although the University of Dakar caters essentially for Senegal, foreign students may enrol

where places are available if they can meet the normal requirements of age and qualification. As a general rule, applications for entrance by African candidates must be supported by their national government. Students of the Sudano-Sahelian area are given priority in this. Applications from outside Africa are considered individually although the requirements made by the University may not be waived in any case.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 13 years, baccalauréat)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ~~

Arts, human sciences DUEL L M DS Pedagogy C A E M * CAEST Law, economic DEEG/ L DES sciences DEJG

Exact and natural sciences DUES L M DEA Technology DUT Medical sciences medicine D dentistry D D S

veterinary medicine DIP pharmacy DEP D

CAEM CAES D DEA DEEG DEJG DEP DES D S DUEL DUES DUT L M P

certificat d'aptitude à l'enseignement moyen certificat d'aptitude à l'enseignement secondaire doctorat diplôme d'études approfondies diplôme d'études économiques générales diplôme d'études juridiques générales diplôme d'Etat de pharmacien diplôme détudes supérieures doctorat de spécialité de troisième cycle diplôme universitaire d'études littéraires diplôme universitaire détudes scientifiques diplôme universitaire de technologie licence maîtrise professional qualijication

* One-year course for holders of licence. t One-year course for holders of maîtrise.

250 SENEGAL

Generally speaking, three stages are distinguishable in higher education. The first stage (or cycle) offers largely multi-disciplinary and basic studies. In the humanities it leads to the diplôme universitaire d’études littéraires (DUEL), in science to the diplôme universitaire d‘études scientifiques (DUES), in law to the diplôme détudes juridiques générales (DEJG) and in economics to the diplôme d‘études économiques générales (DEEG). In medicine and pharmacy no qualification is awarded. Holders of the DUES may sit the competitive entrance examination for the ‘grandes ecoles’ of engineering. Studies at the University Institute of Technology lead after two years to a diplôme universitaire de technologie (DUT).

The second stage reflects an advanced knowledge acquired in the courses of the second cycle. After one year the licence is awarded in humanities and science, and after two years the maîtrise in humanities, science, law and economics. Secondary school-teachers must normally have the maitrise. Holders of the licence in humanities or law or an equivalent qualification may sit the competitive entrance examination of the National School of Administration where they follow high level courses in administration. The third stage involves specialization with emphasis on scientific research. The

qualifications awarded are: the diplôme d’études supérieures in law and economics; the d&iôme d‘études approfondies in science; and the doctorat de spécialité du troisième cycle in arts, human sciences and dentistry. In the medical sciences studies lead to full professional qualification: the diplôme d‘Etat in

pharmacy and the doctorat in medicine, dental surgery and veterinary medicine. In the faculty of medicine and pharmacy a doctorat &Erat may be taken in pharmacy (after three years’ study from the award of the diplôme cfEtat) and a doctorat de troisième cycle in dentistry (a minimum of two years after the diplôme de docteur). In medicine, the faculty offers after the doctorate a certificat d‘études spéciales (CES) in psychiatry and in ophthalmology; othqr certificates may be prepared in Senegal, though the examination itself takes place in France.

GLOSSARY Baccalauréat. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, obtained after six years of primary

followed by seven years of secondary education (divided into four years’ lower and three years’ upper education) in secondary institutions of general or technical education. The baccalauréat gives access to higher education. Capacité en droit. Qualification awarded after two years’ study in law. Access is open to

those who do not hold the baccalauréat; candidates must be 17 years old and pass an entrance examination. Certificat d’aptitude à l’enseignement moyen (CAEM). Examination taken after one year’s

study in the Advanced Teacher-Training College. Candidates must have the licence; the qualification entitles them to teach in the first phase of secondary education. Certificat d’aptitude à l’enseignement secondaire (CAES). Examination taken after one

year’s study in the Advanced Teacher-Training College. Candidates must have the maîtrise; the qualification entitles them to teach in the upper phase of secondary education. Certificat d’études spéciales (CES). Qualification awarded in medicine in certain

specialities. It requires three to four years’ specialized study after the award of the doctorat. certificat d‘études supérieures. Certificate of higher education, awarded after between six

months’ and one year’s study. In order to obtain a licence or a maîtrise, a number of certificats d‘études supérieures are required. Diplôme d’études approfondies. Diploma of the third cycle awarded in certain scientific

specialities after one year following upon the award of the maîtrise. Diplôme d‘études économiques générales (DEEG). Qualification obtained at the end of the

first two-year phase in economics. Diplôme d’études juridiques générales (DEJG). Qualification obtained at the end of the first

two-year phase in law.

SENEGAL 25 1

Diplôme d’études supérieures. Qualification of higher education awarded in law and ewnomics after one year’s study following upon the award of the maîtrise. Diplôme universitaire d’études littéraires (DUEL). Qualification awarded at the end of the

first two-year phase in humanities. Diplôme universitaire d’études scientifiques (DUES). Qualification awarded at the end of the

first two-year phase in science. Diplôme universitaire de technologie (DUT). Qualification awarded at the end of two years’

study in a university institute of technology. Outstanding students may continue in higher education. Doctorat. The highest degree of higher education, awarded to candidates already holding

one or more degrees of higher education (see doctorat d‘Etat, doctorat de spécialité de troisième cycle). The qualification docteur is also awarded on completion of studies in medicine, dental surgery and veterinary medicine. Doctorat d’Etat. Degree of higher education awarded in pharmacy, currently after at least

three years’ study following the award of the diplôme d‘Etar and following defence of a thesis. Doctorat de spécialité de troisième cycle. Degree of higher education awarded at present in

humanities and dentistry, after two years’ introduction to research and following defence of a thesis. Equivalence. The Universitydecrees what foreign or national diplomas are to be admitted as

equivalent to the baccalauréat. The degrees and diplomas awarded by the University of Dakar in conformity with the French regulations are recognized in both France and Senegal as being valid as official state qualifications. Examen d’entrée. See special entrance examination. Licence. Degree awarded after three or four years’ study. In humanities and science, the

course is divided into two phases. The first phase consists of two years of broadly-based studies leading to a diplôme universitaire d’études scientifiques (DUES) in science, diplôme universitaire d‘études littéraires (DUEL) in arts. Candidates have to pass a number of examinations at the end of each year. The second phase lasts one year. Maîtrise. Diploma of higher education, awarded after four years’ studies. The first two

years are the first cycle which is shared with the licence, and consist of basic studies. The second cycle is also of two years and leads to a more advanced knowledge. In the humanities, the first year of the second cycle leads to the licence. The second year involves the presentation of a mémoire, or short thesis, and the acquisition of a certificat détudessupérieures. In science, the second year is devoted to the acquisition of several CES. The maîtrise is required for the third cycle and for careers in research. Special entrance examination. Entrance examination for candidates who do not hold a

baccalauréat or equivalent qualification.

252 SIERRA LEONE

Sierra Leone

In Sierra Leone higher education takes place at the two constituent colleges of the University of Sierra Leone, at several teacher-training colleges and an advanced teacher-training college, and technical institute. The University of Sierra Leone with its two constituent colleges of Fourah Bay andNjalais

autonomous but entirely financed by the Government. The University is governed by two bodies: the court is composed of non-university and university members; academic matters are the concern of the senate, composed mostly of academic members. The colleges are divided into faculties and departments. Fourah Bay College has faculties of arts, economic and social sciences, pure and applied sciences and engineering; Njala University College has faculties of agriculture, including home economics, and education, including basic sciences. Other institutions of higher education are the advanced teacher-training college (Milton

Margai Teachers’ Training College) and the Technical Institute which trains technicians and clerks and prepares candidates for examinations of the City and Guilds of London Institute, the Royal Society of Arts and the UK ordinary national diploma in technical studies. Teaching takes place in English. Teachers of primary education are trained at post-secondary level in teacher-training

colleges in three years following upon twelve years of formal education. They are awarded the teacher’s certificate. Candidates for the secondary teachers’ training college must obtain at least four passes at ordinary level in the general certificate of education or in the West African school certiJicate. Teachers of secondary education obtain the higher teacher’s certificate after three years. In the university, student teachers may obtain a bachelor’s degree in education after three or four years’ study, depending on the type of preparatory studies, and adiploma at postgraduate level. Access to higher education is based on the generalcertificate of education at the ordinary and

advanced levels. Both examinations are organized by the West African Examinations Council. The higher qualification is obtained after seven years of primary education followed by a five-year phase of secondary education and then two years in the sixth form. At the end of the fifth year of secondary education, candidates for degree studies must obtain five passes at ordinary level (general certificate of education); after the sixth form, they must obtain at least two subjects at advanced or principal level. The choice of subjects is based on the type of course they wish to follow in higher education. Faculties have their own special entrance conditions, and students are selected from among suitably qualified candidates. Provision is made for entry by mature students with special aptitude and experience. The fmt stage of higher education leads, after a period of three years (or four-if entrants

are not sufficiently qualified they have to do a preliminary year) of undergraduate study, to the bachelor’s degree (general). The first qualification in divinity is termed the licence. A bachelor’s degree with honours is awarded after four years’ study. Professional qualifications are awarded as follows: a certificate in agriculture and home economics after two years’ study at subdegree level; a higher teacher’s certificate in agricultural education or home economics after three years’ study at subdegree level; a diploma in engineering after three years’ study at sub-degree level. A further stage leads to higher degrees, after a period of graduate studies. The master’s

degree is awarded after a one-year course following upon an honours degree (two following upon a general degree). The qualification of doctor of philosophy (PhD) is awarded after a minimum of three years’ study following upon the bachelor’s degree. Candidates have to submit a thesis. A diplomp in education is awarded after one year’s postgraduate study.

SIERRA LEONE 253

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, general certificate of education)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education B/P/ Bh P M D

Arts B Bh M D

Commercial sciences B Bh M D Mathematics B Bh M D Sciences B Bh M D

HTC

Theology B/L M D

Technology, engineering Di/P Bh M D Agriculture. home economics Cer HTC Bh M D

B bachelor’s degree Bh bachelor’s degree (honours) Cer certificate D doctor’s degree Di diploma HTC higher teacher’s certificate L licence M master’s degree P professional qualipcation

G L O S S A R Y Bachelor’s degree. First degree of higher education, obtained after a period of three to four

years’ undergraduate studies, according to the candidates’ qualifications at entry. There are two levels of bachelor’s degree: the general degree. and the bachelor’s degree with honours. The latter requires one further year of study. Candidates who do not hold passes at advanced level in the general certificare of education are required to take a preliminary one-year course and, therefore, take four years towards the bachelor’s degree (general). Certificate. See professional qualification. Diploma. See professional qualification. Doctor’s degree (PhD). Higher degree of higher education, obtained after a minimum of

three years’ postgraduate studies following upon the first degree. Candidates have to submit a thesis. General certificate of education. Secondary-school-leaving qualification, obtained after 12

or 14 years of primary and secondary education. Examinations are at two levels: ordinary level after the fifth year of secondary education, advanced level after two years of sixth form. The West African higher school certificate is organized along the same lines. Both qualifications are awarded by the West African Examinations Council. Candidates choose their subjects according to the type of studies they wish to follow in higher education. Higher school certificate. See general certificate of education. Honours degree. See bachelor’s degree. Licence. First degree awarded in divinity (theology) after three years of undergraduate

studies. Master’s degree. Higher degree awarded after one year of postgraduate studies following

upon the first degree. Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education awarded at sub-degree level as

a diploma in engineering and in marine biology and fisheries after three years’ study, as a certificate in agriculture and home economics after two years’ study and as a higher teacher’s certificate in agricultural education. At postgraduate level, a diploma in education is awarded after one year’s study.

254 SIERRA LEONE

Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See general certificate of education. West African higher school certificate. See general certificate of education

Singapore

Higher education in Singapore takes place in two kinds of institution: universities and specialized institutions of higher education. The universities are almost wholly financed by government, whose representatives are

members of the governing councils. There are two universities: the University of Singapore, where teaching is conducted entirely in English and Nanyang University where teaching is also conducted in English except for lectures at the Chinese language and literature department. With effect from July 1978, a joint campus scheme has been set up and the students of the arts, science, accountancy and business administration faculties of the two universities have been studying in the same campus, taught by the same lecturers and examined by the same internal and external examiners. Nanyang University has faculties of arts, science, commerce and a college of graduate studies; Singapore University has faculties of architecture, arts and social sciences, dentistry, engineering, law, medicine and science and the schools of accountancy, business administration and pharmacy, postgraduate medical and dental studies. The faculties themselves are composed of many departments. In each university the council is the executive body and the senate its academic body. The specialized institutions of higher education are the Singapore Technical Institute, Ngee

Ann Technical College, the Singapore Polytechnic and the Institute of Education. The Singapore Technical Institute and the Singapore Polytechnic provide two-year courses of study in the technical areas leading to the industrial technician’s certificate (ITC). ITC-level training is also available at certain vocational institutes of the Vocational and Industrial Training Board, which have been established to run artisan, trade and manual and applied arts courses. Three-year diploma courses are offered at the Singapore Polytechnic and the Ngee Ann Technical College. The Institute of Education is the only institution for teacher-training in Singapore and it

provides training for both graduates and nongraduates. Holders of suitable advanced level passes in the general certificate of education may obtain a certificate in education after two years’ full-time study or three at the Institute and qualify as teachers of primary or lower- secondary levels. Holders of a university degree may obtain a diploma in education after one year’s full-time study at the Institute of Education. The Institute also prepares postgraduate students for the degrees of master in education (MEd) and doctor ofphilosophy (PhD) awarded by the University of Singapore. Pre-service and in-service teacher-training courses at all levels are also offered at the Institute.

Access to higher education is based on the general certificate of education, advanced level (GCE ‘A’ level) obtained after six years of primary and six years of secondaryeducation. The latter is divided into two stages, the first four years leading to the GCE ordinary level and the next two years to the GCE advanced level. Candidates to the local universities have to pass the

SINGAPORE 255

examination for the GCE advanced level in subjects related to those they wish to study at university. Each faculty has its own entrance requirements; students also have to satisfy them before being accepted into a particular faculty or course of study. Since 1975, the advanced level examination has been jointly held by the Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate and the Singapore Ministry of Education and is known as the Singapore-Cambridge GCE advanced level examination. The first stage of higher education leads, after a period of undergraduate studies, to the

award of the bachelor’s degree. This first general degree may be obtained after three years in the faculties of humanities and science, four years in other faculties and five years in the faculty of medicine. For courses leading to a general degree after three years, the honours degree may be awarded after a further year of study. A second stage may be reached after a period of one to three years’ graduate studies. The

qualification obtained is that of the master’s degree, and candidates for the master’s degree must normally hold a good honours degree and submit a thesis embodying the results of a research project. At the University of Singapore, holders of a bachelor’s degree may, after obtaining professional teaching qualifications and an appropriate period of practical experience, read for a master’s degree in education. Holders of a master’s degree may obtain a degree of doctor of philosophy in either of the

universities after a minimum of two years’ study but no more than five. Candidates are required to submit a thesis. A docror’s degree in literature (DLit), law (LLD) or science (DSc) may be awarded for published work submitted by persons who have been holders of the degree of PhD for not less than five years.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, general certificate of education)

years 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 1 12

B Bh M PhD D

B bachelor’s degree (general) Bh bachelor’s degree (honours) D doctor’s degree M master’s degree PhD doctor of philosophy

GLOSSARY Bachelor’s degree. First degree, awarded after three to five years of undergraduate studies.

It is usually awarded, in the faculties of humanities and science, after three years (four years in other faculties, except medicine which requires five years) as a general degree. For courses leading to a general degree after three years, the bachelor (honours) degree may be awarded after a further year of study. Certificate. See professional qualification. Diploma. See professional qualification. Doctor’s degree. There are two types of doctor’s degree: the doctor ofphilosophy awarded

after a minimum of two years of study following a muster’s degree and for which candidates are required to submit a thesis; and the doctor’s degree which may be awarded in literature (DLit), law (LLD) or science (DSc) for published work submitted by persons who have been holders of the degree of PhD for not less than five years. General certificate of education. See secondary-school-leaving certificate. Honours degree. See bachelor’s degree.

256 SINGAPORE

Master’s degree. Higher degree, obtained after one to three years’ postgraduate study. Candidates have to hold a good honours degree and submit a thesis. Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education, awarded as a certificate or

diploma, after one to three years’ study. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. The general certificate of education, advanced level

(GCE ‘A’ level) is obtained after six years of primary followed by six years of secondary education. Candidates must pass GCE ‘A’ level in subjects related to their future university studies. Faculties also have their own special entrance requirements.

Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya

No information having been received recently, the present text is mainly repeated from the 1976 English edition of this Guide.

In the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya higher education is given principally in: the University of Garyounis, Benghazi; the University of Al-Fateh, Tripoli; the Higher Institute of Technology; and other institutes. All institutions of higher education are state-financed, and belong to the state. The University of Garyounis comprises several faculties: arts, education, commerce and

economics, engineering, agriculture, science, law and medicine, Arabic and Islamic studies. Teaching is given in Arabic, although English is used in certain fields. The Higher Institute of Technology gives courses in various technical fields: food and

medical technology, general sciences and environmental sciences. The University of Al-Fateh comprises faculties of education, science, engineering,

agriculture, petroleum and mineralogy, medicine, pharmacy, veterinary science. Short post-secondary courses are offered for training paramedical personnel, inspectors of

hygiene, etc. Teacher-training takes place in several kinds of institution. State teacher-training

institutions train primary school-teachers at the level of intermediate schooling (see below). Secondary school-teachers are trained in the universities, which run teacher-training courses. Access to higher education is given by the secondary-school general leaving certificate, which

is awarded after six years of primary schooling, followed by a three-year phase of intermediate schooling and, finally, a three-year phase of secondary schooling. Students enter fields of higher education which are predominantly either literary or scientific, depending upon the section in which they have completed their secondary education. The first stage of higher education represents a general education in a subject, and leads to

the bachelor’s degree. The Higher Institute of Technology awards a professional qualification after a five-year degree course. The second stage, which represents more intensive study and a training in individual work,

leads to the master’s degree.

SOCIALIST PEOPLE’S LIBYAN ARAB JAMAHIRIYA 257

Finally, the third stage leads, after at least two further years of study beyond the master’s degree, to the doctor’s degree (or doctorate), which is the highest university degree. The award of this degree is conditional upon the submission of a thesis. (The second and third stages mentioned above are still in the process of being developed.)

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, secondary-school-leaving certificate)

years 4 5 6 7 8

B M D

B bachelor’s degree D doctorate M master’s degree

GLOSSARY Bachelor’s degree. First degree awarded at the university after a four-year course. Doctor’s degree (doctorate). The highest university degree, awarded after at least two years’

further study following upon the award of the master’s degree, which is itself awarded two years after the bachelor’s degree. The doctor’s degree represents individual work leading to the submission of a thesis. Master’s degree. Higher degree usually awarded two years after the bachelor’s degree. Professional qualification. Professional qualification awarded after five years’ study of

technology or nutritional sciences. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. Certificate awarded at the end of a three-year phase of

secondary education which has been preceded by three years of intermediate and six years of primary education. In the first year of upper-secondary education all pupils follow the same course, but the last two years of schooling are undertaken in either a literary or a scientific section.

Socialist Republic of Viet N a m

After 1975 all the existing higher education establishments in the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam were merged into a coherent and unified system including up to 48 institutions, among which are: three universities (Hanoi, Hue, Ho Chi Minh City); three polytechnics (Hanoi, Danang, Ho Chi Minh City); six pedagogical schools; six schools of agriculture, forestry and fish-breeding; five schools of medical sciences and pharmacology; five schools of civil engineering and twenty other specialized schools.

258 SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF VIET NAM

Higher education institutions engage in three modes of activities: the training of cadres; scientific research; direct participation in production and service work for the cultural and social development of the community. The planning of higher education, the organization of studies, the recruitment of students,

the assignment of jobs after graduation are done on the basis of national development long- term planning. The specialized higher education establishments have double dependence: upon the Ministry of Higher Education and the Ministry in charge of the production work or management of the branches related to the establishment. Research activities are considered very important. Every year programmes of research are

allotted by the State to different universities and colleges and the corresponding necessary credits are allocated to them. Many contracts for research and development have been signed between enterprises and management offices, and the universities and colleges. The higher education institutions in Vietnam also carry out important activities in the

service of the community: extra-mural education, spreading of scientific and technical knowledge, rural areas development, popular sanitary education, protection and improvement of the environment, drafting bureaus, brigades for geological prospecting, workshops for productive labour and scientific equipment repairs, agriculture and animal breeding programmes. The teaching language is Vietnamese for all courses. Access to higher education is through the third degree certificate of general education

(corresponding to the baccalaureate) generally obtained after nine years of study in a basic general school and three years in a general secondary school. Recruitment is made through the general entrance examinations for all the higher education

institutions in the country. The candidates have their names listed bya National CommissiQn for Student Recruitment. The examination is divided into three sections: section A for physics, mathematics, industrial technology and similar specialities; section B for biology, agricultural technology and other specialities; section C for social sciences and arts. The students are selected according to the number of marks obtained in the examination and in compliance with their wishes. Another way of access is offered by the channel of secondary vocational schools, where middle level technicians and cadres are trained with a programme of study equivalent to some extent to that performed in the third degree of the general school. The graduates of the secondary vocational schools have the right to present themselves at the entrance examination for universities and colleges in branches corresponding to their vocational speciality.

The first stage of higher education requires the following number of years, according to different branches: six for medical sciences, graduating as a medical doctor; five for technical studies in industry and construction, graduating as an engineer; four for studies in fundamental sciences, social sciences, economics, pedagogy, agriculture, cattle-breeding, arts and cultural activities, physical education and sports, culminating as a higher education graduate or engineer; three for some special higher education institutions, the aim of which is to train practical engineers, practitioners in medicine and management, teachers at the second degree level of the general education schools. The programmes of learning are drawn up according to different specialities. For a whole

course of learning, in general, fundamental scientific knowledge takes 25 per cent, basic specialized knowledge 25 per cent, specialization 30 per cent, and practical work 20 per cent. The last semester of the course is usually reserved for research work or a construction project elaboration. The teachers devote a great part of their time to making direct contacts with individuals or

groups of students. The next stage consists of advanced studies carried out in different forms: (1) postgraduate

studies by research and presentation of a thesis; candidates who succeed in defending their

SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF VIET N A M 259

theses are nominated Doctor, first grade (pho tien si); these studies last from three to four ?ears; (2) postgraduate courses for retraining and improving scientific qualifications are performed as part-time studies of one to two years or full-time studies of one to two weeks or of a few months. There are forms of continuing education-special courses, stages, scientific conferences, seminars, etc. Advanced studies are carried out only in sixteen higher education institutions and twenty

research institutes which have sufficient equipment for further research. Doctors, first grade, with valuable theses or research work may obtain the doctorate,

second grade, or doctorate of science (tien siklioa hoc). This grade is needed for appointment as a senior professor and is equivalent to ‘doctorate with residence’ or ‘state doctorate’ in certain countries.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, third degree certificate of general education and entrance examination)

years 3 4 5 6

Education Di Di Arts, natural sciences Di Social sciences, economics Di Fundamental sciences Di Agriculture, cattle-breeding Di

~

Physical education Di Medical sciences Di Di Engineering Di Di

Di diploma

(The doctorate, first grade (pho tien si) is awarded three or four years after the diploma.)

GLOSSARY Diploma. Degree awarded at the end of undergraduate studies. The number of years of

study varies according to the field chosen (six years in medicine, five in engineering,,four in other fields). Pho tien si. Doctorate (1st grade) awarded after three to four years’ postgraduate study and

research and presentation of a thesis. Tien si khoa hoc. Doctorate (Lndgrade), also called doctorate of science, awarded to scholars

having completed valuable research work and thesis. It is required for appointment to senior professorships.

260

Somalia

SOMALIA

Higher education in Somalia is provided by the Jaamaccada Ummadda Soomaaliyeed (National University of Somalia) which is a state institution enjoying full autonomy. It comprises faculties of law, economics, science, agriculture, medicine, veterinary medicine, engineering, teacher-training (rnagistero), industrial chemistry, geology, a polytechnical faculty and a school of statistics. The teaching languages are Arabic, Italian and English. Primary school-teachers are trained at secondary level in various establishments, some of

which are religious. Secondary school-teachers are taught in the University (in the literary or education section). Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leaving certificate, awarded in

one of the different types of secondary establishment after twelve years’ study. Some candidates may be admitted to the University after passing an entrance examination. A two-year course in education qualifies the student to teach the first phase of secondary

studies. In law and economics, studies last four years and the qualification laurea (doctor) is awarded.

GLOSSARY Laurea. Degree of higher education awarded after four years’ study in law and economics. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. Certificate awarded after four years’ primary, four

years’ intermediate secondary and four years’ higher secondary education. Secondary education may take place in establishments whose principal language is English, Arabic, or Italian. Secondary studies may also take place in teacher-training schools for primary school- teachers (scuole magistrale) or in technical or agricultural schools. This certificate is required for access to higher education.

Spain

Higher education in Spain is given in either state or private institutions. Included in the latter are religious institutions. The Ministry of Education and Science, which has a Secretariat of State for Universities and Research, controls the administration and maintenance of the state institutions. However, it also has the right of inspecting and of co-ordinating all institutions, whether state or private. The Ministry awards or authorizes the award of qualifications and proposes to the Government the main lines of educational policy. A law defining the autonomy of the universities is currently being drawn up; it will constitute a thorough overhaul of the system in respect of the universities’autonomy which is recognized officially in the Spanish Constitution of 1978.

SPAIN 26 1

There are 24 state universities in Spain; four more are in the preparatory stage after their recent foundation. The Education Bill of 1970 integrated the former higher technical institutions into three polytechnical universities. Private institutions of higher education include four universities: Deusto, Navarra,

Salamanca Pontifical, Comillas. as well as four higher technical institutions. Independently of the proposed law. the universities already enjoy autonomy, determining

for themselves the nature of assessment procedures and of teaching and research. Each university prepares its own annual budget, in co-ordination with the national budget. The resources of the university may come from fees, subsidies, donations and other income. Since the law of 1970, universities have been reorganized into departments, institutes,

schools, university colleges, faculties and higher technical schools. Departments are the principal units for teaching and research in subjects scientifically

related to one another. Institutes call upon staff from one or more departments in addition to having their own staff: they are centres for research and specialization. Schools and colleges connected with universities provide and co-ordinate first cycle instruction (for the former it is a long course, for the latter a shorter course). Faculties and higher technical schools provide instruction at every level of a given subject. Faculties offer law, pharmacy, science (biology, physics, geology, mathematics, chemistry). philology. history and geography, philosophy and education, data processing, politics and sociology, economics and management, veterinary medicine, medicine, psychology. and fine arts. In some universities further specialization is available within a particular subject. The higher technical schools offer agriculture. various kinds of technology (agronomics,

highways, marine and industrial engineering, telecommunications, aeronautics, mining) and the possible suh-divisions of these subjects. The private schools offer engineering, chemistry, industrial engineering (textiles), administration and management. Artistic studies take place in five types of institution: music conservatories, fine arts

faculties, the Higher School of Dramatic Art, schools of applied arts and art trades, and schools of ceramics. The language of instruction is Spanish. Shorter courses are also available. Students taking them are awarded, after three years’

study, the qualification diplomado (in management or primary teacher-training) or that of arquitecto técnico and ingeniero técnico (aeronautics, agriculture, forestry, industrial and marine engineering, mining, public works, topography, optics, telecommunications, data processing and statistics). Also at this level are the university schools of nursing, interpretation and translation. Following these shorter courses, the student may enter the second cycle of higher education

in the faculties or higher technical schools, depending on subject, after taking a curso de transformarion. The training of primary and nursery school-teachers takes place in the appropriate

university schools under the direction of the institutes of educational science (ICE). These teachers. for whom the minimum qualification is diplomado universitario or arquitecto técnico or ingeniero récnico receive their educational training diectly from the ICE’S. There are also innovatory forms of higher education, among them the Spanish open

university, the Universidad Nacional de Educacion a Distancia (UNED), which functions throughout Spain by means of correspondence courses and personal instruction from the staff of the numerous university centres. UNED offers courses in law, history and geography, philology, philosophy and education, economics and management, physics, chemistry, and mathematics.

Access to higher education is based on the curso de orientacion universitaria which is open to students who have passed the bachiller or the formacion profesional de segundo grad0 (inter- mediate professional training). The COU is organized and supervised by the university, but

262 SPAIN

takes place in bachillerato centres (either state-run or state-approved). The aim of the COUis to give a grounding in basic knowledge, to guide pupils in the choice of a career or an occupation for which they show an aptitude and ability, and to train them in the techniques of intellectual work required in higher education. The course involves a wide range of obligatory and optional subjects along with brief introductions to the sciences and to the professions. Success in the COU no longer guarantees entrance to higher education; the student must

also pass the pruebas de aptitudes (general knowledge test). Certain objective criteria, such as the details of courses and the capacity of each institution, in common with the student’s previous training, are legally imposed as a further limitation on places offered. Entry to the university is also open to those aged over 25 who have not completed the bachillerato course but who pass a special entrance examination. T o obtain admission to the COU two routes are possible. On the one hand, the normal route

is via the bachillerato unijïcado ypolivalenie, a course which lasts three years and which follows upon eight years of general basic education. The other route is via the formacidnprofesional course, with its distinct levels, the lowest one of which represents a two-year course whichis a continuation of general basic education, and the segundo grad0 (second level) which follows upon this after a ‘conversion’ course. Foreign students whose studies may be considered equivalent to the bachi/lerato and the

COU and who wish to enter Spanish higher education must also pass thepruebasde aptitudes. These may be taken in Spanish consulates abroad, and consist of one essay on an aspect of the Spanish language and two on questions chosen by the student from a range of options. The MU1 may, however, regulate the number of places offered to foreign students in proportion to the capacity of the university centres.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDY

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, curso de orieniacih universitaria)

years 2 3 4 5 6 I 8 9

Education Arts Theology Fine arts Architecture Law Politics, economics Business administration Exact and natural

Technology, engineering Medical sciences

sciences

medicine pharmacy veterinary medicine

Agriculture

B L D D r P n

L D L D L D

Di P D

L D L D

Di P D

B bachillerato (in theology, baccalauria) D doctorado Di diploma L licenciatura P professional qualification (engineer, architect)

SPAIN 263

The principle of equivalences is applied to countries with which Spain has signed the appropriate treaties. In other cases, the normal considerations of reciprocity are invoked. In the absence of such consideration, the academic record of each student is examined in order to establish whether a full equivalence may be granted. Partial studies in higher education come under the jurisidiction of the rector of the

university where the student wishes to study. Where the student has completed one or more phases of higher study, the decision of the Ministry of Universities and Research, subject to the report of the National Assembly of Universities, is final. At other levels (professional, etc.) the National Council for Education must deliver its report before a decision is taken by the Ministry of Education. Higher education traditionally involves three stages. The first stage lasts three years and is

intended to offer a grounding in basic disciplines. Studies undertaken in a faculty or higher technical school lead to the professional qualifications of diplomado, arquitecto técnico or ingeniero técnico in the relevant speciality. Students who have completed the first stage of higher education, diplomados of schools

attached to a university, arquitecfos técnicos and ingenieros técnicos may enter the second stage in which approximately two-year specialization courses lead to the award of the licenciafura, or of the qualification arquitecto or ingeniero; these are professional qualifications and govern access to the third phase of studies. The third stage, a preparation for research and for teaching, entails the submission of a

thesis and leads to the degree of doctor.

GLOSSARY Bachillerato unificado y polivalente (BUP). Qualification obtained after a three-year course

which is normally completed by the age of 17. The programme includes compulsory basic subjects, optional subjects which the pupil may select according to his future occupation and his abilities, and technical and vocational activities of which the pupil must choose one. To be awarded the qualification the pupil must obtain satisfactory marks during his course. If these are unsatisfactory he may have to sit an examination. The qualification awarded is that of bachiller. It gives a right of access to a course of intermediate-level professional training (formacibn profesional de segundo grado) and also admits to the curso de orientacion universitaria. Convalidacion. Official recognition of a higher education qualification attained by a

Spanish or foreign student studying outside Spain. Curso de orientacion universitaria (COU). The COU is the normal mode of access to

university education. Its aim is to deepen the pupil’s knowledge in the basic subjects, to guide him in the choice of a career or occupation and to train him in the techniques of intellectual work required in higher education. To be eligible for this course the pupil must have been awarded the bachilleruto or undergone a course of intermediate level professional training (formacibn profesional de segundo grado). Curso de transformacion. One-year course, success in which qualifies a student to pass from

a lower to a higher phase (cf formacibn profesional) or to continue higher education after having completed a phase of education in one of the schools of the university. Diploma. The title of diplomado, arquifecto técnico or ingeniero técnico is awarded to

students who have completed the first stage of higher education in a faculty or higher technical institution (ETS) and followed the appropriate courses of the higher level of professional training Cformacibn profesional de tercer grado). This stage lasts three years. Diploma de aptitud profesional. See formacibn profesionnl. Doctorado. The highest degree of higher education. It is awarded at the end of the third

stage of higher education. The period of study extends normally for two years beyond the

264 SPAIN

licenciatura. Students must follow a series of cursos monogrdficos (in depth studies) and submit and defend a thesis; if the thesis is accepted, the title of doctor is conferred. Equivalence. See convalidacion. Formacih profesional. There are three levels of fôrmacion profesional (professional

training). The lower level (primer grado) may be awarded to students who, having completed the course of general basic education, do not pursue their studies to the bachillerato. The inter- mediate level (segundo grado) corresponds to having passed the bachillerato or having the lower level qualification and followed a course in additional subjects (cf curso de transformacion). (See also diploma.) To be awarded the higher-level qualifications (tercer grado) one must have completed the

first stage of higher education in a university or a higher technical institution, to have graduated or have completed the intermediate level offormacidn profesional with a course in additional subjects. The object of formacion profesional is to impart to students the competence and practical

knowledge necessary to exercise the profession for which they have trained and to teach the right use of its specific techniques. The maximum time to obtain each level must not exceed two years. The intermediate level of formacion profesional gives access to the curso de orientacion

universitaria (COU). Licenciatura. The title of licenciado is awarded after having successfully passed the second

stage of higher education, i.e. after five years of university study. It entitles the holder to enter professional practice and is the prerequisite for admission to the third phase of higher studies or doctorado. Pruehas de aptitud. Tests to be taken by students who, having passed the COU, wish to enter

faculties, higher technical schools and university colleges. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See bachillerato unificado y polivalente. Titulo profesional. Professional title awarded to various categories of engineers and to

architects. The title is of the same kind as the licenciatura, but for it candidates in their last year have to prepare a special project (proyecto defin de carrera).

Sri Lanka

Higher education in Sri Lanka is provided in three kinds of institution: universities, specialized state and private institutions, and other private institutions. The Law on Universities 16/1978, which took effect in 1979, provides for the replacement of

the University of Sri Lanka by six separate universities (those of Colombo at Colombo; of Jaffna at Thurenelvely, Jaffna; Kelaniya at Dalugana, Kelaniya; Moratuwa at Katubedda, Moratuwa; Peradeniya at Peradeniya and of Sri Jayewardenepura at Gangodawila); an addition to these is the University College of Ruhuna at Matara. The University of Colombo (previously the Colombo campus of the University of Sri Lanka) comprises faculties of letters,

SRI LANKA 265

education, law, medicine, and natural sciences, as well as institutes of workers’ education and medicine (postgraduate level). The University of Jaffna has faculties of letters, of medicine, and of science. The University of of Kelaniya (previously the Vidyalankara campus of the University of Sri Lanka) has faculties of letters and of science. The University of Moratuwa (previously the Katubedda campus) has engineering and architecture faculties; that of Peradeniya, faculties of agriculture, humanities, engineering, medicine, dentistry, veterinary medicine, and science, and the University of Sri Jayewardenepura (formerly the Vidodaya campus) faculties of applied sciences, letters, business administration and commerce. The 1978 law also decreed the establishment of a University Grants Commission. The

universities are under a vice-chancellor; the University College is run by a director. Specialized institutions of higher education provide technical and professional education as

well as teacher-training. They are the Sri Lanka Technical College, five polytechnical institutes, a school of agriculture, the Sri Lanka Law College, the College of Arts and Crafts, the College of Music and the College of Dance and Ballet. They offer two-, three-, or four-year courses leading to diplomas and certificates. Some are autonomous, others depend directly on the State. Some private institutions offer courses leading to certain degrees of the universities of Sri

Lanka or to professional qualifications. There is also a Christian institute for the study of religion and society. The teaching languages are Singhalese, Tamil and English, depending upon the institution

and subject in question. Teachers are trained in twenty-three teacher-training colleges. These are open to holders of

the general certificate ofeducation. The course lasts two years with a further year’s directed teaching. The certificates are awarded at ‘ordinary’ and ’higher’ level. The University of Colombo offers a five-year course for the bachelor’s degree in education. Access to higher education is based on the general certificate of education, advanced level,

taken a minimum of one year after the senior school certificate which itself is the culmination of six years’ primary and five years’ secondary education. The number of passes required at either level (ordinary or advanced) varies between one university and subject and another. The first major (or undergraduate) stage of higher education leads to the bachelor’s degree

or a professional qualification. In the arts, science, and law faculties and that of Buddhist studies the bachelor’s degree (general) is awarded after three, and the bachelor’s degree (special) after four years. In most other faculties the bachelor’s degree requires four years (five years in medicine). In most faculties also the bachelor’sdegree may be taken atpass or honours degree level. The professional qualifications of certificate or diploma are normally awarded after three or four years, sometimes after one year. Study is normally full-time, but part-time study does exist.

The second (or postgraduate) stage leads after one or two years’ study (depending on the subject) to the master’s degree. The bachelor’s degree (honours) with a high grade is a prerequisite for this degree. Studies culminate in the submission of a dissertation and in written or oral examinations. A higher certificate may be awarded for a period of specialized or continuing studies intermediate between the bachelor’s degree (or professional qualification) and the master’s degree. A third stage leads after two years’ research work and the submission of a thesis to the

degree of doctor of philosophy (PhD) or doctor of medicine (MD). The doctorate may be started immediately after the bachelor’s degree (honours) in exceptional cases. Another stage leads after two years of consecutive studies following upon the award of the

master’s or doctor’s degree or a minimum of seven years after the bachelor’s degree to a higher doctor’s degree in arts (DLitt) or science (DSc). It is awarded for published work constituting a contribution to the advancement of knowledge.

266 SRI LANKA

PROFILE OF H I G H E R STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 13 years, general certificate of education, advanced level)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Education Arts Buddhist studies Law Commercial sciences Economics Administration Exact and

Engineering,

Technology Medical sciences medicine dentistry veterinary medicine

Agriculture

natural sciences

architectural sciences

P B D B B M/DM/D D B B M D B B M/D D

B D B M D B M B B M/D D

B M/D D

P P P P

B D MID B D B M/D D B M D

DLitt

DSc

D

B bachelor’s degree D doctor’s degree DLitt doctor of letters DSc doctor of science M master’s degree P professional qualification

GLOSSARY Associateship. See professional qualification. Bachelor’s degree. First degree of higher education, obtained after three to five years’ study.

Some faculties offer a bachelor’s degree general after three years’ study and a bachelor’s degree special after four. In most subjects, the bachelor’s degree general may be awarded as a pass degree or as an honours degree indicating higher achievement. In certain cases, courses may be followed in a private institution and candidates may sit the examination externally. Such candidates are awarded the bachelor’s degree as an external degree. Certificate. See professional qualification. Diploma. See professional qualification. Doctor’s degree. Higher degree of higher education obtained after the master’s degree, after

at least two years’ study and submission of a thesis. There are two types of doctor’s degree: that of doctor of philosophy (PhD) and of doctor of medicine (MD). There exist also higher doctor’s degrees, awarded on published work after at least two years beyond the master’s degree, or seven years after a bachelor’s degree honours; they are awarded in literature (DLitt) and in science (DSc). External degree. See bachelor’s degree. General certificate of education. Qualification obtained after the matriculation examination

organized by the Department of Examination, taken after six years ofprimary and six or seven years of secondary education. Candidates for higher education have to obtain a number of passes at two levels (ordinary and advanced) in subjects according to their choice; these subjects have to fit in with individual faculty requirements. Candidates usually do one or two

SRI LANKA 267

years’ study beyond the senior school certificate (when they take their ordinary level examinations) before obtaining advanced level passes leading to the general certifcate of education. Higher certificate. See professional qualification. Higher school certificate. Secondary-school-leaving qualification, obtained after one or

usually two years’ study in a general secondary school beyond the senior school certificate. Honours degree. See bachelor’s degree. Master’s degree. Higher degree, obtained after two years’ postgraduate studies following

upon the bachelor’s degree honours. Candidates have to submit a thesis and undergo written and oral examinations. Pass degree. See bachelor’s degree. Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education, awarded after three or four

years (or one year occasionally). Studies are full- or part-time; the qualification obtained is a certificate or a diploma; it may be awarded as an associateship of a professional body. Professional qualifications may be awarded at postgraduate level (higher certificate or diploma ). Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See general certificate of education, higher school

certificate, senior school certificate. Senior school certificate. Secondary school qualification, obtained after six years of primary

and five years of secondary education in a general (collegiate) secondary school or in a school not leading to university (senior secondary school). It gives access to teacher-training colleges after a competitive examination and six passes in the general certificate of education, ordinary level.

Sudan

In Sudan higher education is provided in five universities, one institution of technical education, eleven institutions of professional education and one institution of teacher- training. The University of Khartoum, government-financed, is an autonomous institution. It

comprises faculties offering courses in agriculture, arts (including geography and philosophy), economics and social sciences, engineering and architecture, law, medicine, pharmacy, science, veterinary medicine, education, as well as institutes of further education, of African and Asian studies, a research institute for civil engineering, a college of advanced studies, a school of mathematical sciences, and a study centre on development. The University of Cairo (Khartoum branch) is an unusual type of institution which became

independent in 1959 and is financed by funds from the University of Cairo. It comprises faculties of arts (including sociology), law, science, and commercial sciences. Omdurman Islamic University is a state institution under the jurisdiction of the National

Council for Higher Education and totally government-financed. It comprises faculties of

268 SUDAN

Islamic studies, economics, political and social sciences (including Islamic law), arts, and a girls’ college. The University of Gezira, founded in 1975, is an autonomous state institution, almost

entirely financed by the central government. It comprises faculties of economics and rural development, science and technology, agriculture and medical sciences. Juba University, which received its first students in 1977, is an autonomous state institution

whose main purpose is to help foster the development of southern Sudan. Its activities are focused on natural resources and environmental studies, economic and social studies, medicine, educational sciences, and adult education. The Khartoum Polytechnic, a state-financed autonomous institution, provides training in

the fields of engineering, commercial sciences, secretariat, agriculture, fine arts and applied arts. The Khartoum Polytechnic and Juba University offer higher short-term studies leading,

after two or three years, to a Certificate or diP(oma. These studies may be prolonged (see

Secondary school-teachers are trained in the faculty of education of the University of Khartoum (set up in 1974 to replace the higher teacher-training institute), which awards a bachelor’s degree in education after four years’ study. Omdurman Islamic University awards a general diploma of education after a year’s study. A higher institute of physical education, open both to men and women students, offers a four-year training programme. In general, the languages of instruction are Arabic (particularly in the faculties or

departments of Arabic language, Islamic law and history, etc.) and English (mainly in technical or professional subjects). Access to higher education is given through the Sudan higher secondary school certificate,

obtained after three years’ senior-secondary education following three years’ junior- secondary and six years’ primary education. Entry may also be gained by the holders of the Cambridge overseas school certificate or its equivalent. The subjects chosen in these examinations must broadly correspond to the subjects to be studied at the higher education level. The secondary-school certificate of the Arab Republic of Egypt (see Glossary for that country), or an equivalent qualification is the entrance requirement for the University of Cairo, Khartoum branch. In all the higher technical or other specialized institutes students obtain advanced diplomas

after three or four years’ study. In many fields, the first year of university studies is devoted to basic studies. Thus, one

year’s study in the faculty of science must precede studies in medicine, veterinary medicine, pharmacy, and agriculture. The first major stage is generally reached with the award of the bachelor’s degree, which

indicates the attainment of basic knowledge and is in some cases a higher professional qualification. In the latter case, for example in medicine, the period of studies leading to the award of this qualification is six years compared with four in other fields and five in architecture, pharmacy and veterinary medicine. The more specialized bachelor’s degree with honours normally requires an additional year’s study. The conditions required to obtain a bachelor’s degree at the University of Cairo, Khartoum

branch are the same as those required by universities in the Arab Republic of Egypt (see the entry for Arab Republic of Egypt, under bachelor’s degree). A second stage, which represents a deepening of knowledge, a certain level of specialization

and preparation for individual research, is reached after two or three years’ study, with the award of the master’s degree. Finally a third stage may be reached through individual research work and presentation of a

thesis; it leads, after three years’ study, following upon the master’s degree, to the degree of doctor of philosophy.

below).

SUDAN 269

The University of Khartoum also awards higher doctorates in arts (DLitt), law (LLD) and science (DSc) in respect of published work contributing significantly to the advancement of knowledge.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, Sudan higher-secondaryschool certificate)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Education Physical

Arts Fine arts,

Architecture Law Social sciences, economics

Commercial sciences

Exact and natural sciences

Engineering, technology

Medical sciences medicine pharmacy veterinary

education

applied arts

medicine Agriculture

GDE TC TD B Di

B BH M PhD Di

B M PhD B* Bt M PhD Di B M PhD

Cer B M PhD

B BH M PhD

Cer Di B M PhD

B M/D B M PhD B M PhD

Cer Di B M PhD

B BH Cer D Di GDE M PhD TC TD

* t

bachelor’s degree bachelor’s degree (honours) cert ficate doctor’s degree diploma general diploma of education master’s degree doctor of philosophy teacher’s certificate (primary school) teacher’s diploma (secondary school)

civil law Sharia (Islamic law)

GLOSSARY Bachelor’s degree. First degree awarded after four to six years’ study according to the field

270 SUDAN

of study. Several faculties also award a more specialized honours degree, preparation for which requires an additional year’s study. In medicine, pharmacy, veterinary medicine, and agriculture, the first year is devoted to the study of basic sciences in the faculty of science. Examinations are supervised by examiners internal and external to the institution. Certificate. Qualification awarded after two years’ study at the Khartoum Polytechnic. Diploma. Diploma obtained at Juba University and in the higher technical or other

specialized institutes after three or four years’ study on entry from senior-secondary education. Doctor’s degree. Highest degree awarded in all faculties at the University of Khartoum and

in certain faculties of other universities after three years’ study following upon the master’s degree.

General diploma of education. Diploma awarded by Omdurman Islamic University after a year’s study. Master’s degree. Higher degree awarded after two or three years’ postgraduate study

following upon the bachelor’s degree. Secondary-school-leaving certificate (the Sudan higher-secondary-school certificate).

Qualification obtained following three years of secondary education after three years of middle school and six years of primary school. This qualification permits access to higher education. Secondary school teacher’s diploma. Qualification awarded by the faculty of education of

the University of Khartoum (set up to replace the teacher-training institute) which confers a bachelor’s degree in education after four years’ study.

Surinam

No information having been received recently, the present text is mainly repeated from the 1976 English edition of this Guide.

In Surinam higher education is given in the University of Surinam, which includes the former schools of medicine (de geneeskundige school) and law (de Surinaamse rechtsschool) and a teacher-training institution (Surinaamse kweekschool). It is financed by the State. The teaching is in Dutch. It also includes an institute of medical research. Primary teachers are trained at secondary level. However, directors of schools and

specialist teachers may be appointed after a further two- or three-year part-time course, which is regarded as being at the level of higher education. Access to higher education is given through the secondary-school-leaving certificate. This is

awarded after six years of primary and six years of secondary education, the latter being divided into two phases of two and four years each. Higher education leads to a professional qualification. Courses last six years in medicine,

five years in dentistry, pharmacy, law and notary studies.

SURINAM 27 1

For the training of civil servants there exists a course of five years’ duration, the last two of which are at the level of higher education.

Swaziland

Higher education in Swaziland is provided by the University of Botswana and Swaziland, founded in 1976 and comprising two university colleges situated at Manzini, Swaziland and Gaborone, Botswana. The University College of Swaziland offers instruction in agriculture, education, letters and

human sciences, law, politics and administration. It includes two affiliated teacher-training institutions, the Nazarene Training College and the William Pitcher College, both at Manzini. Shorter courses of higher education lead over two years to professional qualifications

(diplomas) in: agriculture, agricultural education, animal health and management, and home economics. The University College of Swaziland awards twocertificates in the field of teacher-training:

the primary teacher’s certificate and the teacher’s certificate. These courses take place in the affiliated institutions named above and last two years. A diploma in education (DipEd) may be delivered to qualified candidates having at least two years of professional experience. The main stage of higher education (longer studies) leads after four years to the bachelor’s

degree in agriculture (BScAgric), commerce (BCom), and in education. The bachelor of law (LLB) requires five years’ study, two of these to be taken in Edinburgh. At the second stage the College awards a master of education after one year’s study following

the award of the BEd. A thesis is required. The candidate must have at least two years’ professional experience. He may also be required to pass an examination. For access to higher education, normal duration of studies and glossary, see Botswana.

Sweden

Higher education in Sweden implies a widened concept of post-secondary programmes. The

272 SWEDEN

current comprehensive term for higher education in this country (in Swedishh6gskol) applies not only to university studies of a traditional kind but also to programmes which used not to be looked upon as part of the higher education system. Examples of this widened under- standing of higher education are programmes for training pre-school teachers, nurses, journalists and dental hygienists. Undergraduate study programmes are organized in the following five sectors of vocational training: education for technical professions; education for social work, economic and administrative professions; education for medical and paramedical professions; education for the teaching profession; education for information, communication and cultural professions. Postgraduate and research programmes are organized in the following faculties: theology,

arts, law, social sciences, medicine, dental medicine, science and technology. The University of Agricultural Sciences is divided into faculties of agriculture, of forestry and of veterinary medicine. There are six universities, located in Goteborg, Linkoping, Lund, Stockholm, Umei and

Uppsala. In addition, there are some 20 university-type colleges with programmes which vary greatly in length, content and degree of vocational bias. The bulk of higher education in Sweden is run and funded by the State. A number of

programmes, particularly in nursing, are operated by local and regional authorities. With the Stockholm School of Economics and Business Administration as the only noteworthy exception, there are no private institutions of higher education in Sweden. Apart from the University of Agricultural Sciences which is under the jurisdiction of the

Ministry of Agriculture, all state institutions of higher education are under the control of the Ministry of Education and Cultural Affairs. At an intermediate administrative level, independent of the Education Ministry, the National Board of Universities and Colleges is charged with preparing annual budget proposals, initiating and supporting research and development for higher education and operating central admissions. The language of instruction is Swedish. Access to higher education is considered in two steps. The basic prerequisite is that

applicants meet general eligibility requirements which may be either of the following. They must have concluded a complete school course of at least 1 1 years’ duration which must comprise English and Swedish and must possess a secondary-school certificate. In the second case, they must be 25 years of age and have four years of professional activity and a good reading knowledge of English (applies only to Swedish citizens and to immigrants in Sweden).

In addition to the general eligibility requirements quoted above, higher education applicants must also meet special entrance requirements for the particular study programme they wish to follow. Special entrance requirements apply to admission to most courses of study. They amount to background knowledge at upper-secondary-school level in subjects which are of particular importance for the course of study. Consequently, they differ from one programme to another. If, for instance, a student intends to take a degree in civil engineering he must have the same background knowledge in mathematics, physics and chemistry as upper-secondary-school leavers in technology or in mathematics and the natural sciences. For admission to a programme in primary school teaching, background knowledge at upper- secondary-school level in Swedish, English, history, religion, civics, mathematics andnatural science is prescribed. Higher education is organized on a scientific basis and should further the process whereby

students prepare themselves for various professions. The degrees awarded indicate the professional field the programme is related to. The duration of programmes varies considerably. Shorter studies carried out in university-type colleges lead, in a period of approximately one to three years, to a vocational qualification normally translated as national certificate (national certificate in nursing, horticulture, secretarial studies, accounting, laboratory technology, etc.). Having passed a general study programme or a separate course

SWEDEN 273

the students receive an utbildningsbevis (a certificate describing the duration and main contents of the course or programme). The main stage of studies is generally of three to four years’ duration for students who

complete a general study programme. They are awarded adegree whose name is constituted either of an occupational term and the word examen (e.g. juristexamen, Iakarexamen, civilingenjorexamen), or of the expression hogskoleexamen pi x-linjen, x being the name of a study programme. Under certain conditions, even those who complete an education consisting of separate courses will receive a certificate with a degree. A further stage leads on to thedoktor degree, after four years’ study (following upon the first

degree) devoted to research and to a published thesis. Doctor’s degrees are designated after the faculties in which they have been acquired.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 1 1 years, secondary-school ceriificaie)

years1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Education Arts Religion Fine arts, music Architecture Law Social sciences,

Secretarial and

Science Engineering Medical sciences medicine dentistry pharmacy veterinary medicine nursing

Agriculture, horticulture

administration, economics

accounting studies

E examen D doktor

E E E E E D

E E E D

E D E E E D

E

E E D E E D

E E E D

GLOSSARY Doktor. Highest degree given in higher education, awarded to graduates who have devoted

themselves to research (generally for four years), and who (after the first degree) have defended a thesis that has been published. Examen. The examen ends the first stage of studies. It might be of one year to two anda half

years’ duration and, in that case, is a professional qualification which the Swedish translate as national certificate (in nursing, horticulture, secretarial studies, etc.). Or it might be of three to four years’ duration corresponding to a BA, BSc, BE, etc. The word examen is not used alone generally, but is linked with an occupational term (for instance, agronomexamen, architekt-

214 SWEDEN

examen, civilingenjorexarnen, juristexamen, ekonomexamen, apotekarexamen, Iakarexamen, veterinarexamen, etc.). When there is no particular term for it, the diploma is calledhogskole- examen, followed by the speciality (e.g. hogskoleexamen pd biologlinjen). Hogskoleexamen. See examen and linjen. Linjen. Word used in the expression hogskoleexamen pi x-linjen, x being the name of a

speciality or study programme (e.g. hogskoleexamen pd fysikerlinjen, pd kemistlinjen, pd matematikerlinjen, pi musikdramatiska linjen, etc.).

Switzerland

In Switzerland higher education is provided mainly in the eight cantonal universities and two federal institutes of technology. Teaching takes place in French in the universities of Geneva, Lausanne and Neuchâtel and the Federal Institute of Technology, Lausanne; in German in the universities of Basel, Berne, and Zurich, at the Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich, and at the Graduate School of Economics, Business and Public Administration in St. Gallen. The University of Fribourg is bilingual (French/German). Higher education in Switzerland being primarily the responsibility of each canton, there are

numerous differences between the various institutions regarding the length of studies (counted in semesters), the nature and nomenclature of qualifications and diplomas, and the conditions under which they are awarded. On the other hand, medical and paramedical studies are governed by federal regulations, as are the federal institutes of technology. The universities and the Graduate School of Economics, Business and Public

Administration in St. Gallen are financed mainly by the cantons, with help from either federal or local authorities. The federal institutes of technology are financed from federal funds. Swiss universities are divided into a varying number of faculties: theology, law and

economics (occasionally as separate departments), medicine, humanities, science, etc. Fribourg and Neuchâtel Universities offer medicine only at the preclinical level in the science faculty. Technical education at the higher education level takes place mainly in the federal institutes

of technology. The Federal Institute of Technology of Zürich comprises some fifteen specialized departments (including architecture, engineering, mechanics, electrical engineering, chemistry, pharmacy, forestry, agriculture, rural engineering, topography, mathematics, physics, natural sciences), as well as various centres and institutes. The Federal Institute of Technology of Lausanne offers a more restricted range of subjects. There is a Graduate School of Economics, Business and Public Administration in St. Gallen. The training of teachers for primary education is given, at secondary level, in training

colleges. Teachers for lower- and upper-secondary education are trained in universities and in the Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich in two to three years and four years respectively. Teachers of commerce are trained in the economics faculties or the Graduate School of

SWITZERLAND 275

Economics, Business and Public Administration, St. Gallen, in the same conditions as future teachers of the second cycle of secondary education (the gymnasium cycle). Access to higher education normally takes place after 13 years of primary and secondary

education, terminating in the award of the maturité/maturitat (school-leaving/university- entrance qualification). There are five types of school-leaving certificate (A, Latin-Greek; B, Latin-modern languages; C, mathematics-sciences; D, modern languages; E. economics) which have federal recognition. These types give access to all faculties. For matriculation in faculties where a knowledge of Latin is required, candidates without Latin have to pass an additional examination in Latin during their university studies. The recognition of cantonal maturité certificates rests with the individual university authorities. However, not all types of leaving certificate give access to university faculties. Training colleges at secondary level give a certificate of competence for primary school teaching which gives access to some faculties in some universities, subject to the candidate passing a further examination. Foreign students must be at least 18 years old and must have a good working knowledge of

French or German. Recognition of foreign educational qualifications is at the discretion of individual universities. Foreign students wishing to enrol should write to the university of their choice. Some faculties (notably pharmacy, chemistry and psychology) can only accept a limited number of foreign students. In medicine foreign students are not admitted. Given the variations and diversity of higher education in Switzerland, it is very difficult to

generalize. A few examples will show, however, that certain stages are reached after two to four semesters, then six to eight semesters and beyond. A first period of study is devoted to broadly-based studies. It leads, after three semesters in

arts, to the demi-licence of the University of Geneva; to the baccalauréat en théologie (University of Fribourg); after four semesters in a science faculty to the Vorprüfùng at Zurich University; it consists of two years of basic study at the Federal Institute of Technology of Zurich; one year in law; one year of scientific study and one year ofpreparatory studies (propé- deutique/Propüdeutikunz) in medicine. After two years of study, trainee teachers obtain a diplôme de professeur de l'enseignement secondaire/Sekundarlehrer-Diplom (for lower- secondary education). The second phase is devoted to study in depth often with some specialization. After six to

eight semesters in arts, law or science, this study culminates in the award of alicence/Lizentiar, which includes the preparation of a mémoire. In law, the university, together with cantonal authorities, grants a diplôme dErat/Staatsdiplum for lawyers or barristers, obtained after a period of practical training. A diplôme d'Efat/Staatsdiplom in theology is also granted at this stage. For teacher trainees, a combination of the licence/Lizentiat and a certificat d'aptitude

pédagogique (certificate of education) leads to the award of a diplôme de professeur de l'enseignement secondaire/Mittelschullehrer Diplom (for upper-secondary education). In the federal institutes of technology, studies in subjects leading to professional and

technical qualifications terminate in a diplôme d'Etat/Staatsdiplom in engineering after seven to eight semesters. In medicine and allied subjects, the degree is a federal diplôme d'Erar/Eidgenossisches-

Diplum. In medicine, however, this is obtained only after 13 semesters of study. The third phase corresponds, in arts, theology, sciences, law and economics to a period

devoted to specialization. After a minimum period of eight semesters of research, candidates must present a thesis to obtain a doctorate. In arts subjects in particular, this may represent many years' study. In federal institutes of technology, the doctorate is usually obtained after four semesters

on of the diplôme d'ingénieur/Ingenieur Diplom. Upper-secondary and commercial school-teachers may also prepare a doctorate in their

276 SWITZERLAND

particular speciality. Doctors in medicine who wish to specialize may prepare a diplôme de spécialité, after practical work lasting between three and five years. The doctorate may be awarded as a first degree, as for example in science at the University of

Zurich. ~ ~~~

PROFILE OF H I G H E R STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 13 years, maturitatzeugnis/maiurit~

years 2 3 4 5 6 I 8

Education DiP Dip Arts L L L/D D Catholic theology B L D Protestant theology L D Law L L/D Economic sciences, L L/D D

Administration L D Exact and DiE L D

Engineering DiE D

political sciences

natural sciences

Medical sciences medicine D/DiE Dis dentistry DiE D pharmacy DiE D veterinary medicine L/DiE D

B baccalauréat en théologie (Fribourg) D doctorat DiE diplôme dEtat DiP diplôme de professeur de l‘enseignement secondaire ion L licence

Dis diplôme de spécialisat-

G L O S S A R Y Baccalauréat (French-speaking Switzerland). See maturité. Baccalauréat en théologie. First degree in Catholic theology at Fribourg University. Certificat d’aptitude à l’enseignement primaire (French-speaking Switzerland). See primary

Diplôme d’Etat/Diplôme cantonal (French-speaking Switzerland). See state diploma. Doctorat (French-speaking Switzerland). Qualification in higher education usually granted

to candidates who have studied for a minimum of two semesters after obtaining their licence/Lizentiat or the diplôme cfEtat/Staatliches Diplom, and have successfully submitted a thesis. Doktorat (German-speaking Switzerland). Higher-education qualification usually

obtained after five or six years’ study. The Doktorut is obtained either after thelizentiat, after the Staatliches Diplom (state diploma), or else is the first degree.

teacher’s certijïcate.

Eidgenossisches Diplom (German-speaking Switzerland). See state diploma. Erganzungsprüfung (German-speaking Switzerland). See supplementary examination. Federal diploma. See state diploma. Gymnasiallehrer (German-speaking Switzerland). See secondary reacher’s certificate.

SWITZERLAND 277

Habilitation (German-speaking Switzerland). Procedure leading to the acquisition of the title of privai-docent/Privat-doient, which qualifies the holder to teach in higher education (venia legendi). Handelsmaturitat (German-speaking Switzerland). See maturité. Licence (French-speaking Switzerland). See Lizentiat. Lizentiat (German-speaking Switzerland). First degree in higher education in arts, law and

science faculties, granted after a minimum of six semesters of study. At the end of his studies, each candidate must present a mémoire (short thesis) and take a certain number of examinations. Maturitatzeugnis (German-speaking Switzerland). See maturité. Maturité (French-speaking Switzerland). School-leaving certificate, usually obtained after

six years of primary education followed by seven years of secondary education in a general secondary school. There are five main options: A, Latin-Greek; B, Latin-modern languages; C, mathematics-sciences; D, modern languages; E, economics. There are two types of secondary-school-leaving certificate; the cantonal maturité/Maturitüt, for which examin- ations are set by the cantonal authority, and the federal maturité/Maturitüt, for which examinations are set by the federal authorities. The certificate is also called certificat de maturité, baccalauréat (Vaud), Maturitützeugnis. The commercial leaving certificate (maturité commerciale/Handelsmaturitüt) is a secondary-school-leaving certificate usually obtained after six years of primary education followed by six years of secondary education in a vocational or commercial school. To gain access to certain faculties, holders of this certificate have to pass a supplementary examination. Maturité commerciale (French-speaking Switzerland). See rnaturité. Maturité fédérale (French-speaking Switzerland). See maturité. Primarlehrer-Diplom (German-speaking Switzerland). See primary teacher's certificate. Primary teacher's certificate. School-leaving certificate, generally obtained after six years of

primary education followed by six years of secondary education in a teacher-training college (école normale/Lehrerseminar). It entitles the student to teach in a primary school and gives access to higher education to candidates who have passed a supplementary examination. Professional qualification. See state diploma. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See maturité (also Ergünzungsprüfung, Maturi-

tützeugnis, certificat d'aptitude à l'enseignement primaire, supplementary examinarion). Secondary teacher's certificate. Qualification obtained at two levels of higher education: at

the lower level. after four university semesters and one semester of teaching practice and educational studies; at the upper level, after the licence/Lizentiat or equivalent degree and a certificate of education. Qualifications at the lower and upper levels enable successful candidates to teach in lower- and upper-secondary schools. Sekundarlehrer (German-speaking Switzerland). See secondary teacher's Certificate. Staatliches Diplom (German-speaking Switzerland). See state diploma. State diploma. German Staatliches Diplom, French diplôme dEtat. Higher education

qualification awarded by the State and entitling its holders to practise a profession. This qualification is sometimes awarded at the same time as the licence/Lizentiat, sometimes independently of it. There are two kinds of State diploma: the diplôme cantonal/Staatsdiplom, a cantonal qualification in theology, law and secondary teaching, and the federal qualification, the diplôme fédéral/Eidgenossisches Diplom, in medicine, dentistry, veterinary medicine and engineering. Supplementary examination. Examination set by federal or university authorities for

candidates to higher education who do not have the secondary-school-leaving certificate, or whose school-leaving certificate is not of the type required by the faculty they wish to enter.

278 SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC

Syrian Arab Republic

Higher education in the Syrian Arab Republic is given in three state universities, a higher institute of political science (Damascus), a higher institute of petroleum and chemical engineering (Homs) and 12 higher and intermediate institutions of professional and technical training under the Ministry of Higher Education (39 under other ministries). Higher education is entirely the responsibility of the State, exercised through the Ministry

of Higher Education, and all higher education establishments are fully state-financed. The Council for Higher Education, previously known as the Higher Council for Universities, is a body composed of representatives of the universities, teachers and students, and of the education, planning and higher education ministries. It is responsible for the establishing of an overall policy in teaching and scientific research, for the co-ordination of teaching programmes and the relation of the latter to the social and economic plans, and for decisions on questions of equivalence of university degrees. The University of Damascus has the following faculties: humanities, economics, commerce,

education, law, Islamic law, agriculture, medicine, pharmacy, dentistry, fine arts, science, electrical and mechanical engineering. It also has a school of nursing. The University of Aleppo comprises faculties of medicine, veterinary medicine, science, economics and commerce, humanities, agriculture and engineering as well as an institute for the history of Arab science. The University of October at Lattakia, founded in 1971, has faculties of humanities, science, agriculture, medicine and engineering. The teaching language is Arabic. Primary school-teachers are trained at secondary level in teacher-training institutions, in

four years after completing intermediate education, in one year after completing secondary education. The education faculty of the University of Damascus awards a special diploma in education for future secondary teachers who already possess a licence in science, humanities or law. Access to higher education is given through the secondary-school-leaving certificate (al-

chahada al-thanaouiya) which is awarded after six years’ primary followed by six years’ secondary education, the latter divided into two cycles of three years each-intermediate and terminal. Access to higher and intermediate institutions depends on the orientation (literary or scientific) of the terminal cycle of secondary studies, and on marks obtained in the final examination, with particular emphasis on basic subjects. The chahadatul ta’hil al mihani (vocational aptitude certificate) which is awarded at the end

of secondary technical school gives a limited right to enter certain branches of higher education. Short courses of higher education, lasting two years, may be undertaken in the intermediate

institutions of medicine, dentistry, engineering, industry, agriculture, commerce, and secretaryship. The degree awarded is a certificate of assistant. The main stage of higher education, which corresponds to ageneral training or professional

qualification at a high level, leads after four to six years’ study to the licence. Future secondary teachers who already have the licence in science, humanities or law must also pass the chahuda ’ a m m a fi al tarbiya (general teacher’s certificate), awarded after one year’s study at the education faculty of Damascus University, before they are qualified to teach. The second stage reflects a degree of specialization and initiation in research work. A

diploma is awarded after one further year’s study in veterinary medicine and two years’ study in other subjects. In education, after the licence and the chahada ’amma fi al tarbiya, outstanding students wishing to specialize may take the chuhada khassa fi al tarbiya (special diploma of education). The second stage culminates, in three years after the award of the

SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC 279

licence, in the magister degree. The medical faculties of Damascus and Aleppo award certificats d'études supérieures (CES) after three or four years depending on the specialization. The third stage leads to the doctorate, which is awarded at least five years after the licence

and requires the submission of a thesis. All faculties of the University of Aleppo, including the Institute for the History of Arab

Science, award doctorates; Damascus University currently offers only the doctorate in law.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, al-chahada al thanaoui.va)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Education (teacher-

Arts, social sciences Fine arts Law Islamic law Commercial sciences Economics, political sciences

Science Engineering Architecture Medical sciences medicine dentistry pharmacy veterinary medicine

Agriculture Intermediate institutions*

training) L CAT CKT M D

L M D L M D L D

L M D L M - D

L M D L M D

LD CES CES L/P M D L M D L M D

L M D CA

CA CAT CES CKT D L LD M P

certificate of assistant chahada 'amma fi al tarbiya certificat d'études supérieures (certificate of higher studies) chahada khassa fi al-tarbiya dortorate licence licence de docteur en médecine magister professional qualification

* Engineering, industry, agriculture, medicine, dentistry, veterinary medicine, commerce, secretariat.

GLOSSARY AI chahada ai thanaouiya. Certificate awarded at the end of general secondary education

lasting three years (also called baccalauréat). The first of these three years is common to all

280 SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC

pupils, but the last two may be in either a literary or a scientific option. This phase of terminal secondary education follows upon a period of middle schooling likewise lasting three years and six years of primary education. The certificate is that normally required for entrance to higher education, but certain institutions require it to have been awarded in a particular option. Assistant. Certificate awarded in intermediate institutions at the end of short courses lasting

two years. Baccalauréat. See al chahada al thanaouiya. Certificat d’études supérieures (certificate of higher studies). Degree awarded by the medical

faculties of Damascus and Aleppo after three or four years’ study following upon the licence de docteur in medicine (depending on the specialization). Chahada ‘amma fi al tarbiya. Students who hold the licence in humanities, science and law

with an average grade of ‘good‘ may be admitted to the faculty of education and, after a further one-year course, obtain this qualification, which gives them the right to teach in secondary education. It is awarded after one year’s study in the education faculty of Damascus University. Chahada khassa fi al tarbiya. Holders of the chahada ’ammafi al tarbiya wishing to specialize

in one of the sections of the faculty of education may take this special diploma after one year’s study. Chahadatul ta’hil al mihani. Diploma awarded at the end of the terminal stage of technical

secondary education, giving access to certain branches of higher education. Doctorate. The highest university degree, awarded a minimum of five years after the licence.

It involves personal research work and the defence of a thesis. In medicine the qualification awarded after six years’ study serves as a professional qualification. Licence. First university degree awarded after between four and six years’ study. The length

of studies varies between disciplines: humanities and social sciences, law, Islamic law, economics, science, political science, agriculture and fine arts take four years; architecture, engineering, pharmacy, dentistry and veterinary studies five years. In the faculties of engineering, including architecture, the licence is awarded on the results of the final-year examination and on the result of a practical ‘project’. In medicine the licence de docteur is awarded after six years, marking the end of the first stage of medical studies. The university year is divided into two semesters. Examinations in the subjects studied take

place at the end of each semester. They include written and oral tests and, where appropriate, a practical examination. The student is classified on the following scale: excellent, very good, good, passable, weak and very weak (the last two grades being failures). Magister. University degree awarded after three years’ study reflecting a degree of

specialization in combination with training in personal research work. Candidates for the magister in education must first pass the chahada khassa fi al tarbiya (special diploma in education), following this with one further year’s study. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See al chahada al thanaouiya.

THAILAND 28 1

Thailand

In Thailand higher education is given in universities and in specialized institutions of higher education. These institutions are classified under four categories: (a) Universities, institutes and private colleges under the supervision of the Office of University Affairs. (b) Technical or vocational, agricultural and teacher-training colleges under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education. These institutions formerly trained only middle level technicians and school-teachers. The duration of the courses is usually two or three years. Recently the Government has revised these courses to a five-year programme for the bachelor’s degree. (c) Other specialized or professional training institutions under the sponsorship of ministries and government organizations (e.g. nursing colleges, Buddhist colleges, military and police academies, etc.). (d) The Asian Institute of Technology, an international institute under its own charter, granted by the Thai Government.

There are at present fourteen state universities and institutes. Formerly each institute was devoted to a single discipline only. Now each has varying numbers and combinations of faculties. The Office of University Affairs serves as a co-ordinating agency between the universities and the Government. Their financial resources come from the Government (85-95 per cent), student fees and other sources (5-15 per cent). The specialized institutions of higher education are mostly technical institutes, vocational

colleges and teacher-training institutions. They are under the authority of the Ministry of Education. Their resources also come from the Government and fees. These recently upgraded degree-granting institutions’ curricula, however, are approved by the Office of University Affairs. There are also a number of private colleges offering undergraduate programmes. The

courses available are mostly in humanities and social sciences. They are under the jurisdiction of the Office of University Affairs. Other non-degree private colleges offering three-year courses after secondary education (grade 10) are under the Ministry of Education. A non-traditional, post-secondary education system was first introduced in Thailand by the

setting up of Thammasat University in 1933. Later, in 1972, Ramkhamhaeng University, regarded as the first institution to utilize mass media for course dissemination. was established. In the true sense of the word, however, Sukhothaithammathirat University is Thailand‘s first open university and non-traditional higher education institution. Set up in September 1978, it conducts its programmes entirely by means of distance-learning systems. The period of study is similar to that of traditional universities. In general, short courses offered by institutions of higher learning are conducted mainly to disseminate knowledge and promote personal development and professional competence. Upon completion of the course attendance or merit ceriificaies are usually awarded. The language of instruction is Thai, with the exception of the economic major courses at

Thammasat University and some programmes of Mahidol University which are conducted in English. Special courses given in English are occasionally arranged for foreign students at the discretion of the university. Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leaving certificate obtained

after six years of primary school and six years of secondary education (mathayom 6 =grade 12). Admission to higher education is subject to the national university entrance examination which is organized by a committee consisting of representatives from state universities and the Office of University Affairs.

282 THAILAND

Three provincial universities make use of their own entrance examination to select candidates for 40 per cent of the total number of places available in each academic year from all secondary school leavers in each region (i.e. Chiang Mai University for 16 provinces in the north; Khon Kaen Univekity for 16 provinces in the north east and Prince of Songkla for 14 provinces in the south). In addition, Sri Nakharinwirot University admits holders of the certificate of education

(two-year teacher-training course after mathayom 3 (grade 10)) to their freshman classes of the faculty of education, and holders of the higher certificate of education (two-year course after obtaining certificate of education) or their equivalents, to their junior classes. Admission of these students is carried out by means of its own entrance examination. The faculties of medicine of Chulalongkorn and Mahidol universities, with the co-

operation of the Ministry of Public Health, admit about 15 per cent oftheir freshmen students from the provinces under the project of ‘promotion of medical science education for rural areas’. The basic criteria for qualifying candidates for access to higher education are solely based

on academic achievements with the exception of Ramkhamhaeng University and Sukhothai- thammathirat University, which include work experience (employment in government service, with disregard of academic qualification).

Generally, the state institutes of higher learning under the Office of University Affairs

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, mathayom 6 and entrance examination)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Education C B M D Arts B M D Fine arts* P M Architecture P M Law B M D Social sciences, economics B M D Social and public B M D

Science B M D Engineering A B P M Medical sciences

administration

medicine P H S dentistry P H M pharmacy P M veterinary medicine P

Agriculture A B M D

A associate’s degree B bachelor’s degree C certificate D doctor’s degree

H higher professional certificate M master’s degree P professional qualification S specialization

* Except decorative arts-four years.

THAILAND 283

refrain from admitting foreign students as BA candidates for the following reasons: all candidates are required to pass the national university entrance examination conducted in Thai; limitation of seating capacity due to budget allocation; Thai is the language of instruction. However, there are some cases of exception; for example, student exchange programmes or non-degree programmes. At graduate level, all state universities admit foreign students. However, the final decision is invariably made by the University Council of each institution. In the fields of education, engineering and agriculture, non-degree, post-secondary

terminal courses may be completed in two or three years. The main stage of higher education is that of the bachelor’s degree or a professional

qualification. The bachelor’s degree is usually obtained in four years: five in architecture, painting, sculpture, graphic arts, and pharmacy; and six in medicine, dentistry andveterinary medicine. The bachelor’s degree (pass) is obtained after the same courses of study as the bachelor’s degree (honours), but at a lower standard. In some courses, an associate’s degree is available after the first three years of working for a bachelor’s degree. Professional qualifications are awarded as certificates or diplomas following study of from one to four years. The professional qualification and first degree in medicine, veterinary medicine and dentistry is that of doctor. Advanced studies lead to the award of the master’s degree after at least one year but usually

after two years’ study and on the presentation of a thesis. The doctor’s degree is obtainable in some fields and usually requires at least two years after the master’s degree. An advanced professional qualification, awarded as a certificafe or a diploma, may sometimes be obtained after one or two years’ course-work and is intended for students who already have a degree or professional qualification.

GLOSSARY Associate’s degree. Intermediate degree obtained in some fields of study after the third year

of studies leading to a bachelor’s degree. Bachelor’s degree. First degree usually obtained after four years’ higher education but five

in architecture, painting, sculpture, graphic arts and pharmacy and six in medicine, dentistry and veterinary medicine. The bachelor’s degree (pass) is obtained after the same courses of study as the bachelor’s degree (honours), but at a lower standard. Certificate. See professional quali$cation. Diploma. See professional qualification. Doctor’s degree (doctorate). Highest degree, obtainable in some fields at least two years

after the master’s degree. In medicine, veterinary medicine and dentistry, the first professional qualification and first degree is that of doctor. Entrance examination. See mathayom suksa 5, mathayom 6. Honours degree. See bachelor’s degree. Master’s degree. Higher degree obtained after one, or usually after two years’ study

following a bachelor’s degree, and on the presentation of a thesis. Mathayom Suksa 5, Mathayom 6. Secondary-education final examination organized by the

Ministry of Education for those who complete the secondary school (12th grade) andobtain a secondary-school-leaving certificate after seven years’ primary school and five years’ secondary education (mathayom suksa 5) or six years of primary and six years of secondary school (matha-vom 6) according to the National Elementary Education Act, and National Education Plan of 1977. To be admitted to university (except Ramkhamhaeng and Sukhothaithammathirat universities), the applicant must sit for the national university entrance examination. Pass degree. See bachelor’s degree.

284 THAILAND

Professional qualification. Higher-education qualification usually awarded as a certificate or a diploma after one to four years’ study either at the level of a first degree or at the level of postgraduate studies. The first degree and professional qualification in medicine, veterinary medicine and dentistry is that of doctor. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See mathayom suksa 5, mathayom 6.

Togo

In Togo higher education is given by the University of Benin, founded in 1970 and partly based on the Benin centre for higher education, which covered both Togo and Dahomey. The University of Benin is governed by a co-operation agreement between Togo and France. It is a public and civil institution, administratively and financially autonomous. Teaching takes place in French. In the subjects for which the Togolese authorities decide on the organization and programmes together with French authorities, the degrees awarded are fully recognized in France (the same is true in Togo for degrees awarded in France). When the University of Benin was founded, it comprisedschools of humanities, science and

a university institute of technology (IUT). The school of humanities mainly offers courses in African, French, English, German and Spanish languages and literatures, philosophy and applied social sciences, journalism, history (including African medieval history) and geography (and more particularly regional geography). The school of science offers courses in physics, chemistry, biology and geology. The schools of agriculture and industrial mechanics train agricultural engineers and

mechanical, electrical and civil engineers respectively. Other institutions offer courses in law, economics and management. Medical training takes place at the University in the final years. Emphasis is put on public

health, health education, nutrition and tropical medicine. Courses are given by the school of medicine, the school of medical auxiliaries (which awards a diplôme d‘assistant médical) and the Institute of Health and Biological Technology (which awards a diplôme universitaire de technologie). Teachers are trained at the National Institute for Education (INSE) and at the teacher-

training college. The INSE is a university institution which trains teachers for classical secondary schools of general education (lycées) and inspectors of primary and secondary education. The teacher-training college is an institution which does not depend on the University administratively. Teachers of primary education are trained in three years at upper-secondary level and teachers of lower-secondary education (teachers in general education colleges) obtain a professional qualification after two years’ study at post- secondary level. Access to higher education is given through the baccalauréat. A special entrance examination

enables those who do not hold the baccalauréat to gain access. The choice of subject is limited by the option chosen for the baccalauréat.

TOGO 285

The first stage of higher education usually leads to the diplôme defin détudes du premier cycle after two years: diplôme universitaire détudes littéraires (DUEL) in arts; diplôme universitaire détudes scientifiques (DUES) in science; diplôme universitaire d'études juridiques (DUEJ) in law; diplôme universitaire détudes de gestion (DUEG) in management; or diplôme universitaire d'études économiques (DUEE) in economics. Those who do not hold the baccalauréat and who wish to study law are admitted to a two-

year preliminary course leading to the certificat de capacité en droit (CCD). The second stage corresponds to second phase studies which may be followed at the École

Supérieure d'Administration et des Carrières Juridiques (law and administration), at the École Supérieure de Techniques Economiques et de Gestion (ESTEG) (economics and management), at the school of humanities and at the school of science. It leads, after one year's studies, to the licence at the school of science and to thediplôme d'ingénieur at the École

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 13 years, baccalauréat)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7

Education P L M Humanities DUEL L M Law CCD/ L M

Economics DUEE L M Management DUEG L M Exact and D U E S L

Agricultural, DUES* DI

DUEJ

natural sciences

mechanical, electronic, civil engineering

Medicine D Health technology, DUT/ paramedical studies DAM

CCD D DAM DI DUEE DUEG DUEJ DUEL DUES DUT L M P

certificat de capacité en droit doctorat diplôme dussistunt médical diplôme d'ingénieur diplôme universitaire détudes économiques diplôme universitaire détudes de gestion diplôme universituire détudes juridiques diplôme universitaire détudes littéraires diplôme universitaire détudes scientifiques diplôme universitaire de technologie licence maîtrise professional qualification

* Agricultural, mechanical engineering, electronic engineering and civil engineering option.

286 TOGO

Supérieure d‘Agronomie (agriculture) and the École Supérieure de Mécanique Industrielle (industrial mechanics). In the humanities it requires a certificat d‘études supérieures de licence and the first certificat demaîtrise. Thesecond year ofthis phaseleads to themaîtrisein thefirst three schools.

GLOSSARY Baccalauréat. Secondary-school-leaving certificate obtained at the end of secondary

education in an institution of general education or technical education. Secondary education is divided into two phases of four and three years respectively. Candidates may choose a literary or scientific option. Programmes and teaching methods are based on the French syllabus. The baccalauréat gives access to higher education. Certificat d’études supérieures (CES). Qualification of higher education, awarded after a

period of six months’ to one year’s study. A number of certificats d‘études supérieures are required to obtain a licence or maîtrise in humanities or science. Diplôme d’assistant médical. Qualification awarded after three years’ study by the school of

medical auxiliaries. Diplôme universitaire d’études économiques (DUEE). Qualification awarded at the end of

the first phase of studies in economics (two years). Candidates have to pass an examinationat the end of each year. Diplôme universitaire d‘études de gestion (DUEG). Qualification awarded at the end of the

first phase of studies in management (two years). Candidates have to pass an examination at the end of each year. Diplôme universitaire d’études juridiques (DUEJ). Qualification awarded at the end of the

first phase of studies in law (two years). Candidates have to pass an examination at the end of each year. Diplôme Universitaire d‘études littéraires (DUEL). Qualification awarded at the end of the

first phase of studies in humanities (two years). Candidates have to pass an examination at the end of each year. Diplôme universitaire d’études scientifiques (DUES). Qualification awarded at the end of the

first phase of studies in science (two years). Candidates have to pass an examination at the end of each year. Diplôme universitaire de technologie (DUT). Qualification obtained after three years’ study

by students of the Institute of Health and Biological Technology. Doctorat. In medicine, qualification awarded to candidates who have done six years’ study,

a year’s practical training and submitted a thesis. The professional qualification is that of docteur en médecine. Licence. Degree of higher education awarded after a period of three years. In the

humanities, studies are divided into two phases: a first phase, lasting two years, during which students acquire basic knowledge of a multi-disciplinary nature, leads to the diplôme universitaire dérudes littéraires (DUEL). The licence is awarded after a year’s second phase during which candidates obtain a certijïcat de licence (L) and the first certificat de maîtrise. Maîtrise. Qualification of higher education obtained in some fields after four years’ study.

The first two years constitute the first phase, which is common to the licence and to the maîtrise and which enables students to acquire basic training. Thesecond phase also lasts two years and corresponds to a period of study in depth. The first year of studies leads to the licence. The second year leads to a second certijïcat de maîtrise and comprises the submission of a dissertation. Professional qualification. Qualification conferred on teachers for colleges of general

education. It is awarded by the teacher-training college after two years’ study following upon the baccalauréat.

TOGO 287

Special entrance examination. Entrance examination for candidates who do not hold a baccalauréat or equivalent qualification. Validité de plein droit. Validity of a degree obtainedin the same conditions as in France. in a

country which was formerly under French administration, recognized both for continuing studies and for exercising a profession. Recognition of such a degree is subject to agreements concluded between this country and France. The French Ministry of Education fixes the list of these foreign degrees every year. Corresponding French degrees are accorded the same privileges in countries which have concluded similar agreements.

Trinidad and Tobago

In Trinidad and Tobago higher education takes place in the University of the West Indies, St Augustine campus (see entry on Jamaica) and in a number of specialized institutions. The institutions that constitute the University of the West Indies are: faculties of agriculture

and of engineering, a school of education, an institute of international relations, a department of tropical medicine and faculties of arts and general studies and of natural and social sciences. The first two institutions are situated in Trinidad and Tobago. The faculty of agriculture has five departments and three research units, and the faculty of engineering has four departments. Also situated in Trinidad is the Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute. The other institutions comprise five teacher-training institutions, an agricultural institute,

two technical institutes, two schools of nursing, and a number of other specialized institutions. Of the five teacher-training colleges, of which two are run by the Government, three are

denominational (Presbyterian, Seventh-Day Adventist, Catholic). All draw their funds from the Government. The courses last two years and lead to a teacher’s certificate; they include both academic subjects and studies relating to education. The technical institutes prepare students for the examinations of the University of London

in the followingsubjects: science, economics and accountancy; they also prepare for the award of diplomas of the National Examination Council for Vocational and Technical Education. Courses last two to three years. Teaching is given in English.

288

Tunisia

TUNISIA

In Tunisia higher education is given in 21 institutions of higher education (faculties, schools, institutes) which are directly responsible to the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, as well as in 12 institutions under the control of other ministerial departments. Faculties offer courses in arts, theology, law, political sciences and economics, science,

medicine, dentistry; several institutions are also attached to the Ministry of Higher Education, such as the Advanced Teacher-training College, the Institute of Commercial Studies, the Institute of Administration, the Institute of Journalism and Information, the Technological Art Institute, the Institute of Architecture and Town-planning, the Institute for Hotel- catering and Tourism, the Bourguiba Institute for Modern Languages, the Technical Institute, two national schools of engineering, the Advanced Technical Teacher-training College, the Institute for Scientific and Technical Research, and the Centre for Studies and Research in Economic and Social Science. Among the institutions controlled by other ministerial departments are the National

Institute of Agriculture and the National School of Veterinary Medicine. Teachers of primary education are trained in teacher-training colleges at secondary level.

Teachers of secondary education are trained in four years at the advanced technical teacher- training college (in technical subjects) and at the advanced teacher-training college and at the faculties of arts and science (in literary and scientific subjects). The languages of instruction are Arabic and French. Access to higher education is based on the baccalauréat, obtained after six years of primary

education followed by seven years of secondary education. The other prerequisite is the orientation universiraire (university orientation), which is a national competitive entrance examination organized by the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research. It is open to holders of the baccalauréat. The option and capacities of future students, the number of places available in the various institutions and the country’s needs for highly qualified personnel are taken into account. The first stage may either be terminal short-term studies leading to the award of a

qualification, or constitute the first phase of long-term university studies. In the first case the course usually lasts for two years and leads to the following qualifications: high-level electrical and mechanical technician, high-level technician in topography; high-level technician in economics and management; the qualification of high-level technician in paramedical fields requires three years’ study. In the case of long-term studies, the first stage corresponds in many fields to the acquisition of first phase broadly-based studies. This leads, after two years’ study, to the diplôme universitaire dérudes littéraires (DUEL) in arts, and to the diplôme universitaire d‘études scientifiques (DUES) in science. In technical sciences, this stage usually leads to the diplôme de technicien supérieur et d’ingénieur adjoint. In other subjects, such as law and economics, the first two years of higher education do not lead to the award of a qualification. The second stage corresponds to a period of study in depth and lasts for two years. In arts,

candidates must obtain certificats détudes supérieures in order to qualify for the maîtrise, or for the certificat d’aptitude à la recherche (candidates must also defend a short thesis). In science the maîtrise is also awarded after two years’ further study. In law, economics and theology students obtain a licence after four years’ higher education, or a professional qualification in commercial studies and agriculture (diplôme de l’Institut des hautes Etudes commerciales, diplôme technique). The advanced teacher-training college awards a maîtrise and the diplôme de l’école after four years. The qualification of chartered accountant requires five years’ study.

TUNISIA 289

In science, the third stage, devoted to specialization and scientific research, leads to a diplôme détudes approfondies (DEA) followed by a doctorat de spécialité, then a doctorat dEtat. In medicine, this stage leads to the professional qualification obtained with the doctorat dEtat. In arts, it corresponds to the diplôme derecherchesapprofondies (DRA) and in economics to the DEA (after two years). At the Institute of Administration, the third phase qualification requires six years' study.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 13 years, baccalauréat and orientation universitaire)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education M/Di Arts DUEL CAR/M DRA D Religion, theology L

L DEA D Law, economics - Commercial studies P/Di Exact and natural DUES M DEA DS D

Engineering DT DT DT/P Medicine DTS D Agriculture DT Architecture P

sciences

CAR D DEA Di DRA DS DT DTS DUEL DUES L M

certificat d'aptitude à la recherche doctorat d'Etat diplôme détudes approfondies diplôme diplôme de recherches approfondies doctorat de spécialité diplôme technique diplôme de technicien supérieur diplôme universitaire détudes littéraires diplôme universitaire détudes scientifiques licence maîtrise

P professional qualijkation

GLOSSARY Baccalauréat. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, obtained after six years of primary

followed by seven years of secondary education. The latter is divided into a three-year lower and four-year upper phase. The lower phase takes place in an institution of complete (lycée), general or technical education or in a college of secondary education. In the upper phase, candidates specialize in their second year after one year which is common to the various institutions. In general schools, candidates may choose between three options: arts, mathematics/science and mathematics/technology. The mathematics and technology section prepares for higher technical studies. Certificat d'aptitude à la recherche (CAR). Qualification obtained in arts in conditions that

TUNISIA

are similar to those of the maîtrise. It also requires the submission of a short thesis. Certificat d’études supérieures. Qualification of higher education awarded after six months’

to one year’s study. Four certificats d‘études supérieures are required for the maîtrise in arts. Diplôme d‘études approfondies (DEA). In science, qualification obtained after one year’s

third-cycle studies following upon the mattrise (initiation to research). It includes specialized theoretical training and practical work in a laboratory. The attestation détudes approfondies (AEA) is given to candidates who have not done the practical training but have passed the theoretical examination. After obtaining the DEA, candidates prepare a thesis for the doctorar de troisième cycle. In economics the DEA lasts two years. In arts it is called the diplôme de recherches approfondies (DRA) and studies also last two years. Diplôme universitaire d’études littéraires (DUEL). Qualification obtained at the end of the

first phase in humanities (two years). Candidates must pass an examination at the end of each year. The following sections prepare for the DUEL: Arab literature, English literature, French literature, history, geography, philosophy, sociology, education. Diplôme universitaire d’études scientifiques (DUES). Qualification obtained at the end of the

first phase in science (two years). Candidates must pass an examination at the end of each year. The following sections prepare for the DUES: mathematics and physics, physics and chemistry, natural sciences. Students at the faculty of agriculture prepare for the DUES during the first two years. Doctorat d’Etat. In medicine, qualification awarded at the end of seven years’ theoretical

and professional training. It is also a professional qualification. A doctorat d‘Etat is also awarded in arts (Arabic and Arab literature), law and economics, and exact and natural sciences after at least seven years’ study. Doctorat de spécialité (DS). Degree awarded to candidates holding a diplôme d‘études

approfondies who submit a thesis after two years’ research. Licence. Degree of higher education awarded after four years’ study in theology, law,

journalism and economics. Candidates have to pass an examination each year, Maîtrise. Degree of higher education in humanities and science awarded at the end of the

second phase, that is to say after four years’ study. The first phase (two years) leads to the diplôme universitaire détudes littéraires or to the diplôme universitaire d‘études scientifiques in a specific field. The second phase is devoted to studies in similar fields. In humanities, candidates must obtain four certificats d‘études supérieures. In science, candidates have to pass an examination at the end of each year. Professional qualification. Qualification awarded in a number of fields at the end of higher

studies. The technical degree awarded after two years’ study is that of ingénieur adjoint; the technical degree awarded after four years’ study is that of ingénieur des travaux de IEtat; the technical degree awarded after six years’ study is that of ingénieur principal.

TURKEY 29 1

Turkey

In Turkey higher education takes place in 19 universities (of which five were founded after 1971: Bursa Üniversitesi; Firat Üniversitesi, Elâzig; Bogaziçi Üniversitesi (Bosphorus University), Bebek-Istanbul; Diyarbakir Üniversitesi; Çukurova Üniversitesi, Adana); 33 academies and higher schools (of applied arts, fine arts, engineering, architecture, economics and commercial studies, journalism and public relations, political science, business management, chemistry, police force, navy, social work, sanitation, nursing); 40 teacher- training colleges, three state conservatories and three higher institutes of Islamic studies. All Turkish universities are autonomous public institutions, founded by a parliamentary

law and state-financed. They are governed by a common law, with the exception of the Orta Dogu Teknik Üniversitesi (Technical University of the Middle East) at Ankara. A n inter- university council, made up of university rectors and two professors elected by each university, takes decisions and draws up recommendations concerning all Turkish universities. This council elects the president of the Council of Turkish University Rectors, which is the body responsible for defending the interests of Turkish universities and developing inter-university co-operation. There is also a Conference of Turkish University Rectors whose purpose is to ensure the co-operation of university and other academic activities between connected subjects which are taught in the different Turkish universities. Universities are governed by bodies which elect their members from among the teaching

staff. The Technical University of the Middle East is an exception. It is governed by an administrative board made up of nine members, six of whom must be from private institutions, and which has full powers to appoint its president and decide upon policies. Traditional universities are divided into faculties and offer the following subjects:

education, humanities, theology, law, political, sciences, economics, business administration, science, medicine, dentistry, veterinary medicine, pharmacy, and agriculture. Institutes of journalism exist at Ankara and Istanbul universities. The three technical universities (Istanbul Technical University, the Technical University of

the Middle East and Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon) also offer a variety of subjects. Istanbul Technical University has faculties of architecture, civil engineering, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, mining, naval construction, and a school of foreign languages. The Technical University of the Middle East is open to students from the whole of the Middle East. In addition to technical courses, it also offers courses in humanities and science, and education and administration (including statistics and economics). Higher academies and schools are either run by the Ministry of Education or by, other

ministries (e.g. nursing, Ministry of Health; merchant navy, Ministry of Communications). They are entirely financed by the State. They also differ from universities in that they do not normally award the doktoru, the highest qualification of higher education. Higher state schools of economics and commerce, however, are an exception to this rule. Teaching takes place in Turkish, except at the Technical University of the Middle East and

at the Bogaziçi University (Bosphorus University) where courses are given in English. Students at the Technical University of the Middle East, at the Bosphorus University and at the Hacettepe University are obliged to study English for one year before going on to studies proper. There is also the Yaykur Institution, which offers high-level correspondence or summer

courses on a national scale for candidates who were not admitted to a university, an academy or any other type of institution of higher education. It also offers courses of higher education which are shorter than the traditional courses.

292 TURKEY

Teachers of primary education are trained in training schools. They are run by the Ministry of Education. Teachers of lower- and upper-secondary education are trained in two to three years in secondary teacher-training colleges, in institutes of education, in technical or commercial teacher-training colleges, in institutes of economics and commerce and in faculties of education. The basic qualification giving access to higher education is the lise diplomasi, obtained after

five years of primary followed by three years of lower-secondary and three years of upper- secondary (lise) schooling. In principle, this qualification is sufficient to gain access to higher education. However, because of the large numbers of candidates, university authorities have established a national admission policy. The inter-university centre for selecting and admitting students (USYM) is under the authority of the inter-university council. It fixes the admission procedures to undergraduate studies offered by Turkish universities and institutions of higher education and selects candidates who wish to follow the courses they offer by means of an annual examination, the üniversiteler arasi seçme sinavinda bajari (inter- university entrance examination) (USS). This examination is open to holders of the secondary-school-leaving certificate or to candidates who complete their secotldary education. Teacher-training colleges and the Academy of Fine Arts have slightly different admission procedures, since holders of the USS are selected by further examinations adapted to specific programmes.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education, 1 1 years, lise diplornasi and entrance examination)

years 3 4 5 6

Education Di L/B Arts L/B R

Architecture L/B Fine arts Di Economics, social sciences L/B Di Y Id Science L/B M D Administration L/B Y W M Law L/B Yld/M D Engineering, L/Md Yid Ymd/M/ technology Yld

Medical sciences medicine D/P

pharmacy L/B Yld

Religion, theology L

dentistry L/P

veterinary medicine L/P Agriculture L/B

B bachelor’s degree D doktora Di diplomasi L lisans M master’s degree

M d mühendis diplomasi P professional qualification Yld yüksek lisans diplomasi Y m d yüksek mühendis diplomasi

TURKEY 293

The main stage of higher education is usually reached after four years (dentistry and veterinary medicine, five years; medicine, six years). It culminates, according to the institution, in the lisans diplornasi or the bachelor’s degree. Technical universities and higher technical institutions give a rnühendis diplornasi (engineering qualification) after four to five years’ study. The second stage corresponds to a deepening of knowledge and leads after one to two years

to the yüksek lisans diplornasi or the master’s degree, or to the yüksek rnühendis diplornasi (higher engineer’s diploma) in technical universities and other higher technical institutions. In medicine, the qualification of doktor is obtained after a minimum of six years. A third stage may lead, after individual research and two to four years’ study and defence of

a thesis, to the doctorate (doktora).

G L O S S A R Y Bachelor’s degree. Sec lisans diplornasi. Doktora. Highest qualification, usually only awarded by universities, two to four years after

the lisans. Institutions of economics and commerce may award their own doktora. This qualification is obtained after submitting a thesis. In medicine, the title of dokior is a professional qualification obtained concurrently with the diploma after a minimum of six years. Engineer’s diploma. See mühendis diplomasi. Entrance examination. See üniversiteler arasi seçrne sinavinda basari. Higher engineer’s diploma. Sec yüksek niühendis diplornasi. Licence. See lisans diplornasi. Lisans diplomasi or bachelor’s degree. Higher education qualification usually obtained after

four years’ study (five in dentistry and veterinary medicine, six in medicine). Lise diplomasi. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, obtained after five years of primary

followed by six years of secondary education. Secondary education is divided into two three- year phases, the lower-secondary (orta okul) and the upper-secondary (lise). Specialization takes place as from the second year in the lise, with a bids towards humanities or science. Master’s degree. See yüksek lisans diplornasi. Mühendis diplomasi. Engineering qualification awarded by certain technical universities or

Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See lise diplornasi. Üniversiteler arasi seçme sinavinda basari (USS). Entrance examination organized on a

national scale by the inter-university centre for selecting and admitting students (USYM) to select candidates for higher education among holders of the lise diplomasi. Teacher-training colleges and the Academy of Fine Arts also select candidates on the basis of results obtained in the USS and then organize their own entrance examinations. Yüksek lisans diplomasi or master’s degree. Higher education qualification awarded after

one or two years’ study following upon the lisans diplornasi or the bachelor‘s degree. Yüksek mühendis diplomasi. Higher engineering qualification, granted by institutions of

technical higher education (e.g. Istanbul Technical University) after five to six years’ study.

institutions of higher technical training after four to five years’ study.

294 UGANDA

Uganda

In Uganda higher education takes place in Makerere University, Kampala. Makerere University is governed by a council comprising academic and lay members, and

by a senate responsible for academic matters. Resources come from government grants, students’ fees, and to a minimal extent, from endowments. The University has faculties of letters and social sciences, agriculture and forestry, commerce, education, law, medicine, veterinary medicine and technology. It also has an institute of statistics and applied economics and schools of fine arts and librarianship. A centre for continuing education attached to Makerere University provides university-type instruction in various parts of the country by correspondence and via the press, radio and television. This centre also organizes a one-year full-time course for adults leading to a certzjïcate, and a special course preparatory to higher studies. The teaching language is English. Access to higher education is based on thegeneral certificate of education obtained after eight

years’ primary and six years’ secondary education, divided into two phases of four and two years. The examinations are at two levels: ordinary level and advanced level. At the end of the first phase, candidates take some examinations at ordinary level and then usually continue to study for two more years to acquire the number and combination of passes required by the branch of higher education they wish to enter. The higher school certificate is similarly organized and its results confer the same rights. The first stage of higher education leads, after a period of undergraduate studies, to the

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 14 years, general certzjïcate of education)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education Arts Librarianship Religion, theology Fine arts Law Commercial sciences, social service

Administration Sciences Engineering Medical sciences medicine veterinary medicine

Agriculture

P P B P M PhD B M PhD D

P P

B B M PhD D

B

B P D M B

B M PbD

B bachelor’s degree D doctor’s degree M master’s degree P professional quali- fication PhD doctor of philosophy

UGANDA 295

bachelor’s degree or a professional qualification. The bachelor’s degree is awarded after three years in arts, fine arts, social work, administration, science, agriculture, commerce, education and law, after four years in veterinary science and in engineering, and five years in medicine. Professional qualifications are awarded as certificates or diplomas in some fields. A diploma may be obtained in one year in drama; in two years in librarianship and education; in three years in theology; in four years in fine arts. A certificate may be obtained in six months in librarianship and in one year in theology and adult education. The second stage (graduate studies) leads to the higher degrees. The master’s degree is

conditional upon the student’s being resident in the University and is awarded in letters, fine arts, science, agriculture, education and surgery after eighteen months’ study subsequent to the award of the bachelor’s degree. Depending upon subject, either a thesis and courses are required, or a thesis only. In medicine three years’ research and courses are required. An advanced professional qualification, the diploma, is given in education and in medicine

(paediatrics. public health and obstetrics diplomas) one year after the bachelor’s degree. The third stage leads to the doctor’s degree (doctor ofphilosoph.v, PhD) which is awarded in

all faculties except law, technology, and veterinary medicine. It requires two years’ study subsequent to the rnuster’s degree, and the submission of a thesis. In medicine, the doctor’s degree is a professional title (doctor of medicine, MD) awarded one year at least after the bachelor’s degree upon submission of a thesis. Higher doctorates are awarded in letters (DLitt) and science (DSc) for published work.

GLOSSARY Bachelor’s degree. First degree of higher education, awarded for undergraduate studies

after three years in letters, fine arts, social service, administration, science, agriculture, commerce, and law; after four years in veterinary medicine and engineering: and after five years in medicine. Certificate. See professional qualification. Diploma. See professional qualification. Doctor’s degree. Advanced degree of higher education awarded for postgraduate studies.

There are several kinds of doctor’s degree. The degree of doctor ofphilosophy (PhD) requires a minimum of two years’ full-time study in the University and the submission of a thesis. The degree of doctor of medicine (MD) is obtained on submission of a thesis a minimum of one year after the award of the bachelor’s degree. Higher doctorates are awarded in letters (DLitt) and science (DSc) for published work. General certificate of education. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, obtained after eight

years’ primary and six years’ secondary education, divided into two phases of four and two years. The examinations are at two levels: ordinary level and advanced level. At the end ofthe first phase, candidates take examinations at ordinary level and then continue for a further two years’ study leading to advanced level examinations. They obtain a combination of passes required by the branch of higher education they wish to enter. The higher school certificate is similarly organized and its results confer the same rights. Higher degree. See bachelor’s degree, doctor’s degree, master’s degree. Higher school certificate. See general certificate of education. Master’s degree. Higher degree, awarded in arts, fine arts, science, agriculture, education

and surgery after eighteen months’ postgraduate study; candidates submit a thesis, and may be required to do course-work as well. A master’s degree in medicine is awarded after three years of course-work and research work. Professional qualification. Higher-education qualification awarded, at first-degree level

either as a diploma (after one year’s study in drama, two in librarianship and education, three in theology, or four in fine arts commencing at the end of the first phase of secondary education), or as a certifïcate (six months in librarianship, one year in theology and in adult

296 UGANDA

education). At higher degree level, a professional qualification may be awarded as a diploma after one year’s postgraduate study in education and in medicine (child health, public health, obstetrics). Three grand seminaries give professional training to future priests: three years’ philosophy and four years’ theology. Secondary-school-leaving qualification. See general certificate of education, higher school

certipcate.

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

The purpose of education in the USSR is to provide all citizens with a broadly-based culture, national in form and socialist in content, as well as with a trainingwhich combines theoretical instruction with socially productive activities. Education is free at all levels and state scholarships are available to students enrolled in any institution of higher education. The institutions of higher education (vysfee uc‘ebnoe zavedenije-‘Vur’) include: universities,

polytechnical institutes and specialized institutes (the latter are often devoted to a single field of professional training). Study may be undertaken on a full-time basis or, whilst in employment, through evening or correspondence courses. (Correspondence, or external, students receive instruction by a variety of methods and techniques. They are attached to particular centres and the programmes of study include participation in special courses and seminars, often held at universities and other institutions ofhigher education during vacation periods.) Universities and other institutions of higher education have special faculties or departments for evening studies and for correspondence students, and there are also some institutions devoted entirely to correspondence courses. All institutions of higher education are state institutions and legislation valid throughout

the Soviet Union covers matters such as admission requirements, courses and programmes of study, teaching and learning methods, academic organization, and degrees and diplomas. Responsibility for higher education is vested in the Ministry of Higher and Specialized Secondary Education of the USSR in co-operation with the corresponding ministries of the republics. Councils of rectors of universities and other institutions of higher education set up in 68

important centres group between them 694 establishments. Their task is to facilitate co- ordination and co-operation between the institutions concerned, to study particular problems of higher education and to make proposals and draft recommendations for further development. The universities offer courses in the human and theoretical sciences; as a general rule they

do not provide training in engineering, medical and other applied sciences, but there are some exceptions. Their principal task is to provide high-level manpower in the scientific and cultural fields for the various sectors of the economy and to train research workers and secondary school-teachers. The polytechnical institutes each offer courses in a number of different fields of engineering, sciences and technology. The specialized institutes are

UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS 297

normally concerned with a single field of professional training and between them cover a very wide range including the agricultural sciences, economics and finance, law, fine and applied arts, medicine, teacher-training, and many branches of engineering. The qualifications awarded by the polytechnical institutes and the specialized institutes are similar in designation and status to those awarded by universities. The universities and other institutions of higher education are divided into faculties and

within these the basic unit for teaching and research is the ‘chair’(department concerned with a particular subject). Special emphasis is placed on part-time study, without interruption of employment, and

through evening classes and correspondence courses specialists are trained while at the same time working in various branches of the national economy, as a rule in jobs related to the field of study they have chosen. These students may also benefit from special study leave or reduced working hours. Teachers for general and for specialized secondary schools are trained both in universities

and in specialized teacher-training institutes (pedagogical institutes). In the universities emphasis is placed in particular on theoretical and practical study in depth ofthe subject to be taught. In the teacher-training colleges greater emphasis is placed on educational theory and teaching methodology. Access to universities and other institutions of higher education is normally by competitive

examination but the performance of the candidate during his secondary education is also taken into account. The basic level required to enter for the competitive examination is completed secondary education (10 years in all) but for admission to many fields of study completed specialized secondary education (12 years in all) or technical-vocational education and work experience may be a prerequisite, particularly for admission to full-time study. Special provisions and requirements also take account of post-secondary work experience. Candidates who have completed general secondary education may also be admitted to the

preparatory departments of universities and other institutions of higher education. These departments are designed to give opportunities to those who lack the scholastic qualifications needed for admission to higher education and provide training in the relevant basic human and natural sciences. Students completing their studies successfully are admitted to normal courses of study. The main stage of higher education in universities, polytechnical institutes and specialized

institutes involves a programme corresponding to five years’ full-time study (in certain subjects the period may be four or six years). This leads to the award of the diplom ob okonfanii vysSego debnogo zavedenija (diploma of higher education) with mention of the relevant field of study or professional title. This first terminal qualification entitles the holder to exercise the relevant profession and is also the prerequisite for admission to advanced studies and research. The programme of studies is broadly based, designed to establish a close link between theory and practice and to set the main subject of study in its social and economic context. The course moves progressively towards a chosen subject of specialization and in addition to taking a final examination the student must also present a dissertation or work project on this special subject. Efforts are made to provide students with opportunities to take part in research work during their five-year course and this is seen as constituting an increasingly important part of their training. On graduation the young specialists are required to gain practical experience in their respective fields and special placement commissions, chaired by the rectors of the universities and other institutions of higher education, allocate each graduate individually to an appropriate salaried post in a public sector. A further stage, known as the aspirantura, leads to the award of the higher degree of

kandidat nauk (candidate of the sciences). It involves at least three years’ post-diploma study and research and the presentation and defence of a thesis. A final stage leads to the highest academic qualification awarded in the Soviet Union, that

298 UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS

of doktor nauk (doctor of the sciences). Its preparation requires at least two years' work after kandidat nauk, which is a prerequisite, and usually much longer. The degree is conferred on presentation and defence of a thesis constituting an original and valuable contribution to knowledge or to its application. Students may prepare for the degrees of kandidat and doktor in universities and poly-

technics and in some, but not all, specialized institutes. The degrees are awarded by decision of a special state attestation commission on the advice of the academic council of the institution concerned.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 10 to 12 years, secondary-school-leaving certificate)

years 5 6 7 8 9 10

Education Di K Arts Di K Fine arts, music Di K Law Di K Economic sciences Di K Exact and natural Di K sciences

Engineering Di K D

medicine Di I K D dentistry Di K D veterinary medicine Di K D

Agriculture Di K D

Medical sciences

D doktor Di diploidprofessional qualification I internatura K kandidat

G L O S S A R Y Aspirantura. Postgraduate studentship leading to the degree of kandidat nauk. Attestat ob okonEanii polnoj srednej skoly. Certificate awarded on completion of education

in a general secondary school (polnaja srednjaja skola) and corresponding to ten years' study: three primary and seven secondary. This certificate is a minimum prerequisite for application for admission to higher education. See also diplom ob okonCanii srednego special'nogo uc'ebnogor zavedenija. Competitive entrance examination. See vstupitel'nyj ekzamen. Diplom ob okonfanii srednego special'nogo uEebnogo zavedenija. Certificate awarded on

completion of specialized education and corresponding to 12 years' study: three primary, five general secondary and four specialized secondary. (The duration of study in a technical secondary school is two years but this is preceded by seven years' general secondary education.) This certificate is the normal prerequisite for admission to sit for the competitive entrance examinations to higher education. Diplom ob okonEanii vysSego ufebnogo zavedenija. First terminal qualification awarded on

completion of a five-year course of study (in a few subjects four or six years) at a university or other institution of higher education. The curriculum is broadly based, working progressively towards a subject of specialization on which the student is required to submit a dissertation.

UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS 299

The diploma with mention of the field of specialization or corresponding profession entities the- holder to enter professional practice; it is also the prerequisite for admission to post- graduate study and research. Diploma of higher education. See diplom ob okonëanii vysiego uCebnogo zavedenija. Doktor. The degree of doktor nauk (doctor of the sciences), the highest in the Soviet Union,

is awarded in the same broad fields as the degree of kandidat nauk. (In architecture and fine arts the degree awarded is that of doktor.) A candidate for this degree must already hold the degree of kandidat nauk and must publish and defend a thesis representing a significant and original contribution to scholarship in an important field of knowledge and constituting a contribution of value to the application of scientific knowledge. The degree requires a minimum of two years' preparation, normally considerably longer, and candidates usually already hold posts of responsibility in teaching or research. They may be granted leave of absence of up to two years with a study scholarship. The degree, which is the prerequisite for appointment to a full professorship, is conferred by a state attestation commission acting on recommendation of the academic council of the institution of higher education in which the thesis was presented. Gosudarstvennyj ekzamen. The state examination taken at the end of the first stage of higher

education for the award of the diplom ob okonranii vysiego uPebnogo zavedenija. Internatura. A one-year course allowing medical graduates to obtain a certificate of

specialization in a particular field. Kandidat. The degree of kandidat nauk (candidate of the sciences) is awarded after three

years' postgraduate study and research (aspirantura) following the award of the diplom ob okonranii vysSego uc'ebnogo zavedenija). It is conferred in the following broad fields: physics and mathematics, chemistry, biology, geology and mineralogy, technology, agriculture, history, economics, philosophy, philology, geography, law, education, psychology, medicine, pharmacy, and veterinary medicine. (In architecture and fine arts the degree awarded is that of kandidat.) Candidates for the degree are required to pass examinations in the subject of specialization, in philosophy and in a modern language, and to present and defend a thesis. This should contain original conclusions and demonstrate a thorough knowledge of the chosen discipline as well as competence to continue advanced research. Candidates for the degree holding teaching appointments in universities or other institutions of higher education or junior research posts may be granted up to two years' leave of absence and a study scholarship. The degree is the prerequisite for nomination to the academic teaching appointment of docent. Professional qualification. See diplom ob okonranii vysiego debnogo zavedenija. Vstupitei'nyj ekzamen. Competitive entrance examinations for admission to a university or

other institution of higher education. The examinations include papers in national language and literature, a foreign language and from one to three subjects from the secondary-school curriculum of relevance to the studies on which the candidate proposes to embark. Students admitted to the preparatory department of a university or other institution of higher education are not required to sit for the entrance examination.

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United Arab Emirates

The United Arab Emirates University (Al-Ain) is at present the only institute of higher education in the country. It was opened in 1977 with the following three faculties: the faculty of arts which teaches Islamic Studies, Arabic language and literature, history and archaeology, geography and foreign languages; the faculty of science providing courses in mathematics and statistics, chemistry, physics, biology and geology; the faculty of education providing courses in teacher-training, education and psychology. In 1978, the faculty of law and Sharia (Islamic law) and jurisprudence was added. A faculty

of agriculture was due to open for the academic year 1980-81. It is envisaged that other faculties, especially one for engineeringand technology, will be opened in thevery near future. The Emirates University has an independent status, a separate governmental budget and a

governing supreme council headed by the Minister of Education who is in this capacity president of the University. Tuition is free and living accommodation for most of the students is provided. The curriculum is organized according to the credit hour system, the academic year

consisting at present of two semesters. A summer semester is being planned for the near future. The PhD degree is the minimum requirement for teaching in the University. Almost all subjects are taught in Arabic. English is used for some high-level technical

subjects. Primary school-teachers are trained in an institute where they obtain an education diploma

after two years’ study while higher secondary school-teachers do not have any specialized training institute at present. As for non-traditional education, it only exists in the preparatory and secondary levels and

in the field of technical studies. It is provided as follows: semi-skilled workers (three years after primary education) equivalent to preparatory education, and skilled workers (six years after primary education) equivalent to secondary-school education. Graduates from the secondary technical studies are allowed entry in their respective fields

at the United Arab Emirates University. The level of entry to the UAE University is the higher secondary-school certificate obtained

after three years of higher secondary education following three years’ preparatory education and six years in primary schools. Foreign students may enrol in the Emirates University according to the following

conditions: eight per cent of total places are reserved for students from the Arab Gulf region and seven per cent of total places are available for other foreigners. Gulf students should obtain 65 per cent of total marks in their high school certificate and

non-Gulf students should obtain 75 per cent of total marks in their high school certificate. For the Islamic studies and Sharia a further condition is obligatory: candidates must be

muslims and must obtain 50 per cent of the total marks in the high school certificate. After the successful completion of four academic years the buchelor’s degree is awarded. BA

or BSc are at present the highest degrees awarded by the University.

UNITED KINGDOM 30 1

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, higher education is given in five main types of institution: the universities, polytechnics, the Open University (which operates by means of radio and TV, correspondence and vacation courses, and by part-time tutors and study counsellors), teacher-training colleges. art and music colleges. There is also the University College at Buckingham which was opened in 1976 by a group of academics and businessmen, and is endowed by private benefactors. Higher education has evolved in a very diversified fashion within the United Kingdom, and

as a result there is no codified system of regulations to cover all varieties of institutions. Nor is there any one authority which directs higher education as a whole. The administrative structure of higher education for Scotland, for example, differs considerably from that of England, for which the responsible body is the Department of Education and Science. Ultimately, universities in Britain derive their legal rights and powers from royal charters or

private Acts of Parliament which set out their constitutions in broad outline. Each university has the right to award its own degrees. All universities are autonomous institutions, particularly in matters relating to courses and programmes. The main task of the University Grants Committee, members of which are appointed by the Secretary of State for Education and Science, is to distribute between university institutions the financial allocations determined by the Government. The Secretary of State for Education and Science is assisted by one Minister of State and two Under-Secretaries of State, who share the responsibility for various aspects of higher education and science. Most universities are organized into faculties, which may be sub-divided into departments.

There exist also departments and institutes which are multi-disciplinary. Some newer universities are divided into schools. The Committee of Vice-Chancellors and Principals, which consists of the vice-chancellors

of the universities of England and Wales, and the principals of theScottish universities and of the two universities of Northern Ireland, examines matters of common concern to all universities. By the range of its activities and its composition it exerts a considerable influence on university affairs. A Committee of Directors of Polytechnics performs similar functions for the polytechnics. In the polytechnics, as in some of the more technologically oriented universities, the fields

of study relate principally to scientific applications to industry and commerce. Many of these technologically oriented institutions offer part-time courses. As well as technical and professional training, the polytechnics may also offer courses in the social sciences and the humanities. There are also a large number of institutions known as 'colleges of further education', which offer a wide variety of programmes, a few of which are at the level of higher education. These may therefore to some extent be considered para-university institutions. Programmes and courses in the polytechnics must be approved by the Council for National Academic Awards (CNAA), a body which, like the universities, is authorized to award degrees in the humanities, the sciences, the social sciences and technology, as well as numerous diplomas. The CNAA also awards higher degrees. The teacher-training colleges are specialized institutions which give courses of training for

intending teachers. Some colleges are being converted from monotechnic into polytechnic institutions, which will prepare not only for teaching. but allied professions, such as social work. Other colleges are being assimilated into polytechnics, and will become teacher-training departments. Many universities also have a department of educational studies which gives courses of professional training only for those who are holders of a bachelor's degree. These

302 UNITED KINGDOM

departments also offer higher professional courses and prepare candidates for higher degrees in education. Art and music colleges prepare students for various diplomas, one of which is of the same

level as the bachelor’s degree. The Royal College of Art possesses the same status as a university. The polytechnics and other post-secondary institutions mentioned above are under the

aegis of the local education authorities, as are the majority of teacher-training colleges, although some of the latter are run by religious denominations. The role in England of the Secretary of State for Education and Science is to supervise those

institutions which derive their resources in whole or part from public funds, to plan the distribution at national level of provision for higher education and to formulate a general policy in relation to educational standards. Within the general framework laid down the institutions elaborate their courses and organize their examinations. In this way a certain standardization is whieved whilst at the same time the maximum possible flexibility is allowed. ‘Non-traditional’ post-secondary education in the university sector is available through the

University of London’s external system under which external students may study for certain degrees. These are often suitable for mature students who have commitments which make it impossible for them to attend a regular course of instruction. These degrees are only available to part-time students in the United Kingdom. Birkbeck College, London University, specializes in providing degree courses for mature students who are in employment and only able to attend evening courses. The Open University offers tuition for part-time study for degrees and other courses by

means of correspondence supplemented by closely linked radio and television broadcasts, residential summer schools, and an extensive counselling and tutorial service which operates through local study centres. The University is mainly aimed at providing higher educational opportunities for those who did not or could not take advantage of the usual institutions of education in the United Kingdom. Other ‘non-traditional’ forms are the sandwich courses in which the undergraduate course

is incorporated with periods of industrial training. The duration of study for an honours degree is four years. These courses are mainly offered in those universities which were formerly colleges of advanced technology, but there are a few in other universities (see Glossary). As regards professional education, it must be noted that professions have laid down their

own professional qualifications. Some thirty major professional bodies exist. These have established legally rigorous conditions of entry and high professional standards. Access to higher education normally takes place after a minumum of 13 years of primary and

secondary education. A pre-condition is success (‘passes’) in a certain number of subjects in the general certificate of education (GCE) examinations or in other examinations passed at the equivalent level. The conditions vary according to the disciplines in higher education that the candidate wishes to study and according to the level of the examinations themselves: ordinary level (‘O’ level) or advanced level (‘A’ level). Most institutions of higher education require passes in the following subjects: English, mathematics or one scientific subject and a foreign language. These represent the indispensable minimum for a general education to equip the student for any branch of higher education. Generally, institutions of higher education demand as an entrance requirement a minimum of passes in five subjects of which two at least must be at advanced level, or four passes, of which at least three must be at advanced level. If a pupil wishes to enter a university he usually attempts three, sometimes four, subjects at advanced level, and may have already passed in ten subjects or more at ordinary level. Scotland has its own leaving certificates and Scottish universities may apply different conditions of access.

UNITED KINGDOM 303

These minimum conditions are a necessary but not a sufficient qualification for admission to universities which may also impose their own conditions, e.g. a particular combination of passes or a particular standard achieved in subjects taken in the GCE. Oxford, Cambridge and Durham universities organize their own competitive entrance examinations. Because of the competition for places further criteria of selection other than examination results are usually taken into consideration. Except for the Open University and the University College of Buckingham, applications for

entry to an undergraduate course must be made through the Universities Central Council on Admissions (UCCA). Applicants for sandwich courses follow. in general, the normal university entrance procedure. There are no formal requirements for admission to under- graduate courses at the Open University. Overseas students are eligible to apply for admission to almost all courses provided they

have the necessary qualifications, but each university will want to have evidence that the applicant’s education has qualified him to follow the course and that he speaks and under- stands English well. In addition to this ‘general’ requirement there are at most universities specific ‘course’ requirements, which may vary from one faculty or department to another and which are intended to ensure that the student’s previous studies have included adequate preparation. Although there are some courses specially designed for students from overseas, most

overseas students attend exactly the same courses as United Kingdom students. Those courses that are intended for students from abroad usually have a special emphasis on practical subjects in which there is a demand for advanced training facilities, for example in the economic, social and administrative fields. Colleges of technology prepare for the higher national certificate, which may be obtained

after a minimum of two years’ part-time study, and the higher national diploma which may be obtained after two to three years’ full-time study, depending upon the specialization chosen. In a teacher-training college a ceriifcate of education may be obtained after three years’

study. This gives the right to teach in either a primary or a secondary school; selected students may, after a fourth year, sit for the degree of bachelor of education, which is awarded either by a university or by the Council for National Academic Awards (CNAA). The main stage of higher education is devoted to a study in depth of one or more subjects or

fields. It leads after three or four years to the award of a first degree in arts, science, or other fields (theology, law, engineering, etc.). This degree is normally the bachelor’s degree, although in Scottish universities the first terminal degree in arts normally carries the designation master (and not bachelor). In some universities and in some polytechnics which take CNAA first degrees a new two-

year course is being introduced leading to a diploma of higher education (DipHE). This qualification may be terminai or may lead, after one year’s further study, to a bachelor’s degree. The first degree may be of two kinds: the honours or special degree, in which the studies are

more specialized, and the ordinary or pass degree. In some of the newer universities the honours degree may also be obtained in a wider and less specialized field of study. In other universities, such as those in Scotland, studies may lead to what is termed a double honours degree, in which two subjects are carried to the same level, although the length of study may be only three or, at most, four years of study. In certain technological fields studies generally include a spell of practical work in industry

or commerce, a system which is known as the sandwich course. Consequently the bachelor’s degree will then require a four-year instead of a three-year course. A second stage of studies following upon the first degree (postgraduate studies) consists of a

deepening of knowledge and greater specialization. At university this leads to the master’s degree, or, in some institutions, to a bachelor of philosophy degree. According to the subject

304 UNITED KINGDOM

chosen, the course for this postgraduate degree lasts one, two or even more years and ends in a formal examination or the presentation of a thesis, or both. Many secondary teachers, particularly those teaching academic subjects hold a first degree

of a university as well as a postgraduate certificate of education awarded by a university. The third stage is that of specialization proper and of personal research. At a university it

leads, after two years’ additional study and the successful presentation of a thesis, to the master of philosophy degree; or after two years-normally longer-of such additional study the candidate may present a thesis for the doctorate of philosophy (DPhil or PhD). A higher doctorate may be awarded by the university after a candidate, usually a senior

university teacher, has submitted for consideration a number of learned works, which have usually already been published.

T h e two universities of Northern Ireland (the Queen’s University of Belfast and the N e w University of Ulster) have conditions of entry and diplomas which are similar to those of universities elsewhere in the United Kingdom. At Belfast, four years are required for a bachelor’s degree. The University of Ulster has introduced a unit-credit system: the student may follow courses chosen from a wide variety of options and thereby acquire up to six credit units per year.

PROFILE OF HIGHER EDUCATION

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 13 years, general certificate of education)

years 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education C/P P B Arts B M D Religion, theology B M D Fine arts, music B/CD/P MA’ DIM D(Mus) Law B M D Social sciences, B M D

Administration B M D Business, commerce B M D Exact and natural B M D

Technology, engineering HNC/ B M D

economics

sciences

HND Medical sciences medicine B P M dentistry B/P M pharmacy B P/M D veterinary medicine B/P

Agriculture B/Hr

B bachelor’s degree C certijïcate of education CD college diploma D doctor of philosophy

HNC higher national certijïcate HND higher national diploma M master’s degree P professional qualijïcation

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GLOSSARY Associateship. See professional qualification. Bachelor’s degree. The first degree of higher education, awarded usually after three years’

study, but which may vary from three to six years, according to the faculty. Usually the title of the degree gives some indication of the branch of study, e.g. BA, bachelor of arts, LLB, bachelor of laws. There are two kinds of bachelor’s degree:

1 The first type is the honours or specialdegree, which is of a higher level than the second type and usually comprises the study of one main and one subsidiary subject only. Successful candidates are classified into three categories: first class honours-the highest group; second class honours (usually with two sub-divisions, division I, or upper, and division II, or lower); and third class honours.

2 The ordinary orpass degree, study for which includes several subjects-usually three-and in which the depth of study is not carried to the degree of specialization required for the honours degree.

Certain institutions award apass degree to those candidates who have studied for an honours degree but whose results do not justify the award of honours. One feature of the teaching for a first degree is the use of the tutorial system, when teaching

resources permit this. The university teacher, acting as tutor, in an informal teaching situation, has a weekly discussion with one student, or a very small number of students. The tutorial is a teaching method employed in addition to the normal methods. Usually students have to satisfy the examiners in a series of yearly examinations, or by a

system of continuous assessment, as well as sit for a final degree examination. Some universities have now adopted the credit-unit or modular system of assessment. For the finals examination universities not only appoint examiners from their own teaching staff but also call in the services of a number of external examiners from other universities. In this way, whilst preserving their autonomy and their own character, the universities maintain a relatively standard level of achievement throughout the country. In certain universities all students must follow a preparatory course known as a foundation

year before embarking upon the course of study laid down for the bachelor’s degree. Certificate. In higher education, this qualification is usually awarded after following a

specialized course and after obtaining a university degree, e.g. the postgraduate certificate of education. (But see also general certificate of education, higher national certificate.) College diploma. Qualification of higher education awarded at the end of a period of study

in an institution of higher education in technology, fine arts or music. The length of study varies from one to three years. (See also higher national diploma.) Doctorate. Degree of higher education, usually awarded after the candidate has already

obtained a bachelor’s and a master’s degree. Two kinds of doctor’s degree exist:

1 Doctorate of philosophy (DPhil or PhD). This is awarded in a large number of fields, after two, three or four years of study and research and after the presentation of a thesis, in addition to which there may sometimes be a written examination. In the faculties of medicine the corresponding degrees are the doctorate in medicine (MD or DM) and the doctorate in surgery (ChM or MCh).

2 Senior doctorate or higher doctorate (e.g. doctor of letters, DLitt; doctor of science, DSc; doctor of laws, LLD). This doctorate is conferred in recognition of an outstanding contribution to scholarship in a particular field and is usually awarded to persons of high academic distinction and on the basis of previously published work.

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Both kinds of doctorate come in the category of higher degrees. Entrance examination. An examination designed for entrance to higher education. Instead

of setting up their own entrance examination, most universities, with the notable exceptions of Oxford and Cambridge, select their students on the results obtained by them in the general certificate of education. They require candidates to have passed in a certain number of subjects at a certain level (either ordinary or advanced level)). The number of places available is limited. Institutions of higher education give preference to students with the best school record. They also take into account reports from the head teachers of the secondary schools at which the candidates have studied. University authorities very often interview likely candidates and only admit those they judge ultimately capable of obtaining a degree. External degree. Degree awarded by the University of London, as a result of study

undertaken outside the university proper, but often with its advice and assistance. Fellowship. See professional qualijïcation. First degree. The initial degree of higher education (cf also bachelor’s degree). General certificate of education. Examination which, after being taken at ordinary level at

about the age of 16, is taken at advancedlevel two years later. The full qualification is one that representb therefore 13 years of primary and secondary schooling. Graduateship. See professional qualification. Higher degree. Degree of higher education, awarded after a first degree (cffirst degree). The

doctor’s degree, master’s degree and, sometimes, a type of bachelor’s degree (e.g. at Oxford: BPhil, bachelor of philosophy; and BLit, bachelor of literature). Studies undertaken after the award of a first degree are known as postgraduate studies. Higher doctorate. See doctor’s degree. Higher national certificate. Qualification of higher education, awarded at the end of threelor

more years of part-time study in a technological subject. The higher national certificate is considered as almost being the equivalent of an ordinary degree (bachelor’s degree), but in a narrower specialized field. In order to study for this qualification candidates must normally hold the generalcertijïcate of education, ordinary level in a number of specified subjects. (See also professional qualification.) Higher national diploma. Qualification of higher education, awarded at the end of three or

more years of full-time study in a technological subject. The higher national diploma is considered as approximately the equivalent of an ordinary degree (bachelor’s degree), but in a narrower specialized field. In order to study for this qualification candidates must hold at least the general certificate of education, ordinary level in a number of specified subjects. (See also professional qualification.)

Honours degree. See bachelor’s degree. Licentiateship. See professional qualification. Master of philosophy. Degree of higher education, awarded in a large number of fields after

two years’ research and after the presentation of a thesis. The level of this degree is between that of the master’s degree proper and the doctorate. Master’s degree. Degree of higher education, usually awarded after one or two years’ study

following upon the bachelor’s degree. The study is in a specialized field. In certain cases the degree is conferred solely after a written examination (although the candidate may be orally examined as well), but for the most part candidates must also present a memoir. The master’s degree is a higher degree. However, at Oxford and Cambridge the degree of

master ofarts is conferred automatically, after a certain period of time, on all those who have the bachelor’s degree. But other master’s degrees of these two universities are subject to the same conditions as elsewhere and rank as higher degrees. Ordinary degree. See bachelor’s degree. Pass degree. See bachelor’s degree. Postgraduate studies. Studies following upon the award of a first degree, usually the

UNITED KINGDOM 307

bachelor’s degree, and usually undertaken with a view to obtaining a master’s degree. Professional qualification. Qualification which gives the right to practise a profession. A

number of professional bodies play a special role in this respect: they often organize their own examinations and grant, at various levels, awards that connote various degrees of qualification, either in relation to professional competence, or which are required for the exercise of a particular profession. But these bodies do not organize courses nor do they usually undertake teaching for their examinations or profession. Such activities take place either in universities or in other specialized institutions, such as polytechnics. Holders of certain university degrees may be exempted wholly or partially, by the

professional body concerned, from certain of the conditions imposed upon its members in relation to one or other of the qualifications it awards. It often happens that a particular body has a whole range of qualifications and, correspondingly, of members at the various levels. The terminology employed (associateship, graduateship, licentiateship. fellowship) and its application in practice vary from one professional body to another. However, the highest qualification, which is granted only to a particularly well-qualified and limited number of members, is usually that offellow cfellowship). Sandwich course. Undergraduate course which incorporates periods of industrial training

or professional experience outside the university, these being planned to integrate with the academic syllabus to form an official part of the university course. The whole course is normally of four years’ duration leading to an honours degree. The periods spent in the university and with an employingorganization are planned as a logical sequence and alternate in a pattern appropriate to the particular discipline. University staff keep in touch with the student and work in close co-operation with supervisors from the employing organizations. The first sandwich courses in universities were mainly in engineering and applied science. They are now available in many disciplines, but all more or less vocational. Senior doctorate. See doctorate.

United Republic of Cameroon

In the United Republic of Cameroon higher education is principally provided at the University of Yaoundé, which comprises: three faculties-law and economics, humanities, science; and five schools-the University Centre for Health Sciences, an advanced teacher- training college, the National Higher Polytechnical College, the International School of Journalism, and the Institute of International Relations. The university centres of Dschang (agricultural studies), of Douala (commerce and business), of Ngaoundéré (technology) and of Buéa (translation and interpreting) were created in 1977 but are no longer part of the University. The faculties are divided into departments, the schools into sections. Outside the university there are other institutions such as the National School of Administration and Magistracy. The University of Yaoundé comes under the authority of the Council for Higher Education

308 UNITED REPUBLIC OF CAMEROON

whose president is the President of the Federal Republic of Cameroon. It is headed by a chancellor who is chairman of the Board of Administration. The University of Yaoundé is bilingual (English and French). Primary teachers are trained at the secondary level. Secondary teachers are trained at the

teacher-training college and in the faculties. Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leaving certificate, that is to say

either the baccalauréat or the general certificate of education, advanced level, which are awarded after thirteen and fourteen years of primary and secondary education respectively. Other school-leaving qualifications may be recognized as equivalents. The holder of one of these qualifications may enter university, whereas access to,the schools is basedon success in a competitive entrance examination. A special entrance examination enables candidates not holding the usual qualifications to enter higher education. People who do not hold these qualifications may study for the capacité,en droit and in certain cases go on to obtain the licence at the faculty of law and economics. Access to the School of Administration is open, after success in a competitive entrance

examination, to holders of the West African school certificate, or of a brevet élémentaire or brevet d'études who have spent at least four years in the civil service and to holders of a secondary-school-leaving certificate. The first stage of higher education lasts two years and in law and economics, in humanities,

and in sciences, serves to acquire basic pluridisciplinary knowledge. In law, it leads to the

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 13/14 years, baccalauréat or general certificate of education)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7

Education D S A CNH Arts DELG L M D Law, economics CEJG/ L M D

Exact and natural DESG L M D

Engineering IT IC Health sciences DSI DTSS D

CEEG

sciences

CEEG CEJG CNH D DELG DESG DSA DSI DTSS IC IT L M

certificat d'études économiques générales certificat d'études juridiques générales concours national d'habilitation doctorat diplôme d'études littéraires générales diplôme d'études scientifiques générales diplôme supérieur d'aptitude diplôme en soins infirmiers diplôme de technicien supérieur de la santé ingénieur de conception ingénieur de travaux licence maîtrise

UNITED REPUBLIC OF CAMEROON 309

certificat d'études juridiques générales (CEJG), in economics, to the certificat d'études économiques générales (CEEG), in science, to the diplôme détudes scientijïques générales (DESG), in arts, to the diplôme détudes littéraires générales (DELG). The second stage lasts one year and leads in arts and sciences. and, more recently, in law and

economics to a licence. In arts and science, and in law and economics, the second stage leads to the maîtrise after one or two years of study. Students must submit a dissertation. The third stage leads to the doctorate. Studies last a minimum of three years and students

must defend a thesis. The College of Advanced Teacher-Training awards two diplomas: the diplôme supérieur

d'aptitude (DSA) and the concours national d'habilitation (CNH). The National Higher Poly- technical College awards the diplôme dingénieur de conception and the diplôme dingénieur de iravaux. The lnstitute of International Relations awards the diplôme en relations inter- nationales which is obtained two years after the licence. The University Centre for Health Sciences (CUSS) awards three kinds of diploma: the diplôme de docteur en médecine, the dplôme de technicien de la santé, and the diplôme supérieur en soins infirmiers.

GLOSSARY Baccalauréat. Secondary-school-leaving certificate obtained in Eastern Cameroon after six

years of primary followed by seven years of secondary education in a school of general education, divided into two phases of four and three years. The courses and teaching conditions are of the French type, adapted to Cameroon. The baccalauréat gives access to institutes of higher education. Certificat d'études économiques générales (CEEG). Certificate awarded at the end of the

first two years of study in economics. Certificat d'études juridiques générales (CEJG). Certificate awarded at the end of the first

two years of study in law. Concours national d'habilitation. Diploma awarded by the College of Advanced Teacher-

training two years after the diplôme supérieur d'aptitude (DSA) and five years after the baccalauréat. Diplôme d'études littéraires générales (DELG). Diploma awarded at the end of the second

year in arts. There are various sections: classics, modern English literature, modern French literature. bilingual literary studies, history and geography, philosophy and psychology. Students also receive practical bilingual training. Diplôme d'études scientifiques générales (DESG). Diploma awarded at the end of the

second-year course in science. There are four sections: mathematics and physics, physics and chemistry, chemistry and biology, biology and geology. Diplôme en soins infirmiers. Diploma open to nurses with a brevet, and to state nurses who

already have at least three years' experience. This diploma is awarded after three years. Diplôme supérieur d'aptitude. Diploma awarded by the College of Advanced Teacher-

training three years after the baccalauréat. Doctorat. The highest degree of higher education, awarded to students who already hold

one or several university degrees. The doctorat is awarded in arts, science, law and economics three or four years after the maîtrise and the submission and defence of a thesis. It is the end of third stage studies. The professional title of doctor is also awarded at the end of medical studies. General certificate of education (advanced level). In Western Cameroon, secondary-school-

leaving certificate obtained after seven years of primary and seven years of secondary education. Programmes and examinations are based on the British system (see United Kingdom, general certificate of education, advanced level). This qualification gives access to higher education under conditions similar to those applying in the United Kingdom. Licence. First degree of higher education, awarded after three years' study in arts and

3 10 UNITED REPUBLIC OF CAMEROON

science, and since fairly recently, in law and economics. Studies are divided into two stages. The first stage lasts two years, leading to the D E S G , to the DELG, to the C E J G and the CEEG respectively, according to subjects chosen. The second stage leads to the licence after one year. In arts, it includes a certificat de licence and a certijïcat de spécialisation. Maîtrise or master’s degree. Degree of higher education awarded in arts and science, and

since fairly recently, in law and economics, after the licence and a fourth year of study. This year includes studies leading to a second certificat de spécialisation and the compiling of a dissertation. A selection takes place between the licence and the maîtrise.

United Republic of Tanzania

In Tanzania higher education is given in the University of Dar es Salaam and in other institutions. The University of Dar es Salaam was established in 1970. It was originally established in

1961 as the University College of Dar es Salaam, a constitutent college of the University of East Africa (cf Kenya, Uganda). The University is governed by a council which includes members appointed by the Government, representatives of the graduate and academic staff, as well as lay members. Resources come mainly from government grants (70 per cent) and students’ fees (30 per cent). The University is divided into faculties. Five institutes are attached to it. Higher education is also given in five agricultural colleges, in the Dar es Salaam Technical

College, the Dar es Salaam Medical School, and in a teacher-training college. A number of institutions give professional training in one- or three-year courses at post-

secondary level. Teachers of primary education are trained in some 35 teacher-training colleges. Teachers of

lower-secondary education are trained at Dar es Salaam and Klerruu Colleges of National Education and those of upper-secondary education at the University in three years, when they obtain the bachelor’s degree of arts and science (with education) in most of the subjects. The language of instruction is English. Access to higher education is based on the Tanzanian national form 6 certijïcate or East

African general certificate of education, advanced level, obtained after 14 years of education. Individual faculties may have their own additional requirements. The first stage of higher education leads, after a period of undergraduate studies, to the

bachelor’s degree, obtained in three years in arts, science, law and agriculture, in four years in engineering and in five years in medicine (where the degree is that of doctor of medicine). The degree of bachelor of arts or bachelor of science (education option) entitles holders to teach in upper-secondary education. In courses of shorter studies, qualifications are awarded at post-secondary level after one or

two years (certificates, diplomas). Courses leading to a certificate in law and diploma in adult education are open to holders of the secondary-school-leaving certificate or to adults already

UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA 311

in employment. A diploma in public administration is awarded after three years’ study by the Government Institute of Development Management. The second stage leads, after one to three years’ studies, to the master’s degree in arts,

science, law and agriculture. Studies comprise either the preparation of a dissertation alone or course-work as well, depending on the field of study. A third stage leads, after two years’ study (one of which has to be spent in residence), to the

degree of doctor ofphilosophy (PhD), which requires the submission of a thesis.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: Tanzanian national form 6 certgicate)

years 3 4 5 6 7

Arts Theology Law Science Medicine Agriculture

B M D

B M D B M D

B

P

B

B bachelor’s degree D doctor’s degree M master’s degree P professional quali- fication

G L O S S A R Y Bachelor’s degree. First degree obtained after three years’ undergraduate studies in arts,

science, law and agriculture, four in engineering and five in medicine. Certificate. Professional qualification obtained at post-secondary level after one to two

years’ study (wild-life management, veterinary medicine, law). Diploma. Professional qualification obtained at post-secondary level after two to three

years’ study, often following upon the certifcate (wild-life management, agriculture, forestry). A diploma in adult education is awarded after one year to adults already in employment. Doctor’s degree. The higher degree of doctor of philosophy (PhD) is awarded after a

minimum of two years’ studies (one year has to be spent in residence) following a master’s degree or MD. It is obtained by thesis after research in an approved topic. East African general certificate of education. See Tanzanian national form 6 cert~fïcate. Master’s degree. Degree of higher education awarded after at least one but no more than

three years’ studies in arts, science, engineering, law and agriculture. Studies comprise either the preparation of a dissertation alone or course-work as well. Professional qualification. See cerfifcate, diploma. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See East African general certificate of education,

Tanzanian national form 6 certificate. Tanzanian national form 6 certificate. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, awarded after

seven years of primary followed by six years’ secondary education. The latter are divided into two phases of four and two years. Examinations are of two levels: ordinary and advanced. At the end of the first phase, the candidate takes some examinations at ordinary level and then usually continues to study for another two years to acquire the number and combination of ‘passes’ at advanced level required by the branch of higher education he wishes to enter. The

312 UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA

East African general certificate of education is similarly organized by Kenya and Uganda and its results have the same validity.

United States of America

In the United States, the constitution makes no reference to education, but article 10 confers upon the states powers in those areas which are not specifically denied to the states or reserved to the federal government. Power over education and legal responsibility for the maintenance of educational systems, therefore, reside in each of the 50 states. Because of these legal and constitutional circumstances, there are many different types of higher education in the United States. There are two main types of institution of higher education: state (or public) and private.

Certain private institutions are religious institutions. About 30 per cent of the total number of students attend private institutions. The main difference between the two is a financial one: private institutions have only limited financial help from the state authorities. State institutions may be the responsibility of the State they are situated in, or of local authorities. The federal government plays an important part in their financing. In public higher education, tuition in 1977-78 averaged about $582 and in private higher education institutions about 82564. R o o m and board fees, books, and travel add an extra $2500 in costs. Given the very large number and variety of institutions of higher education and high level of

student attendance, there are considerable differences in the quality of the teaching provided in them. This is to a large degree corrected by several non-governmental regulating organizations whose task it is to foster co-operation between the various institutions and to harmonize the methods, structures and norms of the teaching programmes. The accreditation system is characteristic of American higher education. There are on the

one hand six regional accreditation organizations, founded by the universities themselves, which ensure the high level of higher education by recognizing through accreditation those institutions in their region who fit their requiredstandards. There are, on the other hand, some 50 national accreditation organizations which are established within the framework of various professions and which establish standards and guidelines within their professional subjects for the specialized and professional institutions of higher education as well as university departments. Apart from these specific organizations, there are a number of co- ordinating organizations for higher education, such as the American Council on Education, as well as a number of associations such as the Association of American Universities, the National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges, the Association of Urban Universities, etc. In 1978, there were 4,000 accredited institutions of post-secondary education in the United

States. These include an extremely varied selection of institutions. It is therefore difficult to establish a classification of institutions which represents the complete gamut of programmes offered. Moreover, the system of summer schools, correspondence and evening courses

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 313

enables large numbers of students and people already in employment to further their education. Also the official name of an institution does not necessarily indicate the level of teaching it provides. Thus certain institutions designated as ‘universities’ do not provide courses beyond those leading to the bachelor’s degree, while others designated as ‘colleges’, offer programmes leading to the doctorate and enjoy great prestige. In a rather general and schematic way, it is possible to classify institutions of higher

education in the United States of America into four main categories:

Technical institutions and ‘semi-professional’ schools offering two-year or three-year courses, leading to an ‘associate’ qualification and preparingstudents for employment in semi-professional occupations such as medical, dental and engineering technician or skilled employees for commerce, accountancy, nursing, etc. Programmes resemble those in junior colleges. Junior colleges or community colleges which provide two-year courses which may lead to studies in the two categories below (this may also apply, under certain conditions, to studies undertaken in institutions in the above category). Liberal arts colleges, states colleges and independent professional institutions awarding the first degree (bachelor’s degree) and sometimes the master‘s degree and the doctorate. Independent professional institutions include teacher-training colleges, institutes of technology (of a higher level than institutes providing short courses in category 1), schools of theology, art, etc. Universities, which may award the highest degree (doctor’s degree). There is in every state at least one college (or university) called a land-grant college, created originally to train agricultural technicians and engineers. Most of these institutions have become very large universities where students can study all subjects, from humanities to applied sciences. Within a university, colleges provide undergraduate courses leading to the first university degree and graduate schools provide courses leading to higher (postgraduate) degrees. It should be noted, however, that the various programmes offered by different types of institution often overlap considerably. A university for instance, usually comprises institutions of professional education as well as offering courses similar to those of a technical institution.

The highest body of a college or university is traditionally the board of trustees (or board of regents, or board of directors), whose members come from outside the institution and belong to industry, the world of finance, the professions, etc. In the case of religious institutions, the members belong to the relevant religion. The president, elected by the board of trustees, is responsible for the administrative running of the institution. His powers are considerable, especially regarding financial matters and the appointment of academic staff. Most teacher-training colleges have become colleges of the liberal-arts or state-college type,

or even universities teaching a variety of subjects. Moreover, certain colleges devoted mainly to the teaching of arts and science subjects have organized additional subjects concerned with teacher training. There is a tendency to widen the range of subjects for future teachers. In a great many American states teachers of both primary and secondary education follow a five- year course. A large majority of the former and almost all the latter hold the first degree of bachelor of arts or science and an increasing number also hold a second university degree (see below). Access to higher education is based on the high-school diploma (primary- and secondary-

school-leaving certificate) awarded around 18 years of age, after 12 years of primary and secondary studies. In fact, in most states, this qualification is awarded on results obtained during the last years of studies, and not on results of an examination. Secondary studies are broadly based, and involve little specialization. Adults who have not completed work for a

314 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

traditional high-school diploma may earn a high-school equivalency certificate or diploma by means of the ‘tests of general educational development’ (GED). These equivalency awards are accepted in lieu of a high school transcript by most institutions of higher education. Many institutions of higher education select candidates either on results in the high-school diploma or through an entrance examination. Candidates may apply to several universities or colleges at the same time. A straightforward

high-school graduation is not now considered to be specific enough, nor even aseries of stated grades, because distinct levels vary and schools vary within them. As a consequence, a number of colleges now rely on the College Board examinations, the Educational Testing Service, psychological tests, aptitude tests or on their own admission procedure. In recent years, admission to the first stages of higher education and sometimes to the

second has been facilitated by a growing use of non-traditional criteria which recognize learning that has occurred in settings other than conventional high schools and colleges. There are several non-traditional systems being used. The instructional delivery system may be non- traditional, providing learners with options of taking courses through means such as newspapers, television, radio and home study. The site at which instruction occurs may be non-traditional, enabling persons working in business, industry, government and the military to take courses at their work sites. If these courses are not offered by an accredited post- secondary education institution and if an individual wants educational credit for the learning attained, the learning may be evaluated through examination by the credit-granting institution, or through recognition of the non-collegiate instructional programme as of college or university calibre by an organization such as the American Council on Education. In every case, however, the institution awarding the degree or certificate determines whether to accept the external validations. There is no national policy on acceptance applicable to all American colleges or universities. Foreign student applicants to US institutions of higher education should, as a minimum, be

able to establish that they have completed the equivalent of a 12-year elementary and secondary education cycle. Those applying for advanced degrees should be able to show completion of at least a four-year post-secondary university level programme. The admission of a foreign student will also be dependent upon financial verification, that is, proof that sufficient financial resources are available for the full course of study. Also required is an evaluation of English proficiency to prove that this is adequate to pursue a course of study given in the English language-failing this, that arrangements be made for a special English programme. Within these general provisions, the admission of any foreign student is determined by each institution in accordance with its own special interests, standards and policies. Some institutions may offer conditional admissions to applicants with inadequate English ability with the proviso that the applicant will take a special English programme as needed prior to starting academic work. In order to admit foreign students educational institutions must have the approval of the US Immigration and Naturalization Service for the attendance of non-immigrant foreign students. With this approval institutions may issue a certificate of eligibility which will enable the foreign student to obtain a student visa to enter the United States solely for the purpose of study. Authority to issue this certificate involves certain legal responsibilities on the part of the institution, specifically to report the arrival, continuation of full-time student status and eventual departure from campus of the foreign student. Applications are normally accepted 6 to 12 months prior to the intended entry date. Institutions of technical and semi-professional education award after two or three years a

certificate or associate degree (vocational diploma). Studies leading to the same qualification may be undertaken in junior colleges and community colleges. In certain cases, such studies may be validated to form the first part of higher education in a four-year programme. In universities and colleges, the first two-year phase (freshman year and sophomore year)

almost always consists of broadly-based studies in humanities, social sciences, applied and

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 315

natural sciences, fine arts. Following as it does upon broadly-based secondary studies, this phase is aimed at providing general education and preparing for more specialized studies. This phase represents the first half of the first stage of studies. It is given in arts and science junior colleges, state colleges and universities. It is a prerequisite to more specialized studies. The first main stage of studies, however, may only be provided by universities, state

colleges, liberal arts colleges, teachers’ colleges and institutes of technology. It is devoted to more specialized studies, and culminates in the bachelor’s degree, which is the first university degree. Higher education often ceases after the award of the first degree, but entry to

~

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, high-school diploma)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 1

Education A B M E S D Arts A B A M D Religion, theology * A BA B/M D Fine arts, applied arts C B M D Architecture * A B M D

* A BA B M D A BA M D

Law Economic and social

Administration and A B M D

Commercial sciences A B M D Exact and natural A B M D

sciences

business affairs

sciences Engineering, technology * A B M D Medical sciences m e d i c i n e * A BIBS D(P) M D dentistry * A BS D(P) M D pharmacy * A B M D veterinary medicine * A BS D(P) M D

Agriculture, forestry, A B M D fisheries

A associate degree or certificate B BA bachelor of arts BS bachelor of science D doctor’s degree (doctor of philosophy) D(P) doctor’s degree (professional title in medicine, etc.) ES education speciulisi M master’s degree

bachelor’s degree (mentioning the field)

* Preliminary studies-the duration of preliminary studies before entering a professional faculty is varied (one to five years) and in fact candidates often obtain a full bachelor of arts or bachelor of science degree.

316 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

professional courses is frequently conditional on the candidate first undertaking all or part of a bachelor’s degree in a non-professional field (e.g. bachelor of arts or science) before being allowed to specialize. In colleges, four-year courses in technology train higher technicians. The second stage of higher education leads, after one or, more often, two years’ study in a

university or in some colleges, to the master’s degree. Candidates usually have to submit a thesis. The third stage of higher education is reached after two to three years’ study in a university

or college, either in faculties providing traditional teaching (arts, law, science, etc.) or in specialized schools of engineering, agriculture, architecture, economy, veterinary medicine, etc. This culminates in the doctor’s degree, which is the highest university degree. There are two types of doctor’s degree: the professional doctor’s degree, awarded in medicine, dentistry, veterinary medicine etc., which is a professional qualification, and the ‘research’ doctor’s degree, or degree of doctor ofphilosophy (PhD) awarded after specialized research leading to a thesis, the level of which varies greatly according to the institution. Candidates for the degree of doctor of philosophy usually have to take an examination as well. In several subjects, but mostly in the scientific ones, post-doctoral studies of one to three

years’ duration enable holders of a degree of doctor ofphilosophy to acquire further specialized knowledge in their field. These studies are often financed by such central organizations as the National Science Foundation or the Public Health Service.

GLOSSARY Advanced degree. See doctor’s degree. Advanced professional degree. See doctor’s degree, master’s degree. Associate degree or Associate title. Qualification of higher education awarded after two

years’ study either in an institution which only provides the first two years of higher education (junior or community college or technical institution), or in an institution offering four-year programmes. Usually, the institutions offer vocational courses as well as courses which may lead to a bachelor’s degree. In some cases, the associate degree is a terminal qualification; in others, it marks a stage towards the bachelor’s degree. Some institutions awarding the bachelor’s degree award an associate degree as an intermediate qualification. The qualification of associate degree is fairly recent, and the term first degree usually refers to the bachelor’s degree. Bachelor’s degree. First degree awarded by a university or college usually after four years’

study following upon the high-school diploma. (Some institutions award an associate degree, which is an intermediate qualification, at the end of the second year.) The first two years of study are usually devoted to broadly-based studies and include a number of compulsory subjects which constitute around 75 per cent of the course (literature, social studies, i.e. history, geography and science, fine arts); students have a choice for their other subjects. The last two years of the course are devoted almost entirely to specialization: candidates study major and minor subjects, the latter being related to the former. The degree mentions the major field: BA, bachelor of arts, BS, bachelor of science, etc. The bachelor’s degree is usually referred to as first degree orjirst professional degree even though candidates may hold an associate degree, which is an intermediate qualification. The bachelor’s degree may be a terminal qualification; it is also a step towards higher (or advanced or graduate) degrees: the master’s and doctor’s degrees. Candidates for professional studies (such as medicine, law, dentistry, pharmacy, architecture, teaching, engineering, etc.) are usually required to follow one to five years’ studies before starting their training in a professional faculty (although some bachelor’s degrees may also be professional degrees). Candidates often obtain a bachelor’s degree before starting their specialized studies. For institutions which divide the year into semesters studies are measured in terms of credits: one contact hour or two hours of practical

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 317

work for fifteen weeks count as one credit, and each credit presupposes two hours’ personal work per week. Candidates are usually expected to obtain thirty credits per year. Other institutions which divide the year differently define credits differently. Outstanding candidates may be allowed to follow during the last year courses leading to higher qualifications. The bachelor’s degree is awarded to candidates who have obtained the required number of credits (around 120 for a four-year programme). Studies leading to the bachelor’s degree are called undergraduate studies; those leading to higher degrees are called graduate or postgraduate studies. Certificate, Qualification of higher education awarded in some institutions after two years’

study in similar conditions to those leading to the associate degree. The certificate is usually a terminal qualification for technicians. Doctor’s degree or doctorate. The highest degree awarded by a university or college. There

are two types of doctor’s degree: the research doctorate and the professional doctorate. The research doctorate is usually awarded after the master’s degree; but in some institutions, it is the only degree awarded after the bachelor’s degree. Candidates for a doctor’s degree have to study for two to three years-studies are on similar lines to those leading to the master’s degree-and present a thesis. Candidates may start employment at the end of their graduate studies, and there may be a gap before the tnesis is submitted. Success in a comprehensive examination is often required. Theprofessionaldoctorate is obtained after advanced studies in medicine, pharmacy, dentistry, architecture, engineering, etc. It may be a second degree (following upon the bachelor‘s degree) or a third degree (following upon the bachelor’s degree and the master’s degree). Holders of a research doctorate are calleddortor ofphi1osoph.v (PhD) in all subjects, whereas holders of aprofessional doctorate indicate the subject (e.g. doctor of medicine). It is possible to obtain a research doctorate after obtaining aprofessionaldoctorate. Entrance examination. Examination organized by institutions of higher education for

holders of a secondary-school-leaving certificate. These examinations are usually organized by educational or commercial organizations and include tests of general knowledge as well as of scholastic aptitude. The wide use of these tests enables the institution to compare candidates from various schools. However, other factors are taken into consideration, mainly the type of courses followed and results obtained during secondary education. Candidates are usually required to take at least sixteen ‘units’ during the last four years and these should form part of a broad programme rather than indicate specialization. Each institution publishes a list of recommended courses for candidates to individual faculties. Teachers’ assessment often carries as much weight as school results. Admission policy varies according to the number of places available and above all to the level of standards the institution wishes to maintain. Certain institutions use criteria for selection which may take into consideration the candidates’ geographical origin, sex, sporting ability, artistic talent, etc. In cases where strict admission requirements apply, candidates have to apply in the January preceding the start of the university year. First degree. See bachelor’s degree. First professional degree. See bachelor’s degree, professional degree. Graduate degree. See doctor’s degree, master’s degree. Graduate professional degree. See professional degree. Higher degree. See doctor’s degree, master’s degree. Higher professional degree. See professional degree. High-school certificate. See high-school diploma. High-school diploma or high-school certificate. Secondary-school-leaving certificate,

awarded after 12 years of primary and secondary education. This varies according to the region, but the most common patterns are: eight years of primary followed by four years of secondary education; six years of primary followed by six years of secondary education; six years of primary followed by two three-year phases of secondary education; six years of

318 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

primary followed by two phases (two and four years) of secondary education. Secondary education is usually provided in comprehensive institutions providing general and technical education where students are not selected. After the ninth year, students usually select their own programme which must include a number of required subjects for all students. They then choose a number of elective subjects from a range which varies according to the institution. The subjects elected are often chosen with a view to the courses in higher education students wish to study. Candidates have to accumulate a number of units or credits, each one ofwhich consists of five 45-minute classes per week throughout the academic year, as well as a corresponding number of hours devoted to individual work. Usually, candidates select for their last three years a major option consisting of three units and a minor option consisting of two units. Performance during the academic year and teachers’ assessment are taken into consideration. Candidates obtain the secondary-school-leaving certificate (graduation) when they have accumulated the required number of units (usually fifteen to twenty). In certain states, state institutions of higher education are obliged to accept all holders of the secondary- school-leaving certificate. Master’s degree. Higher (or advanced or graduate) degree of higher education usually

awarded after one or two years’ study following upon the bachelor’s degree. Candidates organize, with the help of a teacher, their own programme which usually concentrates on one subject. Candidates usually have to submit a thesis and pass a comprehensive examination. Knowledge of a foreign language is sometimes required. Studies are usually followed under conditions similar to those leading to the bachelor’s degree. Certain institutions do not award a degree between the bachelor’s degree and the doctor’s degree: studies for the doctor’s degree in this case are usually longer. Post-doctoral studies. Studies followed by holders of the degree of doctor ofphilosophy with

a vizw to furthering scientific knowledge. Professional degree. Qualification of higher education entitling holders to practise a

profession. Programmes are organized by the relevant professional accrediting bodies. For some professions, the qualification is obtained after four years’ study leading to a bachelor’s degree. For others, preliminary studies corresponding to the first two or three years leading to the degree of bachelor of arts or bachelor ofscience-or even the degree itself-are required. In medicine, for instance, four years’ study are required before the start of specialized studies leading to the doctor’s degree (professional qualification). Most professions now expect candidates to hold a bachelor’s degree. In many cases, thefirst professional degree does not entitle holders to practise a profession: they are often required to hold a secondprofessional degree (master’s). Professional doctorate. See doctor’s degree. Professional qualification. See certificate, professional degree. Research doctorate. See doctor’s degree. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See high-school diploma. Special student. Student admitted on a provisional basis to an institution of higher

education. In order to be allowed to continue further with their studies, candidates have to follow a given number of courses or pass a number of examinations. This is a means of recognizing the candidate’s qualifications in another institution or country.

PUERTO RICO

Puerto Rico 3 19

In Puerto Rico higher education is given in six institutions: the University of Puerto Rico, a state university system with three main campuses, a separate fcur-year programme and five regional technical colleges throughout the island; and in five private accredited institutions: the Catholic University of Puerto Rico, Bayamon Central University (Catholic), the College of the Sacred Heart (Co-educational), the Inter-American University of Puerto Rico, and the Puerto Rico Junior College. There is also a Caribbean Centre of Advanced Studies. The University of Puerto Rico draws most of its funds from the State and the rest from fees,

donations and its own private revenue. Teacher-training takes place in higher education. A two-year course leads to the degree of

associate, and a four-year one to a bachelor’s degree. Instruction is mainly in Spanish, but English textbooks are used in most courses. Instruction at the schools of medicine and dentistry of the University of Puerto Rico is in English. Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leaving certificate, awarded

after six years of primary and six years of secondary schooling. The latter is divided into two phases of three years’ each. The second phase may be general or technical and allows a choice of subjects. In order to qualify for higher education the candidate must have a secondary- school diploma and also takes an entrance examination. In medicine and dentistry, at least three years of preparatory study are required, but generally a bachelor’s degree is preferred. In law a bachelor’s degree is required for admission to the course. For admission to any one of the above professional schools, the appropriate entrance examination must be taken. The studies are organized on a credit-unit system and thus do not take a fixed number of

years (see USA). However, two stages may be distinguished. The first stage (undergraduate studies) leads to the bachelor’s degree or to a professional

qualifjcation. The bachelor’s degree may take between three and six years, but four years is the average period required. Certain courses are of a higher standard (honours programmes) and are designed for the stronger students. In certain fields an intermediate degree of associate may be awarded after two years. Professional qualifications are awarded in the form of a certificate or a diploma in various subjects. The length of the course may be up to five years. A second stage (postgraduate studies) leads to the master’s degree, which consists of more

advanced course-work, and to a higher professional qualification. The master’s degree is awarded after one or two years’ further study; it depends on the field of study selected. The degree of doctor of philosophy (PhD) of the University of Puerto Rico is awarded in

Spanish and in a limited number of other fields.

G L O S S A R Y Associate degree. Intermediate degreeusually awarded after two years’ study. It may be part

of a course towards a bachelor’s degree or a terminal qualification. Bachelor’s degree. First degree of higher education awarded after three, four or five years of

undergraduate studies. Certain courses of a higher standard (honours programmes) may be taken by better students. Certificate, See professional qualification. Diploma. See professional qualification. Doctorate of philosophy (PhD). Higher degree awarded after postgraduate studies. Higher

degree awarded at the University of Puerto Rico in Spanish studies and in a certain number of other fields. Master’s degree. The first degree awarded for postgraduate studies.

320 PUERTO RICO

Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education awarded at the level of completion of undergraduate studies (see associate degree, bachelor’s degree) or at the level of graduate or professional studies after a course of varying length. The degree consists of a Certificate or a diploma. The bachelor’s, master’s and doctor’s degrees are professional qualifications if awarded in professional fields. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. Certificate awarded after six years of primary

schooling followed by six years of secondary schooling. The latter is divided into two phases of three years each. The second phase may be general or vocational and allows the possibility of a choice of subjects. The certificate gives entrance to higher education in those subjects or fields corresponding to the endorsements on the certificate. There is also an entrance examination to higher education. In medicine and dentistry there is also at least a three-year preparatory course and an entrance examination. In law a bachelor’s degree and an entrance examination are prerequisites for admission to the law schools.

Upper Volta

In Upper Volta most higher education is provided by Ouagadougou University, which is an autonomous institution under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education. There axe four other institutions of higher education: the National School of Administration, the Inter-state School of Rural Engineering, the National Institute of Education, and the Centre for Scientific Research. The University comprises seven institutions: the university institute of technology, the higher polytechnical institute, the institute of mathematics and physics, the higher school of arts and humanities, the higher school of economics, the higher school of law, and the institute of cinematography. Teachers of primary education are trained in secondary-level training colleges. Teachers of

secondary education are trained at the Institute of Education. The language of instruction is French. Access to higher education is based on the baccalauréat (secondary-school-leaving

certificate) obtained after six years of primary and seven years of secondary education. There is a special entrance examination. The first stage of university studies, of two years’ duration, leads in all institutions to the

diplôme détudes universitaires générales (DEUG) except in the higher polytechnical institute where it leads to the DUEB (diplôme universitaire détudes biologiques) and in the institute of technology where it leads to the diplôme universitaire de technologie (which is a terminai qualification). Future teachers may obtain the certificat d‘aptitude pédagogique pour les collèges d’enseignement général at the Institute of Education. The second stage lasts one year and leads to the licence in all institutions. At the higher

polytechnical institute, it leads, after three years’ further study, to the diploma of ingénieur. One year after the licence, the maîtrise may be obtained in some fields.

UPPER VOLTA 321

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies (Previous education: 13 years, baccalauréat)

years 2 3 4 5

DUT/ L M DI DEUG/ DUEB

DEUG diplôme d‘études universitaires générales DI DUE B DUT L licence M maîtrise

diplôme d‘ingénieur (higher polytechnical institute) diplôme universitaire d’études biologiques diplôme universitaire de technologie (institute of technology)

GLOSSARY Baccalauréat. Secondary-school-leaving qualification, obtained after six years of primary

and seven years of secondary education. Access to secondary education is based on an entrance examination. Secondary studies are divided into two phases: the first phase leads, after four years in a collège d‘enseignement général or in a lycée to the brevet d’études du premier cycle (BEPC); the second phase leads, after three years’ study in a lycée, to the bacclauréat. This qualification is a prerequisite for higher education. Diplôme d’études universitaires générales (DEUG). Diploma obtained after two years’ study

in the university college of literature. This is not a terminal qualification. Diplôme d‘ingénieur. Higher qualification obtained at the higher polytechnical institute

after five years’ university study. Diplôme universitaire d’études biologiques (DUEB). Diploma obtained after two years’

study in the higher polytechnical institute. Studies in the first year are common to allsubjects in physical and biological sciences. This is not a terminal qualification. Diplôme universitaire de technologie. Diploma obtained after two years’ study at the

university institute of technology. It is a terminal qualification. Licence. First terminal degree, obtained after three years’ study. Maîtrise. Diploma of higher education awarded one year after the licence (after four years’

university study).

322 URUGUAY

Uruguay

In Uruguay higher education is given in three types of institution: a state university, a technical university (which is also a state institution) and several teacher-training institutions which are both public and private. The Universidad de la Republica, Montevideo, is autonomous and is financed by the central

government. Its governing bodies comprise members who are elected by the teaching staff and the students, who are directly or indirectly represented on the board of directors. It is only open to Uruguayan students. It has ten faculties (architecture, agriculture, economics, law and social sciences, arts and humanities and science, dentistry, chemistry, medicine, veterinary medicine, engineering). Nine schools offering a variety of courses (nursing, social work, obstetrics, music, fine arts, etc.) are attached directly to the University andareunder its authority or one of its faculties. The Universidad del Trabajo, Montevideo, includes schools of agriculture, industrial

engineering, applied arts, commerce and administration, professional training, educational planning and research. Eight institutes located in the provinces are also affiliated to the University (mechanical engineering, civil engineering, marine engineering, electrical engineering, applied arts, graphic arts, stock-breeding, forestry, dairy farming, vine-growing, teacher-training, technical training and agricultural training). The Instituto de Estudios Superiores, Montevideo, isa private institute which receivesstate

and local subsidies. It prepares future teachers in the arts and the humanities,andscience and education for four years. The Montevideo Institute of Philosophy and Letters is a Christian institution under the direct control of the Episcopal Conference of Uruguay. It trains future primary and secondary teachers in various subjects in two and four years respectively, and also teaches psychology. Teacher-training, which has been completely reorganized, is now offered exclusively at

post-secondary level. The Instituto Nacional de Docencia ‘General Artigas’ (to which every teacher-training college of Montevideo is affiliated) trains teachers in three years and has teacher-training centres throughout the country at the primary level (Centre I, which awards the title of maestro); at the secondary level (Centre II, which confers the title ofprqfesor); and at the specialized level (Centre III). Primary teachers who have already qualified have access to Centre III where they may specialize in a number of fields or train as school principals or inspectors. The language of instruction is Spanish. Access to higher education is given through the barhillerato, obtained after six years of

primary followed by three years of ‘basic’ (busico) and two years of diversified (diversifiCado) education in one of the options (arts, science, biology), depending on the studies chosen. The main stage of higher education leads to short-term or long-term studies. In the first

case, studies lead to a professional qualification after two years’ study (library management), three years’ study (surveying, public administration, business administration, midwifery), or four years’ study (nursing, dietetics). In the second case, studies lead to the award of the licenciado degree or of a higher professional qualification. The licenciado degree requires four or five years’ study according to the subject chosen. The professional qualifications awarded are those of ingeniero (after four to six years, according to the subject), of doctor in dentistry, law, medicine (after five, six and seven years), of quimico,farmacéutico in pharmacy and of arquitecto in architecture (after six years). The Universidad del Trabajo offers technical qualifications in a number of subjects after four years’ study. In long-term studies a further stage, which corresponds to a period of study in depth and to

URUGUAY 323

greater specialization. leads to the award of the doctorado degree in law and social sciences. administration and economics, etc.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 1 1 years. bacliilleraio)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7

Education Librarianship Arts Administration, economics.

Dietetics Technology, engineering Architecture Law Social sciences Medical sciences medicine dentistry pharmacy nursing. midwifery

Agriculture

accountancy

P P P P

L L D P L D

P

P I I I P

L D n

D P

P P

D cloctorado I in,~eniero L licenciatura P professional qiralification

GLOSSARY Bachillerato. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, awarded after six years of primary

education and five years of secondary education. The latter is divided into two phases. The first phase consists of three years of general education. The second phase, diversified and preparatory to higher education, lasts two years. The bachillerato gives the right to enrol in the faculty which corresponds to the option chosen in the second year of diversified education (arts. science, biology). Doctorado. Highest degree of higher education representing greater specialization. It is

awarded after the licenciaruru, on submission of a thesis. After a minimum of a one-year course following the professional qualification of contador publico (accountant), the doctorado degree may be awarded in administration and economics. It is also awarded in some other fields (in pharmacy, chemistry. law and social sciences). Licenciatura. First degree of higher education. awarded after studies that last between four

and five years, according to subject chosen. Maestro de educacion primaria; maestro de primer grado. Qualification which gives the right

to teach in a primary school. It is awarded by the Centre I of the Instituto Nacional de Docencia ‘General Artigas’ after three years’ study in which theory and practical work alternate, as well as by the Instituto de Estudios Superiores and the Instituto de Filosofia y Letras de Montevideo. This qualification gives access to the Centre III of the Instituto mentioned above, where maestros may specialize in various fields and become maestro director (Principal) or maestro inspector (inspector).

324 URUGUAY

Profesor. Qualification which gives the right to teach in a secondary school. It is awarded after three years’ study by the Centre II of the Instituto Nacional de Docencia ‘General Artigas’, as well as by the Instituto de Estudios Superiores and the Instituto de Filosofia y Letras de Montevideo (after four years). Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education awarded after courses whose

length varies between three years (surveying), four to six years (engineering, according to specialization), six years (architecture) and seven years (medicine), following the award of the buchilleruto. In medicine, the professional qualification is that of doctor. Various professional qualifications are awarded after shorter courses for training librarians, midwives, public administrators and business administrators. The Universidad del Trabajo gives technical qualifications in various fields after four years of study. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See buchilleruto.

Venezuela

In Venezuela higher education is given in 17 universities (13 national and fourprivate)and57 institutes of higher education. The 13 national universities are of two types: five are autonomous and have elected

authorities; eight are experimental and have appointed authorities. The 17 universities are subject to the law on universities and are affiliated to the National Council of Universities. which is under the control of the Ministry of Education and co-ordinates relations between them. It also harmonizes their educational, scientific and cultural programmes, as well as their policy concerning democratization, regionalization and diversification. The autonomous universities have the highest number of students and offer every type of training; they principally offer courses in medicine, law, architecture, civil engineering, etc.; the experimental universities, which are more specialized, were founded more recently (law on universities, 1970); they do not offer courses in every subject, except the Simon Bolivar University, which is more or less ‘complete’. The 57 institutes (19 of which are private) comprise six teacher-training institutions

(institutos pedugOgicos), four university polytechnical institutes (IUP), 35 university technological institutes (IUT), and 12 university colleges. These institutes are at present governed by the Regulations of University Institutes and Colleges (1974). The polytechnical institutes and the technological institutes meet the need for higher professional training which began to arise in 1973. They offer theoretical and practical courses in technology to train engineers who will then work in production. They offer two phases of studies; long-term studies and short-term studies. University colleges offer short-term courses for the training of higher technicians. A decree of April 1979 instituted a sub-system of integrated higher education in order to

create links between institutes, university colleges and universities by respecting the requirements of each of these institutions.

VENEZUELA 325

Institutes of education train the administrative and teaching staff for secondary and higher education. Courses last for nine semesters at the Caracas Institute of Education and at the Universidad Experimental del Este J M Sis0 de Martinez and for eight semesters at the experimental institutes of education at Barquisimeto. Maturin and Maracay. The language of instruction is Spanish. Primary teachers are trained in teacher-training institutions at secondary level. Secondary

teachers and university teachers are trained in faculties of education, institutes of education and university colleges. Access to higher education is given through the bachillerato (secondary-school-leaving

certificate). There are two options in secondary education: humanities and science, and technical studies and education. There is a different baccalaureate for each option which gives access to higher education in the corresponding field. Holders of the bachillerato in humanities and science go to university and holders of the technical buchil/eruto enter institutes and university colleges. Since 1968, holders of the bachillerato may only enrol in an institution of higher education if they have gone through the compulsory pre-inscripcibn. The IUPs and IUTs offer short-term studies lasting between four and six semesters and

award a certificado de estudios conferring the title of técnico superior. University colleges also offer short-term courses for higher technicians, consisting of

practical knowledge fully adapted to the immediate needs of the present economy for industry, commerce. administration, education, architecture, health services, agriculture, stockbreeding, marine professions, aviation, social work. etc. Technicians may constantly improve their knowledge, follow courses and obtain high level university titles. Long-term studies in higher education last eight to ten semesters and are provided in IUPs

and IUTs which award the title of ingeniero level II ‘of production’ or ‘of industry’.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 11/12 years. hachillerato)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education Arts Architecture Law Humanities. social sciences

Economics Exact and natural sciences

Technology. engineering Medical sciences medicine dentistry pharmacy veterinary medicine

Agriculture

C P r L M D L D P P D

C P D

C P D P

C P D

P D P D P D P

C P D

C certificado de estudios D doctorado L licenciatura M maestria P profes- sional qualification Pr profesor

326 VENEZUELA

In the universities, the main stage usually leads, after five years’ study (six in medicine) to the licenciaturu or to a professional qualification. In most subjects a further stage may lead to a maestria degree followed by a doctorado

degree. This stage includes course-work, examinations, and the submission of a dissertation or a thesis.

GLOSSARY Bachillerato. Secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded after nine years of basic

education (six years of primary and three years of general secondary education), followed by two or three years of secondary education given in an academic secondary institution, a teacher-training institution or a technical school. Pupils may choose between various options: humanities, science, education or technical studies. For each option there is a different buchilleraio. Holders of the bachiilerato are admitted to higher education after successfully passing an entrance examination or meeting other conditions or completing the formalities required by certain institutions of higher education; they are then admitted to the various institutions by the pre-inscripcidn nacional, according to lists published by the National Council of Universities. Certificado de estudios. Qualification awarded to students who have followed short-term

courses (four to six semesters) in technological institutes and university colleges. The title conferred is that of técnico superior. Doctorado. The highest degree of higher education awarded in certain universities after the

maesrrh or a specialization (high professional level). It is conferred at the end of studies characterized by theoretical and methodological bases of research and continuing education. It comprises courses followed by examinations and the submission of a thesis. Entrance examination. See examen de admisidn. Examen de admisibn. Examination set for candidates for entrance to national or private

universities and to polytechnical institutes. Lieenciatura. Degree of higher education awarded after a period of study which usually

lasts five years (ten semesters). The university year is divided into semesters in the faculties of architecture, engineering, agriculture and basic sciences. Maestria. Degree awarded after the licenciaturu or an equivalent qualification, at the end of

a year of specialization which is mainly devoted to the theoretical and methodological bases of research. Studies comprise courses followed by examinations and/or submission of a thesis. Pre-inscripcibn nacional. Compulsory formality for pupils who have completed secondary

education (enserïanza media) and who wish to enrol in an institution of higher education. Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education awarded by the university

polytechnical institutes (IUP) and the university technological institutes (IUT) as well as by universities. A certificado de estudios conferring the title of técnico superior is awarded by the former after completion of short-term studies (four to six semesters). The title of ingeniero level Il ‘of production’ or ‘of industry’ is also awarded by them after completion of long-term studies (eight to ten semesters). The universities award their professional qualification after completion of five years’ study (six in medicine).

YEMEN, ARAB REPUBLIC OF 327

Yemen, Arab Republic of

At present higher education in the Arab Republic of Yemen is offered exclusively at the University of Sana’a. The University comprises five faculties, namely, of arts, science, commerce, education, and Sharia (Islamic law) and law. The setting up of faculties of medicine. engineering, and agriculture is under consideration. Each faculty is academically autonomous and offers courses in different subjects through

its departments. For example, the faculty of arts consists of departments of Arabic studies, English language and literature. geography, history and archaeology, and philosophy and sociology. The faculty of science has departments of mathematics, physics, chemistry. botany, zoology, and geology. The faculty of commerce comprises departments of accountancy, business administration, economics, and political sciences. Two divisions, one of Shariu and the other of law. constitute the faculty of Sharia and law. The faculty of education has three sections. representing humanities, science. and commerce. The language of instruction in ail faculties, except in that of science and the department of

English (faculty of arts), is Arabic. The minimum requirement for admission to the University for both Yemenis and foreigners

is the higher secondary school certificate (or its equivalent), which is earned in Yemen after twelve years of study-six years at primary school and six at the preparatory and secondary school levels in institutions of general, religious or commercial education, as well as in teacher-training institutes for primary teachers. At present the University offers only undergraduate programmes, which are completed in

four years and lead to the award ofbacheior’s degrees in different subjects. These programmes are executed on a non-hierarchical stage basis.

Yugoslavia

In Yugoslavia higher education is provided in 19 universities, among which nine have been set up in the last ten years: PriStina (1971), Rijeka (1973), Split (1974), Titograd (1974), Osijek (1975), Tuzla (1976). incorporating faculties formerly forming part of the University of Sarajevo. Kragujevac ( 1976), Mostar (1977). and Bitola, which incorporates previously existing institutions in the south-west Macedonian region founded between 1935 and 1977. Higher education institutions are financed from funds earmarked for this purpose (a special education tax paid by every employee and certain taxes and grants allocated by the federal republic and communes). These funds are administered and distributed according to rules laid down by the educational districts within the republics or by the communes grouped in social entities on a territorial basis. In Yugoslavia, the university is simply the representative body for a group of faculties.

328 YUGOSLAVIA

Three faculties or more may form themselves into a university. Each faculty constitutes an entirely independent body. A university may consist of a very large number of faculties, each devoted to a traditional discipline or a branch of technology. The faculty is the highest institution for teaching and research in any subject. Faculties are usually organized into departments, sections and groups. Some faculties also have professorial chairs which act as basic centres for academic work and teaching. Universities and faculties are autonomous institutions. Responsibilities previously

exercised by the State have devolved upon the administration of the institutions themselves. They report directly to the people’s assembly of the federal republic to which they belong, and must keep it informed of their activities. The languages of instruction are Macedonian, Serbo-Croat and Slovene in the respective

federal republics, as well as Albanian at the University of PriStina, and Hungarian at the University of Novi Sad.

Freedom of teaching and research are guaranteed by law, in spite of the fact-and this is one of the characteristics of the system-that Yugoslav universities are administered according to the principles of social management, which means that workers’ delegates and citizens representing the community participate in their running. However, matters relating to teaching and research lie within the exclusive province of the teachers and researchers concerned.

The League of Yugoslav Universities, founded in 1957, has the duty of examining matters of concern common to all universities in the country and of co-ordinating their activities.

There are a variety of specialized professional institutions of political science, economics, physical education, administration, mechanical engineering, etc. There are also three autonomous faculties of theology (one Greek Orthodox and two Roman Catholic). These institutes differ from faculties in that their field of teaching is narrower and more specialized. Qualifications granted by these institutes are, however, considered to be equivalent to the corresponding ones in universities (see diploma, srrurni nuziv). A large number of post-secondary institutions offer two-year short courses leading to a

diploma which qualifies the holder for posts in commercial and industrial undertakings and in the social services (engineers in industry and agriculture, primary teachers). This diploma may, in certain cases, give access to a faculty or an institution of specialized higher education. Primary teachers are trained in training colleges (recently renamed educational academies)

and teachers of secondary education in arts or science faculties. Teachers of vocational education are also trained in faculties such as technology, medicine, agriculture, providing they also follow a supplementary course in education. In order to enable people in employment to follow courses in higher education, university-

type education is given in the evenings and on Sundays. There are also short training courses in higher education institutions or special centres. Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leaving certificate, the muturu,

obtained after eight years of primary and four years of secondary education. T h e studies leading up to it may be general, technical or vocational. Higher education is also available to adults without the secondary-school-leaving certificate who have spent at least four years working in the field they wish to study, provided they pass successfully an entrance examination, in order to demonstrate their ability to follow university courses. There is a numerus c/uusus in certain universities for certain subjects (technology, medicine, architecture), where a competitive examination must be passed. Until 1960, Yugoslav faculties granted only one type of degree, awarded after four, five or

six years according to the subject. Recent laws on higher education, however, have made it possible to introduce a system of ‘phases’ of study. There are three such phases in higher education.

The first phase usually lasts from two to three years. The qualifications awarded are of two

YUGOSLAVIA 329

types: the firsf diploma (a post-secondary diploma) and the strurni naziv (a professional qualification). Thefirst diploma represents a phase of study devoted to the acquisition of basic knowledge in a number of disciplines. It admits either to middle grade occupations or leads on to further study, after supplementary examinations have been passed. Primary teachers are trained in educational academies during this first phase. The second phase leads, after four to five years’ university study devoted to specialization,

particularly on the theoretical level, to a high-grade professional qualification, the srrutni naziv, or to a second diploma (university diploma). In medicine, dentistry and veterinary medicine the duration of studies is five years. The third phase, which is reached after one or two further years’ specialization, trains

specialists or prepares for academic research (magisrerium). It leads to a professionaldiploma or to the akademski stepen (academic degree) of either magisrar or specijalisr. A final phase may lead, after a period devoted to highly specialized study, to thedoctorule,

after submission of a thesis.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, matura)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Education Arts Fine arts

Di P M Di P M D Di P M

Law Di P M D Economics, political science, Di P M D

Engineering Di P M D

administration Exact sciences Di P M

Medical sciences medicine P M D

pharmacy Di P M D

Agriculture Di P M D

D doktor Di diploma M magisrar P professional qualification

dentistry P M D

veterinary medicine P M D

GLOSSARY Akademski stepen. See srrutni naziv. Competitive entrance examination. Examination set by faculties where a numerus clausus

Diploma. applies, even if the candidate has already obtained the mafura.

1 ‘1st phase’ diploma or ‘rerminal‘ post-secondary education diploma-qualification granted after two to three years, in a certain number of faculties, in institutions of higher and further education. These years are often spent in institutions specializingexclusively in this first phase of study (post-secondary institutions). The programmes aim at giving students a practical training leading to certain occupations: their content is more general in faculties and more specialized and narrower in institutions of further education. Candidates whose diploma is awarded by a non-university post-secondary institution and who wish to continue further

330 YUGOSLAVIA

with their studies have to pass a supplementary examination. Thisdiploma, recently instituted, is also awarded to middle-grade cadres by faculties or institutions of higher and further education. At the end of each semester, students have to pass an examination in each subject; in the case of failure, this may be retaken. Failure at the fourth attempt is definitive: depending on the faculty, it leads either to repeating the semester’s work or to the loss of certain privileges, or even to being permanently excluded from the faculty. Candidates also have to pass a yearly examination in order to begin the following year. Certain faculties require a dissertation in the last year. Usually, the first-year programme includes courses in sociology. 2 ‘2nd phase’ diploma or ‘terminal’ higher-education diploma-degree obtained at the end of the second phase of university education (four to five years according to field of study). This diploma may be equated with a professional qualification also acquired at the end of this phase. (See strufni naziv.) In the majority of faculties of letters, science and mathematics, the diploma is awarded after an examination consisting of the independent preparation and defence of a dissertation. Students preparing to be secondary teachers do not normally prepare the dissertation, but are required to prepare a written memoir. In law and medicine the student is required to pass examinations in all subjects, but there is no dissertation to prepare. 3 ‘3rd phase’ diploma-this diploma, which requires one to two years’ preparation, is acquired after the magisterium course or the specialization course in faculties and institutions of higher education. It leads to the academic qualification of magistar or specijalist in the corresponding subject. In letters, science and mathematics, and in law, the degree is awarded after an oral examination and the defence of the magisterium dissertation. In medicine, it is awarded after presentation and defence of amagisterium or specialist dissertation. In order to acquire the doctorate, the candidate must either have finished his studies in a faculty 07 institution of higher education, have published scientific work, have produced highly specialized work, or have completed the magisterium and have successfully defended his doctorate thesis. Doktor. The title of doctor of science is the sole and highest degree in higher education. It is

granted in most faculties at least two years after the candidate has acquired the qualification of magistar, and successfully defended a thesis.

1 Examination which is taken by candidates to higher education whose matura, acquired in a vocational school, is not ofthe type required by the faculty or institution they wish to attend. 2 Examination for candidates over 18 years of age who do not have the matura but have spent at least four years in an employment considered socially useful. Magistar. Qualification granted at the end of the third phase of study, at least two years

after the end of the second phase. This third phase may lead to either of two specializations: that ofspecijalist (expert in the theory of the subject) or that of magistar (academic research). The basic pattern of studies is similar to that of the other two phases, with the difference that there is more emphasis on independent research. (See diploma, struEni naziv.) Matura. School-leaving-certificate obtained at the end of four years of secondary

education, following upon eight years of primary education, in a general secondary school (gimnazija), in a technical secondary school or fine arts secondary school, or after three years in a vocational institute for skilled workers. The matara gives access to higher education. Where a numerus clausus operates, certain faculties require success in a competitive entrance examination and sometimes a qualifying examination for holders of the matura. Secondary-school-leaving certificate. The secondary-school-leaving certificates are

variously called: 1 svjedodiba O zavrSnom ispitu (Croatia) 2 svegoEançtvo O poloienom zavrSnom ispitu (Serbia) 3 spriEevalo O zakljuEnem izpitu (Slovenia)

Entrance examination.

YUGOSLAVIA 33 1

4 Sea also maiura.

svidetelstvo za poloien zavrsen ispit (Macedonia)

Specijalist. See magistar. Strutni naziv (professional qualification). In faculties giving the ‘1st phase’diploma, the first

professional qualification is obtained at the same time as the firstdiploma. This is also the case in institutions of further and higher education, where the second strurni nariv is obtained at the same time as the ‘2nd phase’ diploma. The ‘3rd phase’ diploma qualifies its holder for an akademski siepen (academic degree). Professional qualifications spell out more precisely the level of qualification of their holder, whereas the academic qualification indicates the particular qualification for the corresponding profession. Supplementary examination. Examination obligatory for students whose first phase of study

took place in a non-university post-secondary institution. For this examination, the student’s whole record is taken into consideration.

Zaire

In the Republic of Zaire higher education was reorganized to a large extent in 197 1 by the legal decree which created the National University of Zaire (UNAZA). It is a single institution which groups together all the faculties of the former Lovanium University at Kinshasa, of the former Official University of the Congo (Lubumbashi) and the former Free University of the Congo (Kisangani), as well as all the institutions of higher education. The three former universities have become ‘university campuses’: the university campus at Kinshasa, the university campus at Kisangani and the university campus at Lubumbashi. The University is under the control of the State Commissioner of Higher Education and

Scientific Research. It is governed by a board of administration made up of representatives of the Government, of the business world, of the academic authorities, and of the professors and students. The University is headed bya rector and ageneral administrator. Each campus is headed by

a vice-rector. The institutes are headed by a director-general of a director, according to size. Each campus is subdivided into faculties and each institute into sections, according to

subject. Faculties are headed by a dean and sections by a head of section. Access conditions, organization and programmes, and academic degrees are determined by

law. The campus at Kinshasa comprises faculties of law, medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, science

(mathematics, physics, chemistry), economics, polytechnics (civil engineering). The campus at Kisangani comprises faculties of biology, psychology and education. The campus at Lubumbashi comprises the following faculties: arts (African, French,

English and Latin languages and literatures, history, philosophy), geology, geography, social sciences, administration, political science, polytechnical studies (civil engineering), and

332 ZAIRE

veterinary medicine. T h e Institute of Agricultural Training offers courses leading to the title of agricultural engineer. The University also comprises 18 institutes of higher technological education (applied

technology, building and public works, medical technology, commerce, information technology, statistics, agriculture, arts and crafts, rural development, social studies, arts) and 13 teacher-training colleges to train secondary teachers. At Kinshasa, Kisangani, Lubumbashi and Kanan, the multidisciplinary centres for

development and continuing education offer evening courses in industrial sociology, political and administrative sciences, commerce and finance, and school and professional orientation for candidates who are already employed. They are first phase studies which lead to the graduate degree. Teachers of primary education are trained at secondary level in teacher-training colleges.

Teachers of secondary education are trained at the University and at a number of higher institutes of teacher-training. The three campuses have a department of agrégation de l'enseignement secondaire which organizes a one-year course in teacher-training for students who already hold a final degree from one of the faculties, in order to train them for teaching. The course leads to a diplôme d'agrégé de l'enseignement secondaire de second cycle. Higher institutes of teacher-training train gradués and licenciés in applied education, who will then teach in lower- and upper-secondary education respectively. The language of instruction is French. Access to higher education takes place after twelve years of primary and secondary

education. Access conditions to the Universityare determined bylaw. Candidates must hold a diplôme d'Eiat, obtained through success in the examen dEiai, which is taken throughout the country at the end of secondary education. The State Commissioner of Higher Education and Scientific Research determines further conditions according to subject chosen. Candidates who obtain at least 60 per cent in theexamen &Etat may enter the faculty, those who obtain 55 per cent may gain access to higher institutes. In certain institutes, candidates who have not obtained 55 per cent in the diplôme d'Etai may follow a preparatory year and then gain access to the first year if they succeed. In order to gain access to a polytechnical faculty in mathematics and physics, candidates

must succeed in an entrance examination which usually requires one year's preparation. The campuses and institutes accept candidates whose secondary education and results show

aptitudes for studies chosen. Access also depends on the number of places available. Each year the board of administration fixes the number of candidates admitted in each faculty and section. Foreign students may be admitted if they meet the conditions required for access to higher

education in their own country. In this way, for example, holders of a French-type baccalauréai may enter for the first year of the first phase (graduat). Thegeneral certi3cate of education, ordinary level, gives access to the preparatory year and the general certificaie of education, advanced level in two subjects, gives access to the first year.

The first stage (graduat) lasts three years and leads to thegradué degree. A preparatory year is either compulsory or recommended before starting studies in certain faculties and institutes. Most institutes only offer first phase studies. In secretarial studies given by the Institute of Commerce at Kinshasa, the first phase lasts two years and leads to the capacitariat degree. Practical work is always included in training courses. At the end of the first phase, students

must write a thesis dealing with the purpose of their studies. To enter for the second phase in institutes of higher technological education and institutes

of education, candidates must have at least two years' professional experience following upon the gradué degree. Moreover, in higher institutes of education, candidates must pass a national competitive examination to enter for the second phase. The second stage (se'cond phase) usually lasts two years and leads to the licence or to a

ZAIRE 333

professional qualification of pharmacien, dentiste, ingénieur, architecte, etc. In medicine and veterinary medicine the phase lasts three years (the last of which is mainly devoted to practical training) and leads to the degree of docteur en médecine and docteur en médecine vétérinaire. At the end of the second stage, students must write a dissertation which shows their capacity

for scientific research. For holders of a second phase degree there are two courses at the campus of Kinshasa,

which lead to the diplôme spécial en gestion de l'environnement and to the diplôme spécial en bibliothéconomie.

The third stage (third phase) takes place in every faculty. On the one hand it consists of a two-year scientific and pedagogical course which leads to adiplôme d'études supérieures (DES) and requires a dissertation based on personal research. On the other hand, it requires the preparation of a thesis which constitutes high-level, original and unpublished scientific research. ïhe third phase leads to the doctorat, usually obtained after four to six years' study. At the faculty of medicine the third phase has a special structure: doctors devote three or

four years to a specialization in one of the medical fields, after which they obtain adiplôme de spécialiste. They then begin the last stage of academic training, which mainly consists of the

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, diplôme d'Bat)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 1 12

Education Arts Fine arts Architecture Law Administrative and political science Economics Commerce Information technology Science Engineering Medical sciences

medicine biomedical science,

dentistry pharmacy veterinary medicine

Agriculture

G L ASS D G L D G G P G L D G L D

G L D

G L D G L D G P D

G D AES

cap G

G P D G P D G D AES G P D

AES agrégation de l'enseignement supérieur ASS Cap capacitariat D doctorat G graduat L iicence P professional qualification

agrégation de l'enseignement secondaire du second cycle

334 ZAIRE

preparation of an agrégation thesis. This leads to the diplôme d'agrégé de l'enseignement supérieur en médecine. At the faculty of veterinary medicine, the third phase leads to the diplôme d'agrégé de

l'enseignement supérieur en médecine vétérinaire. In faculties and institutes, programmes are conceived in such a way that students are able to

exercise a profession at the end of each phase. Greater emphasis is put on professionalization in the institutes than in most faculties.

GLOSSARY Agrégation de l'enseignement secondaire du second cycle. Academic qualification awarded at

the end of the one-year teacher-training course organized for graduates who wish to teach in secondary education. Agrégation de l'enseignement supérieur en médecine. Highest academic qualification

awarded at the end of the third phase in medicine. It requires at least six years'scientific work following upon the professional qualification of docteur en médecine. In order to enter for the agrégation, candidates must already hold the diplôme de spécialiste. The final examination consists of a public lesson and the presentation and defence in public of a thesis which constitutes high-level, original and unpublished scientific research. Agrégation de l'enseignement supérieur en médecine vétérinaire. Highest academic

qualification awarded at the end of the third phase in veterinary medicine. It requires at least four years' individual research following upon the professional qualification of docteur en médecine vétérinaire. In order to enter for the agrégation, candidates must already hold the D E S degree (see diplôme d'études supérieures). The final examination consists of a public lesson and the presentation and defence in public of a thesis which constitutes high-level, original and unpublished scientific research. Capacitariat . Academic qualification which only exists in the 'secretarial' section. It is

awarded at the end of a two-year phase of higher education. Certificat. Document which certifies that candidates have successfully completed an

intermediate year of studies. Diplôme. Document which certifies the award of an academic qualification. Diplôme d'Etat. Qualification obtained after success in the examen d'Erat organized on the

national scale at the end of secondary education. After six years in primary school and two years in an orientation class, candidates follow their secondary education for four years in the following options: literature, science, commerce, education, technical studies, social sciences, arts. Diplôme d'études supérieures. Intermediate academic qualification awarded between the

second phase and the qualification of docteur or agrégé de l'enseignement supérieur en médecine/médecine vétérinaire. It is awarded after a two-year course and consists of scientific and pedagogical training in depth. The final examination also includes the submission and defence of a dissertation. Diplôme spécial. Qualification awarded at the end of a specialized training course. T h e

course is only open to holders of a second phase qualification, but it is not necessarily a third phase course. Docteur. Highest academic qualification awarded at the end of the third phase by faculties

other than the faculty of medicine and the faculty of veterinary medicine (which award a professional doctorate). It requires at least four years of individual research following upon the diplôme de licence, d'ingénieur civil, etc. In order to enter for thedoctorar,candidates must already hold the D E S (see diplôme d'érudes supérieures). T h e final examination to obtain the qualification of docteur comprises the submission and defence in public of a thesis which constitutes high-level, original and unpublished scientific research. Entérinement. Recognition by the State of degrees awarded by the UNAZA. T h e

ZAIRE 335

Commission d’Entérinement, which operates in the Department of Higher Education and Scientific Research, ensures that every requirement concerning the award of academic qualifications (entrance conditions, duration of studies, programmes, examinations, etc.) has been respected. The entérinement legalizes degrees. Graduat. Academic qualification awarded at the end of the first phase of university

education after three years’ study. In addition to courses and exercises, the programme is made up of practical work and a dissertation. Licence. Academic qualification awarded at the end of two years’, study after the gradua?.

The course consists of practical work and the submission of a dissertation, as well as courses and exercises. In some faculties and institutes the term licence is replaced by a term which refers to the profession or the speciality (see professional qualification). Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education awarded at the end of the

second stage of higher education, after two years’ study (ingénieur civil, ingénieur agronome, ingénieur géomètre topographe. pharmacien, dentiste, architecte) or three years’ study (docteur en médecine. docteur en médecine vétérinaire).

Zambia

In Zambia higher education is provided in two types of institution: the University of Zambia and various specialized institutions. The university is divided into schools for the following disciplines: agricultural sciences,

education, engineering, humanities and social sciences, law, medicine and natural sciences. The highest administrative body is a council on which serve members of the Government, graduates and teaching staff. as well as representatives of outside bodies. The highest academic body is the senate, which comprises the deans and directors of the various schools, departments and institutes as well as representatives of other teaching staff and students. Financial resources are provided from government funds and from donors. At the university there are also schools of extramural studies and of correspondence studies and an institute for African studies. The various specialized institutions comprise colleges and institutes: a college of applied

arts and commercial studies, a technical college and a college for the development of natural resources; an institute of technology, an institute of public administration and an institute of air services training. The language of instruction is English. Primary teacher-training takes place at secondary level in teacher-training colleges, where

the course lasts two or three years. Primary teachers who have gained at least three passes in the general certificate of education, ordinary level, and who have taught for at least four years may sit for an associate certificate of education at the University of Zambia. Secondary teachers are trained in four-year bachelor of arts or bachelor of science programmes at the

336 ZAMBIA

university. There also exists a certificate of education which may be taken after one year’s postgraduate study. Access to higher education is based on the general certificate of education taken after eight

years of primary education followed by four years of secondary education. There are two levels: ordinary and advanced. In order to enter higher education a candidate must usually obtain five passes at ordinary level in the subjects he has chosen, depending upon the institution in which he wishes to study. Passes gained subsequently at advanced level may exempt a candidate from some parts of his course in higher education. Each application for the university is examined individually. The first main stage of higher education leads to a bachelor’s degree or a professional

qualification. The degree is obtained in four years in arts subjects, science, law and social work; in five years in agriculture and engineering; in seven years in medicine. The university also awards a diploma in social work and librarianship after two or three years’ study. Other institutions of higher education offer specialized courses of varying length. Part-time courses also exist and the time taken to complete them is consequently longer. A second stage leads to the master’s degree or a higher professional qualification. The

master’s degree is awarded in arts and science, law and education after two years’ study and the presentation of a dissertation. A doctorate of philosophy degree (PhD) is about to be introduced and would lead to a third stage in higher education.

PROFILE OF H I G H E R STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 12 years, general certificate of education)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7

Education Arts Law Social work Science Engineering Medicine Agriculture

B C M Di B M

B M

B M B

Di/P B

B bachelor’s degree C certificate of education Di diploma M master’s degree P professional qualification

G L O S S A R Y

law and social work, in five years in agriculture and science, in seven years in medicine. Bachelor’s degree. First degree of higher education obtained in four years in arts, science,

Certificate. See professional qualification. Diploma. See professional qualijication. General certificate of education. Secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded after eight

years of primary education followed by four years of secondary education. Examinations are at two levels: ordinary and advanced. For entry to higher education the candidate must have gained a certain number of passes at ordinary level in the subjects chosen, in accordance with the requirements of the institution which he wishes toenter. Passes at advanced level may gain him exemption from certain parts of the course in higher education.

ZAMBIA 337

Master’s degree. Higher degree awarded after graduate studies in arts (MA), science (MSc), law (LLM) and education (MEd). F’rofessional qualification. Qualification of higher education awarded either at

undergraduate or at graduate level. At undergraduate level the University of Zambia awards a diploma in social work after a two-year course; a teacher-training college awards a certificate valid for lower-secondary education after a three-year course; other institutions of higher education offer courses of varying length. At graduate level the university awards a postgraduate certificate of education after a one-year course.

Zimbabwe

In Zimbabwe higher education is provided in the University of Zimbabwe, Salisbury (new title adopted in 1980). The University, originally established in 1953 became an independent institution in 1970 with the title of University of Rhodesia, accepting students in 1971 to read for its own degrees and diplomas. Its statutes were made under the original royal charter of 1955 which was retained unaltered as the basic constitutional instrument of the new university. T h e University is governed by a council and, for academic matters, by a senate; it draws most of its funds from the Government. The University has faculties of arts, education, engineering, medicine, sciences (including

agriculture), and social studies. Several institutes are attached to it (education, adult education, mining research, social research). Four centres are associated with it (science education, regional and urban planning, inter-racial studies, computing). T h e University is a multi-racial institution open to all students without distinction on racial grounds. Teaching takes place in English. Access to higher education is based on the United Kingdom general certificate of education

(at advanced level), usually obtained after seven years of primary followed by six years of secondary education. Candidates must obtain five passes, of which two must be at advanced level. There is also a university test of proficiency in English. The first main stage (undergraduate studies) leads, after three to six years according to the

field of study, to the bachelor’s degree awarded as agenera1,honours orspecial honoursdegree, or to a professional qualification awarded as a certificate or diploma. In social work and education, the course only takes one year but candidates have to hold adiploma or certificate. In arts, administration, science, economics, sociology, psychology, law, accountancy, agriculture, pharmacy, the degree is obtained either after three years as a general degree or four years (special honours). The degree of bachelor of education (adult education) is conferred after four years (part-time studies). In the field of engineering studies last four years, in medicine six years.

The second stage (graduate studies) leads, after one or two years according to the field of study and to the system of studies (full-time or part-time) to the master’s degree, by course- work, research, examination, and after submission of a thesis.

338 ZIMBABWE

The third stage requires a minimum of three years’specialization and individual research, as well as presentation of a thesis and leads to the degree of doctor of philosophy, which is obtainable in all faculties. The degree of doctor of medicine, which is open to graduates of the University or of other universities in sixth or any subsequent year after award of the degree of bachelor of medicine, is also awarded by thesis.

Finally a higher doctorate is awarded in law (LLD), humanities (DLitt) and science (DSc) after submission of published work representing a substantial contribution to knowledge in a particular field, and after at least eight years’studyfollowing upon the first degreeor after five years’ teaching in the University. Various courses also lead to higher professional qualifications at sub-degree level (higher

certijïcate or diploma).

PROFILE OF H I G H E R STUDIES

Duration of Studies (Previous education: 13 years, general certificate of education, advanced level)

years 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 1 12

Education Arts Law Accountancy Administration Science Engineering Medical sciences medicine pharmacy

Agriculture

B bachelor’s degree of philosophy degree

Cer B M B B(s) M D DLitt B B LLD B B(s) B B(s) B B(s) M DSc

B

B B

B(s) bachelor’s degree (special honours) M master’s degree

Cer certificate D doctor P professional qualification

GLOSSARY Bachelor’s degree. First qualification of higher education, obtained after three years in arts,

science, administration, economics, sociology, psychology, law, accountancy, agriculture, pharmacy, four years in engineering and six years in medicine. Several types of first degree are awarded, general, honours, and special honours. First degrees of good standard are generally required for admission to higher degrees. Certificate. See professional qualification. Diploma. See professional qualijïcation. Doctor’s degree. Higher degree obtained after the bachelor’s degree and the master’s degree

and a minimum period of three years’ research devoted to preparing a thesis. The qualification is that of doctor of philosophy. Higher doctorates are also awarded for published work representing an original and substantial contribution to knowledge, e.g. humanities (DLitt), science (DSc), law (LLD). General certificate of education. School-leaving-certificate giving access to higher education

(various subjects at ordinary level and two subjects at advanced level). Higher degree. See master’s degree, doctor’s degree.

ZIMBABWE 339

Honours degree. See bachelor‘s degree. Master’s degree. Higher degree of higher education, obtained according to the field of study

after a period of one or two years’ study following the bachelor’s degree and the presentation of a thesis. Professional qualification. Qualification awarded in the University, or its constituent or

attached centreshstitutes following upon studies leading to a certificate or diploma. T h e University also offers courses leading, after postgraduate or graduate studies, to higher certificates or diplomas.

340 APPENDIX 1

A endix 1 NT a ional bodies the recognition education under

dealing with the application of conventions on of studies, di lomas and degrees in higher

’ the auspices O P Unesco The following list contains the names and addresses of those national bodies in charge of the application of the conventions on the recognition of studies, diplomas and degrees adopted under the auspices of Unesco.

Australia Committee on Overseas Professional Qualifications, P.O. Box 1407, Canberra City. ACT 260 1

Austria A formal decision to set up a centre has not yet been taken. Information on the equivalence of diplomas will be provided by: Bundesministerium für Wissenschaft und Forschung, Postfach 65, Minoritenplatz 5, A-1014 Wien Osterreichische Rektorenkonferenz, Schottengasse VM, A-1010 Wien

Belgium (French-speaking sector) Ministère de l’éducation nationale et de la culture française, Secrétariat général, Cité administrative de I’Etat, Bloc D - 7ème étage, Quartier Arcades, 204, rue Royale, B-1010 Bruxelles (Dutch-speaking sector) Ministerie van Nationale Opvoeding en Nederlandse Cultuur, Restuur Hoger Onderwijs en Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek, Rijksadministratief Centrum, Arkaden - 4e verdieping, B- 1010 Brussel

Benin Commission nationale d’étude des équivalences de diplômes, BP 892, Porto Novo

Canada Canadian Bureau for International Education, 141 Laurier West, Ottawa, Ontario KIP 553, Tel: 6131237-4820

Colombia Institut0 Colombiano para el Foment0 de la Educacion Superior - ICFES, Calle 17 No 3-40, Bogota, DE, Tel: 28.36.758

Congo Ministère de l’éducation nationale, Faculté des sciences, BP 69, Brazzaville

Costa Rica Sefior Vice Ministro Técnico, Ministerio Educacion Publica, San José

Cuba Direccion de Organismos Internacionales, Ministeno de Relaciones Exteriores, Calle 5a entre G y H, Vedado, Ciudad Habana

Cyprus The Ministry of Education, Nicosia

APPENDIX 1 34 1

Denmark Ministry of Education, Frederiksholms Kana1 21, DK-1220 Kabenhavn K

Ecuador Cornision de Cooperacion Técnica, Director General de Relaciones Culturales, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Quito, Tel: 522-528, 230-100

El Salvador Ministerio de Educacih, Subsecretaria de Education, San Salvador

Finland Department for Higher Education and Research, Ministry of Education, Rauhankatu 4, SF- 00170 Helsinki 17

France Ministère de l’éducation nationale. Délégation aux relations universitaires internationales, Bureau des échanges universitaires et des relations multilatérales, 8 rue Jean Calvin, 75005 Paris

Gabon Université nationale Omar Bongo, BP 13131, Libreville, Tel: 73.25.06, 73.25.44, 73.25.78

Federal Republic of Germany Zentralstelle für auslandisches Bildungswesen, Sekretariat der Kulturministerkonferenz, Nassestr 8, D-5300 Bonn

Greece Temporary contact address: Ministry of National Education and Religion, 15 Mitropoleos St, Athens 118

Holy See Congrégation pour l’enseignement catholique, Vatican City, Italy, Tel: (39-6) 698

Iceland Ministry for Education and Culture, Reykjavik

Ireland Department of Education, Marlborough Street. IRL-Dublin 1

Italy Centro Nazionale di Informazione in Materia di Equipollenzia di Titoli di Studio, Direzione Generale degli Scambi Culturali, Minister0 della Pubblica Istruzione, Via Trastevere, 00100 Roma

Ivory Coast Université nationale, O8 BP V 34, Abidjan 08, Tel: 43-90-00

Lebanon Monsieur le Secrétaire national de la Commission des Equivalences, Ministère del’Education nationale, Beyrouth, Bâtiment Unesco, Tel: 302.353

342 APPENDIX 1

Mali Ecole normale supérieure, BP 241, Bamako, Tel: 221.89

Malta National Equivalence Information Centre, Education Department, 32-33 Marzamxetto Road, Valletta

Mexico Seiîor Secretario Técnico, Director General de Incorporacion y Revalidation, Secretaria de EducaciOn Publica, Adil no 571 9” Piso, Col Granjas México, México, DF, Tel: 657.13.01, 657.37.51

Morocco Division de la Réglementation et des Equivalences de Diplômes, Ministère de I’Education nationale et de la Formation des Cadres, Royaume du Maroc, Rabat

Netherlands NUFFIC, Department of Information and Diploma Evaluation, Badhuisweg 251, PO Box 90734, NL-2509 LS Den Haag

Netherlands Antilles Departamento de Enseiîanza, Santa Ros 48, Curaçao, Tel: 67.44.66

Niger Ecole des Lettres, Université de Niamey, BP 418, Niamey

Norway A n official centre has not been set up; the Royal Ministry of Church and Education has requested the following to exchange information on equivalence matters: The Director’s Office, Section for Study Questions, PO Box 1072, University of Oslo, Blindern, N-Oslo 3

Panama Organism0 Provisional para la Implementation de la Aplicacion del Convenio, Ministerio de Educacion, AV. Justo Arosemena, Edificio Poli. Apartado 2440, Panama, Tel: 62.22.00, 62.20.55, Telex: Mineduc

Portugal Ministério de Educaçfio e Inv. Cient., DG Ensino Superior, AV. 5 de Outubro, N o 107-7, P- Lisboa

Rwanda Ministère de I’Education nationale, BP 622, Kigali Institut pédagogique du Rwanda, BP 56, Butaré

Senegal Rectorat de l’université de Dakar, Service juridique et des équivalences, Ecole Polytechnique, BP 10, Thiès, Tel: 51.13.84, 51.16.32

Spain SecciOn de Convalidaciones de Estudios Extranjeros, Ministerio de Educacion y Ciencia, Cartagena 83, Madrid

APPENDIX 1 343

Sudan Secretary General, The National Council for Higher Education, PO Box 2081, Khartoum, Tel: 725 15, 79970-6, Cables: Higher Education Khartoum

Sweden National Equivalence Information Centre, The Information Office, Swedish National Board of Universities and Colleges (UHA), PO Box 16334, S-103 26 Stockholm

Switzerland The following office exercises the functions of an equivalence information centre, both on the national and international level: Office central universitaire suisse, Sophienstrasse 2, CH-8032 Zurich

Togo Université du Bénin, Ecole des Lettres, Lomé, Tel: 77.48

Turkey Denklik Bürosu Müsaviri, Talim Terbiye Dairesi, Millî Egitim Bakanligi, TR-Ankara

United Kingdom National Equivalence Information Centre, The British Council, Higher Education Department, IO Spring Gardens, London SWl 2BN

United Republic of Tanzania Principal Secretary, Ministry of National Education, PO Box 9121, Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania Permanent Delegation of Tanzania to Unesco, Ambassade de Tanzanie, 32 rue du Général Delestraint, 75016 Paris, France

United States of America The Associate Director for Educational and Cultural Affairs, International Communication Agency, Washington. DC 20547, Tel: (202) 724.9032

Upper Volta Ecole des Lettres, Université de Ouagadougou, Tel: 329.44

Venezuela Oficina Ministerial de Asuntos Internacionales, Edificio Ministerio de Educacion, Mercedes a Salas, Caracas Ministerio de Educacion, Mercedes a Salas, Caracas, Tel: 562.95.25 (58-2), 562.95.05 Centro Regional para la Educacion Superior en America Latina y el Caribe (CRESALC), Avenida los Chorros, cruce con Calle Acueducto, Altos de Sebuch, Caracas, Tel: 284.2175, 284.5075, 284.2968

Yugoslavia Savezni zavod zamed-unarod,,nu naucnu, proswetno-Kulturnu i techniEku,&3aradnju, KosanEicev Venac 29, Beograd

344 APPENDIX 2

Appendix 2 International conventions on the recognition of studies, diplomas and degrees in higher education adopted under the auspices of Unesco REGIONAL CONVENTION ON THE RECOGNITION OF STUDIES, DIPLOMAS AND DEGREES IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN

The States of Latin America and the Caribbean, Parties to the present Convention. Considering the close bonds of solidarity that unite them, expressed in the cultural sphere by

the conclusion among them of numerous bilateral, sub-regional or regional agreements; Desirous of strengthening and increasing their co-operation in matters relating to education

and the use of human resources and with the aim of promoting the maximum integration of the area, of encouraging knowledge and safeguarding the cultural identity of its peoples, as well as of achieving a constant and gradual improvement in the quality of education and contribution to their firm resolve to foster economic, social and cultural development and full employment in each country of the region and in the region as a whole;

Convinced that, as part of this co-operation, the international recognition of studies, diplomas and degrees, which would ensure the greater mobility of students and persons engaged in an occupation within the region, is not only advisable but also a highly positive factor in accelerating the development of the region, since it implies that increasing numbers of scientists, technicians and specialists would be trained and their services fully utilized; Reufflrming the principles set forth in agreements for cultural co-operation already

concluded between them, and resolved to ensure their more effective application at the regional level, and to take into consideration the existence and validity of new ideas expressed in the recommendations and conclusions adopted in this connection by the competent organs of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, particularly in all that relates to the promotion of life-long education, the democratization of education, the adoption and application of an educational policy that will take account of structural, eonomic and technological developments, of social and political change, and of cultural contexts;

Convinced that, in order to meet the needs of their countries in a dynamic and permanent manner, educational systems must be closely linked to plans for economic and social development;

Conscious of the need to take into consideration, when applying criteria for the evaluation of a person’s qualifications for admission to higher levels of education or for the occupations, not only the diplomas, certificates or degrees he has obtained, but also the knowledge and experier. ~e he has acquired; Having in mind that the recognition by all the Contracting States of studies completed and

diplomas, certificates and degrees obtained in any one of them is an effective instrument for: (a) making the best use of the educational facilities of the Region, (b) ensuring the highest degree of mobility of teachers, students, research workers and

members of the professions within the Region, (c) overcoming the difficulties encountered by persons who return to their country of origin

after receiving an education abroad, (d) bringing about the fullest and most effective use of the human resources of the region

with a view to ensuring full employment and preventing the migration of talent to highly industrialized countries:

Resolved to organize and strengthen their future co-operation in this respect by means of a

APPENDIX 2 345

regional convention which would be the starting point for dynamic action carried out, in the main, through national and regional bodies set up for that purpose, Have agreed as follows:

I. Definitions Article I For the purposes of this Convention:

Recognition of a foreign diploma, degree or qualification is understood to mean the acceptance thereof by the competent authorities of a Contracting State and the grant to the holders of such diplomas, degrees or qualifications of rights that are enjoyed by the holders of comparable national diplomas, degrees or qualifications. Such rights refer to the continuation of studies and to the practice of a profession: (i) Recognition for the purpose of commencing or continuing studies at a higher

level shall enable the holder concerned to be admitted to the higher education establishments of the State granting such recognition, under the same conditions as are applicable to holders of national diplomas, degrees or qualifications; Recognition for the purpose of practising a profession means acceptance of the technical competence of the holder of the diploma,degree or qualification, andit implies the rights and the obligations of the holder of national diplomas,degrees or qualifications, possession of which is required for the practice of the profession in question. Such recognition does not have the effect of exempting the holder of the foreign diploma, degree or qualification from the obligation to comply with any other conditions that may be required, for the practice of the profession in question, by national legal provisions as well as by the competent governmental or professional authorities.

Middle or secondary education is understood to mean the stage of studies of any kind which follows the initial, elementary or basic education and which, among other purposes, may constitute the stage prior to higher education; Higher education is understood to mean any form of education and of research at post- secondary level. This education is open to all persons who are sufficiently qualified for it either because they have obtained a secondary-school-leaving certificate or diploma, or because they possess the appropriate training or knowledge, under the conditions determined for the purpose by the State concerned; Partial studies in higher education are understood to mean studies which, according to the standards of the institution where the said studies were pursued, have not been completed in respect either of their duration or of their content. Recognition by one of the Contracting States of partial studies pursued in an institution situated in the territory of another Contracting State, or in an institution under its authority, shall be granted having regard to the level of training reached, in the view of the State granting recognition, by the person concerned.

(ii)

Objectives Article 2

(1) (a)

The Contracting States declare their intention: To promote joint use of available educational resources by placing their training institutions at the service of the integral development of all the peoples in the region,for which purpose they shall take measures aimed at: (i) harmonizing in so far as possible conditions for admission to the higher

education institutions in each State,

APPENDIX 2

to

adopting similar terminology and similar criteria for evaluation, so as to make it easier to apply the system of comparability of studies, adopting, with regard to admission to subsequent stages of study, a dynamic conception taking into account the knowledge vouched for by diplomas or personal experience and achievements, subject to the provisions of article 1, sub-

adopting, in evaluating partial studies, broad criteria based on the level of education reached rather than the content of the curricula followed, having due regard to the interdisciplinary nature of higher education, granting immediate recognition of studies, diplomas, degrees and certificates for

paragraph (ch

academic purposes and for purposes of the practice of a profession, promoting the exchange of information and documentation in the fields of education, science and technology, so as to serve the purposes of this Convention.

strive at regional level for the continuous improvement of the curricula which, together with appropriate planning and organization, will contribute to the optimum use of the training resources of the region;

(c) to promote inter-regional co-operation with respect to the recognition of studies and degrees;

(d) to set up the national and regional bodies needed to facilitate the most rapid and effective application of this Convention.

(2) The Contracting States undertake to adopt all the national and international measures that may be necessary to ensure the gradual achievement of the objectives set out in this Article, principally through bilateral, sub-regional or regional agreements, as well as through agreements between institutions of higher education, and such other means as may be conducive to co-operation with the competent organizations and institutions, both national and international.

III. Commitments for Immediate Implementation Article 3 For the purpose of continuing studies, and in order to allow of immediate access to further stages of education in higher education institutions situated in their territories or in an institution under their authority, the Contracting States shall recognize secondary education leaving certificates or diplomas awarded in another Contracting State, possession of which entitles holders to be admitted to the further stages of education in the higher education institutions situated in the territory of their country of origin or in institutions under the authority of the latter.

Article 4 The Contracting States shall grant, for the purpose of continuing studies and for immediate admission to the further stages of higher education, recognition of higher education degrees, diplomas or certificates obtained in the territory of another Contracting State, or in an institution under its authority, which attest to the termination of a complete stage of higher education studies. It will be required that the certification specifies the number of years, semesters or trimesters or, in general, complete periods of studies.

Article 5 The Contracting States undertake to adopt the necessary measures to secure, as soon as possible, for the purpose of the practice of aprofession, recognition of degrees, diplomas,and qualifications in higher education conferred by the competent authorities of another Contracting State.

APPENDIX 2 347

Article 6 The Contracting State shall adopt as soon as possible procedures applicable to the recognition of partial studies in higher education pursued in another Contracting State or in an institution under its authority.

Article 7

(1) The benefits accorded under Articles 3,4,5 and 6 shall be applicable to all persons who have pursued their studies in one of the Contracting States, irrespective of their nationality. All nationals of a Contracting State who have obtained in a non-contracting State, one or more diplomas, degrees or qualifications comparable to those referred to in Articles 3, 4, or 5, shall be entitled to benefit from the applicable provisions provided that their diplomas, degrees or qualifications have been recognized in their country of origin.

(2)

IV. Agencies and Machinery for Implementation Article 8 The Contracting States undertake to work for the attainment of the objectives defined in Article 2, and to ensure the application and fulfilment of the commitments set forth in Articles 3.4, 5, 6 and 7, by means of

(a) national bodies, (b) the Regional Committee, (c) bilateral or sub-regional bodies.

Article 9 The Contracting States recognize that the attainment of the objectives and the fulfilment of the commitments defined in this Convention require, at the national level, close and constant co-operation and co-ordination on the part of a considerable variety of authorities, whether governmental or not, and, in particular, on the part of the universities and other educational institutions. They therefore undertake to set up for the examination and solution of problems relating to the application of this Convention, appropriate national bodies which shall be representative of all the sectors concerned, and to take the relevant administrative measures for ensuring their speedy and efficient operation.

Article 10

(1) There shall be established a Regional Committee, consisting of representatives of all the Contracting States, the Secretariat of which shall be situated in a Contracting State within the region and placed under the responsibility of the Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. The task of the Regional Committee shall be to promote the application of this Convention. It shall receive and examine periodic reports from the Contracting States on progress to date and difficulties met with in applying this Convention, as well as studies on the Convention prepared by its Secretariat. The Regional Committee shall make general or specific recommendations to the Contracting States.

(2)

(3)

Article II The Regional Committee shall elect its Chairman and draw up its Rules of Procedure. It shall meet at least once-every two years, its first meeting being held three months after the deposit of the sixth instrument of ratification.

348 APPENDIX 2

Article I2 The Contracting States may entrust to bilateral or sub-regional bodies, already existing or specially set up for the purpose, the task of examining the problems entailed at the bilateral or sub-regional level by the application of this Convention and of proposing solutions to them.

V. Co-operation with International Organizations Article 13 The Contracting States shall take the appropriate measures to enlist the co-operation of the competent governmental and non-governmental international organizations in their endeavors to ensure the successful application of this Convention. They shall enter into agreements with those organizations and decide, jointly with them, on the most appropriate forms of co-operation.

VI. Ratification, Accession and Entry into Force Article 14 This Convention shall be open for signature and ratification:

(a)

(b)

to the States of Latin America and the Caribbean invited to attend the regional diplomatic conference convened to adopt this Convention and, to other States of Latin America and the Caribbean members of the United Nations, of any of the Specialized Agencies brought into relationship with the United Nations or of the International Atomic Energy Agency, or which are parties to the Statute of the International Court of Justice, which may be invited to become parties to this Convention by a decision of the Regional Committee adopted by a majority to be determined by its Rules of Procedure.

Article 15 nie Regional Committee may authorize States Members of the United Nations, of any of the Specialized Agencies brought into relationship with the United Nations or of the International Atomic Energy Agency, or which are parties to the Statute of the International Court of Justice, outside the region of Latin America and the Caribbean, to accede to this Convention. In that case, the decision of the regional Committee must be adopted by a two- thirds majority of the Contracting States.

Article I6 Ratification of or accession to this Convention shall be effected by the deposit of an instrument of ratification or accession with the Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

Article 17 This Convention shall enter into force between the States that have ratified it, one month after the deposit of the second instrument of ratification. Subsequently, it shall enter into force in respect of each State one month after that State has deposited its instrument of ratification or accession.

Article 18

(1) (2)

(3)

Contracting States may denounce this Convention. The denunciation shall be notified to the Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization by means of an instrument in writing. The denunciation shall take effect twelve months after the date of receipt of its notification.

APPENDIX 2 349

Article 19 This Convention shall in no way affect the international treaties and conventions in force between Contracting States, nor existing national standards, which provide for greater advantages than those granted under this Convention.

Article 20 The Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization shall inform the Contracting States and the other States referred to in Articles 14 and 15, as well as the United Nations, of each deposit of the instruments of ratification or accession referred to in Article 16, and of each deposit of the instruments of denunciation provided for in Article 18.

Article 21 In conformity with Article 102 of the Charter of the United Nations, this Convention shall be registered with the Secretariat of the United Nations on the request of the Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

IN FAITH WHEREOF the undersigned duly authorized, have signed the present Convention. Done at Mexico City, this nineteenth day of July 1974 in the English, French and Spanish

languages, the three versions being equallyauthentic, in a single copy which shall be deposited in the archives of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, and certified true copies of which shall be delivered to all the States referred to in Articles 14 and 15 as well as to the United Nations.

CONVENTION ON THE RECOGNITION OFSTUDIES, DIPLOMAS AND DEGREES IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE ARAB AND EUROPEAN STATES BORDERING ON THE MEDITERRANEAN

The Arab and European States bordering on the Mediterranean, Parties to this Convention, Desiring to strengthen the cultural bonds which history and geographical proximity have

established between them since the most ancient timesand to pursue apolicyofjoint actionin the sphere of education, scientific training and cultural activities, thereby contributing to the strengthening of their co-operation in all its aspects in the interests of the well-being and lasting prosperity of their peoples,

Convinced that these goals would be more easily attained if the right of the inhabitants of each of the Contracting States to have free access to the educational resources of the other Contracting States and, in particular, to continue their education in higher educational institutions in those other States were recognized,

Considering that the recognition by all the Contracting States of studies, certificates, diplomas and degrees obtained in any one of them is calculated todevelop the mobility of persons and the exchange of ideas, knowledge and experience in science and technology, Noting that this recognition constitutes one of the conditions necessary for:

enabling the means of education existing in their territories to be used as effectively as possible for the common good; ensuring that teachers, students, research workers and professional workers have greater mobility; alleviating the difficulties encountered on their return home by persons who have been trained abroad,

(3)

350 APPENDIX 2

Desiring to ,ensure that studies, certificates, diplomas and degrees are recognized as widely as possible, taking into account the principles of the promotion of life-long education, the democratization of education, and the adoption and application of an education policy allowing for structural, economic, technological and social changes and suited to the cultural context of each country, Determined to sanction and organize their future collaboration in these matters by means of

a Convention, which will be the starting point for concerted dynamic action taken in particular by means of national, bilateral and multilateral machinery set up for the purpose, Mindful that the ultimate objective set by the General Conference of the United Nations

Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization consists in ‘preparing an international convention on the recognition and the validity of degrees, diplomas and certificates issued by establishments of higher learning and research in all countries’, Have agreed as follows:

I. Definitions Article I

(1) For the purposes of this Convention the ‘recognition’ of a foreign certificate, diploma or degree of higher education means its acceptance by the competent authorities of a Contracting State and the granting to the holder of the rights enjoyed by persons possessing a national certificate, diploma or degree with which the foreign one is assimilated. Such rights extend to either the pursuit of studies, or the practice of a profession, or both, according to the applicability of the recognition. (a) Recognition of a certificate, diploma or degree with a view to undertaking or

pursuing studies at the higher level shall entitle the holder to enter the higher educational and research institutions of any Contracting State under the same conditions as regards studies as those applying to holders of a similar certificate, diploma or degree issued in the Contracting State concerned. Recognition of a foreign certificate, diploma or degree with a view to the practice of a profession is the recognition of the holder’s technical capacity, required for the practice of the profession concerned. Such recognition does not exempt the holder of the foreign certificate, diploma or degree from complying with any conditions other than those relating to technical capacity for the practice of the profession concerned which may be laid down by the competent governmental or professional authorities.

For the purposes of this Convention: (a) ‘secondary education’ means that stage of studies of any kind which follows

primary or elementary and preparatory education and the aims of which may include preparing pupils for admission to higher education; ‘higher education’ means all types of education and research at post-secondary level open in the different States and according to the conditions laid down by them to all persons who are properly qualified, either because they have obtained a secondary-school-leaving diploma or certificate or because they have received appropriate training or acquired appropriate knowledge.

For the purposes of this Convention, ‘partial studies’ means any education of which the duration or the content is partial by comparison with the norms prevailing in the institution in which it was acquired. Recognition of partial studies pursued in an institution situated in the territory of another Contracting State and recognized by that State may be granted in accordance with the educational level reached by the student by reference to the criteria used by the training bodies in the receiving State.

(b)

(2)

(b)

(3)

APPENDIX 2 35 1

II. Aims Article 2

(1) The Contracting States solemnly declare their firm resolve to co-operate closely with a view to: (a) enabling the educational and research resources available to them to be used as

effectively as possible in the interests of all the Contracting States, and, for this purpose:

to make their higher educational institutions as widely accessible as possible to students or researchers from any of the Contracting States; to recognize the studies, certificates, diplomas and degrees of such persons; to harmonize the entrance requirements of the educational institutions of each country; to adopt terminology and evaluation criteria which would facilitate the application of a system which will ensure the comparability of credits, subjects of study and certificates, diplomas and degrees; to adopt a dynamic approach in matters of admission to further stages of study, bearing in mind not only knowledge acquired, as attested by certificates, diplomas and degrees, but also the individual’s experience and achievements, so far as these may be deemed acceptable by competent authorities; to adopt flexible criteria for the evaluation of partial studies, based on the educational level reached and on the content of the courses taken, bearing in mind the interdisciplinary character of knowledge at university level; to improve the system for the exchange of information regarding the recognition of studies, certificates, diplomas and degrees;

(b) constantly improving curricula in the Contracting States and methods of planning and promoting higher education, taking into account the requirements for economic, social and cultural development, the policies of each country and the objectives that are set out in the recommendations made by the competent organs of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization concerning the continuous improvement of the quality of education, the promotion of life-long education and the democratization of education;

(c) promoting regional and world-wide co-operation in the matter of the recognition of studies and academic qualifications.

The Contracting States agree to take all necessary steps at the national, bilateral and multilateral levels, in particular by means of bilateral, sub-regional, regional or other agreements, agreements between universities or other higher educational institutions and arrangements with the competent national or international organizations and other bodies, with a view to the progressive attainment of the goals defined in the present article.

(2)

III. Undertakings for Immediate Application Article 3

(1) For the purposes of the continuation of studies and immediate admission to the subsequent stages of training in higher educational institutions situated in their respective territories, the Contracting States recognize, under the same conditions as those applying to their own nationals, secondary-school-leaving certificates issued in the other Contracting States, the possession of which qualifies the holders for admission to

352 APPENDIX 2

the subsequent stages of training in higher educational institutions situated in the territories of those Contracting States. Admission to a given higher educational institution may, however, be dependent on the availability of places and also on the conditions concerning linguistic knowledge required or accepted by the educational bodies of the Contracting States in order to undertake the studies in question.

(2)

Article 4

(1) T h e Contracting States agree to take all necessary steps at the national level with a view to: (a) recognizing, for the purpose of the immediate pursuit of studies and admission to

the subsequent stages of training in higher educational institutions situated in their respective territories and under the conditions applicable to nationals, academic qualifications obtained in a higher educational institution situated in the territory of another Contracting State and recognized by it, denoting that a full course of studies at the higher level has been completed to the satisfaction of the competent authorities; defining, so far as possible, the procedure applicable to the recognition, for the purpose of the pursuit of studies, of periods of study spent in higher educational institutions situated in the other Contracting States.

The provisions of Article 3, paragraph 2, above shall apply to the cases covered by this Article.

(b)

(2)

Article 5 The Contracting States agree to take the necessary steps to ensure that certificates, diplomas or degrees issued by the competent authorities of the other Contracting States are effectively recognized so far as possible for the purpose of practising a profession within the meaning of Article 1, paragraph I(b).

Article 6

(1) Considering that recognition refers to the studies followed and the certificates, diplomas or degrees obtained in the recognized institutions of a given Contracting State, any person, of whatever nationality or political or legal status, who has followed such studies and obtained such certificates, diplomas or degrees shall be entitled to benefit from the provisions of Articles 3, 4 and 5. Any national of a Contracting State who has obtained in the territory of a non- Contracting State one or more certificates, diplomas or degrees similar to those defined in Articles 3, 4 and 5 may avail himself of those provisions which are applicable, on condition that his certificates, diplomas or degrees have been recognized in his home country and in the country in which he wishes to continue his studies, without prejudice to the provisions of Article 20 of this Convention.

(2)

IV. Machinery for Implementation Article 7 The Contracting States shall endeavour to attain the goals defined in Article 2and shall ensure that the agreements set forth in Articles 3, 4 and 5 above are put into effect by means of

(a) national bodies; (b) (c) bilateral or sub-regional bodies.

the Intergovernmental Committee defined in Article 9;

APPENDIX 2 353

Article 8

(1) The Contracting States recognize that the attainment of the goals and the execution of the agreements defined in this Convention will require, at the national level, close co- operation and co-ordination of the efforts of a great variety of national authorities, whether governmental or non-governmental, particularly universities and other educational institutions. They therefore agree to entrust the study of the problems involved in the application of this Convention to appropriate national bodies, with which all the sectors concerned will be associated and which will be empowered to propose appropriate solutions. The Contracting States will furthermore take all the administrative measures required to speed up the effective functioning of these national bodies. Every national body shall have at its disposal the necessary means to enable it either to collect, process and file all information of use to it in its activities relating to studies, diplomas and degrees in higher education, or to obtain the information it requires in this connexion at short notice from a separate national documentation centre.

(2)

Article 9

(1) An Intergovernmental Committee composed of experts mandated by the Contracting States is hereby set up and its secretariat entrusted to the Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. The function of the Intergovernmental Committee shall be to promote the application of this Convention. It shall receive and examine the periodic reports which the Contracting States shall communicate to it on the progress made and the obstacles encountered by them in the application of the Convention and also the studies carried out by its secretariat on the said Convention. The Contracting States undertake to submit to the Committee their reports at least once every two years. The Intergovernmental Committee shall, where appropriate, address to the Contracting States recommendations of a general or individual character concerning the application of this Convention. The secretariat of the Intergovernmental Committee shall help national bodies to obtain the information needed by them in their activities.

(2)

(3)

(4)

Article IO The Intergovernmental Committee shall elect its Chairman and adopt its Rules of Procedure. It shall meet for the first time three months after the sixth instrument of ratification or accession has been deposited.

Article 11 The Contracting States may entrust existing bilateral or sub-regional bodies or bodies set up for the purpose with the task of studying the problems involved at the bilateral or regional levels in the application of this Convention and contributing to their solution.

V. Documentation Article 12

(1) The Contracting States shall periodically engage in wide exchanges of information and documentation pertaining to studies, certificates, diplomas and degrees in higher education. They shall endeavour to promote the development of methods and machinery for (2)

354 APPENDIX 2

collecting, processing, classifying and disseminating all the necessary information pertaining to the recognition of studies, certificates, diplomas and degrees in higher education, taking into account existing methods and machinery as well as information collected by national, regional and international bodies, including Unesco.

VI. Co-operation with International Organizations Article 13 The Intergovernmental Committee shall make all the appropriate arrangements for associating the competent international organizations, both governmental and non- governmental, with its efforts to ensure that this Convention is applied as fully as possible.

VII. Institutions of Higher Education under the Authority of a Contracting State but Situated outside its Territory Article 14 The provisions of this Convention apply to studies pursued at and to certificates, diplomas and degrees obtained from any institution of higher education under the authority of a Contracting State, even when this institution is situated outside its territory.

VIII. Ratification, Accession and Entry into Force Article 15 This Convention shall be open to the signature and ratification of the Arab and European States bordering on the Mediterranean which have been invited to participate in the diplomatic Conference entrusted with drafting it.

Article 16

Other States which are members of the United Nations, of one of the Specialized Agencies or of the International Atomic Energy Agency or which are parties to the Statute of the International Court of Justice may be authorized to accede to this Convention. Any request to this effect shall be communicated to the Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization who shall transmit it to the Contracting States at least three months before the meeting of the Inter-Governmental Committee. The Committee shall meet as an A d hoc Committee for the purpose of considering such a request. Its members must have an express mandate to that effect from their Governments. In such cases, the decision of the Committee shall require a two-thirds majority of the Contracting States. This procedure shall apply only when a majority of the States referred to in Article 15 has ratified the Convention.

Article 17 Ratification of this Convention or accession to it shall be effected by depositing an instrument of ratification or accession with the Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

Article I8 This Convention shall enter into force one month after the second instrument of ratification has been deposited but solely with respect to the States which have deposited their instruments of ratification. It shall enter into force for each other State one month after that State has deposited its instrument of ratification or accession.

APPENDIX 2 355

Article 19

(I) (2)

The Contracting States shall have the right to denounce this Convention. The denunciation shall be signified by an instrument in writing deposited with the Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. The denunciation shall take effect twelve months after the instrument of denunciation has been received. However, persons having benefited from the provisions of this Convention who may be pursuing studies in the territory of the State denouncing the Convention will be able to complete the course of studies they have begun.

(3)

Article 20 This Convention shall not affect in any way the treaties and conventions already in force between the Contracting States or the national legislation adopted by them in so far as such treaties, conventions and legislation offer greater advantages than those provided for in the Convention.

Article 21 The Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization shall inform the Contracting States and the other States mentioned in Articles 15 and 16 and also the United Nations of the deposit of all the instruments of ratification or accession referred to in Article 17 as well as of the denunciations provided for in Article 19.

Article 22 In comformity with Article 102 of the United Nations Charter, this Convention shall be registered with the Secretariat of the United Nations at the request of the Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

IN FAITH WHEREOF the undersigned representatives, being duly authorized thereto, have signed this Convention.

Done at Nice, this seventeenth day of December 1976, in the Arabic, English, French and Spanish languages, the four texts being equally authoritative, in a single copy which shall be deposited in the archives of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. A certified copy shall be sent to all the States referred to in Articles 15 and 16 and to the United Nations.

CONVENTION ON THE RECOGNITION OF STUDIES, DIPLOMAS A N D DEGREES IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE ARAB STATES

Preamble The Arab States, Parties to the present Convention,

Considering the common heritage and the close community, intellectual and cultural ties which bind them together, and desirous of giving clearer, concrete expression to the intellectual and cultural co-operation enshrined in the Arab Cultural Treaty of 21 Dhoul Hydgah 1364 (27 November 1945) and the Pact of Arab Cultural Unity of 16 Chawal 1383 (29 February 1964), and the relevant bilateral and multi-lateral agreements, Desirous of promoting education and scientific research, strengthening their co-operation

in those areas and making good use of human resources, with the aim of achievingeconomic, social and cultural development and maximum integration of the area and ofpreserving their cultural identity,

APPENDIX 2

Convinced of the necessity of ensuring the recognition of studies, diplomas and degrees in higher education with a view to facilitating the mobility of students, members of the teaching profession, and other specialists and research workers within the region, and being aware of the need to develop education, to promote access thereto and improve its quality and to promote lifelong education,

Convinced that, on account of the diversity and complexity of programmes of study, it is desirable that the recognition of stages of training completed should take into account not only the diplomas and degrees obtained but also the courses of studies followed and the knowledge and experience acquired, Resolved to organize their co-operation and strengthen it in respect of recognition of

studies, diplomas and degrees of higher education by means of a convention which would be the starting point for concerted, dynamic action carried out, in particular, through national, bilateral, subregional and regional bodies set up for that purpose, Expressing the hope that this Convention will be a step towards more wide-ranging action

leading to an international convention between all the Member States of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Have agreed as follows:

I. Definitions Article 1

(1) For the purpose of the present Convention the ‘recognition’ of a certificate, qualification, diploma or degree of higher education obtained in one of the Contracting States means its acceptance by the competent authorities of another Contracting State and the granting to the holder of the rights enjoyed by persons possessing a certificate, qualification, diploma or degree issued by that State with which the certificate, qualification, diploma or degree obtained in the first Contracting State is comparable. Such rights extend to either the pursuit of studies, or the practice of aprofession, or both, according to the applicability of the recognition. (a) Recognition by a Contracting State of a certificate, qualification, diploma or

degree awarded by another contracting State with a view to undertaking or pursuing studies at the higher level shall entitle the holder to enter the higher educational and research institutions of any other Contracting State under the same conditions as those applying to holders of a similar certificate, qualification, diploma or degree issued in the Contracting State concerned. Such recognition does not exempt the holder of the certificate, qualification, diploma or degree from complying with the other conditions laid down by the law or with the regulations governing admission to higher educational institutions. A Contracting State which recognizes a certificate, qualification, diploma or degree enabling the holder to practise a profession thereby recognizes the holder’s technical ability and confers on him rights and obligations identical to those which he would have if he obtained such a certificate, qualification, diploma or degree directly in that State with a view to the practice of the same profession. Such recognition does not exempt the holder of the certificate, qualification, diploma or degree from complying with the other conditions laid down by the law in force in each State or conditions for the practice of the profession concerned which may be laid down by the competent governmental or professional authorities.

‘secondary education’ means that stage of studies of any kind which follows

(b)

(2) For the purposes of the present Convention: (a)

APPENDIX 2 357

primary, elementary. preparatory or intermediate education and the aims of which may include preparing pupils for higher education; ‘higher education’ means all types of education and research at post-secondary level. Such education is open to all persons who have obtained a diploma or certificate attesting that they have successfully completed their education at the secondary level or at an equivalent level in accordance with the conditions laid down for that purpose by the State concerned.

For the purpose of the present Convention, ‘partial studies’ means any education of which the duration or the content is partial by comparison with the norms prevailing in the institution in which it was acquired. Recognition by a Contracting State of partial studies pursued in an institution situated in the territory of another Contracting State and recognized by that State may be granted in accordance with the educational level reached by the student in the opinion of the State granting recognition.

(b)

(3)

II. Aims Article 2

(1) The Contracting States solemnly declare their firm resolve to co-operate closely with a view to: (a) enabling the educational resources available to them to be used as effectively as

possible in the interests of all the Contracting States, and. for this purpose: 6)

(ii)

(iii)

iiv)

(VI

(vi)

(vii)

(viii)

to adopt terminology and evaluation criteria as similar as possible, especially as regards the harmonization of the names of diplomas and degrees and of stages of study, in order to simplify the application of a system which will ensure the comparability of credits, subjects of study and diplomas; to improve the system for the exchange of information regarding the recognition of studies, diplomas and degrees; to co-ordinate the entrance requirements of the educational institutions of each country; to adopt a dynamic approach in matters of admission to further stages of study, bearing in mind not only knowledge acquired, as attested by diplomas and degrees, but also the individual’s experience and achievements, so far as these may be deemed acceptable by the competent authorities; to adopt flexible criteria for the evaluation of partial studies, based on the educational level reached and on the content of the courses taken, bearing in mind the interdisciplinary character of knowledge at university level; to make their higher educational institutions as widely accessible as possible to students from any of the Contracting States; to recognize the studies, diplomas and degrees of such persons. and to encourage exchanges and the greatest possible freedom of movement of teachers, students and research workers in the region; to alleviate the difficulties encountered by those returning home after completing their education abroad, so that their reintegration into the life of the country may be achieved in the manner most beneficial both to the community and to the development of their own personality;

(b) constantly improving higher education curricula in the Contracting States through planning and continuous evaluation so as to take account of the personality and identity of the Arab nation, of development requirements and of the recommendations made by the competent organs of Unesco, ALECSO and

358 APPENDIX 2

the Association of Arab Universities concerning the continuous improvement of the quality of education, the promotion of lifelong education and the democratization of education; promoting the widest and most effective use of human resources so as to contribute to the acceleration of the development of the countries concerned whilst at the same time avoiding the ‘brain drain’ from the Arab States;

(d) promoting interregional co-operation in the matter of the recognition of studies and academic qualifications.

The Contracting States agree to take all necessary steps at the national, bilateral and multilateral levels, in particular by means of bilateral, subregional, regional or other agreements, agreements between universities or other higher educational institutions and arrangements with the competent national or international organizations and other bodies, with a view to the progressive attainment of the goals defined in the present Article.

(c)

(2)

III. Undertakings for Immediate Application Article 3

(1) For the purpose of the continuation of studies and direct admission to the subsequent stages of training in higher educational institutions situated in their territories, each of the Contracting States recognizes, under the same academic conditions as those applicable to its nationals, secondary-school-leaving certificates issued in the other Contracting States, provided their possession qualifies the holders for direct admission to the subsequent stages of training in higher educational institutions situated in the territories of those Contracting States. Admission to a given higher educational institution may, however, be dependent on the availability of places, and on compatibility with the host country’s planning and development needs.

(2)

Article 4 Each of the Contracting States agrees to take all necessary steps with a view to:

(a) recognizing, for the purpose of the immediate pursuit of studies and admission to the subsequent stages of training in higher educational institutions situated in its territory and under the conditions applicable to its nationals, academic qualifications obtained in a governmental higher educational institution situated in the territory of another Contracting State and recognized by it, denoting that a full course of studies at the higher level has been completed to the satisfaction of the competent authorities, taking into account the relevant provisions of the preceding articles;

(b) endeavouring to establish the procedures, criteria and methods for recognizing degrees and diplomas awarded by higher educational institutions situated in the other Contracting States, as well as recognizing, for the purpose of the pursuit of studies, periods of study and partial studies in such institutions; endeavouring to apply the provisions of paragraph (b) of the present Article to the studies, diplomas, degrees and qualifications awarded by regional higher educational institutions, under the authority of the League of Arab States or any other Arab intergovernmental organization.

(c)

Article 5 Each Contracting State agrees to take the necessary steps to ensure as far as possible that certificates, diplomas, degrees or qualifications issued by the competent authorities of the

APPENDIX 2 359

other Contracting States are effectively recognized for the purpose of practising a profession, in accordance with Article 1, paragraph 1.

Article 6

Any person, of whatever political or legal status, who has followed studies in one of the Contracting States shall be entitled to benefit from the provisions of Articles 3,4 and 5, provided this is not contrary to the laws and international legal obligations of the host country. Without prejudice to the provisions contained in Article 20 of the present Convention, any national of a Contracting State who has obtained in the territory of a non- Contracting State one or more certificates, qualifications, diplomas or degrees similar to those defined in Articles 3,4 and 5 above may avail himself of those provisions which are applicable, on condition that the certificates, qualifications, diplomas or degrees in question have been recognized in his home country and in the country in which he wishes to continue his studies or practise a profession.

Machinery for Implementation Article 7 The Contracting States shall endeavour to attain the goals defined in Article 2 and shall ensure that the agreements set forth in Articles 3, 4 and 5 above are put into effect by means of

(a) national bodies; (b) the Regional Committee, which will seek the co-operation of the existing competent

regional institutions, and in particular the Arab Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization and the Association of Arab Universities;

(c) bilateral or subregional bodies.

Article 8

(1) The Contracting States recognize that the attainment of the goals and the execution of the agreements defined in the present Convention will require, at the national level, close co-operation and co-ordination of the efforts of a variety of national authorities whether governmental or non-governmental, particularly universities and other educational institutions. They therefore agree to entrust the study and solution of the problems involved in the application of the present Convention to appropriate national bodies, with which the sectors concerned will be associated, and to take all the administrative measures required to speed up the functioning of these national bodies effectively. Every national body shall have at its disposal the necessary means to enable it either to collect, process and file all information of use to it in its activities relating to studies, diplomas and degrees in higher education, or to obtain the information it requires in this connection at short notice from a separate national documentation centre.

(2)

Article 9

(1) A Regional Committee of Contracting States composed of representatives of all the Contracting States is hereby set up and its secretariat entrusted to the Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization in co-operation and co-ordination with the Arab Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization and the Association of Arab Universities. Unesco, ALECSO, the Association of Arab Universities, and any other international governmental or non-governmental

360 APPENDIX 2

organization designated by the Committee shall be permitted to be represented at its meetings. The function of the Gommittee of Contracting States shall be to promoteandextend the application of the present Convention. It shall receive and examine the periodic reports which the Contracting States shall communicate to it on the progress made and the obstacles encountered by them in the application of the Convention and also the studies carried out by its secretariat on the said Convention. The Contracting States undertake to submit to the Committee their reports at least once every two years. The Regional Committee shall assist the institutions of higher education in the Contracting States in carrying out at their request self-evaluation in regard to this Convention at least once every five years, in accordance with a system to be established by the Committee for this purpose. The Committee shall also address recommendations of a general or individual character to the contracting States. The Regional Committee shall undertake the necessary studies required to adapt the objectives of this Convention in accordance with the evolving requirements of social, cultural and economic development in the Contracting States and shall submit its recommendations to them; these recommendations shall take effect after their approval by not less than two-thirds of the Contracting States. The secretariat of the Committee of Contracting States shall co-operate with national bodies to obtain the information needed by them in their activities. The Regional Committee shall be entitled to propose to Contracting States plans and procedures for implementing the Convention and co-ordinating its practical application by the Contracting States and Unesco.

Article 10 The Regional Committee shall meet for the first time three months after six States have deposited their instrument of ratification. It shall elect its Chairman and adopt its Rules of Procedure. It shall set up the technical organs and bodies needed for the accomplishment of its work and shall define their competence and powers. It shall meet at least once every year and whenever necessary.

Article II The Contracting States may entrust bilateral, subregional or regional bodies already in existence or set up for the purpose with the task of studying, and contributing to the solution of, the problems involved in the application of the present Convention at the bilateral, subregional or regional levels.

V. Documentation Article I2

(1)

(2)

The Contracting States shall periodically engage in wide exchanges of information and documentation pertaining to studies, diplomas and degrees in higher education. They shall endeavour to promote the development of methods and means for collecting, processing, filing and disseminating all the necessary information pertaining to the recognition of studies, certificates, qualifications and degrees in higher education, while taking into account the methods and means used and information collected in this respect by the various national, regional and international agencies, especially the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, the Arab Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization and the Association of Arab Universities.

APPENDIX 2 36 1

VI. Co-operation with International Organizations Article 13 The Regional Committee shall make all the necessary arrangements for associating the competent international organizations, both governmental and non-governmental, with its efforts to ensure that the present Convention is applied as fully as possible. For this purpose it shall conclude the appropriate agreements and arrangements with them.

VI1 outside its Territory Article 14 The provisions of the present Convention apply to studies pursued in, and to certificates, qualifications, diplomas and degrees obtained from, any institution of higher education which is affiliated to an institution under the authority of a Contracting State and which is situated outside its territory, within the limits authorized by the provisions in force in each of the Contracting States.

Institutions of Higher Education under the Authority of a Contracting State but Situated

VIII. Article 15 The present Convention shall be open to the signature and ratification of Arab States members of the League of Arab States and of Unesco, and of any other State member of the League of Arab States and of any other State belonging to the Arab States region as defined by Unesco.

Ratification, Accession and Entry into Force

Article 16

(I)

(2)

Other States which are members of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization may be authorized to accede to this Convention. Any such request should be communicated to the Director-General of the United Nations Educational. Scientific and Cultural Organization, who shall transmit it to the Contracting States at least three months before the meeting of the Regional Committee. The Committee shall meet as an ad hoc committee to take a decision concerning the request. Its members shall be given specific authorization by their governments to that effect. Decisions in such cases shall be bya two-thirds majority of the Contracting States. This procedure shall apply only when a majority of the States referred to in Article 15 has ratified the Convention.

(3)

(4)

Article 17 Ratification of the present Convention or accession to it shall be effected by depositing an instrument of ratification or accession with the Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

Article 18 The present Convention shall enter into force one month after two States have deposited their instrument of ratification, but solely with respect to the States which have deposited their instruments of ratification. It shall enter into force for each other State one month after that State has deposited its instrument of ratification or accession.

Article 19 (I) (2)

The Contracting States shall have the right to denounce the present Convention. The denunciation shall be signified by an instrument in writing deposited with the

362 APPENDIX 2

Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

(3) The denunciation shall take effect 12 months after the instrument of denunciation has been received. It shall have no retroactive effects, nor shall it affect the recognition of studies, qualifications, diplomas or degrees which has taken place in accordance with the provisions of the Convention when the State denouncing the Convention was still bound thereby. Such recognition shall continue to have its full effect after the denunciation has become effective.

Article 20 This Convention shall not affect in any way the treaties and conventions already in force between the Contracting States or the national legislation adopted by them in so far as such treaties, conventions and legislation offer greater advantages than those provided for in the present Convention.

Arricle 21 The Director-General of the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization shall inform the Contracting States and the other States mentioned in Articles 15 and 16 and also the United Nations of the deposit of all the instruments of ratification or accession referred to in Article 17 as well as of the denunciations provided for in Article 19.

Article 22 In conformity with Article 102 of the United Nations Charter, the present Convention shall be registered with the Secretariat of the United Nations at the request of the Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

IN FAITH THEREOF the undersigned representatives, being duly authorized thereto, have signed the present Convention.

Done at Paris, this 22nd day of Muharram 1399 (22 December 1978) in the Arabic, English and French languages, the three texts being equally authoritative, in a single copy which shall be deposited in the archives of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. A certified true copy shall be sent to all the States referred to in Articles 15 and 16 and to the United Nations.

CONVENTION ON THE RECOGNITION OF STUDIES, DIPLOMAS AND DEGREES CONCERNING HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE STATES BELONGING TO THE EUROPE REGION

Preamble The States of the Europe Region, Parties to this Convention, Recalling that, as the General Conference of Unesco has noted on several occasions in its

resolutions concerning European co-operation, ‘the development of co-operation between nations in the fields of education, science, culture and communication, in accordance with the principles set out in Unesco’s Constitution, plays an essential role in the promotion of peace and international understanding’,

Comcious of the close relationship that exists between their cultures, despite their diversity of languages and the differences in economic and social systems, and desiring to strengthen their co-operation in the field of education and training in the interests of the well-being and lasting prosperity of their peoples,

APPENDIX 2 363

Recalling that the States meeting in Helskini expressed, in the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (I August 1975), their intention ‘to improve access, under mutually acceptable conditions, for students, teachers and scholars of the participating States to each other’s educational, cultural and scientific institutions . . . in particular by. . . arriving at the mutual recognition of academic degrees and diplomas either through governmental agreements, where necessary, or direct arrangements between universities and other institutions of higher learning and research’, and also by ‘promoting a more exact assessment of the problems of comparison and equivalence of academic degrees and diplomas’, Recalling that, with a view to promoting the attainment of these objectives, most of the

Contracting States have already concluded bilateral or sub-regional agreements among themselves concerning the equivalence or recognition of diplomas; but desiring, while pursuing and intensifying their efforts at the bilateral and subregional levels, to extend their co-operation in this field to the whole Europe Region,

Convinced that the great diversity of higher education systems in the Europe Region constitutes an exceptionally rich cultural asset which should be preserved, and desiring to enable all their peoples to benefit fully from this rich cultural asset byfacilitatingaccess by the inhabitants of each Contracting State to the educational resources of the other Contracting States, more especially by authorizing them to continue their education in higher educational institutions in those other States,

Considering that, to authorize admission to further stages of study, the concept of the recognition of studies should be employed, a concept which in a context of social and international mobility, makes it possible to evaluate the level of education reached bearing in mind knowledge acquired, as attested by diplomas and degrees obtained and also the individual’s other relevant qualifications, so far as these may be deemed acceptable by competent authorities,

Considering that the recognition by all the Contracting States of studies, certificates, diplomas and degrees obtained in any one of them is intended to develop the international mobility of persons and the exchange of ideas, knowledge and scientific and technological experience, and that it would be desirable to accept foreign students into establishments of higher education on the understanding that recognition of their studies or diplomas shall at no time confer on them greater rights than those enjoyed by national students, Noting that this recognition constitutes one of the conditions necessary for:

(1)

(2)

(3)

enabling means of education existing in their territories to be used as effectively as possible, ensuring that teachers, students, research workers and professional workers have greater mobility, alleviating the difficulties encountered on their return by persons who have been trained or educated abroad,

Desiring to ensure that studies, certificates, diplomas and degrees are recognized as widely as possible, taking into account the principles of the promotion of lifelong education, the democratization of education, and the adoption and application of an education policy allowing for structural, economic, technological and social changes and suited to the cultural context of each country, Determined to sanction and organize their future collaboration in these matters by means of

a convention which will be the starting point for concerted dynamic action taken in particular by means of national, bilateral, subregional and multilateral machinery already existing or that may be deemed necessary, Mindful that the ultimate objective set by the General Conference of the United Nations

APPENDIX 2

Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization consists in ‘preparing an international Convention on the Recognition and the Validity of Degrees, Diplomas and Certificates issued by establishments of Higher Learning and Research in all Countries’,

Have agreed as follows:

I. Definitions Article 1

(1) For the purpose of this Convention, the ‘recognition’ of a foreign certificate, diploma or degree of higher education means its acceptance as a valid credential by the competent authorities in a Contracting State and the granting to its holder of rights enjoyed by persons who possess a national certificate, diploma or degree with which the foreign one is assessed as comparable. Recognition is further defined as follows: -

Recognition of a certificate, diploma or degree with a view to undertaking or pursuing studies at the higher level shall enable the holder to be considered for entry to the higher educational and research institutions of any Contracting State as if he were the holder of a comparable certificate, diploma or degree issued in the Contracting State concerned. Such recognition does not exempt the holder of the foreign certificate, diploma or degree from complying with the conditions (other than those relating to the holding of a diploma) which may be required for admission to the higher educational or research institution concerned of the receiving State. Recognition of a foreign certificate, diploma or degree with a view to the practice of a profession is recognition of the professional preparation of the holder for the practice of the profession concerned, without prejudice, however, to the legal and professional rules or procedures in force in the Contracting States Concerned. Such recognition does not exempt the holder of the foreign certificate, diploma or degree from complying with any other conditions for the practice of the profession concerned which may be laid down by the competent governmental or professional authorities. Recognition of a certificate, diploma or degree should not, however, entitle the holder to more rights in another Contracting State than he would enjoy in the country in which the certificate, diploma or degree was awarded.

For the purposes of this Convention, ‘partial studies’ means periods of study or training which while not constituting a complete course are such that they add significantly to the acquisition of knowledge or skills.

(2)

II. Aims Article 2

(1) The Contracting States intend to contribute through their joint action both to the promotion of the active co-operation of all the countries of the Europe Region in the cause of peace and international understanding, and to the development of more effective collaboration with other Member States of Unesco with regard to a better use of their educational, technological and scientific potential. The Contracting States solemnly declare their firm resolve to co-operate closely within the framework of their legislation and constitutional structures, as well as within the framework of existing intergovernmental agreements, with a view to: (a) Enabling, in the interest of the Contracting States, and consistent with their

general policy for educational provision and administrative procedures, the best use of their available education and research resources, and for this purpose:

(2)

365 APPENDIX 2

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

to make their higher educational institutions as widely accessible as possible to students or researchers from any of the Contracting States; to recognize the studies, certificates, diplomas and degrees of such persons; to examine the possibility of elaborating and adopting similar terminology and evaluation criteria which would facilitate the application of a system which will ensure the comparability of credits, subjects of study and certificates, diplomas and degrees; to adopt a dynamic approach in matters of admission to further stages of study, bearing in mind knowledge acquired, as attested by certificates, diplomas and degrees, and also the individual’s other relevant qualifications, so far as these may be deemed acceptable by competent authorities; to adopt flexible criteria for the evaluation of partial studies, based on the educational level reached and on the content of the courses taken, bearing in mind the interdisciplinary character of knowledge at the higher educational level; to improve the system for the exchange of information regarding the recognition of studies, certificates, diplomas and degrees;

(b) Constantly improving curricula in the Contracting States and methods of planning and promoting higher education, on the basis of not only the requirements for economic, social and cultural development, the policies of each country and also the objectives that are set out in the recommendations made by the competent organs of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization concerning the continuous improvement of the quality of education, the promotion of lifelong education and the democratization of education, but also the aims ofthe full development of the human personalityand of understanding. tolerance and friendship among nations and in general all aims concerning human rights assigned to education by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the United Nations International Covenants on Human Rights and the Unesco Convention Against Discrimination in Education. Promoting regional and world-wide co-operation for the solution of the ‘problems of comparison and equivalence between academic degrees and diplomas’ . . . as well as for recognition of studies and academic diplomas.

The Contracting States agree to take all feasible steps at the national, bilateral and multilateral levels, in particular by means of bilateral, subregional, regional or other agreements, arrangements between universities or other higher educational institutions and arrangements with the competent national or international organizations and other bodies, with a view to the progressive attainment by the competent authorities concerned of the goals defined in the present article.

(c)

(3)

III. Undertakings for Immediate Application Article 3

(1) The Contracting States in addition to any obligations of governments, agree to take all feasible steps with a view to encouraging the competent authorities concerned to give recognition, as defined in Article 1, paragraph 1 to secondary school leaving certificates and other diplomas issued in the other Contracting States that grant access to higher education with a view to enabling the holders to undertake studies in institutions of higher education situated in the respective territories of the Contracting States. Without prejudice to the provisions of Article 1, paragraph l(a), however, admission to a (2)

APPENDIX 2

given higher educational institution may also be dependent upon the availability of places and the qualifications concerning linguistic knowledge required in order profitably to undertake the studies in question.

Article 4

(1) The Contracting States, in addition to any obligations of governments, agree to take all feasible steps with a view to encouraging the competent authorities concerned to: (a) give recognition as defined in Article 1, paragraph 1 to certificates, diplomas and

degrees with a view to enabling the holders to pursue advanced studies and training and undertake research in their institutions of higher education; define, so far as possible, the procedure applicable to the recognition, for the purpose of the pursuit of studies, of the partial studies pursued in higher educational institutions situated in the other Contracting States.

(2) The provisions of Article 3, paragraph 2 above shall apply to the cases covered by this article.

(b)

Ariicle 5 The Contracting States, in addition to any obligations of governments, agree to take all feasible steps with a view to encouraging the competent authorities concerned to give recognition to the certificates, diplornas or degrees issued by the competent authorities of the other Contracting States for the purpose of practising a profession within the meaning of Article 1, paragraph l(b).

Article 6 Where admission to educational institutions in the territory of a Contracting State is outside the control of that State, it shall transmit the text of the Convention to the institutions concerned and use its best endeavours to obtain the acceptance by the latter of the principles stated in Sections II and III of the Convention.

Article 7

Considering that recognition refers to the studies followed and the certificates,diplomas or degrees obtained from institutions approved by the competent authorities concerned in the Contracting State in which the certificates, diplomas, or degrees were obtained, any person, of whatever nationality or political or legal status, who has followed such studies and obtained such certificates, diplomas or degrees shall be eligible for consideration to benefit from the provisions of Articles 3, 4 and 5. Any national of a Contracting State who has obtained in the territory of a non- Contracting State one or more certificates, diplomas or degrees comparable to those defined in Articles 3,4 and 5 may avail himself of those provisions which are applicable, on condition that his certificates, diplomas or degrees have been recognized in his home country and in the country in which he wishes to continue his studies.

Machinery for Implementation Article 8 Th e Contracting States shall undertake to work for the attainment of the objectives defined in Article 2 and shall make their best efforts to ensure that the undertakings set forth in Articles 3, 4, 5 and 6 above are put into effect by means of:

(a) national bodies;

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(b) (c) bilateral or subregional bodies.

Article 9

the Regional Committee defined in Article 10;

367

The Contracting States recognize that the attainment of the goals and the execution of the undertakings defined in this Convention will require, at the national level, close co- operation and co-ordination of the efforts of a great variety of national authorities, whether governmental or non-governmental, particularly universities, validating bodies and other educational institutions. They therefore agree to entrust the study of the problems involved in the application of this Convention to appropriate national bodies, with which all the sectors concerned will be associated and which will be empowered to propose appropriate solutions. The Contracting States will furthermore take all feasible measures required to speed up the effective functioning of these national bodies. The Contracting States shall co-operate with the competent authorities of another Contracting State especially by enabling them to collect all information of use to them in their activities relating to studies, diplomas and degrees in higher education. Every national body shall have at its disposal the necessary means to enable it either to collect, process and file all information of use to it in its activities relating to studies, diplomas and degrees in higher education, or to obtain the information it requires in this connection at short notice from a separate national documentation centre.

Article 10

A regional committee composed of representatives of the governments of the Contracting States is hereby set up. Its Secretariat is entrusted to the Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Non-Contracting States of the Europe Region which have been invited to take part in the diplomatic conference entrusted with the adoption of this Convention shall be able to participate in the meetings of the Regional Committee. The function of the Regional Committee shall be to promote the application of this Convention. It shall receive and examine the periodic reports which the Contracting States shall communicate to it on the progress made and the obstacles encountered by them in the application of the Convention and also the studies carried out by its Secretariat on the said Convention. The Contracting States undertake to submit a report to the Committee at least once every two years. The Regional Committee shall, where appropriate, address to the Contracting States recommendations of a general or individual character concerning the application of this Convention.

Article II

(1) The Regional Committee shall elect its Chairman for each session and adopt its Rules of Procedure. It shall meet in ordinary session at least every two years. The Committee shall meet for the first time three months after the sixth instrument of ratification or accession has been deposited. The Secretariat of the Regional Committee shall prepare the agenda for the meetings of the Committee, in accordance with the instructions it receives from the Committee and the provisions of the Rules of Procedure. It shall help national bodies to obtain the information needed by them in their activities.

(2)

368 APPENDIX 2

V. Documentation Article I2

(I)

(2)

The Contracting States shall engage in exchanges of information and documentation pertaining to studies, certificates, diplomas and degrees in higher education. They shall endeavour to promote the development of methods and machinery for collecting, processing, classifying and disseminating all the necessary information pertaining to the recognition of studies, certificates, diplomas and degrees in higher education, taking into account existing methods and machinery as well as information collected by national, regional, subregional and international bodies, in particular the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

VI. Co-operation with International Organizations Article 13 The Regional Committee shall make all the appropriate arrangements for associating with its efforts, for the purpose of ensuring that this Convention is applied as fully as possible, the competent international governmental and non-governmental organizations. This applies particularly to the intergovernmental institutions and agencies vested with responsibility for the application of subregional conventions or agreements concerning the recognition of diplomas and degrees in the States belonging to the Europe Region.

VIL Institutions of Higher Education under the Authority of a Contracting State but Situated outside its Territory Article 14 The provisions of this Convention shall apply to studies pursued at, and to certificates, diplomas and degrees obtained from, any institution of higher education under the authority of a Contracting State,even when this institution is situated outside its territory, provided that the competent authorities in the Contracting State in which the institution is situated have no objections.

VIII. Ratification, Accession and Entry into Force Article I5 This Convention shall be open for signature and ratification by the States of the Europe Region which have been invited to take part in the diplomatic conference entrusted with the adoption of this Convention as well as by the Holy See.

Article 16

(1) Other States which are members of the United Nations, of one of the Specialized Agencies or of the International Atomic Energy Agency or which are Parties to the Statute of the International Court of Justice may be authorized to accede to this Convention. Any request to this effect shall be communicated to the Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization who shall transmit it to the Contracting States at least three months before the meeting of the ad hoc committee referred to in paragraph 3 of this article. The Contracting States shall meet as anadhoc committee comprising one representative for each Contracting State, with an express mandate from his government to consider such a request. In such cases, the decision of the committee shall require a two-thirds majority of the Contracting States. This procedure shall apply only when the Convention has been ratified by at least U) of the States referred to in Article 15.

(2)

(3)

(4)

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Article 17 Ratification of this Convention or accession to it shall be effected by depositing an instrument of ratification or accession with the Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

Article 18 This Convention shall enter into force one month after the fifth instrument of ratification has been deposited, but solely with respect to the States which have deposited their instruments of ratification. It shall enter into force for each other State one month after that State has deposited its instrument of ratification or accession.

Article 19

(I) (2)

The Contracting Stater shall have the right to denounce this Convention. The denunciation shall be signified by an instrument in writing deposited with the Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. The denunciation shall take effect twelve months after the instrument of denunciation has been received. However. persons having benefited from the provisions of this Convention who may be pursuing studies in the territory of the State denouncing the Convention will be able to complete the course of studies they have begun.

(3)

Article 20 The Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization shall inform the Contracting States and the other States mentioned in Articles 15 and 16 and also the United Nations of the deposit of all the instruments of ratification or accession referred to in Article 17 and the denunciations provided for in Article 19 of this Convention.

Article 21 In conformity with Article 102 of the United Nations Charter, this Convention shall be registered with the Secretariat of the United Nations at the request of the Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

IN WITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned representatives, being duly authorized, have signed this Convention.

Done at Paris, this 21st day of December 1979, in the English, French, Russian and Spanish languages, the four texts being equally authoritative, in a single copy which shall be deposited in the archives of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. A certified copy shall be sent to all the States referred to in Articles 15 and 16 and to the United Nations.