KLUWER LAW INTERNATIONAL

The Role of the Judiciary inEnvironmental Governance

Comparative Perspectives

Edited By

Louis J. KotzeB.Com, LLB, LLM, LLD

Professor of LawNorth West University

South Africa

and

Alexander R. PatersonB.Soc.Sci, LLB, LLM

Attorney of the High Court of South AfricaSenior Lecturer

University of Cape TownSouth Africa

Wolters KluwerLaw & Business

AUSTIN BOSTON CHICAGO NEW YORK THE NETHERLANDS

Table of Contents

Preface 23

Foreword 41

Acknowledgements 43

Author Biographies 45

Chapter 1The Netherlands 55Jonathan Verschuuren

1 Introduction 552 Environmental Issues and Environmental Governance Structures 56

2.1 Environmental Issues 562.2 Principal Environmental Laws 572.3 Institutions and Governance Structures 59

3 Overview of the Court System 593.1 Introduction 593.2 Procedures before Administrative Courts 60

3.2.1 The Abolishment of the actio popularis: From'Anyone' to 'Interested Parties' 60

3.2.2 Procedures against Environmental PermitDecisions since 2005 63

3.3 Procedures before Civil Courts 653.4 Procedures before Criminal Courts 673.5 Non-judicial Procedures 67

8 Table of Contents

4 Significance of the Judiciary: Some Empirical Data 684.1 Introduction 684.2 Decline in Environmental and Planning Cases 694.3 Number of Cases Brought by NGOs and other Parties 704.4 Civil Law Cases 704.5 Number of Cases Won and Lost by NGOs and Local

Citizen Groups 705 Analysis of Significant Environmental Judgments 72

5.1 Introduction 725.2 Administrative Law Case on EU Habitats Directive 725.3 Civil Law Case on EU Nitrates Directive 73

6 Critical Survey 767 The Way Forward 79Bibliography 79Table of Legislation 81Table of Cases 82Abbreviations 83

Chapter 2Belgium 85Luc Lavrysen

1 Introduction 851.1 The Transformation of Belgium into a Federal State 851.2 Federal Government 871.3 Regions and Communities 87

2 Environmental Issues and Performance 883 Environmental Law Framework 90

3.1 Significant Impact of European Environmental Law 903.2 Constitutional Provisions 913.3 Federal Environmental Legislation 933.4 Regional Environmental Legislation 943.5 Legislation through Cooperation Agreements 96

4 The Court System 964.1 The Constitutional Court 964.2 The Ordinary Courts 974.3 The Administrative Courts 98

5 Environmental Jurisdiction 995.1 Introduction 995.2 Constitutional Jurisdiction 102

5.2.1 Clarification of the Division of Powers 1025.2.2 Environmental Protection, Property Rights and

Freedom of Enterprise 1025.2.3 Constitutional Right to a Healthy Environment 1035.2.4 Right of Respect for Private and Family Life 1°5

Table of Contents 9

5.3 Access to Courts 1065.3.1 Ordinary Courts 1065.3.2 Council of State 108

5.4 Penal Enforcement 1106 The Way Forward 114Bibliography 116Table of Legislation 119Table of Cases 120Table of International Instruments 122Abbreviations 122

Chapter 3Germany 123Eckard Rehbinder

1 Introduction 1232 Principal Environmental Laws 1243 Institutional and Governance Structures 1254 Overview over the Judiciary 1265 Access to the Judiciary in Environmental Matters 128

5.1 Standing of Individuals 1285.1.1 The Basic Rights-Oriented Standing Concept 1285.1.2 Third Party Standing 1295.1.3 Standing in Special Areas of Environmental

Protection 1295.2 Standing of Associations and Municipalities 131

5.2.1 The Principle of Inadmissibility of Collective Suits 1315.2.2 Statutory Association Standing 1325.2.3 Standing of Local Governments 133

5.3 Grounds, Scope and Depth of Judicial Review 1335.3.1 Grounds for Judicial Review 1335.3.2 Scope of Judicial Review: The Impact of the

Protective Law Theory 1345.3.3 Depth of Judicial Review 135

5.4 Interim Judicial Protection 1356 The Wealth of Case Law: Some Illustrative Judicial Decisions 1367 Judicial Contribution to Environmental Governance 139

7.1 Introduction 1397.1.1 Shortcomings of the Rights-Based Approach 1397.1.2 Broadening the Judicial Perspective 140

7.2 Contribution to the Interpretation and Development ofEnvironmental Law 1417.2.1 Law Making Role of the Courts 1417.2.2 Controlling National Implementation of EU

Directives 142

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7.2.3 Controlling the Functioning of the Administrationand Beyond 144

7.2.4 Fast-Tracking Court Proceedings and Judicial Protection 1458 Future Perspectives 145Bibliography 146Table of Legislation 147Table of Cases 148Table of International Instruments 149Abbreviations 149

Chapter 4United Kingdom 151Karen Morrow

1 Introduction 1511.1 Environmental Issues 1511.2 Principal Environmental Laws 152

1.2.1 Pollution Control 1521.2.2 Nature, Habitat and Landscape Conservation 1531.2.3 Contextual Provisions 154

1.3 Institutions and Governance Structures 1551.3.1 Policy Matters 1551.3.2 Operational Matters 156

2 Overview of the Court System 1572.1 Historical Development of the Judiciary 1572.2 Court Structure and Hierarchy 159

3 Analysis of Significant Environmental Judgments 1603.1 Private Law (Law of Torts) 1603.2 Judicial Review 1623.3 Statutory Interpretation 1653.4 Human Rights Act Cases 168

4 Critical Survey 1705 The Way Forward 171

5.1 Key Challenges 1715.2 Key Opportunities 172

Bibliography 174Table of Legislation 176Table of Cases 177Table of Interational Instruments 178Abbreviations 179

Chapter 5United States of America 181Nicholas Robinson

1 Introduction 181

Table of Contents 11

2 Main Environmental Issues and Laws 1833 Overview of the USA Judiciary 187

3.1 Introduction 1873.2 The Courts and Environmental Issues (General Observations) 1893.3 Legal Foundations for Judicial Decisions 1903.4 Administrative Law and Judicial Review 194

4 Analysis of Significant Environmental Judgments 1964.1 Introduction 1964.2 Burdens of Proof: Observing the Land Ethic 1974.3 'Technology Forcing': Reversing Degrading Practices 1994.4 Safeguarding the Natural Integrity of Wild Forests 2004.5 Critical Survey 202

5 The Way Forward 203Bibliography 204Table of Legislation 207Table of Cases 207Table of International Instruments 208Abbreviations 208

Chapter 6Canada 209Jamie Benidickson and Heather McLeod-Kilmurray

1 Introduction 2091.1 Environmental Issues 2091.2 Role of Courts 2101.3 Principal Environmental Laws 2121.4 Institutions and Governance Structures 213

2 Overview of the Court System 2142.1 Historical Development of the Judiciary 2142.2 Court Structure and Hierarchy of Courts 2152.3 Applicable Law 217

3 Analysis of Significant Environmental Judgments 2184 Critical Survey 223

4.1 Fundamental Environmental Values 2234.2 Federalism and the Environment 2254.3 Strengthening Environmental Legislation 2274.4 Procedural Innovations to Facilitate Environmental Litigation 2284.5 Reconciling Environmental and Aboriginal Rights 2314.6 Creative Environmental Sentencing 2334.7 Missed Opportunities: Toxic Torts 234

5 Conclusion: Next Steps, Key Challenges and Key Opportunities 237Bibliography 240Table of Legislation 245Table of Cases 246Abbreviations 248

12 Table of Contents

Chapter 7Brazil 249lngo Sarlet and Tiago Fensterseifer

1 Introduction 2492 Main Environmental Issues 2503 Principal Environmental Laws 2514 Constitutionalization of Environmental Protection in Brazil 2515 Structure and Main Functions of Brazilian Courts 2556 Analysis of Significant Environmental Judgments 257

6.1 Property Right Limitations and Private Agents'Environmental Protection Duty 257

6.2 Cruelty to Animals 2586.3 Environmental Sanitation: The Constitutional Warranty

of a Minimum Standard of Environmental Quality andthe State's Protective Duty 259

7 Critical Evaluation 262Bibliography 264Table of Legislation 265Table of Cases 266Table of International Instruments 266Abbreviations 266

Chapter 8Argentina 269Juan Carballo

1 Introduction 2692 Main Environmental Issues 2703 Environmental Institutions and Governance Structures 2724 Principal Environmental Laws 2745 The Judicial System in Argentina 2766 Analysis of Significant Environmental Judgments 278

6.1 Inferior Courts 2796.2 Supreme Court 282

7 Critical Evaluation and Way Forward 286Bibliography 288Table of Legislation 291Table of Cases 291Table of Treaties and International Instruments 292Abbreviations 293

Chapter 9Paraguay 295Sheila Abed

1 Introduction 295

Table of Contents 13

2 Environmental Issues2.1 Location and Size2.2 Population2.3 Economy2.4 Main Environmental Issues

3 Principal Environmental Laws3.1 Constitutional Provisions3.2 Regional Cooperation and Instruments3.3 Environmental Impact Assessment3.4 Agriculture3.5 General Provisions

4 Institutions and Governance Structures4.1 Institutional Framework Established by the Constitution4.2 Environmental Governance Institutions

5 Overview of the Court System6 Procedures Giving Rise to Frequent Litigation7 Criminal Prosecution8 Significant Court Judgments of Environmental Relevance9 Critical Survey10 The Way ForwardBibliographyTable of LegislationTable of CasesTable of Regional and International InstrumentsAbbreviations

Chapter 10AustraliaLinda Pearson

296296297297298299299300301302303303303305306307309312314315316317317318318

321

1 Introduction 3211.1 Environmental Issues 3211.2 Principal Environmental Laws 3231.3 Institutions and Governance Structures 327

2 The Court System 3292.1 Historical Development of the Judiciary 3292.2 Court Structure and Hierarchy of Courts 330

2.2.1 Federal Courts and Tribunals 3302.2.2 State Courts and Tribunals 332

3 Significant Court Judgments of Environmental Relevance 3343.1 Establishing the Limits of the Common Law 3343.2 Establishing the Extent of National Responsibility for

Environmental Governance 3353.3 Interpretation of Environmental and other Legislation 3373.4 Public Participation and Enforcement 340

4 Critical Survey 342

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5 The Way Forward 3445.1 Key Challenges 3445.2 Key Opportunities 345

Bibliography 346Table of Legislation 348Table of Cases 351Abbreviations 353

Chapter 11New Zealand 355Klaus Bosselmann

1 Introduction 3552 Environmental Issues 3563 Principal Environmental Laws 357

3.1 Resource Management Act 1991 3583.2 Energy Efficiency and Conservation Act 2000 3603.3 Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act 1996 3603.4 Fisheries Act 1996 3613.5 Crown Minerals Act 1991 3613.6 Forests Act 1949 3613.7 Environment Act 1986 3623.8 Conservation Act 1987 362

4 Institutions and Governance Structures 3624.1 Central Government 3634.2 Local Government 364

5 The Courts 3655.1 History of the Courts 3655.2 Hierarchy of the Courts 3665.3 Environment Court 367

6 Judgments of Environmental Relevance 3677 Critical Survey and Future Perspectives 374Bibliography 376Table of Legislation 378Table of Cases 379Table of International Instruments 380Abbreviations 380

Chapter 12Pakistan 381Parvez Hassan and Jawad Hassan

1 Introduction 3812 Environmental Issues 3823 Principal Environmental Laws 382

Table of Contents 15

3.1 General Laws 3823.2 Pakistan Environmental Protection Ordinance, 1983 3833.3 Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, 1997 3833.4 Rules and Regulations 384

4 Institutions and Governance Structures 3854.1 The Federal Ministry 3854.2 Pakistan Environmental Protection Council 3854.3 Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency 3864.4 The Provincial Ministry 3874.5 Provincial EPAs 3874.6 Other Relevant Federal Ministries and Provincial Departments 3874.7 Marine Pollution Control Board 3884.8 Local Governments 388

5 Overview of the Court System 3885.1 Historical Development 3885.2 Court Structure and Hierarchy of Courts 391

5.2.1 Supreme Court of Pakistan 3915.2.2 Provincial High Courts 3915.2.3 Environmental Tribunals 3925.2.4 District and Session Courts 3925.2.5 Environment Magistrates 3935.2.6 Quasi Judicial Forums 393

5.3 Analysis of Significant Environmental Judgments 3935.3.1 Supreme Court of Pakistan 3945.3.2 The High Courts 398

6 Critical Survey 4027 The Way Forward 403

7.1 Key Challenges 4037.2 Key Opportunities 404

Bibliography 405Table of Legislation and Authorities 406Table of Cases 407Table of International Instruments 408Abbreviations 409

Chapter 13The People's Republic of China 411QunDu

1 Introduction 4112 Environmental Issues 4123 Principal Environmental Laws 413

3.1 Introduction 4133.2 Framework Legislation 414

16 Table of Contents

3.3 Pollution Legislation 4153.4 Environmental Impact Assessment 4163.5 Land Use and Forestry Laws 4173.6 Nature Conservation Laws 4173.7 Procedural Laws and Environmental Litigation 418

4 Institutions and Governance Structures 4184.1 General Governance Institutions and Environmental

Authorities 4184.2 Judicial Institutions: General Remarks 420

5 An Overview of the People's Court System 4215.1 Historical Development of the Judiciary 4215.2 Court Structure and Hierarchy 422

5.2.1 Structure 4225.2.2 Operation of the Courts 424

6 Analysis of Significant Environmental Judgments 4256.1 Introduction 4256.2 Civil Issues 425

6.2.1 Pollution Torts: General Remarks 4256.2.2 Liability and Burden of Proof 4266.2.3 Damages and Causality 4286.2.4 Resolution through Administrative Means 4286.2.5 Strict Liability 429

6.3 Administrative Issues 4316.3.1 Introduction 4316.3.2 Administrative Enforcement of Environmental

Laws 4316.3.3 Environmental Impact Assessment 4336.3.4 Administrative Duties to Protect the

Environment 4346.3.5 Public Interest Environmental Litigation 435

6.4 Criminal Lawsuits 4366.4.1 Introduction 4366.4.2 The Evolution of Environmental Crimes 4366.4.3 Specific Environmental Crimes 438

7 Critical Survey 4398 The Way Forward 441

8.1 Key Challenges 4418.2 Key Opportunities 442

Bibliography 444Table of Legislation 446Table of Statutory Instruments 447Table of Cases 447Abbreviations 448

Table of Contents \ 7

Chapter 14Kenya 451Patricia Kameri-Mbote

1 Introduction 4511.1 Background 4511.2 Major Environmental Challenges 452

2 Principal Environmental Laws 4542.1 Introduction 4542.2 Constitution 455

2.2.1 The Constitution of Kenya, 1969 4552.2.2 The Draft Constitution of Kenya, 2004 457

2.3 The Environment Management and Coordination Act, 1999 4582.3.1 Normative Provisions 458

2.3.1.1 Right to a Healthy Environment 4582.3.1.2 Locus Standi 4582.3.1.3 Environment Impact Assessment 459

2.3.2 Institutions under EMCA 4592.4 Sectoral Statutes 461

3 Judicial and Non-Judicial Forms of Environmental DisputeResolution 4623.1 An Overview of the Court System 4623.2 Quasi-Judicial Tribunals 4643.3 Non-Judicial Environmental Dispute Resolution 465

3.3.1 Elders 4653.3.2 The Chief 4663.3.3 Peace Committees 4663.3.4 Provincial, District and Local Environment

Committees 4664 Analysis of Significant Environmental Judgments 467

4.1 Locus Standi 4674.2 Suits against Government Agencies 4684.3 Right to a Healthy Environment 4704.4 Environment Impact Assessment 4714.5 Public Trust 4714.6 Regulation of Property Rights 472

5 Critical Survey 4726 Conclusion and Way Forward 474Bibliography 475Table of Legislation 477Table of Cases 477Table of Legislative Instruments 478Abbreviations 478

18 Table of Contents

Chapter 15Uganda 479Emmanuel Kasimbazi

1 Introduction 4792 Main Environmental Issues 4803 Development of Environmental Law: An Overview 4804 Principal Environmental Laws 482

4.1 The Constitution of the Republic of Uganda, 1995 4824.2 Framework Environmental Legislation 4824.3 Sectoral Environmental Laws 483

5 Overview of Court System 4845.1 Introduction 4845.2 Structure of the Court System 485

6 Analysis of Significant Environmental Judgments 4876.1 Use of Common Law Principles 4886.2 Extending Locus Standi 4886.3 Environmental Impact Assessment 4906.4 Application of the Public Trust Doctrine 4906.5 The Precautionary Principle 4936.6 Access to Information 4936.7 Grant of Appropriate Remedies 495

7 Challenges Facing the Judiciary in Environmental Governance 4977.1 Political Interference 4977.2 Capacity Constraints 4987.3 Inadequate Financial Resources 4987.4 Poor Case Flow Management 4997.5 Extra-Curricula Activities of the Judiciary 4997.6 Lack of Motivation 4997.7 Reliance on Technicalities and Limited Judicial

Activism 5007.8 High Cost of Litigation 500

8 Conclusion and the Way Forward 501Bibliography 502Table of Legislation 503Table of Cases 503Table of International Instruments 504Abbreviations 504

Chapter 16Tanzania 505Palamagamba John Kabudi

1 Introduction 5052 Background 5063 Environmental Policies and Challenges 508

Table of Contents 19

4 Principal Environmental Laws 5114.1 Introduction 5114.2 Sectoral Environmental Management Functions 5144.3 Coordinating and Supporting Environmental Management

Functions 5145 The Court System 5156 Analysis of Significant Environmental Judgments 516

6.1 Introduction 5166.2 The Right to Life and the Environment 5176.3 Locus Standi and Public Interest Litigation 5196.4 Application of the Polluter Pays Principle 521

7 Conclusion and Way Forward 522Bibliography 523Table of Legislation 525Table of Cases 525Table of International/Regional Instruments 526Abbreviations 526

Chapter 17Nigeria 527Muhammed Ladan

1 Introduction 5271.1 Main Environmental Challenges 528

2 Principal Environmental Laws and Institutions 5293 An Overview of Nigeria's Court System 5324 Analysis of Significant Environmental Judgments 537

4.1 Introduction 5374.2 Procedural and Jurisdictional Issues 5384.3 Locus Standi and Representative Capacity 5414.4 Human Rights and the Environment 5434.5 Pre-action Notices and Statutory Limitations 5434.6 Prescription of Civil Claims 5444.7 Application of Torts in the Environmental Context 5454.8 Burden of Proof and Special Damage Claims 547

5 Critical Survey and Way Forward 549Bibliography 551Table of Legislation 553Table of Cases 554Table of International Instruments 556Abbreviations 556

Chapter 18South Africa 557Louis Kotze and Alexander Pater son

1 Introduction 557

20 Table of Contents

2 Environmental Issues 5583 Principal Environmental Laws 560

3.1 Constitutional Provisions 5603.1.1 Environmental Right 5603.1.2 Other Rights 5623.1.3 International Environmental Law 5623.1.4 Governance Mandates and Cooperative Governance 563

3.2 Environmental Framework Legislation 5643.3 Sectoral Legislation 5663.4 Common Law 566

4 Governance Structures and Institutions 5674.1 Legislature 5674.2 Executive 5674.3 Judiciary 568

4.3.1 Structure of the Courts 5694.3.2 Judicial Powers and Locus Standi 570

4.4 Environmental Authorities 5715 Critical Analysis of Significant Environmental Judgments 572

5.1 Giving Content to the Environmental Right 5725.2 Promoting Administrative Justice 5795.3 Facilitating Access to Information 5825.4 Extending Locus Standi 5835.5 Linking Land Reform and Environmental Protection 5855.6 Statutory Interpretation 5865.7 Criminal Enforcement 5905.8 Common Law Remedies 5915.9 Litigation Costs 592

6 Conclusion 594Bibliography 595Table of Legislation 598Table of Cases 598Abbreviations 601

Chapter 19Eritrea 603Zerisenay Habtezion

1 Introduction 6032 Main Environmental Challenges 605

2.1 Introduction 6052.2 Deforestation and Land Degradation 6052.3 Wildlife Depletion 6062.4 Other 607

3 The Legal and Institutional Milieu for Environmental Governance 6083.1 The Eritrean Legal System 608

Table of Contents 21

3.2 The Constitutional Framework 6093.3 Relevant Environmental Laws 6093.4 Relevant Policy Instruments 6113.5 Governance Structures 614

4 An Overview of the Judicial System 6154.1 Historic Overview 6154.2 Current Court Structure 617

5 Analysis of Significant Environmental Judgments 6195.1 Introduction 6195.2 Pre-Proclamation No. 155 of 2006 6205.3 Post-Proclamation No. 155 of 2006 622

6 Critical Survey 6237 The Way Forward 6248 Conclusion 626Bibliography 627Table of Legislation 628Table of Cases 629Table of International Instruments 629Abbreviations 630

Index 631