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Gymnázium, Brno, Slovanské nám. 7, WORKBOOK - Chemistry

I N V E S T I C E D O R O Z V O J E V Z D Ě L Á V Á N Í

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WORKBOOK

http://agb.gymnaslo.cz

Subject: Chemistry Class: 2.X

Topics: 1. Systematic inorganic chemistry 2. The history of organic chemistry 3. Organic chemistry-nomenclature, isomerism, conformation 4. Aromatic hydrocarbons 5. Organohalogene compounds 6. Classes of organic oxygen compounds 7. Alcohols and phenols



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VOCABULARY

Topic 1: Systematic inorganic chemistry, its resources, minerals acid – a substance that produces hydronium ions when dissolved in water acid ionization constant – the value of the equilibrium constant expression for the

ionization of a weak acid acid-base indicator – a chemical dye whose colour is a affected by acidic and basic

solutions acidic anhydride – a non-metal oxide that reacts with water to form an acid acidic hydrogen – in an acid, any hydrogen that can be transferred to water acidic solution – contains more hydrogen ions than hydroxide ions actinide – any of the second series of inner transition elements with atomic numbers

from 90 to 103; all are radioactive alkali metal – any element from Group 1: lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium,

cesium, francium alkaline earth metal – any element Group 2: beryllium, magnesium, calcium,

strontium, barium allotrope – any of two or more molecules of a single element that have different

crystalline or molecular structures alloy – a solid solution containing different metals, and sometimes nonmetalic

substances amorphous solid – a substance with a haphazard, disjointed, and incomplete crystal

lattice amphoteric – describes water and other substances that can act as both acids and

bases anhydrous – a compound in which all water has been removed, usually by heating anion – a negative ion anode – the electrode that takes electrons away from the reacting ions or atoms in

solution Arrhenius model – a model of acids and bases; states that an acid is a substance that

contains hydrogen and ionizes to produce hydrogen ions in aqueous solution and a base is a substance that contains a hydroxide group and dissociates to produce a hydroxide ion in aqueous solution

base – a substance that produces hydroxide ions when it dissolves in water base ionization constant – the value of the equilibrium constant expression for the

ionization of a base basic anhydride – a metal oxide that reacts with water to form a base basic solution – contains more hydroxide ions than hydrogen ions battery – one or more electrochemical cells in a single package that generates

electrical current Brönsted-Lowry model – a model of acids and bases in which an acid is a hydrogen-

ion donor and base is a hydrogen-ion acceptor



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catalyst – a substance that speeds up the rate of a reaction without being used up itself or permanently changed

cathode – the electrode that brings electrons to the reacting ions or atoms in solution

cation – a positive ion chemical property – a property that can be observed only when there is a change in

the composition of a substance compound – a chemical combination of two or more different elements joined

together in a fixed proportion conjugate acid-base pair – consists of two substances related to each other by the

donating and accepting of a single hydrogen ion corrosion – the loss of metal that results from an oxidation-reduction reaction of the

metal with substances in the environment deuterium – the hydrogen isotope with a mass number of 2 electrolysis – the process in which electrical energy causes a nonspontaneous

chemical reaction to occur electrolyte – any compound that conduct electricity when melted or dissolved in

water electrolytic cell – the electrochemical cell in which electrolysis takes place electronegativity – indicates the relative ability of an element’s atoms to attract

electrons in a chemical bond electronegativity – the measure of the ability of an atom in a bond to attract

electrons element – a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances gas – a form of matter that flows to conform to the shape of its container, fills the

container’s entire volume, and is easily compressed halogen – any element from Group 17: fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, astatine hydrate – a compound in which there is a specific ratio of water to ionic compound hydrogen bonding – a connection between the hydrogen atoms on one molecule and

highly electronegative atom on another molecule, but not a full covalent bond hydronium ion – a hydrogen ion attached to a water molecule hygroscopic – a substance that absorbs water molecules from the air to become a

hydrate ion – an atom or bonded group of atoms with a positive or negative charge ion product constant for water – the value of the equilibrium constant expression for

the self-ionization of water ionic equation – an equation in which substances that primarily exist as ions in

solution are shown as ions ionization – the process where ions form from a covalent compound isotope – any of two or more atoms of an element that are chemically alike but have

different masses



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isotope – any of two or more atoms of an element that are chemically alike but have different masses; isotopes = atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons

lanthanide – one of the first series of inner transition elements with atomic numbers 58 to 71

Lewis model – an acid is an electron-pair acceptor and base is an electron-pair donor liquid – a form of matter that flows, has constant volume, and takes the shape of its

container malleable – property of a metal meaning it can be pounded or rolled into thin sheets metal – an element that has luster, conducts heat and electricity, and usually bends

without breaking metalloid – an element with some physical and chemical properties of metals and

other properties of non-metals neutralization reaction – the reaction of an acid with base, so called because the

properties of both the acid and base are diminished or neutralized noble gas – an element from Group 18 that has a full compliment of valence

electrons and as such is unreactive non-metal – an element that in general does not conduct electricity, is a poor

conductor of heat, and is brittle when solid. Many are gases at room temperature. octet rule – states that atoms lose, gain, or share electrons in order to acquire a full

set of eight valence electrons (the stable electron configuration of a noble gas) period – a horizontal row in the periodic table pH – a mathematical scale in which the concentration of hydronium ions in solution is

expressed as a number from 0 to 14; the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution; acidic solutions have pH values between 0 and 7, basic solutions have values between 7 and 14, and solutions with a pH of 7,0 is neutral

physical property – a characteristic of matter that is exhibited without a change of identity

pOH – the negative logarithm of the hydroxide ion concentration polar molecule – a molecule that has a positive pole and a negative pole because of

the arrangement of the polar bonds; also called dipole product – a new substance formed when reactants undergo chemical change reactant – a substance that undergoes a reaction salt – the general term used in chemistry to describe the ionic compound formed

from the negative part of an acid and the positive part of a base salt hydrolysis – the process in which anions of the dissociated salt accept hydrogen

ions from water or the cations of the dissociated salt donate hydrogen ions to water solid – a form of matter that has its own definite shape and volume, is

incompressible, and expands only slightly when heated solute – the substance that is being dissolved when making a solution solution – a mixture that is the same throughout, or homogeneous solvent – the substance that dissolves the solute when making a solution



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states o matter – the physical forms in which all matter naturally exists on Earth-most commonly as a solid, a liquid, or a gas

strong acid – an acid that is completely ionized in water; no molecules exists in the water solution

strong base – a base that is completely dissociated into separate ions when dissolved in water

tritium – the hydrogen isotope with a mass number of 3 valence electron – an electron in the outermost energy level of an atom; determine

the chemical properties of an element weak acid – an acid in which almost all the molecules remain as molecules when

placed into a water solution weak base – a base in which most of the molecules do not react with water to form

ions Topic 2: General organic chemistry addition polymerization – occurs when all the atoms present in the monomers are

retained in the polymer product addition reaction – a reaction that occurs when other atoms bond to each of two

atoms bonded by double or triple covalent bonds asymmetric carbon – a carbon atom that has four different atoms or groups of atoms

attached to it; occurs in chiral compounds chirality – a property of a compound to exist in both left (l-) and right (d-) forms;

occurs whenever a compound contains an asymmetric carbon condensation polymerization – occurs when monomers containing at least two

functional groups combine with the loss of a small by-product, usually water condensation reaction – occurs when two smaller organic molecules combine to

form a more complex molecule, accompanied by the loss of a small molecule such as water

dehydration reaction – an elimination reaction in which the atoms removed form water

dehydrogenation reaction – a reaction that eliminates two hydrogen atoms, which form a hydrogen molecule of gas

electrophile – a reactant that is attracted to a region of high electron density electrophilic substitution – substitution that takes place as a result of an attack by an

electrophile elimination reaction – a reaction of organic compounds that occurs when a

combination of atoms is removed from two adjacent carbon atoms forming an additional bond between the atoms

functional group – an atom or group of atoms that always react in a certain way in an organic molecule

geometric isomers – a category of stereoisomers that results from different arrangements of groups around a double bond



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halogenation – a process by which hydrogen atoms are replaced by halogen atoms (typically Cl or Br)

homologous series – describes a series of compounds that differ from one another by a repeating unit

hydration reaction – an addition reaction in which a hydrogen atom and a hydroxyl group from a water molecule add to a double or triple bond

hydrogenation reaction – an addition in which hydrogen is added to atoms in a double or triple bond, usually requires a catalyst and is often used to convert liquid unsaturated fats into saturated fats that are solid at room temperature

inductive effect – is the effect charge of a chemical bond has on the orientation on the adjacent bonds in a molecule. Electron clouds in a bond tend to orient themselves towards the more electronegative atom involved in the bond.

isomers – two or more compounds that have the same molecular formula but have different molecular structures

mesomeric effect – is a property of substituents or functional groups in a chemical compound. The effect is used in a qualitative way and describes the electron withdrawing or releasing properties of substituents based on relevant resonance structures and is symbolized by the letter M.

o negative (-M) – the substituent is an electron-withdrawing group o positive (+M) – the substituent is an electron releasing group

monomer – a molecule from which a polymer is made nucleophile – a reactant that seeks out centres of positive charge in a molecule nucleophilic substitution – substitution that results from attack by a nucleophile; for

example hydrolysis of haloalkanes optical isomers – result from different arrangements of four different groups around

the same carbon atom and have the same physical and chemical properties except in chemical reactions, where chirality is important

optical rotation – an effect that occurs when polarized light passes through a solution containing an optical isomer and the plane of polarization is rotated to the right by a d-isomer or to the left by an l-isomer

organic compounds – all compounds that contain carbon with the primary exceptions of carbon oxides, carbides, and carbonates, all of which are considered inorganic

polymerization – a reaction in which monomer units are bonded together to form a polymer

polymers – large molecules formed by combining many repeating structural units (monomers); are synthesized through addition or condensation reactions and include polyethylene, polyurethane, and nylon

stereoisomers – a class of isomers whose atoms are bonded in the same order but are arranged differently in space

structural isomers – a class of isomers whose atoms are bonded in different orders with the result that they have different chemical and physical properties despite having the same formula



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substituent groups – the side branches that extend from the parent chain because they appear to substitute for a hydrogen atom in the straight chain

substitution reaction – a reaction of organic compounds in which one atom or group of atoms in a molecule is replaced by another atom or group of atoms

tautomers – organic compounds that are interconvertible by a chemical reaction called tautomerization. Usually, the reaction involves the migration of a hydrogen atom or proton, accompanied by a switch of a single bond and adjacent double bond

Topic 3: Hydrocarbons addition reaction – a reaction that occurs when other atoms bond to each of two

atoms bonded by double or triple covalent bonds aliphatic compounds – nonaromatic hydrocarbons, such as the alkanes, alkenes, and

alkynes alkane – hydrocarbon that contain only single bonds between atoms alkene – a hydrocarbon in which one or more double bonds link carbon atoms alkyne – an unsaturated hydrocarbon that contains a triple bond between two

carbon atoms aromatic compounds – organic compounds that contain one or more benzene rings

as part of their molecular structure asymmetric carbon – a carbon atom that has four different atoms or groups of atoms

attached to it; occurs in chiral compounds chirality – a property of a compound to exist in both left (l-) and right (d-) forms;

occurs whenever a compound contains an asymmetric carbon cracking – the process by which heavier fractions of petroleum are converted to

gasoline by breaking their large molecules into smaller molecules cyclic hydrocarbon – an organic compound that contains a hydrocarbon ring cycloalkane – cyclic hydrocarbons that contain single bonds only and can have rings

with three, four, five, six or more carbon atoms dehydration reaction – an elimination reaction in which the atoms removed form

water dehydrogenation reaction – a reaction that eliminates two hydrogen atoms, which

form a hydrogen molecule of gas dehydrohalogenation – the removal of a hydrogen atom and a halogen atom from

neighbouring carbon atoms in a haloalkane electrophile – a reactant that is attracted to a region of high electron density electrophilic substitution – substitution that takes place as a result of an attack by an

electrophile elimination reaction – a reaction of organic compounds that occurs when a


fractional distillation – the process by which petroleum can be separated into simpler components, called fractions, as they condense at different temperatures



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geometric isomers – a category of stereoisomers that results from different arrangements of groups around a double bond

homologous series – describes a series of compounds that differ from one another by a repeating unit

hydrocarbon – simplest organic compound composed only of the elements carbon and hydrogen


isomers – two or more compounds that have the same molecular formula but have different molecular structures

naphtha – a mixture of hydrocarbons forming a flammable liquid, is typically produced from distillation of petroleum or coal tar

naphthalene – an organic molecule with chemical formula C10H8 and is made of two benzene rings fused together; the simplest polynuclear hydrocarbon

optical isomers – result from different arrangements of four different groups around the same carbon atom and have the same physical and chemical properties except in chemical reactions, where chirality is important

optical rotation – an effect that occurs when polarized light passes through a solution containing an optical isomer and the plane of polarization is rotated to the right by a d-isomer or to the left by an l-isomer

organic compounds – all compounds that contain carbon with the primary exceptions of carbon oxides, carbides, and carbonates, all of which are considered inorganic

parent chain – the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms in a branched-chain alkane, alkene, or alkyne

radical – an atom, molecule, or ion with at least one unpaired electron radical chain reaction – a chain reaction propagated by radicals saturated hydrocarbon – a hydrocarbon that contains only single bonds stereoisomers – a class of isomers whose atoms are bonded in the same order but

are arranged differently in space structural isomers – a class of isomers whose atoms are bonded in different orders

with the result that they have different chemical and physical properties despite having the same formula

substituent groups – the side branches that extend from the parent chain because they appear to substitute for a hydrogen atom in the straight chain

unsaturated hydrocarbon – a hydrocarbon that contains at least one double or triple bond between carbon atoms

Topic 4: Organohalogens, pesticides alkyl halide (haloalkanes) – an organic compound containing a halogen atom

covalently bonded to an aliphatic carbon atom



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aryl halide – an organic compound that contains a halogen atom bonded to a benzene ring or another aromatic group

DDT – a poisonous chemical for killing insect dehydrohalogenation – the removal of a hydrogen atom and a halogen atom from

neighbouring carbon atoms in a haloalkane elimination reaction – a reaction of organic compounds that occurs when a


Freon – represents several different chlorofluorocarbons; damage ozone layer functional group – the part of a molecule that is largely responsible for the chemical

behaviour of the molecule halogenation – a process by which hydrogen atoms are replaced by halogen atoms

(typically Cl or Br) herbicides – a class of chemical compound that is toxic to plant life hydrolysis reaction – a reaction with water in which a carbon-element is replaced by

a carbon-oxygen bond inductive effect – is the effect charge of a chemical bond has on the orientation on

the adjacent bonds in a molecule. Electron clouds in a bond tend to orient themselves towards the more electronegative atom involved in the bond.

nucleophile – a reactant that seeks out centres of positive charge in a molecule nucleophilic substitution – substitution that results from attack by a nucleophile; for

example hydrolysis of haloalkanes ozone – is an allotrope of oxygen containing three oxygen atoms pesticide – a chemical substance used to kill harmful insects, small animals, wild

plants and other unwanted organisms polar covalent bond – a bond where the electrons are shared unequally; there is

some degree of ionic character to this type of bond Teflon – a plastic that is very smooth and does not react chemically with other

substances; it is used in industry and as surface for cooking pans so that food does not stick to the pan

Topic 5: Nitrogen derivatives amide – an organic compound which the –H group of carboxylic acid is replaced by a

nitrogen atom bonded to other atoms amine – a compound with a formula derived from NH3 in which various numbers of

H atoms are replaced by organic groups amino acid – a carboxylic acid that also contains an amino group amino group – the functional group –NH2 characteristic of amines base – a proton acceptor (a species to which hydrogen ions, H+, can bond) chromophore – the part of the molecule that absorbs or reflects light, determine the

colour of a molecule



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diazo compound – an organic compound containing two bonded nitrogen atoms as a terminal functional group; general structure R2C=N+=N-

diazonium compound (salt) – an organic compound with structure RN=NX, where R is an aryl ring and X is any anion

inductive effect – is the effect charge of a chemical bond has on the orientation on the adjacent bonds in a molecule. Electron clouds in a bond tend to orient themselves towards the more electronegative atom involved in the bond.

mesomeric effect – is a property of substituents or functional groups in a chemical compound. The effect is used in a qualitative way and describes the electron withdrawing or releasing properties of substituents based on relevant resonance structures and is symbolized by the letter M.


nitro compound – an organic compound containing the nitro functional group –NO2 nitro group – a functional group containing nitrogen and oxygen in the form –NO2 nucleophile – a reactant that seeks out centres of positive charge in a molecule reduction – the removal of oxygen from, or the addition of hydrogen to , a

compound Topic 6: Oxygen derivatives acid – a proton donor (a source of hydrogen ions, H+) addition reaction – a reaction that occurs when other atoms bond to each of two

atoms bonded by double or triple covalent bonds alcohol – an organic compound in which a hydroxyl group replaces a hydrogen atom

of a hydrocarbon; is used in medicinal products, foods, and beverages, and as a solvent and starting material in synthesis reactions

aldehyde – an organic compound containing the structure in which a carbonyl group at the end of a carbon chain is bonded to a carbon atom on one side and a hydrogen atom on the other side

amphoteric – describes water and other substances that can act as both acids and bases

base – a proton acceptor (a species to which hydrogen ions, H+, can bond) carbanion – a carbon atom which has a negative electrical charge carbonyl group – arrangement in which an oxygen atom is double-bonded to a

carbon atom carboxyl group – consists of a carbonyl group bonded to a hydroxyl group carboxylic acid – an organic compound that contains a carboxyl group and is polar

and reactive crown ether – a cyclic ether with alternating –CH2CH2O- units denatured alcohol – ethanol to which noxious substance have been added in order

to make it unfit to drink diol – an organic compound with two –OH groups



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elimination reaction – a reaction of organic compounds that occurs when a combination of atoms is removed from two adjacent carbon atoms forming an additional bond between the atoms

ester – an organic compound with a carboxyl group in which the hydrogen of the hydroxyl group is replaced by an alkyl group; may be volatile and sweet-smelling and is polar

ester – the product of the reaction between a carboxylic acid and an alcohol and having a formula RCOOR´

esterification – the formation of an ester ether – an organic compound that contains an oxygen atom bonded to two carbon

atoms functional group – an atom or group of atoms that always react in a certain way in an

organic molecule hydrogen bond – a link formed by a hydrogen atom lying between two strongly

electronegative atoms (O, N or F). The electronegative atoms may be located on different molecules or in different regions of the same molecule

hydroxyl group – an oxygen-hydrogen group covalently bonded to a carbon atom ketone – an organic compound in which the carbon of the carbonyl group is bonded

to two carbon atoms mesomeric effect – is a property of substituents or functional groups in a chemical

compound. The effect is used in a qualitative way and describes the electron withdrawing or releasing properties of substituents based on relevant resonance structures and is symbolized by the letter M.


nucleophile – a reactant that seeks out centres of positive charge in a molecule oxidation – combination with oxygen phenol – an organic compound in which a hydroxyl group is attached directly to an

aromatic ring volatile – a volatile liquid or solid substance will change easily into a gas

Topic 7: Heterocyclic compound addition reaction – a reaction that occurs when other atoms bond to each of two

atoms bonded by double or triple covalent bonds base – a proton acceptor (a species to which hydrogen ions, H+, can bond) electrophile – a reactant that is attracted to a region of high electron density electrophilic substitution – substitution that takes place as a result of an attack by an

electrophile furanose – a five member ring structure containing four carbon atoms and one

oxygen atom; is a simple sugar molecule heteroatom – any atom other than carbon or hydrogen in an organic molecule



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heterocyclic compound – a compound containing a ring structure composed of at least one non-carbon atom


nitrogenous base – heterocyclic base containing nitrogen that forms the base part of nucleotide molecule

substitution reaction – a reaction of organic compounds in which one atom or group of atoms in a molecule is replaced by another atom or group of atoms

Topic 8: Detergents detergent – a cleaning agent; is similar to a soap, but with a general structure R-SO4

-, Na+, where R is a long-chain alkyl group

soap – a salt of fatty acid hydrolysis – a type of decomposition reaction where one reactant is water; organic

hydrolysis reactions involve the reaction of water and a ester. ester – the product of the reaction between a carboxylic acid and an alcohol and

having a formula RCOOR´

1. SYSTEMATIC INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

VOCABULARY OF THE SYSTEMATIC INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

inorganic chemistry

organic chemistry

inorganic compound

organic compound

periodic table of the chemical elements (PTE), group, period

element (chemical element)

symbol

metal

nonmetal

metalloid

nonmetallic element

element categories

main-group elements

crystalline metal

amorphous metal



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crystal strukture

crystal lattice

material, substance

chemical property

colourless

odorless

testless

colour

odoriferous

tasting

conductivity

electric conductivity

thermal conductivity

ductility

standard reference conditions (normal conditions)

standard temperature

standard pressure

oxidation states

electronegativity

electronic configuration

excited state

chemical formula

atomic number

excited state

catalyzer

catalyst

solid catalyst

catalyze

covalent compound

electrolysis

solvent

polar solvent

non-polar solvent

solubility

fossil fuel

poison

natural occurrence

laboratory production

industrial production



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application (s)

biochemistry

biochemist

enzyme

ecology

environment

pollution

safety

precaution (s)

safety precaution

as a precaution

extra precaution

fire precaution

harmfull

harmless

carcinogens

teratogen(e)

mutagen(e)

physical property

atom

molecule



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HYDROGEN (H) 1s1

Physical properties hydrogen is colourless, odorless and tasteless gas

there are three isotopes of hydrogen: 1H, 2H, 3H

Chemical properties hydrogen gas is formed from molecules of hydrogen

each molecule is made from two atoms of hydrogen chemically joined together – H2

H – H ↑ single bond hydrogen burns in the air (because hydrogen makes explosive mixture with oxygen)

H2 + O2 → H2O hydrogen is very reactive element, although it is nonmetal element it can sometimes

react like metal

hydrogen creates a large amount of the compounds

Natural occurrence hydrogen atoms probably make up close to 90 % of the matter in the universe

stars, such as the Sun, are primarly made of hydrogen

on Earth is hydrogen occurred mainly in its compounds

Compounds of hydrogen hydrogen can take on either a positive charge as H+ cation (becoming a cation

composed of a bare proton) or negative charge H- (becoming an anion as a hydride)

hydrogen can form compounds with most elements and is present in water, most

organic compounds, acids and bases

hydrogen plays particularly important role in acid-base chemistry in witch many

reactions involve the exchange of proton (H+) between soluble molecules

Laboratory production a) in laboratory, H2 is usually prepared by the reaction of acids on metals such as zinc

Zn +2HCl → H2 + ZnCl2 b) the electrolysis of water, by this reaction is prepared both hydrogen and oxygen



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2H2O (aq) → H2(g) + O2(g) Industrial production economically the moust important processes involve removal of hydrogen from

hydrocarbons

steam reforming of natural gas. At high temperature (700 – 1 100 0C) steam reacts with metane: CH4 + H2O → 3H2 + CO Applications large quantities of hydrogen are needed in the petroleum and chemical industries –

hydrogenation, production of ammonia, methanol, hydrochloric acid

hydrogen is also used as a reducing agent

applications of hydrogen's isotopes:

2H is used in nuclear fission as a moderator to slow neutrons, and in nuclear fusion reactions 3H is produced in nuclear reactors, is used in the production of hydrogen bombs

OXYGEN (O) 1s2 2s2 2p4 Physical properties oxygen is colourless, odorless and tasteless gas

Chemical properties oxygen gas is formed from molecules of oxygen each molecules of oxygen is made from two atoms of oxygen chemuically joined

together – O2 O = O ↑ double bond oxygen gas support combustion, witch means that many elements and compounds

will burn in oxygen gas oxygen is very reactive oxygen creates a large amount of compounds the most common oxidation state of oxygen is

-II, anion O-II is named oxide Natural occurrence oxygen is the second most abundant element in the Earth's crust and in the

atmosphere there are three forms of oxygen:

a) O2 - molecule O2 constitues 20 % of the volume of air



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- oxygen in the form of O2 is produced durig photosynthesys by algae and plants, O2 is an essential chemical substance for aerobic organisms b) O3 (ozone) - ozone helps protect the biosphere from ultraviolet radiation with the high-altitude ozone layer

- ozone is a pollutant near the surface where it is a by-product of smog c) compounds

1. inorganic compounds - oxides in the Earth's crust: for example SiO2, Al2O3

- CO2 in the atmosphere - water - H2O2 – peroxide 2. organic compounds - proteins - carbohydrates - fats Laboratory production in the laboratory, oxygen is usually prepared by the electrolysis of water, by this

reaction is prepared both oxygen and hydrogen 2H2O (aq) → H2(g) + O2(g) Idustrial production the most common method is distillation of liquefied air into various components,

with nitrogen distilling as a vapor while oxygen is left as a liquid Applications oxygen is oxidizing agent medical use – oxygen therapy is used to treat for example for pneumonia, some heart

disorders life support and recreation use – scuba diving most commercially-produced oxygen is used to smelt iron into steel

NITROGEN (N) 1s2 2s2 2p3

Physical properties - nitrogen is a colourless, odorless and tasteless and mostly inert diatomic gas Chemical properties nitrogen gas is formed from molecules of nitrogen each moleceles of nitrogen is made from two atoms of nitrogen joined together – N2

← triple bond



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Fig. 1. Molecule of Nitrogen (www.wikipedia.org) due to very strong triple bond in molecule of N2 is molecule of nitrogen inert (the

triple bond in molecule of nitrogen is one of the strongest in the nature) the most common oxidation states are +III, +V and - III

Natural occurrence N2 molecule is constituing 78 % by volume of Earth's atmosphere (nitrogene is

estimated to be 7th most abundant chemical element by mass in the universe) nitrogen is present in all living organisms in proteins, nucleic acids etc. nitrogen is a large component of animal waste, usually in the form of urea, uric acid,

ammonium nitrogen occurs naturally in a number of minerals: for example KNO3, NaNO3, NH4Cl

Compounds of nitrogen 1. ammonia – NH3

NH3 is base, in solution ammonia forms the ammonium cation NH4+

idustrial production of ammonia

3 H2 + N2 → 2 NH2

ammonia is used in chemical and pharmaceutical industy 2. oxides N2O – dinitrogen monoxide known as laughing gas, it was used as a anaesthetic NO – nitrogen monoxide (nitric oxide) it is used by the body as a signal for short-term

control of smooth muscle circulation NO2 – nitrogen dioxide is the reddish and poisonous component of smog

3. acids



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chemical formula chemical name chemical formula of

salt

name of salt example

HNO2 nitrous acid NO2-I nitrite NaNO2 – sodium

nitrite

HNO3 nitric acid NO3-I nitrate KNO3 – potassium

nitrate

industrial production of nitric acid

1. 4 NH3 + 5 O2 → 4 NO + 6 H2O 2. 2 NO + O2 → 2 NO2

3. 3 NO2 + H2O → 2 HNO3 + NO nitric acid has applications in organic chemistry, chemical and pharmaceutical

industry its salts are fertilisers nitric acid is oxidizing agent

Industrial production of nitrogen the most common method is distillation of liquefied air into various components,

with nitrogen distilling as a vapor while oxygen is left as a liquid Applicatios of nitrogen inert atmosphere for air where oxidation is undesirable the main use of liquid nitrogen is as a refrigerant (for example biological samples

such as blood, sperms, eggs) Problems: Think about the following problems. If necessary, you should look up the meaning in the textbooks or on the internet.

1. Which role does ozone play in the atmosphere? 2. What do you know about the ozone hole? 3. What does global warming mean ? 4. What is the difference between London’s smog and Los Angeles’s smog? 5. Write down some compounds of nitrogen which are in oxidation states +V, + III, -III.



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CARBON (C) 1s2 2s2 2p2

Physical properties – carbon is nonmetal, the physical properties vary widely with allotropic form Chemical properties – in inorganic compounds the most common oxidation states of carbon are + IV and +II - the carbon atom is able to chemically bond to other carbon atoms, as well as many other different element in organic compounds Natural occurrence – a) there are several allotropes of pure carbon of witch the best known are graphite, diamond, amorphous carbon and fullerenes Graphite – is soft and black, graphite has sheet structure (hexagonal rings, flat sheets are stocked and loosely bonded through weak Van der Waals forces) → softness, cleaving (the sheets slip easily past one another)

- conducts electricity

Fig. 2 Structures of Carbon (www.wikipedia.org)

Diamond – is a gem

- is one of the hardest substances known - has cubic structure - is electrical insulator - is the best known thermal conductor

Fullerenes – have a graphite structure - the properties of fullerens have not yet been fully analyzed - fullerenes are good nanomaterials

Fig. 3. Fullerenes (www.wikipdedia.org)



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b) compounds 1. Inorganic compounds (limestones, dolomites, oxides) Oxides Carbon monoxide (CO)

- it is formed by incomplete combustion 2C + O2 → 2CO - CO is colourless, odorless gas - it is toxic, because CO bonds to hemoglobin molecules, displacing oxygen,

which has a lower binding affinity Carbon dioxide (CO2)

- it is formed by complete combustion C + O2 → CO2 - it is a minor component of the Earth‘s atmosphere, its concentration rises in

the atmosphere due to human activities (such as the combustion of fossil fuels) - CO2 is greenhouse gas (greenhouse gases induce global warming) - dissolved in water, CO2 forms carbon acid (H2CO3), H2CO3 is unstable H2CO3 → H2O + CO3

2- (carbonate ion) - carbonate ion is salt formed from H2CO3 (for example CaCO3 – kalcite)

2. Organic compounds (the organic compounds are in natural oil, natural gas, coal etc.) - the organic compounds form living organisms (proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, fats) - carbon has the ability to form very long chains interconnecting C – C bonds (this property is called catenation), C – C bonds are strong and stable Hydrocarbons – The Alkanes (C–C), The Alkenes (C=C), The Alkynes (C≡C), The Aromatic Hydrocarbons (benzene structure) Derivatives of hydrocarbons – a wide variety of organic compounds contain at least one other element in addition to carbon and hydrogen (for example, Alcohols CH3-CH2-OH – if a hydrogen atom on a hydrocarbon is replaced by functional group consisting of covalently bonded oxygen and hydrogen (-OH) an alcohol is formed) Applications of carbon graphite – is used in pencils used for writing and drawing - is used in electrodes - is neutron moderator diamond – gem quality diamond is used in juwelry - industrial diamonds are used in drilling, cutting and polishing tools for machining metals and stones wood, coal, oil and natural gas are used as fuel for production of energy and space heating

SULPHUR (S) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4

- name sulphur comes probably from the Arabic word sura, meaning yellow, the latin word for sulphur, sulphurium, also has the same root.



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Physical properties:

– sulphur is yellow, solid, nonmetal element, there are more than 30 solid allotropes

Chemical properties:

- reactive element - the most common molecule of sulphur is S8 - common oxidation states of sulphur include -2, +2, +4, +6 - sulphur forms stable compounds with all elements except the noble gas

Natural occurence:

- elemental sulphur can be found near hot springs and vulcanic regions in many parts of the world

- common naturally occurring sulfur compounds include the sulfide minerals such as pyrite (iron sulfide, FeS2), cinnabor (mercury sulfide, HgS), galena (lead sulfide, PbS)

- in organic compounds such as proteins, because sulphur is found in two amino acids (cystein and methionine)

Compounds of sulphur:

1. inorganic compounds:

a) H2S (hydrogen sulfide)

- has the characteristic smell of rotten eggs - dissolved in water, H2S is acidic - dissociation of H2S in water: H2S + H2O ↔ HS-I + H3O+

HS-I + H2O ↔ S-II + H3O+ S-II = suldide, e.g. CdS, FeS2 b) CS2 (carbon disulfide) - is non-polar solvent c) oxides – SO2 – sulphur dioxide, SO3 – sulphur trioxide - preparation: S + O2 → SO2 2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3

- burning sulphur-containing coal and oil produces SO2, which is responsible for acid rains d) H2SO4 (sulphuric acid)



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- is a strong mineral acid, it is soluble in water at all concentrations - is one of the top products of the chemical industry - industrial production: 1. S + O2 → SO2

2. 2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3

3. SO3 + H2O → H2SO4 - dissociation in water: H2SO4 + H2O ↔ HSO4

-I + H3O+ HSO4

-I + H2O ↔ SO4-II + H3O+

- SO4

-II (sulfates)- the salts of sulphuric acid, e. g. Na2SO4, CaSO4

2. Organic compounds

- amino acids cystein and methionine forms molecules of proteins

Applications:

- vulcanization of rubber - gunpowder - sulphuric acid - sulphur compounds are also used in detergents, fungicides and agrochemicals - sulfides are also used as preservatives in dried fruit

PHOSPHORUS and ARSENIC

Phosphorus - the name comes from the Greek: (meaning "light") and (meaning "bearer"). A multivalent nonmetal of the nitrogen group, phosphorus is commonly found in inorganic phosphate rocks.

Due to its high reactivity, phosphorus is never found as a free element in nature on Earth. One form of phosphorus (white phosphorus) emits a faint glow upon exposure to oxygen .

The most important inorganic compound is H3PO4 (phosphoric acid).

Phosphorus is a component of DNA and RNA, as well as ATP, and is an essential element for all living cells. The most important commercial use of phosphorus-based chemicals is the production of fertilizers.

Phosphorus compounds are also widely used in explosives, nerve agents, friction matches, fireworks, pesticides, toothpaste and detergents.



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Arsenic - is a notoriously poisonous metalloid that has many allotropic forms: yellow (molecular non-metallic) and several black and grey forms (metalloids). Compounds of arsenic are used as pesticides, herbicides, insecticides and various alloys.

The most common oxidation states for arsenic are -3, +3 (arsenates(III) or arsenites, e.g. As2O3 arsenic trioxide – poisonous compound), and +5 (arsenates(V): the most stable inorganic arsenic oxycompounds).

METALS

The alkali metals

The alkali metals, found in group 1 of the periodic table (formerly known as group IA), are very reactive metals that do not occur freely in nature. These metals have only one electron in their outer shell. Therefore, they are ready to lose that one electron in ionic bonding with other elements. As with all metals, the alkali metals are malleable, ductile, and are good conductors of heat and electricity. The alkali metals are softer than most other metals. Cesium and francium are the most reactive elements in this group. Alkali metals can explode if they are exposed to water. (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ft4E1eCUItI&feature=related)

The alkaline earth metals

The alkaline earth elements are metallic elements found in the second group of the periodic table. All alkaline earth elements have an oxidation number of +2, making them very reactive. Because of their reactivity, the alkaline metals are not found free in nature.

The transition metals

The 38 elements in groups 3 through 12 of the periodic table are called "transition metals". As with all metals, the transition elements are both ductile and malleable, and conduct



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electricity and heat. The interesting thing about transition metals is that their valence electrons, or the electrons they use to combine with other elements, are present in more than one shell. This is the reason why they often exhibit several common oxidation states. There are three noteworthy elements in the transition metals family. These elements are iron, cobalt, and nickel, and they are the only elements known to produce a magnetic field.

Fig. 4. PTE (www.wikipedia.org)

Given the QUESTION, identify the ANSWER

1. Which metal is extracted from Bauxite? Ο Tungsten Ο Arsenic Ο Gold Ο Aluminum 2. Brass is Ο An Element Ο A Compound Ο An Alloy Ο A Mixture 3. Bronze is an alloy of Ο Copper and Zinc Ο Copper and Tin Ο Lead and Copper Ο Barium, Zinc and Iron 4. What are metals that can be stretched easily known as? Ο Ductile Metals Ο Malleable Metals Ο Stretchable Metals Ο Polymer Metals 5. Which of the following metals is often found in pure state? Ο Iron Ο Magnesium



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Ο Aluminum Ο Gold 6. With which metal does oxygen combine to form rust? Ο Gold Ο Silver Ο Iron Ο Platinum 7. Which metal is extracted from Haematite? Ο Tin Ο Iron Ο Manganese Ο Cadmium 8. Fill in the missing word _______ + Oxygen = Magnesium Oxide Ο Magnesium Ο Manganese Ο Metal Ο Carbon 9. What are metals that can be beaten into various shapes called? Ο Ductile Metals Ο Polymer Metals Ο Beatable Metals Ο Malleable Metals 10. Which of the following metals is liquid at room temperature Ο Sodium Ο Tungsten Ο Mercury Ο Cadmium 11. Sodium is very reactive and may burn on exposure to air, hence it is kept under Ο Water Ο Oil Ο Ice Ο Acids 12. Rocks rich in metals are known as Ο Ores Ο Metalloids



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Ο Allotropes Ο Slag 13. Rust on iron is basically Ο A Chloride Ο A Nitride Ο A Sulphide Ο An Oxide 14. Which of the following does not belong to the group? Ο Iron Ο Sodium Ο Oxygen Ο Lead 15. Metals are obtained from their oxides by Ο Oxidation Ο Reduction Ο Electrolytic Separation Ο Roasting 16. An alloy is a Ο Solid Solution of two or more metals Ο Compound of three elements Ο Mixture Ο Element in impure form 17. If a metal ore is titled "pyrites" then it most probably has Ο Chlorine Ο Oxygen Ο Nitrogen Ο Sulphu 18. Often to prevent corrosion, metals are galvanized by covering them with a layer of Ο Copper Ο Sodium Ο Zinc Ο Tin 19. Iron is magnetic. ΟTrue Ο False

http://www.syvum.com/cgi/online/serve.cgi/squizzes/science/metals.html?question_hide



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20. Metals are usually good conductors of heat and electricity. Ο True Ο False

2. THE HISTORY OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Tasks: 1. You should read and translate the following article. 2. You should look up terms which you do not understand or ask your teacher. Why? Because next lesson is going to be short test about this article!! There will be vocabulary and some facts (for example: What does it mean theory of vitalism etc.).

Historical highlights

Fig. 5. Friedrich Wöhler (www.wikipedia.org)

At the very beginning of the nineteenth century chemists generally thought that compounds from living organisms were too complicated in structure to be capable of artificial synthesis from non-living things, and that a 'vital force' or vitalism conferred the characteristics of living beings on this form of matter. They named these compounds 'organic', and preferred to direct their investigations toward inorganic materials that seemed more promising.

Organic chemistry received a boost when it was realized that these compounds could be treated in ways similar to inorganic compounds and could be created in the laboratory by means other than 'vital force'. Around 1816 Michel Chevreul started a study of soaps made from various fats and alkali. He separated the different acids that, in combination with the alkali, produced the soap. Since these were all individual compounds, he demonstrated that it was possible to make a chemical change in various fats (which traditionally come from organic sources), producing new compounds, without 'vital force'. In 1828 Friedrich Wöhler first manufactured the organic chemical urea (carbamide), a constituent of urine, from the inorganic ammonium cyanate NH4OCN, in what is now called the Wöhler synthesis. Although Wöhler was, at this time as well as afterwards, cautious about claiming that he had thereby destroyed the theory of vital force, most have looked to this event as the turning point.

A great next step was when in 1856 William Henry Perkin, while trying to manufacture quinine, again accidentally came to manufacture the organic dye now called Perkin's mauve,



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which by generating a huge amount of money greatly increased interest in organic chemistry. Another step was the laboratory preparation of DDT by Othmer Zeidler in 1874, but the insecticide properties of this compound were not discovered until much later.

The crucial breakthrough for the theory of organic chemistry was the concept of chemical structure, developed independently and simultaneously by Friedrich August Kekule and Archibald Scott Couper in 1858. Both men suggested that tetravalent carbon atoms could link to each other to form a carbon lattice, and that the detailed patterns of atomic bonding could be discerned by skillful interpretations of appropriate chemical reactions.

The history of organic chemistry continues with the discovery of petroleum and its separation into fractions according to boiling ranges. The conversion of different compound types or individual compounds by various chemical processes created the petroleum chemistry leading to the birth of the petrochemical industry, which successfully manufactured artificial rubbers, the various organic adhesives, the property-modifying petroleum additives, and plastics.

The pharmaceutical industry began in the last decade of the 19th century when acetylsalicylic acid (more commonly referred to as aspirin) manufacture was started in Germany by Bayer. The first time a drug was systematically improved was with arsphenamine (Salvarsan). Numerous derivatives of the dangerously toxic atoxyl were systematically synthesized and tested by Paul Ehrlich and his group, and the compound with best effectiveness and toxicity characteristics was selected for production.

Early examples of organic reactions and applications were serendipitous, such as Perkin's accidental discovery of Perkin's mauve. However, from the 20th century, the progress of organic chemistry allowed for synthesis of specifically selected compounds or even molecules designed with specific properties, as in drug design. The process of finding new synthesis routes for a given compound is called total synthesis. Total synthesis of complex natural compounds started with urea, increased in complexity to glucose and terpineol, and in 1907, total synthesis was commercialized the first time by Gustaf Komppa with camphor. Pharmaceutical benefits have been substantial, for example cholesterol-related compounds have opened ways to synthesis of complex human hormones and their modified derivatives. Since the start of the 20th century, complexity of total syntheses has been increasing, with examples such as lysergic acid and vitamin B12. Today's targets feature tens of stereogenic centers that must be synthesized correctly with asymmetric synthesis.

Biochemistry, the chemistry of living organisms, their structure and interactions in vitro and inside living systems, has only started in the 20th century, opening up a brand new chapter of organic chemistry with enormous scope.



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The name organic chemistry came from the word organism. Prior to 1828, all organic compounds had been obtained from organisms or their remains. The scientific philosophy back then was that the synthesis of organic compounds could only be produced within living matter while inorganic compounds were synthesized from non-living matter. A theory known as "Vitalism" stated that a "vital force" from living organisms was necessary to make an organic compound. 1828, a German chemist Friedrich Wöhler (1800-1882) amazed the sience community by using the inorganic compound ammonium cyanate, NH4OCN to synthesize urea, H2NCONH2, an organic substance found in the urine of many animals. This led to the disappearance of the "Vitalism" theory.

Today, chemists consider organic compounds to be those containing carbon and one or more other elements, most often hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, or the halogens, but sometimes others as well. Organic chemistry is defined as the chemistry of carbon and its compounds.



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3. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY – nomenclature, isomerism, conformation

1. Identify each of the following as an alkane, alkene, or alkyne: a) C2H2 b) C2H4 c) C2H6 a) b) c) 2. Name each of the following alkenes: a) CH3CH2CH=CHCH3 b) CH2=CHCH2CH2CH3 a) b) 3. Explain why there is no alkene having only one carbon atom. 4. Write equations for the reaction of ethane with excess oxygen. 5. Write structural formulas for three compounds with the molecular formula C5H12.

Name these compounds. a) b) c) 6. Draw structural formulas for five isomers of C5H10. Name each one. a) b) c) d) e) 7. Write a formula for a) 2-methylpentane and b) 3-methylpentane. c) Explain why 4-methylpentane does not exist. a) b) c) 8. Draw structural formulas for a) chair and b) boat conformation of cyclohexane. Underline more stable conformation of cyclohexane. a) b) 10. Which kinds of basic organic compounds (hydrocarbons) do you know? 11. What does it mean hybridisation? 12. What is the difference between nomenclature of hydrocarbons in Czech and English?



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13. The induction effect is typical to ................... (Which kinds of organic compounds is the induction effect typical to?) 14. The mesomery effect is typical to .................. (Which kinds of organic compounds is the mesomery effect typical to?) 15. Explain the term isomerism. 16. Which kinds of isomers do you know? 17. What does it mean conformation? 18. Do different conformers have differing properties? 19. Which sorts of organic reactions did you learn about?

4. AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS

1. Underline polycyclic arenes: benzene, anthracene, toluene, aniline, naphthalene 2. Write down the chemical formula of the following aromates: 2,4,6 – trinitrotoluene, 1,3 – dimethylbenzene, p – dimethylbenzene 3. Drawn and name isomersof diethylbenzene. 4. Benzo(a)pyrene, is notable for being the first chemical carcinogen to be discovered in ……………. ……………. . 5. Write down the reaction mechanism for chloration of benzene. 6. Write down the reaction mechanism for nitration of toluene.



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7. a) Write down the hydrogenation of benzene. b) Name the product of this reaction. c) Which kind of organic reaction is it? a) b) c) 8.Reading-CARCINOGENS Hundreds of chemicals are capable of inducing cancer in humans or animals after prolonged or excessive exposure. There are many well-known examples of chemicals that can cause cancer in humans. The fumes of the metals cadmium, nickel, and chromium are known to cause lung cancer. Vinyl chloride causes liver sarcomas. Exposure to arsenic increases the risk of skin and lung cancer. Leukemia can result from chemically induced changes in bone marrow from exposure to benzene and cyclophosphamide, among other toxicants. Other chemicals, including benzo[a]pyrene and ethylene dibromide, are considered by authoritative scientific organizations to be probably carcinogenic in humans because they are potent carcinogens in animals. Chemically-induced cancer generally develops many years after exposure to a toxic agent. A latency period of as much as thirty years has been observed between exposure to asbestos, for example, and incidence of lung cancer.

5. ORGANOHALOGENES COMPOUNDS

1. What role does thyroxine play in the human body? 2. Which organohalogen was used as an anaesthetic agent? 3. What has been applications of DDT? 4. Write down the following chemical reactions: a) chlofoethane + ammonia b) 2-chloropropane + sodium hydroxide (t=20C) c) 2-chloropropane + sodium hydroxide (t=100C) d) You should prepare butane-2-ol. Choose the right organohalogen as a reactant and write down this chemical equation. e) Write down products of elimination of 2-bromobutane. Explain and name the products.



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5. What do you know about health hazard of organohalogens? Look up three diseases caused by these compounds.

6. CLASSES OF ORGANIC OXYGEN COMPOUNDS

Fill the table:

Class Functional group

General formula

Ending for name

Example The name of example

- OH CH3CH2OH

……………. (ethyl alcohol)

phenols

Ar-OH

R-O-R ether dimethyl ether

aldehydes

-al

…………….. (acetaldehyde)

-one propanone (acetone)

CH3COOH …………… (acetic acid)



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7. ALCOHOLS AND PHENOLS

1. Draw hydrogen bonds between two molecules of propanol.

2. Write down the following formulae and underline which of them are secondary

alcohols:

methanol, phenol, 3-methylphenol, propane-1,1-diol, butane-2-ol, ethanol, pentane-3-ol 3. Write down chemical reaction between propanol and hydrochloric acid.

4. Write down oxidation of butane-1-ol. Name the product!

5. Write down oxidation of butane-2-ol. Name the product!

6. What will the products be of dehydration of butane-2-ol? Write this reaction, name

the

products and explain the reaction! 7. Write down fermentation of glucose.

8. John (weight of his body is 58 kg) went to the pub. He finished a one-litre-bottle of

red wine. Alcohol content in this wine is 13 % (strong Australian red wine). You should

calculate concentration of ethanol (in ‰) in John`s blood circulation.



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TOXICITY OF ETHANOL

Fig. 6. Toxicity of Ethanol (www.wikipedia.org)

TOTAL RECORDED ALCOHOL

PER CAPITA

CONSUMPTION

(in liters of pure alcohol)

Fig.7. Map of the World (www.wikipedia.org) If you are interested in this topic, you should check website of WHO (World Health Organisation). www.who.int/en/



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workbook - gymnázium slovanské...

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