with the tibetans in tent and temple-narrative of four years' residence on the tibetan border, and...

7/28/2019 With the Tibetans in Tent and Temple-narrative of Four Years' Residence on the Tibetan Border, And of a Journey I

1/445

'% n9 i

miMMM^ii^iBil^


2/445

BostonMedical Library8 The Fenway


3/445


4/445


5/445

Digitized by the Internet Archivein 2010 with funding from

Open Knowledge Commons and Harvard Medical School

http://www.archive.org/details/withtibetansinte1902rijn


6/445

L^'lw

^*^

1^;

BMp^^^Kjgflp^V' jI^^HtaitfT. - , '.,1TIBETAN WOMAN AND SON


7/445

With the Tibetans inTent and Temple

NARRATIVE OF FOUR YEARS' RESI-DENCE ON THE TIBETAN BORDER, ANDOF A JOURNEY INTO THE FAR INTERIOR

BY

SUSIE CARSON RIJNHART, M.D.SECOND EDITION

Oliphant, Anderson & Ferrier30 St Mary Street, Edinburgh21 Paternoster Square, London

I 902


8/445

SOME MISSIONARY BOOKSPUBLISHED BY

Upbant, BnDerson and JFerrfer.DAYBREAK IN LIVINGSTONIA. The Story of the Livingstonia

Mission, British Central Africa. By James W. Jack, M.A. Revised,with an Introduction, by Rev Robert Laws, D.D., LL.D. WithMap, Plan of Livingstonia Institution, and many other Illustrations,Price 5s

IN THE TIGER JUNGLE; and other Stories of Missionary Workamong the Telugus of India. By the Rev. Jacob Chambbblain,M.D., D.D. With Portrait and 7 Illustrations. Price 3s. 6d.

CHINESE CHARACTERISTICS. By the Rev. Arthue H. Smith, D.D.Enlarged and Revised Edition, with additional Illustrations, Price7s. 6d.

FROM FAR FORMOSA. By Geokge Leslie Mackat, D.D. With 4Maps and 16 Illustrations. Cheaper Edition. Price 5a.

KOREAN SKETCHES. By the Rev. James S. Gale. With 8 Illustra-tions. Price 3s. 6d.

A LIFE FOR AFRICA. A Biography of the Rev. Adolphus ClemensGood, Ph.D., American Missionary in Equatorial West Africa. ByEllen C. Paksons, M A. Price 3s. 6d.

THE GIST OF JAPAN : The Islands, their People and Missions. Bythe Rev R. B. Pebrt, A.M., Ph.D. With 8 full-page Illustrations.Price 6s.

PERSIAN LIFE AND CUSTOMS. By S. G. Wilson, M.A. With Mapand Illustrations. Price 7s. 6d.

CHRISTIAN MISSIONS AND SOCIAL PROGRESS. A SociologicalStudy of Foreign Missions. By the Rev. James S. Dennis, D.D.Volumes I. and II. Royal 8vo, cloth extra, price lOs.Bd. per volume.Vol. III., completing the work, in preparation.

CHRISTIANITY AND THE PROGRESS OF MAN. As Illustrated byModem Missions. By W. Douglas Mackenzie, M.A., Chicago.Price 3s. 6d.

MEDICAL MISSIONS : Their Place and Power. By the late JohnLowe, F.B.C.S.E. Price 2s. 6d.

CALABAR AND ITS MISSIONS. By Hcgh Goldie. With Illustrationsand Map. Price Ss.

A CYCLE OF CATHAY ; or, China, South and North. By the Rev. W.A. P. Maktin, D.D., LL.D. With Map and numerous IllustrationsPrice 7s. 6d.

FOREIGN MISSIONS AFTER A CENTURY. By Rev. James S.Dennis, D.D., of the American Presbyterian Mission, Beirut, Syria.With Introduction by Professor T. M. Lindsay, D.iy. Price 5s.


9/445

TO THE MEMORY OF MYHUSBAND, WHOSE HEARTAND LIFE WERE GIVENTO THE TIBETANS, THISVOLUME IS DEDICATED


10/445


11/445

PREFACEIn the following pages I have attempted to nar-

rate briefly the events of four years' residence andtravel among the Tibetans (1895-1899). The workdoes not aim at literary finish, for it has been writ-ten under the stress of many public engagements.It is sent forth in response to requests and sugges-tions received from friends in all parts of theUnited States and Canada.

If I may succeed in perpetuating and deepeningthe widespread interest in the evangelization ofTibet, already aroused by the press and platformaccounts of the missionary pioneering herein de-scribed, I shall be glad. To this end I have incor-porated in the narrative as many data concerningthe customs, beliefs and social conditions of theTibetans as space would allow. My close contactwith the people during four years has enabled meto speak with confidence on these points, evenwhen I have found myself differing from greattravelers who, because of their brief sojourn andrapid progress, necessarily received some false


12/445

PREFACEimpressions. The map accompanying the bookshows the route of the last journey undertaken in1898 by my husband, myself and our little son, andof which I am the sole survivor. Leaving Tankaron the northwestern frontier of Chinese or OuterTibet, crossing the Ts'aidam Desert, the Kuenlunand Dang La Mountains, we entered the Lhasa dis-trict of Inner Tibet, reaching Nagch'uk'a, a townabout one hundred and fifty miles from the capital.In describing this journey, such portions of Mr.Rijnhart's diary as I was able to preserve, and alsohis accurate geographical notes, have been of inesti-mable value to me.My thanks are due to Rev. Mr. Upcraft, Baptistmissionary at Ya Cheo, China, for photographs fromwhich some of the illustrations were made. And Iam especially grateful to Prof. Charles T. Paul, ofHiram College, who placed at my disposal the fruitsof his many years' study of Tibetiana^ and renderedme invaluable assistance in the preparation of themanuscript.

Susie C. Rijnhart,Chatham, Ontario*, Canada.


13/445

CONTENTSI. To THE Tibetan Bcjrder.Mission in a Bud-

dhist LamaseryPreparation for the JourneyAcross ChinaImpressions by the Way . gII. Among the Lamas.Arrival at LusarStrangeLama CeremoniesMedical WorkOur Tib-etan TeacherFirst Experience with RobberNomads 27

III. A Mohammedan Rebellion.Moslem SectsBeginnings of the StruggleOur Acquaintancewith the AbbotRefuge in the LamaseryThe Doctrine of Reincarnation ... 50

IV. With the Wounded.Refugees at SiningOurIsolation at KumbumThe Siege of Shen-Ch'unTo the BattlefieldA Ride for Life-Rout of the Mohammedans .... 68

V. Missions and Massacres. Bible School atLusarMohammedan Revolt at SiningTer-rible Slaughter by Imperial SoldiersTheFall of TopaPeace at Last . . , . 86

VI. The Lamasery of Kumbum.Tibetan Lama-seriesLegend of Tsong K'abaOrigin ofKumbumThe Gold Tiled Temple and SacredTree.Nocturnal Devotions and Worship ofthe Butter God 102

VII. A Buddhist Saint.Mina Fuyeh's AbodeHisPrevious IncarnationsMahatmasConver-sations on ChristianityJambulaBehind theScenes 120

VIII. Our Removal to Tankar.Tankar and Sur-roundingsA New OpportunityAni andDomaThe Lhasa OfficialsDrunken LamasVisit of Captain Wellby .... 133


14/445

CONTENTSIX. Distinguished Visitors.Mr. Rijnhart's Ab-

senceOur House is RobbedVisit of Dr.Sven HedinTsanga FuyehMedical Workamong NomadsBirth of our Little Son . 155

X. Among the Tanguts of the Koko-Nor.Tan-gut CustomsJourneys to the Koko-NorNomadic Tent-LifeA Glimpse of the BlueSeaRobbersDistributing Gospels . . 170XL Toward the Tibetan Capital.Lhasa theHome of the Dalai LamaNeed of PioneerWork in Inner TibetOur Preparations forthe Journey 191Xn. Farwell to Tankar. Leaving FaithfulFriendsOur Caravan Moves OffThroughthe Grass Country to the DesertTwo Mon-gol Guides 305XHL In the Ts'aidam.The Ts'aidam and its PeoplePolyandry and Cruelty to the AgedTheDzassak of BarongCelebration of Baby'sBirthdayMissionary Prospects . . , 219

XIV. Unpopulated Districts.Crossing the Kuen-lun Mountains "Buddha's Cauldron" Marshes and Sand HillsDead Yak Strew theTrailFord of the Shuga GolOur GuidesDesert UsSnow Storm on the Koko-ShilisWe Meet a Caravan The Beginning ofSorrows 232

XV. Darkness.Nearing the Dang LasDeath ofOur Little SonThe Lone Grave Under theBoulder 245

XVI. Beyond the Dang La.Accosted by OfficialSpiesOurEscapeThe Natives Buy Copiesofthe ScripturesOurEscort to thePonbo'sTent 254

XVII. Nagch'uk'a. Government of Nagch'uk'aUnder Official SurveillanceDealings withthe Ponbo Ch'enpoWe are Ordered to Re-turn to ChinaOur Decision .... 265


15/445

CONTENTS

XIX.

XX.

XXI.

XVIII. Ok the Caravan Road.The Start from Nag-ch'uk'a with New GuidesFarewell to ourLast FriendRahim Leaves for LadakFording the Shak Chu TorrentReading theGospelsA Day of Memories . . . 275Attacked by Mountain Robbers.We Crossthe Tsa ChuSuspicious VisitorsA Showerof Bullets and Boulders Loss of OurAnimals Our Guides Disappear TheDread Night by the River .... 289Our Last Days Together.The Robbers'AmbushThe Worst Ford of allFootmarksand a False HopeA Deserted CampTheBed under the SnowMr. Rijnhart Goes toNative Tents for Aid, never to Return . . 302Lost and Alone.Waiting and WatchingConviction of Mr. Rijnhart's FateRefugeamong Strange TibetansTheir Cruel Treat-mentThe Start for Jy^kundo for Official Aid 312XXII. Wicked Tibetan Guides.The Apa and theMurder of Dutreuil de RhinsConferencewith a ChiefNew Guides, Treacherous andCorruptThe Night Camp in the MarshWe are Taken for RobbersA Lamasery Fair 325

XXIII. A Friendly Chinaman.A Protector at LastI Receive a Passport from the Abbot of RashiGombaA Lama GuideBattle with FierceDogsArrival at Jy^kundoNo Official Aid 342XXIV. More Robbers.From Jy^kundo to KansaDifficulties with UlaAt the Home of theGimbiCorrupt LamasAttacked by Drunk-en RobbersDeliverance .... 357Safe at Last.The Approach to Ta-Chien-LuMy Pony becomes ExhaustedLongMarches with Blistered FeetChinese Con-ception of EuropeansAmong Friends OnceMoreConclusion 377

-399

XXV.

Glossary


16/445


17/445

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSPAGE

Tibetan Woman anb Son .... FrontispieceMap Showing Dr. Rijnhart's Journey ... 12Border Types 22Tibetan Buddhist Layman 109Mina Fuyeh 120Tangut Robbers . . . . . . . . 188A Tibetan Traveler 214Tibetan Coracle . . 262Crossing a Rope Bridge . . . . . . 282Petrus Rijnhart 302The Author in Tibetan Costume .... 312A Tibetan House . . . . . . . . 326Mani Stone with Inscribed Prayer . . . 346A Wall of Tea Bales 362


18/445


19/445

WITH THE TIBETANSCHAPTER I

TO THE TIBETAN BORDERMission in a Buddhist LamaseryPreparation for the

JourneyAcross ChinaImpressions by the Way.On the slopes of two hills in the province of Amdo,

on the extreme northwestern Chino-Tibetan frontier,nestles the great lamasery of Kumbum, famed amongthe devotees of Buddha as one of the holiest spots onAsiatic soil. As a center of Buddhist learning andworship it is known in the remote parts of China, Man-churia, Mongolia, and in all the Tibetan territories,even to the foot of the Himalayas, and is estimated tobe second in rank only to Lhasa, the Tibetan capital.It is the seclusive residence of some four thousandlamas and, at festive seasons, the goal of pilgrimagesfrom all Buddhist countries contiguous to Tibet. Desir-ing to carry on missionary work among the Tibetans weleft America in the autumn of 1894, having Kumbum asour point of destination. We expected to make our homeand establish a medical station at Lusar, a villagewhich may be called the secular part of the lamasery,where the lamas do their trading, and which is onlyabout five minutes' walk from the lamasery proper.

9


20/445

10 WITH THE TIBETANSThe considerations which led us to select Lusar as abasis of operations, besides its proximity to the lama-sery, were as follows: My husband, Mr. Petrus Rijn-hart, about three years previous had conceived the ideaof entering Tibet for missionary purposes, from theChinese side. From the experiences of Hue and Gabet,the Lazarist fathers, who, following a route throughTartary and China, had gained free access into the for-bidden land, he was convinced that the antipathy toforeign intrusion everywhere manifested in the vigi-lantly guarded passes of the Himalayan frontier southand west did not exist to any extent on the northeast-ern border between Outer Tibet and China. In this hewas right. Crossing the Chinese Empire, he hadreached Lusar in 1892, had resided for ten months inthe vicinity of the lamasery, had been well received bythe priests, who called him a " white lama from theWest," and had labored diligently to make known theGospel. His work had consisted principally of privateconversations with the lamas, and of short journeysamong the nomads of the surrounding country, preach-ing and teaching, and wielding what little medicalknowledge he possessed in the treatment of the sick.Among his patients were people of high and low de-gree, lamas from the great monastery, Tibetan andMongol chiefs of the Koko-nor tribes, officials, mer-chants, shepherds, and even robbers. The interest withwhich his ministrations were received gave him greatencouragement and deepened the intense longing hehad already conceived for the evangelization of theTibetans. Many with whom he came in contact had


21/445

TO THE TIBETAN" BORDER 11never seen a European nor heard the name of Christ.Some of the lamas said the Christian doctrine was toogood to be true; others inquired why, if the doctrinewere true, the Christians had waited " so many moons "before sending them the glad tidings. During one ofhis itinerating journeys " a living buddha " with histrain of dignitaries came to the tent, having heard, ashe said, that a man with a white face had come, and,sitting at the feet of the white stranger, the Buddhistteacher listened with rapt attention to the wonderfulstory of the world's Saviour. During his sojourn noofficial, either Chinese or Tibetan, asked for his pass-port, or questioned him as to his intentions of penetrat-ing to the interior. Thus under circumstances unex-pectedly favorable, surrounded by good will and hos-pitality, and free from that prejudice and espionagewith which foreigners approaching the Tibetan borderare usually regarded, he had had ample opportunity ofstudying the life, needs and disposition of the people,and his knowledge gave us assurance of the receptionthat awaited us at the lamasery village. Again, Lusarwas advantageous from a topographical standpoint, be-ing situated near the juncture of several importanthighways; one leading to China, another to Mongolia,and still another, the great caravan route, leading toLhasa. Here we could easily receive supplies, andwould be likely to come in contact with the people ona large scale, owing to the amount of traffic that passesalong the great roads. Also, the surrounding country-being inhabited by a cosmopolitan population compris-ing Mongols, Chinese, Tibetans, and a few Turkestani


22/445

12 WITH THE TIBETANSMohammedans, it was a good place in which to becomeconversant with the languages we should require, look-ing forward as we were to a life-long sojourn in theregions of Central Asia. We left America for our dis-tant field without any human guarantee of support,for we were not sent out by any missionary society.Although, through Mr. Kijnhart's lectures in Holland,the United States and Canada, considerable interesthad been aroused and many friends won to the cause ofTibetan missions, yet our visible resources were limitedat best. We went forth, however, with a convictionwhich amounted to absolute trust that God would ful-fil His promise to those who " seek first the Kingdom,"and continue to supply us with all things necessary forcarrying on the work to which He had called us. Fromthe outset we felt that we were " thrust forth " spe-cially for pioneer work, and although anticipating dif-ficulties and sacrifices we were filled with joy at theprospect of sowing precious seed on new ground.

Our party, consisting of Mr. Eijnhart, his fellow-worker, Mr. William Neil Ferguson, and myself, sail-ing from the Pacific Coast, had decided to follow sub-stantially the same route across China which Mr. Eijn-hart had taken on his former journey. From Shanghaiup the Yangtse to Hankow we would go by steamer;thence by house-boat up the Han as far as Fancheng,situated about four hundred mdles up the river. Theremainder of the journey would be completed overlandby cart and mule. We had endeavored, before leavingAmerica, to equip ourselves as well as possible, not onlyagainst the long journey, but also, in view of our pros-


23/445

^^3^

SCALE OF NllueS109 aoe 3a

Notes:The red line shows Dr. Rijnhart's route.The baby died and is buried at the spot indicated by the red circle.Mr. Rijnhart disappeared near Tashi Gomba, marked by red cross.


24/445


25/445

TO THE TIBETAN BORDER 13pective residence far from civilization, with the possi-bility of being temporarily cut off altogether, owing tothe frequent rebellions that take place in CentralChina, rendering the passage of mails and supplies un-certain. Our stores were contained in thirteen large,ponderous boxes, and consisted of clothing, culinaryutensils, and other portable domestic necessities, medi-cines, dental and surgical instruments, fire-arms andammunition, photographic materials, books, includingcopies of the Scriptures in Tibetan, and stationery, be-sides compasses, thermometers, a sewing machine and abicycle. In Shanghai we added drugs, clothing, foodfor the river journey, Chinese brazen oil lamps, trinketsfor bartering, and other articles. Knowing the advan-tage of traveling in native costume, each of us donneda Chinese suit. It was my first experience with orientalattire, and I shall not soon forget it. After adjustingthe unwieldy garments to my own satisfaction, I at-tended a service in the Union Church, where, to myconsternation, I discovered I had appeared in publicwith one of the under garments outside and dressed ina manner which shocked Chinese ideas of propriety.

Mr. Rijnhart, on account of his thorough knowledgeof Chinese, was able to make excellent arrangementsfor our passage into the interior. As the war with Ja-pan was then raging and the country in an unsettledstate, there were difficulties to be anticipated; nor wasthere anything inviting in the thought of doing twothousand miles in midwinter under such exposure aswould be entailed by the primitive modes of orientaltravel. Yet, if one holds to progress with any comfort


26/445

14 WITH THE TIBETANSworthy the name, there are reasons for making thejourney during the hibernating period of the greaterportion of the inhabitants of China, namely, the ver-minous !Our first stage up the Yangtse was made in a steamer

manned by English officers and a Chinese crew. Therewas a sense of security, which afterwards we sadlylacked, in the feeling that the great river was but anarm of the gentle Pacific that laved our native shores,stretched far inland as if to assure us of protection.Our first stopping-place was the city of Hankow, animportant commercial centre situated at the confluenceof the Han and Yangtse rivers, and, following the sinu-osities of the Yangtse, distant about eight hundredand fifty miles from the seaboard. The city was fullof stir on our arrival. The people were intensely ex-cited over the war, and signs of military activity wereon every hand. The spacious harbor at the mouth ofthe Han presented the appearance of a forest of mastsin which all the ships of Tarshish and of the world hadcongregated in one dense fleet. They were chieflyhouse-boats and cargo junks that usually ply up anddown the river, but conspicuous among them were thehigh-pooped transports, their decks crowded with blueand red jacketed soldiers on their way to the scene ofaction.We took passage for Fancheng in the inevitablehouse-boat, a long, clumsy-looking scow divided intothree compartments; the captain's cabin at the stern,inhabited by himself, his wife and little child ; anotherlong cabin for the passengers, situated amidships and


27/445

TO THE TIBETAN BORDEK 15separated from the former by a movable partition ; anda space at the bow where the crew discharged the func-tions of eating, sleeping and working. Under eachcompartment was a hold for the belongings of its occu-pants. On the rare occasions when the winds werefavorable the sails were sufficient to propel the awkwardcraft; otherwise she was pulled along by the sturdytrackers on the shore. In deep water the captainsteered by means of a prodigious rudder; in the shal-lows he managed with a long, stout bamboo pole. Thismode of traveling was not without its amenities. Theweather being fine, and the scenery along the riverbanks charming, we frequently disembarked and wentafoot, and occasioned no little commotion as we passedthrough the villages, a foreign woman being an objectof especial interest. Crowding around, the peoplewould handle my clothing and ply me with questions,evincing astonishment at the size of my feet.The villagers were mostly of the agricultural class,

and appeared to be very industrious. The door-yardswere tidy, as were also the farms, every available footof land being cultivated. Everything about the housesbetokened an air of freedom, even the pigs and chick-ens being allowed to go in and out at will. Signs ofreligious life were not wanting. In one village we cameacross an old temple mostly in ruins, in the one re-maining corner of which were ten idols, some incensebowls and sticks, while near by lay the huge bell, silentand long since fallen from its lofty place. In the even-ing the people flocked to the old ruin to worship amidthe sound of firecrackers and the beating of a huge


28/445

16 WITH THE TIBETANSgong by the attendant priest, and as the weird soundswere carried afar and re-echoed in the cold, still even-ing air there was about the whole scene a touchingpicturesqueness not unmingled with solemnity. Christ-mas day found us still on the house-boat, and with itcame many pleasant memories of that glad, festive sea-son in the homeland, and many reflections concerningChina's teeming millions to whom the Christ of Beth-lehem was still a stranger.On January 7 we reached Fancheng, none the worse

for our river journey. A hearty welcome was given usby the resident Scandinavian missionaries, Mr. and Mrs.Matson, Mr. and Mrs. Woolin, and Mr. Shequist, whomwe found engaged in a most valuable work. Besidespreaching, they conducted a boys' school, and at thetime of our visit were erecting a school for girls. Ourstay in Fancheng was brief, just long enough to getthrough the unenviable and seemingly endless prelimi-naries to an overland journey by cart. The hiring ofthe carts was itself no little matter even with the assist-ance of our Scandinavian friends, but finally the piaowas signed, by which we secured two carters, with twolarge carts and a small one, to take us to Signan. Bythe word " cart " this Chinese vehicle is but faintly de-scribed. It consists of a clumsy, bulky frame set on asingle axle, innocent of springs, its two wheels fur-nished with tires several inches in width and in thick-ness. The frame is covered by an awning of matting toshelter the traveler and his baggage from the heat andrain. The smaller carts, constructed on the same plan,are generally painted and have a cloth covering with


29/445

TO THE TIBETAN BORDER 17windows in the sides. These carts are drawn in Chinaby mules or horses, in Mongolia by camels or oxen. Inmany of the principal roads deep grooves have beenworn by the constant passing of the great wheels, and,the length of the axle differing in the various districts,the grooves are not equidistant on all roads, so that itoccasionally happens that at certain junctures all axleshave to be changed. At Tung Kuan, for instance, atown situated at the meeting-place of the provinces ofShensi, Shansi and Honan, this operation is necessary.On January 11 we were ready to start. We had

taken the precaution to furnish our cart with a strawmattress, some pillows and comforters, to provideagainst the Jolting which we knew awaited us. Ourboxes being already in position, after Scripture readingwith the missionaries our little caravan moved off.Two of the missionaries accompanied us outside thecity gates to bid us God-speed, and it was only after wehad parted ways with them that we realized we hadactually set out on the most difficult part of our jour-ney across the Celestial Empire. The road from thestart was very uneven, a fall of two feet being not un-common. I received a severe bump on the head, andexperienced so many changes of position and came sofrequently and emphatically into collision with variousportions of the cart as to have remembered that springsare not a luxury of cart travel in China.

Carters are supposed to make a certain stage eachday, and inns are found at the end of each stage forthe accommodation of travelers. In order to cover therequired distance we were frequently on the way in the


30/445

18 WITH THE TIBETANSmiddle of the night, and even though traveling fromlong before daylight until dusk we were not alwaysable to reach an inn. At such times one must eithersleep in the cart or put up in a farmhouse. Even theregular inns are by no means inviting. We firststopped in one of these thirty-five miles from Fan-cheng. It was a flimsy structure, with great crevicesgaping in the walls, in which were rude lattice win-dows with paper panes; the ceilings were composed ofbamboo poles nailed across the rafters, from whichcobwebs hung in profusion; the sleeping-room had nofloor, and the bed was as hard as boards could make it,springless of course, and destitute of covers. But onewelcomes any variation from the tedium of a Chinesecart journey, and after the jolting of the first day canrest even in a Chinese inn.One night, having failed to make the required stage,

we sought shelter in a native hut on a hillside andslept on the Vang, an article of furniture which notraveler in Western China soon forgets. The ang isa sort of elevation built across one end of the room, re-sembling a hollow platform, the top sometimes cov-ered with flat stones. It serves the purpose of all theprincipal articles of furniture in an occidental housechairs, stove, bed and table. It is warmed by a fireplaced in the box, and, when the surface is moderatelyheated, one may recline with comfort; but on thisnight the h'ang was so hot that we soon became uncom-fortable, being almost roasted on one side and frozenon the other. We were finally obliged to get up and


31/445

TO THE TIBETAN BOEDER 19rake out all the fire, and at last fell asleep from sheerexhaustion and despair.A foreigner's passport in China enables him to passfree of charge all customs, and also the ferries that areusually found, in lieu of bridges, plying across all therivers of considerable size which cut the great high-ways. The ferry which took us across one large riverwas crowded with people going to market on the otherside, paying their passage, some with vegetables, somewith cash. The ferryman collected the fee as he sat onthe ground in front of his straw wigwam. After con-gratulating ourselves on the safe passage of the river,one of the wheels of our heaviest cart sank fast in thesand, and two extra mules had to be hitched on to pullit out.Our carters were interesting fellows, but their knowl-

edge of Chinese politics, as of things in general, waslimited. Eeferring to the war with Japan, one of theminformed us that Li Hung Chang had been made Em-peror of China. Some of the people through whoseterritory we passed had heard nothing of the war, andothers said that the Emperor's subjects in France hadrebelled !

China is favorable soil for the flourishing of theolder cults. Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoismstanding side by side and being largely intermingled.A Chinaman may with no sense of incongruity professall these beliefs at once. He would not appreciate Dr.Martin's statement that logically the three are irrecon-cilable, Taoism being materialism. Buddhism idealism,and Confucianism essentially ethical. Like the state^


32/445

20 WITH THE TIBETANShe makes a unity of them by swallowing a portion ofeach.* As we journeyed onward the monuments tothis complex religious life increased in abundance.Here, passing through a city, we beheld the "gates ofvirtue," immense, carved stone arches spanning thestreets, and erected to the memory of some sage, orpious person; there, on the hillsides, reared to someBuddhist saint, " stones of merit," on the tops ofwhich little bells are fixed so that the wind causes themto ring out the praises of the great man long sincepassed away. Caves also, formerly the abodes of her-mits, were pointed out to us, and colossal statues of theBuddha hewn from the solid rock, gazing down uponus with an air of sublime and majestic calm, still bear-ing witness to the zeal of the early Buddhist hhihsliuswho wandered forth from India to make known " theTeacher of Nirvana and the Law." In WesternChina nearly every farm has its contiguous graveyardin which may be seen the tables whereon the peopleplace their offerings to the spirits of the dead. As wereflected on the part that the great non-Christian reli-gions have played in China, and on the deep-grained,age-long impress they have made upon her people, themagnitude of our mission to a people not less religious,more superstitious, and enchained in a denser igno-rance and a more blighting system, grew upon us inunwonted realization. Yet our faith did not waver.In much weakness we were going to undertake a stu-pendous tasknot in our own strength but in His whowhen He commanded His disciples to " go and make* A Cycle of Cathay, p. 289.


33/445

TO THE TIBETAN BORDER 21disciples of all the nations/' also promised "Lo, I amwith you all the days, even unto the end of the world."

Crossing a stone bridge of stately and antique archi-tecture, we reached the city of Signan, the old impe-rial capital of China, and at present the capital of theprovince of Shensi. Here our carters made arrange-ments with other carters to take us on to Lancheo, theythemselves returning to Fancheng. Signan is the mostimportant trade centre of the northern interior, thehome of the Emperor of a former dynasty, a city ofheavy walls, paved streets, stately palaces and hand-some governmental buildings. It is the site of thefamous Nestorian tablet which bears record of Chris-tian missions in China as early as the seventh centuryof our era. The surrounding country, relieved by un-dulating hills, is particularly charming; great roadsbranch off in all directions, two of the main ones lead-ing to Kansu. The merchants of Signan carry ontrade in all the surrounding provinces, and even inMongolia, Tibet and Turkestan.With our new carters we set out once more, although

unfortunately for us it was the Chinese New Year, andconsequently very difficult to buy food, as during thatfestive season all the shops are closed for days together.However, we did not wish to tarry at Signan. Bright,sunny days and cloudless skies, with nothing more ad-verse than an occasional wind or dust storm, such asare common in Western China, seemed to us to befavorable conditions for pressing on.One of the important functions in connection with

the celebration of the New Year is the lantern festival


34/445

22 WITH THE TIBETANSobserved on the fifteenth of the first moon. Arrivingat a large city one night, intending to put up at an innin the suburbs, we found ourselves in the midst of thefestival. The long street was lined on either side withlighted lanterns of exquisite and varied designs.Crowds of people surged up and down, and all was life,movement and jubilationa weird scene, the moonshining down in icy calmness upon it all. Our horsesbecoming frightened at the tumult and glare of lightand at the passing of a long string of camels with ring-ing bells, almost upset our carts in their frantic effortsto hide somewhere. We thus attracted attention evenagainst our will, and it was with difficulty that we our-selves avoided being mobbed. Relieved indeed we feltwhen we reached a miserable inn, which in our thoughtswas transformed almost into a palace, as it affordedus a haven of rest and safety from that brilliantlylighted festive street.

It was a happy day for us when we reached Lancheo,the capital of Kansu, for we had looked forward to afew days' respite in that city. Shortly after we hadtaken up quarters in an inn, Mr. Mason, of the ChinaInland Mission, came with a message from Mr. and Mrs.Eedfern, extending to us a pressing invitation to stopat their home. He had brought the mission cart totransport us, and we soon found ourselves enjoying thehospitality of the missionaries. At Lancheo we formedthe acquaintance of Mr. Wu, a Chinaman who hadstudied eight years in America, making a specialty oftelegraphy. He had been up in the new province super-intending the laying of telegraph lines, and in com-


35/445

BORDER TYPES.


36/445


37/445

TO THE TIBETAI^ BORDER 23pany with his companions in Lancheo, was now return-ing to Peking. The day before we had arrived he hadentertained Messrs. Redfern and Mason at a feast in arestaurant, where, of course, according to Chinese eti-quette, ladies could not be present. Wishing to enter-tain us all, he prepared a second feast, which was servedin the sitting-room of the mission house, so that theladies might with propriety attend. Everything, in-cluding dishes, was brought from the restaurant. Whileon the road we had had considerable practice in usingchopsticks, and we thoroughly enjoyed the food, whichwas dainty to the palate and artistic in appearance.Knowing our views regarding the use of wine as a bev-erage, Mr. Wu had provided delicious tea in elegantlydecorated covered china cups, and sweatmeats by wayof compensation. Chinese politeness ruled the feast,each one helping with his own chopsticks another towhom he wished to show courtesy. Among the manydelicacies there was a sucking pig cut into little piecesand cooked in a perfect manner, also bamboo sprouts,lily tubers and other dishes of which at the time wedid not even know the names. Western people are mis-taken who imagine that the only items in the Chinesemenu are rice and rats. As cooks the Chinese vie evenwith the French, and some of the most delicious mealswe partook of while abroad were prepared by the Chi-nese. In acknowledgment of Mr. Wu's hospitality,Mrs. Redfern in turn prepared a feast for him; it wasa proper English dinner, with several kinds of dessert;yet we must confess, in point of delicacy the Chinesefeast was superior.


38/445

24 WITH THE TIBETANSAfter a few days, Mr. Rijnhart and Mr. Ferguson

went up the big cart road to Sining with the luggage,while I remained behind with Mr. and Mrs. Eedfern,until Mr. Rijnhart, who would go on from Sining toLusar to rent a house, should return for me. I shall evergratefully remember the intervening pleasant days spentat Lancheo and the kindness received from the mission-aries. Within a few days Mr. Rijnhart came back andannounced that he had been successful in leasing ahouse, but that considerable repairs would be necessary.We left the next day for Sining, Mr. Rijnhart riding ona horse and I on a donkey, both of which had been gen-erously loaned us by Mr. Ridley, of the China InlandMission of Sining. The two animals had been com-panions for so long that wherever the horse led thedonkey followed, a fact which I appreciated on this, myfirst donkey ride, as it solved for me the anticipateddifficulty of guiding one of these proverbially stubbornanimals along steep and difficult paths. Not far fromLancheo we arrived at the branch of the Great Wallwhich crosses the Yellow River, and found the ancientstructure in a very dilapidated condition, broken bygreat gaps and much worn by the rains of centuries.It was not more than five feet in height, and howevereffective a defence it once may have been against theincursions of Turks, Mongols and Manchus, it wouldnot be a serious obstacle before a modern army. Thereare two roads from Lancheo to Sining; one for cart,the other for mule travel. The carts make the journeyby the " big road ^' in ten days ; by the " short road "


39/445

TO THE TIBETAN BOEDER 25over the mountains, the one we had chosen, mules ar-rive in half the time.The Kansu country presents an elevation varying, ac-cording to Eockhill's itinerary, from four thousand tonine thousand feet. Hilly ridges run in several direc-tions, sheltering from the cold winds the fruitful valleys,remarkable for their luxuriant production of grapes,melons, peaches, apricots and all kinds of grain.Around the city of Lancheo tobacco is grown in largequantities and forms the basis of the city's industry.Part of our route lay beside the Yellow River, and fora time, also, we followed the rushing waters of theHsi-ho, one of its tributaries. We saw Mohammedanmerchants coming down the river with their cargoes ofvegetable oil, destined for the Lancheo market, onrude floats made of inflated cowhides lashed together.How exciting it was to see the skillful boatmen guideone of these heavily laden floats around a sharp bendin the river, where the water boiled and foamed overthe shallows. Just when it seemed certain that de-struction against some sharp ledge awaited the craft,by a dexterous thrust it would be sent out into the cur-rent and carried past the point of danger amid theshouts of all the spectators.

Passing over the ruins of many villages which hadbeen devastated in the Mohammedan rebellion of 1861-74, we came eventually to a narrow gorge of consider-able historical importance. Ascending the road thatskirts the precipice, we saw the river boiling below,beating itself into foaming rage in protest against itssudden limitation. It was in this pass that the Mo-


40/445

26 WITH THE TIBETANSharamedans held the Chinese army at ba}"- during thatbloody period forever memorable to the inhabitants ofKansu, and where again, in 1895, they placed them-selves thousands strong, and sought to repeat the tac-tic. Little did we think, as we passed along the riveredge on a beautiful sunny day, beneath an over-archingsky of cloudless blue, and amid the peaceful solitudeof the mountains, broken only by the j)atter of the ani-mals' hoofs and the low monotonous thud of plungingtorrents, that this very place was within a few weeks tobe again the scene of military tumult, filled with le-gions of infuriated, bloodthirsty rebels; and wedreamed even less that the massing of the Mohamme-dans here to check the advance of the Chinese army,was to be the providential dispensation which wouldprevent them from sweeping down on Lusar and Kum-bum, where they would have found us an easy prey.The people of Kansu we found to be gentle and

obliging. They quite sustained their reputation ofbeing less disagreeable than the natives of other prov-inces, for they treated us with the utmost kindness anddid all in their power to expedite our journey. On thej&fth day after our departure from Lancheo the wallsof Sining loomed in the distance, and we were withinthe gates in time for afternoon tea at the China InlandMission Home, where we were cordially welcomed byMr. and Mrs. Eidley and Mr. Hall. Fifty li westwardlay Lusar, where our house had already been secured,and the glittering turrets of the great Buddhist lama-sery of Kumbum.


41/445

CHAPTEE IIAMONG THE LAMAS

Arrival at LusarStrange Lama CeremoniesMedicalWorkOur Tibetan TeacherFirst Experience WithEobber Nomads.The western portion of the province of Kansu, vari-

ously denominated by geographers as part of Chineseor Outer Tibet, is known to the Tibetans as Amdo, andthe inhabitants are called Amdo-wa. According toChinese ethnographers the foreign population of Amdomay be divided into two great classes, the T'u-fan, or" agricultural barbarians," who have a large admix-ture of Chinese blood, and the Si-fan, or " western bar-barians," who are of pure Tibetan stock. The Si-fanlive, for the most part, a nomadic life and are organ-ized into a number of bands under hereditary chiefsresponsible to the Chinese Amban at Sining, to whomthey pay tribute. Chinese authors further say that thepresent mixed population of Amdo is the progeny ofmany distinct aboriginal tribes, but there are some ele-ments of it that must be accounted for by later immi-grations. Westward from Sining the road leadsthrough a highly cultivated plateau; the farms arewatered by a perfect system of artificial irrigation,

27


42/445

28 WITH THE TIBETANSbearing evidence of the industry and skill of the peas-ants. The houses in the villages are all built of mudand have flat roofs. On the road one meets groups ofmerchants, partly Chinese, but bearing a strong resem-blance to the Turk and distinguished by a headdresswhich seems to be a cross between a Chinese cap and aMoslem turban. These are Mohammedans goingdown to trade in Sining. Next comes creeping alonga small caravan of camel-mounted Mongolians or Tib-etans, clad in their ugly sheepskin gowns and big furcaps, on their way to see the Amban of Sining, or per-haps going to Eastern Mongolia or Pekin; or one maymeet a procession of swarthy faced Tibetan pilgrimsreturning single file, with slow and stately tread, fromsome act of worship at Kumbum, to their homes in thevalleys north of Sining. The entire western portionof Kansu, so far as its inhabitants are concerned, marksthe transition between a purely Chinese population anda foreign people, the Chinese predominating in thelarger centers but the villages and encampments beingmade up largely of foreign or mongrel inhabitants.

Mr. Kijnhart had left me at Sining and had gone onto Lusar to complete the preparation of our house;but I had become impatient, not having too much con-fidence in masculine ability to set a house in order ina way altogether pleasing to a woman, so I rode up toLusar with Mr. Hall. Half a day's journey brought uswithin sight of the hills that surround Kumbum, andas we approached we could see some of the lamas at-tending to their horses or gathering fuel. But thestrangest sight of all was that of Mr. Eijnhart and Mr.


43/445

AMONG THE LAMAS 29Ferguson in European clothing ; so accustomed had oureyes become to oriental attire that they appeared moregrotesque even than any of the fantastically arrayedtravelers we had met on the road. Assisted by somenative carpenters, they had been very busy at the house,but when I arrived I found everything in confusion,just as I had anticipated. Yet I was thankful that ourlong journey had been completed, not a single accidentworthy the name having happened to us since we leftthe Pacific Coast of America six months before.

Lusar boasts of a single main street with mud-brickflat-roofed buildings on either side, and, at the time ofour arrival, contained about one thousand inhabitants,evenly divided between Mohammedans and Chinese,with a sprinkling of Tibetans and Mongols. These dif-ferent peoples could be distinguished by their generalappearance as well as by their speech. The Mongol,with his broad, flat, good-natured countenance andshort-cut hair, clad in his long sheepskin robe, withhis matchlock thrown over his shoulder, could not bemistaken as he waddled through the street followed byhis wife a few paces behind him; the pure Tibetan,likewise robed in sheepskin, heralded his nationalityby the sword he carried in his belt. To mistake aChinaman was, of course, beyond question, while theMohammedan of Turkestani origin could be recognizedby his aquiline nose, slender face and straggling beardor moustache. Being the trading station of the Kum-bum lamasery Lusar is visited by merchants fromChina, Mongolia and various parts of Tibet. Especiallyduring the great religious festivals held from time to


44/445

30 WITH THE TIBETANStime at the lamasery a brisk trade is done in altar-lamps, charm-boxes, idols, prayer-wheels and the otherparaphernalia of Buddhist worship. Near the villageis a remnant of an old wall which evidently at sometime had been used as a rampart of defence. In Hueand Gabet's narrative no mention is made of Lusar forthe reason that it probably did not exist when thesetravelers passed that way, the business of the Kumbumlamasery being done formerly at Shen-ch'un, a fewmiles distant from Kumbum.The Chinese carpenters made characteristically slow

progress with our house. The noise that accompaniedthe work was at times almost deafening, the workmenall shouting at once when anything urgent was to bedone. The house, situated at the foot of a hill, the fa-gade pointing toward the main street, was a substantialmud-brick structure with flat roof, built entirely ac-cording to Chinese ideas of architecture, and after wehad the premises put in order the disposition of theapartments was about as follows: The main gate ledinto an outer courtyard, walled but not roofed; fromthe outer court a dark, narrow passage led to the cen-tral or inner courtyard, around which the rooms werearranged on all sides. In one corner was the kitchen,and diagonally opposite to it a storeroom, and in an-other corner the stable, while along the sides nearestthe entrance were the two guest-rooms, one for menand the other for women, the latter containing a cup-board for drugs. The guest-rooms we destined for thereception of visitors coming for medical treatment orto inquire about spiritual matters. The walls were


45/445

AMONG THE LAMAS 31hung with colored Bible pictures which did us goodservice in suggesting topics for religious conversation.Many of the pictures represented scenes in the life ofChrist and aroused the natives to the asking of ques-tions which opened for us golden opportunities to readthe New Testament and to tell them more fully theGospel story. The furniture was plain and scant, alarge table four feet square, a few high, straight-backedand very uncomfortable chairs, and the indispensableang. Opposite the guest-rooms were our dining-room, study and bedroom. On the two remaining sideswere Mr. Ferguson's apartments, our Chinese servant'sbedroom and a sitting-room where we all met forprayer, Bible study and conversation. Access to thefiat roof of the house could be had by means of a ladder,and oftentimes when the weather was fine we repairedthither to take our constitutional, or to sit basking inthe sun. Behind the house on the hill we afterwardsprepared quite a large piece of garden, in which weraised several kinds of vegetables from seeds sent to usby a friend in Canada. Our housekeeping was reducedto simplicity. Han-kia, our Chinese " boy," aged abouttwenty-two years, soon learned under my tuition to pre-pare many kinds of food in English or American style,and twice a week he regaled us with m'ien. Havingno oven in our stove, we extemporized one out of aparaffin tin, in which we could roast meat and bakecookies. Altogether we did not fare badly at Lusar;in the market we could buy mutton, eggs, milk, vege-tables, flour and rice. Custom soon introduced us toour new surroundings, and when the carpenters, had


46/445

32 WITH THE TIBETANSfinished, we were, taking it all in all, as happy in ourfar-away, isolated home as we possibly could have beenin America.

liTot long after our arrival we were visited by Mr.and Mrs. Kidley and their little baby Dora. They hadcome up for the purpose of recuperating their healthamong the hills, and during their sojourn we witnessedthe interesting ceremony of burnt offerings celebratednear the Kumbum lamasery. Crowds of Chinese andTibetans, men, women and children, had congregatedto see the procession of lamas issue from their temple,and, discovering that some foreigners were among thethrong, they turned their attention to us, almost over-whelming us with their friendly curiosity. It seemedat times that we would be crushed to death. Being sur-rounded we could not return home, and we wereobliged to devise at once some means of protection.Inviting the native women to sit down beside us wewere soon in the midst of a large group squattingtailor-fashion about us, serving as an effective bulwark,preventing the crowd from surging in upon us. Mrs.Kidley drew the women into an interesting conversa-tion, taxed to the utmost all the while to keep themfrom laying violent hands on her baby.The Tibetan women were to us an especial object of

interest, conspicuous in their long, bright coloreddresses fastened around the waist by green or redsashes, their clumsy top-boots and their elaborate headdress. The hair was done up in a number of smallplaits which hung down the back and were fastenedtogether with wide strips of gay colored cloth, or by


47/445

AMONG THE LAMAS 33a heavy band of pasteboard or felt covered with silverornaments, shells and beads, and on top of it all wasa hat with white fur brim and red tassels hangingfrom the pointed crown. From the ears were pendantgreat rings, to which were attached strings of beadshanging in long loops across the breast. The Chinesewomen with no hats, their black hair shining withlinseed water, their common blue dresses and deformedfeet, were not nearly so attractive as their neighbors,the Tibetans.

Presently the sound of horns, cymbals and gongsannounced the approach of the procession, and all inconfusion rushed off to see the sight. Hundreds oflamas, clad in their flowing robes, issued with solemntread from the lamasery, some of them carrying large,irregular wooden frames painted red, blue and yellow,and huge bundles of straw. The frames were set up inan open place, the straw arranged around them, andthe ceremony of burnt offerings was ready to begin.The lamas fired off guns, chanted some unintelligibleincantations, blew deafening blasts on their gigantichorns, and then set fire to the straw. The frameswere soon reduced to ashes, and the purpose of the cere-mony, we learned, was to ward off the demons offamine, disease and war.As soon as the people found out that we were pre-

pared to treat their ailments and dispense medicinesthey came to us quite freely. The Chinese were thefirst to approach us, but soon the Tibetans came, eventhe lamas, and it was not long before we had as muchmedical and resultant guest-room work as we could


48/445

34 WITH THE TIBETANSattend to. As it is impossible to get a crowd ofTibetans to listen to a discourse, our evangelistic workconsisted chiefly in conversing upon Christianity withthe people who came to see us, and from the very be-ginning we were able to interest them in the teachingsof the New Testament. The Tibetans themselves hav-ing no medical science worthy the name, the treat-ment given by the native doctors generally means anincrease of agony to the sufferer. For headache largesticking plasters are applied to the patient's head andforehead; for rheumatics often a needle is buried inthe arm or shoulder; a tooth is extracted by tying arope to it and jerking it out, sometimes bringing out apart of the jaw at the same time; a sufferer withstomachache may be subjected to a good pounding,or to the application of a piece of wick soaked in burn-ing butter grease; or if medicine is to be taken in-ternally it will consist probably of a piece of paper onwhich a prayer is written, rolled up into the form ofa pellet, and if this fails to produce the desired effectanother pellet is administered, composed of the bonesof some pious priest.Although the natives appear to have great faith inthe native doctors, yet they were quick to bestow theirpatronage upon us. Among the common ailments wewere called upon to treat were diphtheria, rheumatism,dyspepsia, besides many forms of skin and eye disease.One morning a woman brought to us her husband, whowas suffering from diphtheria, and asked us to give himmedicine. After explaining that the disease was veryfatal, and that her husband was so ill that he would


49/445

AMONG THE LAMAS 35probably die, adding that we would not be responsibleif he did, we gave him what treatment we could, includ-ing some medicine to be taken at home. The nextmorning his wife came to announce that he could nottake the medicine. I then offered tc go to the house,purposing to clear away some of the membrane andrelieve the sufferer, but on our arrival we found thata lama had pasted a notice on the door forbidding any-one to enter because, he said, a devil had taken posses-sion of the house. We were obliged to turn away andour hearts were saddened to hear two days later thatthe man and also one of his little children had died.

Since it was our intention to work principally amongthe Tibetans, we at once faced the problem of acquir-ing the language, although we might have got alongwith Chinese alone since all the Tibetans on the frontierspeak that language as well as their own; but knowingthat the Tibetan language would be to us a means ofcloser communication with the natives, we set aboutto find a teacher. As the lamas are the sole possessorsof Tibetan letters, the great masses of the laypopulation being unable either to read or write, theywere not over pleased with the thought of communicat-ing their sacred language to " foreign devils," and wehad great difficulty in persuading any one to teach us.Finally a young, rather good looking lama, namedIshinima,* consented to give us instruction for anominal sum, on condition that we would not let itbe known, for he seemed very much afraid lest some-one might accuse him before the sung huan, or dis-* Pronounce E-she^-ne-ma.


50/445

36 WITH THE TIBETANSciplinarian of the lamasery, of being on too friendlyterms with the foreigners; for of course as yet we werelooked upon with more or less reserve and perhaps witha little suspicion. Ishinima was of medium height,well built, and favored the Mongolian type rather thanthe Tibetan, although he always said that he was of thelatter parentage. His face was pockmarked, but notdevoid of expression, and when he smiled his wholecountenance glowed with good humor. He did not be-long to the highest class of lamas, yet, not havingto do menial work, he was well dressed, wearing thelama's ordinary habita sleeveless red jacket, a fullskirt girded around the waist, and a long, wide scarfcarelessly, yet always in the same manner, thrownabout the shoulders. His garments were dirty, but notragged. The first money he received in payment forhis lessons he invested in cloth at Sining, and I madehim garments of it on my sewing machine. He toldus that the lamas were not allowed to wear sleeves,trousers or socks except upon special occasions, andadded that on this point the lamasery had a code ofvery strict laws, violation of which entailed severe pun-ishment, sometimes even expulsion. Though Ishinimacould read the Tibetan character well, we found toour disappointment that he could not explain it at all,so our lessons took a more practical turn, we giving himChinese words and phrases which he translated for usinto Tibetan. He came to teach us every day exceptSunday, on which day he always attended the religiousservice held in the guest-room.

Tibetan belongs, philologically, to the Turanian


51/445

AMONG THE LAMAS 37family of languages. It is essentially monosyllabic,resembling in this respect many of the languages of ourNorth American Indians. The verb system is builtup on roots with prefixes and affixes, the syntax is com-paratively uninvolved and the idioms clear and ex-pressive. The alphabet, adapted from the Sanskrit byTou-mi-sam-bho-ta, a noted Tibetan scholar and states-man, about 633 A. D., affords a character simple and-easily formed, contrasting strongly with the cumbrousglyphics of the Chinese. There are two principaldialects of the languageLhasa Tibetan, supposed tobe the standard of excellence, and Eastern Tibetan,which varies from it to a considerable degree. TheKoko-nor Tibetans, in fact, have great difficulty inunderstanding the speech of Lhasa traders and lamas.For colloquial purposes we were particularly interestedin. the Eastern Tibetan, though of course if one desiresto read, the Lhasa dialect must be learned, as that isthe literary language of the country.

Our professor yielded to none in the matter of un-cleanliness, hence we made it our endeavor to instillinto his mind some idea of hygiene. After some in-struction he learned to use the towel and soap, andthough the lamas have a rule not to allow scissors totouch their heads when having their hair cut, he al-lowed his head to be shaved by the clippers, whichwere an endless source of wonder and interest to thenatives. By degrees he took on an appearance of de-cency, and began to show some signs of interest in newideas. Being somewhat of an epicure he went freelyinto the kitchen, supervising the preparation of the


52/445

38 WITH THE TIBETANSdainties for which he had a preference. He taughtour Chinese servant to make oma-ja, a decoction whichthe Tibetans drink with great relish. The ingredientsare implied in the namea piece of brick-tea is putinto a pot of water and allowed to boil a few minutes,then about half as much milk as water is added, andthe whole brought to boiling point again. When laterwe were without a servant, our boy having gone toenlist as a soldier, Ishinima would make the m'ien.Instead of cutting it into strips he would cut it intosquares, and add it to water, meat and vegetables,making a palatable and substantial dish. Though westudied hard at our Tibetan and endeavored to under-stand the people and to communicate with them, wedid not make the progress we should have made, thecause of this being that he taught us a mixture ofTibetan and Mongolian, which was to a large extentunintelligible to either people. In this and otherthings we found him unreliable, and some of his actionsbordered on dishonesty.

Soon after we had made his acquaintance, Ishinimainvited us to his home in the Kumbum lamasery, and,having set his house in order for our visit, he came toescort us thither. Crossing the ravine which dividesKumbum into two sections, and threading our wayalong narrow alleys and past rows of whitewasheddwellings, we finally stood before one of the outermostand best houses of the lamasery. The courtyard presenteda tidy appearance, and was graced by a flower gardenin the center, in which some yellow poppies were inbloom. Several red-robed lamas with bare heads and


53/445

AMONG THE LAMAS 39smiling faces gave us a Mongol welcome, holding outtoward us both hands with the palms turned upward,and immediately ushered us through a small room intoa still smaller one, of which the k'ang covered the en-tire floor. Upon the door hung a curtain, laden withthe dust and grease of ages. The furniture was thatusually found in a lama's home. There was thek'ang table, about ten inches in height, on which wereplaced some china basins, a brightly-painted tsamhadish, and a wooden plate containing bread fried inoil, none too inviting either by its taste or smell. Thewalls of the room were adorned with the pictures whichwe ourselves had given to our host, and which withtheir western flavor seemed quite out of keeping withthe rude interior. During a very pleasant conversationabout the great monastery with its revered lamas andsacred traditions, about Lhasa, the home of Buddhistlearning, and of the great Dalai Lama, about the doc-trines of Christianity, and about the great westernworld, of which Ishinima knew next to nothing, wedrank tea and partook of other refreshments which thelatter had prepared with his own hands. According tocustom he offered us a large lump of rancid butter,which, had we been as polite as our host, we should havedropped into our cup of tea in lieu of sugar ; but know-ing Ishinima so well, we refused the dainty morsel, al-though to have done so under any other circumstanceswould have been considered little less than insult. Hewas, moreover, so thoroughly charmed with Mr. Rijn-hart's telescope and camera that we might have ignoredall Tibetan politeness with impunity.


54/445

40 WITH THE TIBETANSAfter tea we were conducted across the courtyard

to Ishinima's private chapel, or room containing hishousehold altar and instruments of worship. Uponthe altar sat several diminutive but none the lesshideous brass and clay idols, representing variousBuddhist divinities, before which were burning smallbutter lamps, also of brass, filled with melted butter,each furnished with a wick and darting up its littleflame. Other flat brazen vessels of water, some hhatasor " scarfs of ceremony "narrow strips of veil-likecloth, corresponding in use to the western carte-de-visite , a few musty-looking tomes of Buddhist litera-ture, completed the equipment of this domestic sanctu-ary. We found Ishinima withal a most genial host,exercising every art within his grasp to make our visitpleasant; yet we were glad when the time came toreturn to our own clean and airy dwelling at Lusar,and we left conscious that we had done Ishinima goodservice in ridding him of a generous share of the verminin his sacerdotal abode. Our battle with this unwel-come company was to begin when we reached home.Through our friendship with Ishinima we gained a

knowledge of Kumbum and all that pertained to it,which otherwise we might long have sought in vain.Shortly after our visit to his home he accompanied usagain to the lamasery to witness an elaborate cere-mony on the occasion of the ordination of the priestwho was to serve as lamasery doctor. Ishinima havingsome scruples about appearing publicly as our guide,walked about fifty yards ahead of us, never, however,turning a corner until he assured himself that we were


55/445

AMONG THE LAMAS 41following. Having arrived in the courtyard of thetemple where the ceremony was to be held, we tookour places, Ishinima standing at some distance oppositeus and scarcely taking his eye off us from first to last.The walls of the temple court were hung with all man-ner of fantastic pictures executed in flaming colors byChinese artists. In the middle of the enclosure wasa long narrow table, similar to those often found onAmerican picnic grounds, on which were placed rowsof decorated plates and brazen vessels of variousshapes and sizes, containing tsamha, rice, barley, flour,bread, oil and other eatables. These, we learned, wereofferings which had been brought to be sacrificed inhonor of the new candidate for the position of medicalsuperintendent. A large crowd of spectators had con-gregated and were gazing with reverent and longinglooks upon the feast prepared for the gods, when sud-denly a procession of about fifty lamas broke into thecourtyard, arrayed in red and yellow robes, each onecarrying in his hand a bell. As soon as they had seatedthemselves on the stone pavement, the mamha fuyeh,or medical buddha, came in and took his place on anelevated wooden throne covered with crimson and yel-low cloth. He wore a tall, handsomely embroideredhat and brilliant ceremonial robes, befitting the oc-casion. The ceremony began by a deafening clatterof discordant bells, each lama vying with the others toproduce the most noise from his instrument. Themusic was followed by the muttering of some cabalisticincantations and the weird chanting of prayers. Im-mediately in front of the mamha fuyeh was a large


56/445

42 WITH THE TIBETANSurn in the bottom of which a fire was smoldering, send-ing up its vapory clouds of smoke and incense. At agiven signal some of the lamas rose and, each one tak-ing up in a ladle a portion of the delicious viands thatstood on the table, walked gravely to the urn anddropped it into the fire as an offering in honor of thenew mamba fuyeli, and finally a stream of liquid whichwe took to be some kind of holy oil was poured in froma little brass pot. Then there were repetitions of theprayers, incantations and bell-ringing, and it was along time ere the mamba fuyeh was declared duly in-stalled. The position of medical lama is considered oneof great importance. The office in the Kumbumlamasery is held for varying periods of time, depend-ing partly on the incumbent's efficiency, but more per-haps on the number of his influential friends.

Like most lamas, Ishinima had many strange talesto tell of the Koko-nor, the blue inland sea, that liesaway to the west of Lusar and Kumbum, far up intothe grass country. Many an evening he entertained usdetailing in reverent tones something of the wealth oflegend which tradition and the popular fancy havewoven around that body of water. It is known byTibetans, Mongols and Chinese, each calling it by adifferent name, but the Mongol name " Koko-nor,"meaning " Blue Lake," seems to have gained ascend-ency. Its religious importance is recognized through-out a large portion of Central Asia. Even the Amban,the Chinese Ambassador or Governor of North-easternTibet, who lives at Sining, makes a pilgrimage toit once a year and pays it homage. The immediate


57/445

AMONG THE LAMAS 43effect of Ishinima's representations was to arouse inus an intense desire to visit the lake, to make theacquaintance of the Koko-nor tribes and to ascertainthe prospects for missionary work among them. AsIshinima had never seen the lake himself, he seemedoverjoyed when we asked him to accompany us.The date for the departure was set in the month ofJune when the hills had taken on their luxuriant car-peting of green, and all nature seemed to conspire inproducing ideal conditions for such an excursion. AsW. W. Eockhill, the American traveler, had writtenabout the opposition of the Amban and other Chineseofficials to Europeans going into the grass country, allour preparations were very quietly made. We em-ployed a muleteer with four animals, collected storesfor the entire journey which, going and returning, wecalculated would last about twelve days, and in thehighest spirits started off, leaving our home in the careof a servant. Ishinima, perched high on a load con-sisting of the tent and bale of food, wore a large strawhat with the wide brim of which he carefully con-cealed his face until we got out of the locality where hewas known. Reaching Tankar late in the evening, wepitched our camp outside the gate. Anxious to avoidofficials, we arose at daybreak and passed through thetown to the west gate, being frequently accosted bymen who wanted to drag us before the lao-yeh at theyamen; but we escaped into the grass country, andpassed the monastery of Gomba Soma, although everyone we met was looked upon as some official who mightpossibly forbid us to go any further. Ten miles from


58/445

44 WITH THE TIBETANSGomba Soma, and still a long way from the lake, wecamped for breakfast near a bend of the Hsi-ho, orWestern Eiver, in a beautiful grassy spot studded withpink flowers. On the other side of the river was spreada charming panorama of rolling hills which in theearly morning looked like the grey, slumbering tents ofsome giant army. Never shall I forget the calm ofthat beautiful day on the oriental plateau far awayfrom the turmoil of civilization, nor within sight orsound of the rudest encampment or settlement of anykind.But out of this tranquil environment there was to

grow a great unrest. While Ishinima was gather-ing argols (the Mongolian word for the dried excretaof animals which the nomads use for fuel, and whichmust be used in fact by all travelers, as these wildregions are bare of wood) our mules broke away fromtheir tether and had soon scampered out of sight. Mr.Ferguson and the muleteer set out in search of themissing animals. All day Mr. Rijnhart and I waited,wondering how both the mules and pursuers fared.We knew nothing definite until Mr. Ferguson's returnat eleven o'clock at night, and he could only an-nounce that no trace of the runaway mules had beenfound, and added, to our horror, that he had becomeseparated from the muleteer and did not know whatfate might have befallen him. He might have lost hisway somewhere on the dreary plain or among the wind-ing hills, and there was the graver possibility of hishaving been eaten by wolves or having fallen into thehands of the redoubtable Tangut robbers who lurk


59/445

AMOKG THE LAMAS 45in the ravines ready to pounce upon any prey, greator small. Clouds of anxiety hung on Ishinima's duskyface. He could not sleep. Time and time again hewent outside the tent, casting his eyes far and wide overthe starlit waste, eager to catch any sign of the lostmuleteer, but in vain. His anxiety was not withoutcause, for if anything should have happened to themuleteer he would have been held responsible. A feel-ing of insecurity pervaded the whole camp, Ishinimahaving succeeded in persuading us that the Tangutsmight swoop down upon us at any moment. The agonyand stillness of that awful night, broken only by thesubdued sounds of our own voices, the distant howl ofa wolf, and the monotonous babble of the Hsi-ho rapids,were not soon forgotten. At daybreak next morning,just as Ishinima was preparing breakfast, two of themissing mules, quite mule-like, returned of their ownaccord, and soon after, to our great joy, our muleteercame running into camp. The faithful fellow had con-tinued his fruitless search away into the night, and,having lost his way, had crouched down behind a rockto rest till daybreak; he seemed quite compensated forhis trouble on finding that two of the mules had comeback. One black animal being still astray, Mr. Fer-guson went out again on the search. As he did notreturn after an unaccountably long time, Mr. Rijn-hart took the sweep of the horizon with the telescopeto see if there were any trace of him, and, after a shortabsence, came running to the tent shouting, " Get theguns ready ! There are six wild Tibetans after Will !"Excitement reigned supreme and every preparation


60/445

46 WITH THE TIBETANSwas made to show the enemy our ability and readinessto defend ourselves and our goods if need be. Mr.Ferguson rode well, outstripping his pursuers all butone, a big Tibetan armed with a spear, who followedclosely on his track. We knew that Mr. Ferguson wasquite capable of looking after himself, as he carried arevolver, and usually the sight of foreign arms of anykind has a salutary effect on these wild nomads. Soonnot only Mr. Ferguson but the six Tibetans had reachedour tent, and the latter were preparing to help them-selves to our possessions when Ishinima remonstrated,informing them that we had foreign guns, whereuponthey threw their rude matchlocks and clumsy spears tothe ground, sat down beside them, filled their pipesand smoked and chatted in a very friendly manner.Presently another group of Tibetans came gallopingtoward our tent. They were ten in number, and asthey drew near we espied our lost black mule amongtheir animals. These Tibetans were well dressed ingarments of various and gorgeous colors. We did notknow their intentions, but they kept assuring us inthe name of Buddha that they were good men, and ifany proof were wanting they triumphantly added thatone of their company was a lama. At the same timethe predatory instinct began to manifest itself; thenewcomers insisted on having first one thing and thenanother of our belongings, and were only restrainedfrom looting the entire camp when Mr. Eijnhartthreatened to shoot if they laid hands on a thing.After some further altercation we gave them somecash for catching our muleIshinima gave them a


61/445

AMONG THE LAMAS 4Tmani, or rosary, of great value, and the entire bandrode off. The question now was: should we continueour journey to the Koko-nor or return home? I wasever so grateful when Ishinima declared that theTibetans who had just left us were Tangut robbers,and that they would most assuredly return presentlywith reinforcements to attack us, for that announce-ment led to an immediate decision to turn back. Al-though later we made the Koko-nor journey with nofear, but with greater experience and knowledge ofthe grass country and its inhabitants, for the mo-ment the vision of the Blue Lake grew dim, and load-ing our mules we leaped into our saddles, and weresoon galloping toward Tankar, with sweet dreams ofthe safety and shelter that awaited us in our little homeat Lusar.

Deviating a little from the road by which we hadcome, we arrived at Chang-fang-tai, a Tibetan villagenestling on the edge of a small stream. The countryhereabout was quite fertile, although in an unculti-vated state. Eoaming along the bank of the stream, wegathered specimens of ferns, grasses and wild flowers.The inhabitants seemed to be peaceably disposed, com-ing into our tent and taking tea with us. Here, by theway, I tried my first dish of tsamha, the staple articleof diet throughout Tibet, taking the place of bread inother countries, and which I had always imagined mustbe very delicious from the zest with which Ishinimainvariably devoured it. Tsamha is a kind of mealmade from parched barley, which, after being thor-oughly kneaded with the fingers in a mixture of tea


62/445

48 WITH THE TIBETANSand butter, is taken out in lumps and eaten from thehand. Though Mr. Eijnhart added sugar to make itmore palatable, I could not eat it.

In the midst of our enjoyment at this village weheard the first alarming tidings of the terrible rebellionwhich shortly broke out in full fury among the Mo-hammedans of Western Kansu. Faint rumblings ofthe storm had already been heard, but we had not con-sidered the outlook serious. During the day we hadnoticed clouds of smoke rising in the distance, andthese, a Tibetan courier informed us, marked the sceneof the beginning of Mohammedan depredations. Acolumn of the rebel fanatics had swept across the Northcountry and fallen upon a Chinese village, killing allthe inhabitants, setting fire to the buildings, and leav-ing nothing but ashes, smoke and charred corpses.Hastily we pulled up our tent, and, though the nightwas dark, we rode ofE toward Kumbum, with greatdifficulty following the trail which wound in and outamong the hills, while every dark object became to ourexcited imagination a crouching Mohammedan readyto dart his merciless spear. A sigh of relief escapedus as we arrived at the gate of Lusar, yet we knewmore serious news awaited us as, contrary to custom,the gate was closed and carefully guarded. The oldgate-keeper, whom we knew well, opened to let us in,and informed us of the danger that like a dark cloudhad fallen on the village since we left. At any momentthe Mohammedans were expected to rush in from someneighboring ambush. But amid the gloomy forebodingsthat for the moment filled our minds, there was a


63/445

AMONG THE LAMAS 49tremor of joy at the thought of our good fortune inreturning to Lusar when we did. The Divine Prov-idence had indeed overshadowed us and directed ourmovements. Had we gone on to the Koko-nor and at-tempted to return later, we should have found our wayintercepted by the Mohammedan stronghold which afew days afterwards commanded the roads from Tankarto Kumbum.


64/445

CHAPTEE IIIA MOHAMMEDAN REBELLION

Moslem SectsBeginnings of the StruggleOur Ac-quaintance with the AbbotRefuge in the LamaseryThe Doctrine of Reincarnation.Among China's four hundred millions the Mo-

hammedan element, though comparatively small, mustbe counted as a significant factor. Like a fomentingleaven, a hotbed of domestic turmoil within themselves,and ever and anon working to the surface of the na-tional life, the followers of the Prophet have proved aconstant source of trouble to the Chinese authorities,especially in the provinces of Shensi, Yunnan andKansu, where they have planted their most extensivecolonies. According to Dr. Martin, there are about tenmillions of them throughout the empire, althoughother authorities place the number much higher. Theyare known by the general appellation of Siao-chiao,that is, adherents of the " small religion," as opposedto the Chinese, who, with their complex cult of ancestorworship, idolatry and incense burning, are of theTa-chiao, or " great religion," the comparative magni-tude of the two religions being estimated of course bythe relative number of their adherents. The Moham-

50


65/445

A MOHAMMEDAN" REBELLION 51medans are further distinguished from the Chinese bytheir abstaining from opium, wine, tobacco, pork andother meats except when killed by a Mohammedanslaughterer who has been specially authorized by theahon. Travelers, for this reason, may always be cer-tain of getting good, clean meat from Mohammedanbutchers, whereas the Chinese do not scruple to cutup and offer for sale an animal that has died of dis-ease. Besides being generally clean, the Mohammedansare industrious, making a success of whatever callingthey embrace, be it that of a merchant, muleteer, carter,cook, innkeeper, or worker in copper, silver or iron.Their restaurants along the great highways enjoy theliberal patronage of all classes, while on the otherhand no Mohammedan will partake of the " cere-monially unclean " dishes of the ordinary innkeeperof the Ta-cJiiao persuasion.The Mohammedans of the province of Kansu, num-

bering about one million and a half, constitute one-fourth of its population. In the principal cities, suchas Lancheo, the capital, and Sining, they monopolizethe suburbs, and whole villages and towns of them areto be found in various parts of the province, even asfar west as the Tibetan border. Besides being knownunder the usual designation of Siao-chiao, to distin-guish them religiously from the Chinese, they are alsocalled by the latter Huei-huei, while the Tibetans andMongolians speak of them as K'a-che. Though nowhaving lost to a considerable extent their racial char-acteristics through intermarriage with the Chinese,they are still recognized as the descendants of the great.


66/445

62 WITH THE TIBETANSmigrations which came from Turkestan, Kashmir, andSamarkand nearly five centuries ago. They are di-vided into two sects, called the " white-capped " and" black-capped," the latter being identical with theSalars, who are much more fanatical and exclusivethan the other sect. In the Sining district the two di-visions are known as the Lao-chiao, or " old religion,"and the Sin-chiao, or " new religion," the latter being,as far as we could ascertain, the same sect as the Salars,or " black-capped " Mohammedans. They have notmerged nearly so agreeably with the Chinese as theformer, for, while they are usually ready to rebel, theLao-chiao, as a rule, remain neutral, or even co-operate with the Chinese.The Salars who boast of their Samarkandi origin

are settled around Hocheo, Hsuen-hua-ting, Mincheoand Taocheo, the first mentioned town of thirty thou-sand inhabitants being their stronghold, where theChinese have to keep a large body of soldiers, as nearlyevery year for the most trivial reasons there is trouble.The Salars speak their own language, which is under-stood by travelers from Kashgar, and when we visitedtheir country in 1897, Eahim, our Tibetan boy, anative of Ladak, was delighted that he could conversein their own tongue, which he had learned on hisjourneys into Turkestan. The men have a purely for-eign look, good figures, oval faces, aquiline noses, andwear the Chinese queue, while the women do not bindtheir feet, though the Mohammedans around us wereas much in love with small feet as were the pureChinese. They are all supposed to be conversant with


67/445

A MOHAMMEDAN REBELLION 53Arabic, but, as a fact, have not usually much knowledgeof it, except the ahons, some of the latter being Tur-kestani. Occasionally some great mufti from Meccaor other important Moslem center visits the faith-ful in Kansu, exhorting them to greater zeal;while the many mosques that tower above the Chinesedwellings, the dogged fidelity with which the devoteesperform their religious services, and the death-em-bracing fanaticism with which in times past they havefought for their faith, all attest the vigorous hold whichMohammedanism has gained in the land of Confucius.The religious dissimilarities between the two sects

are trivial, the lines of cleavage being quite as insig-nificant as some that divide Christendom. The chiefbone of contention is a difference of opinion as tothe hour at which the fast may be broken during theRamadan, and as to the propriety of incense burning.The cause of the dispute which culminated in one ofthe most sanguinary and disastrous wars that ever tookplace in Western China was the question as to whetheror not a Mohammedan might wear a beard before theage of forty!

It need not be wondered at that terror filled theminds of the people of Lusar and Kumbum, and of allthe surrounding villages, when the news spread that theMohammedan sword was again unsheathed; for freshin their memories were

with the tibetans in tent and temple-narrative of four years' residence on the tibetan border, and...

Documents