winter 2005 quarterly review - theological resources for ministry

in t h e fc*

United Methodist Mode

QUARTERLY REVIEW EDITORIAL B O A R D

T E D A. CAMPBELL Garrctt-Evangelical Theological Seminary, Evanston, IL

MINERVA G. C A R C A N O Phoenix Episcopal Area, Phoenix, A Z

PATRICIA FARRIS

First United Methodist Church, Santa Monica, CA

G R A N T HAGIYA Los Angeles District Office, Los Angeles, CA

JEROME KING DEL PINO, CHAIR General Board of Higher Education and Ministry, The United Methodist Church, Nashville, TN

MARY A N N M O M A N General Board of Higher Education and Ministry, The United Methodist Church, Nashville, TN

T H O M A S W. OGLETREE The Divinity School, Yale University, New Haven, CT

RUSSELL E. RICHEY Candler School of Theology, Atlanta, GA

LINDA E. T H O M A S Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago, Chicago, IL

TRACI C. WEST The Theological School, Drew University, Madison, NJ

DAVID K. YEMBA Central Congo Area Democratic Republic of Congo

HARRIETT JANE O L S O N The United Methodist Publishing House, Nashville, TN

A Note to Subscribers

Dear Friends,

For many years, Quarterly Review has been produced and distributed with the participation of both the General Board of Higher Education and Ministry (GBHEM) and The United Methodist Publishing House. Because of changes at GBHEM, its participation in this joint work is being phased out.

The publisher has considered a variety of possibilities for a future incarnation of Quarterly Review, but none of these considerations have borne fruit; and, as the publication is not self-sustaining through subscription income, it must be discontinued,

Therefore, the Winter 2005 issue of Quarterly Review will be the last issue of this magazine. Subscribers will receive a credit that is prorated to cover any remaining issues if the original subscription was charged to a Cokesbury account and we will issue a refund that is prorated to cover any remaining issues to subscribers who submitted payment for the current subscription order.

Should you have questions about the processing of any credit or refund, please contact Ms. Eula Mae Hooper at The United Methodist Publishing House at 1-800-672-1789 or by email at [email protected].

Thank you for your investment in our shared mission to lift up theological inquiry that informs the practice of ministry,

mailto:[email protected]

Quarterly Review A'JOURNAL OI- THEOLOGICAL RESOURCES FOR MINISTRY

Volume 25, N u m b e r 4 Winter 2005

A Publication of the General Board of Higher Education and Ministry

and The United Methodist Publishing House

Cover photo: Libba Gilium Cover design: Laura Deck

Quarterly Review (ISSN 0270-9287) provides continuing education resources for scholars, Christian educators, and lay and professional ministers in The United Methodist Church and other churches. QR intends to be a forum in which theological issues of significance to Christian ministry can be raised and debated.

Editorial Offices: 1001 19th Avenue, South, P.O. Box 340007, Nashville, TN 37203-0007. Manuscripts should be in English and typed double-spaced, including notes.

QR is published four times a year, in March, June, September, and December, by the General Board of Higher Education and Ministry of The United Methodist Church and The United Methodist Publishing House. Periodicals postage paid at Nashville, Tennessee.

Subscription rate: $24 for one year; $44 for two years; and $60 for three years. Students: $16 for one year; $30 for two years. For all subscription orders, single-copy orders, and change-of-address information, contact Cokesbury toll-free (800) 672-1789, M-F 7:00 A.M.-6:30 P.M. CST and Saturday 8:00 A.M.-4:00 P.M. CST. Inquiries may also be sent in writing to the Cokesbury Subscription Services, P.O. Box 801, Nashville, TN 37202-0801.

Postmaster: Address changes should be sent to The United Methodist Publishing House, P.O. Box 801, Nashville, TN 37202-0801.

QR is printed on acid-free paper.

Lections are taken from Revised Common Lectionary (Nashville: Abingdon, 1992).

Scripture quotations, unless otherwise noted, are from the New Revised Standard Version Common Bible, copyright © 1989 by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of Churches of Christ in the USA, and are used by permission.

Quarterly Review Winter 2005

Editor: Hendrik R. Pieterse Email: [email protected]

Website: http://www.quarterlvreview.org Copyright © 2005 by the General Board of Higher Education and Ministry

and The United Methodist Publishing House

mailto:[email protected]

http://www.quarterlvreview.org

Volume 25, Number 4 Winter 2005

Contents

E d i t o r i a l

Extending the Witness and Service of Christ in the World 337

ISSUE THEME:

P r a c t i c i n g P a s t o r a l C o u n s e l i n g i n t h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t M o d e

Pastoral Counsel ing in the Uni ted Methodis t Tradition; His tory and Issues Donald C Houts 339

Wesleyan Roots of Pastoral Care and Counsel ing 353 Theodore Runyon

Pastoral Counsel ing as Faithful Practice amid Liminality, Uncertainty, and Multiplicity 366 Emmanuel Y. Lartey

Professional Pastoral Counsel ing in the United Methodis t M o d e 377 Michael D. Potts

United Methodis t Pastoral Counselors Reflect 387 Richard Bruehl W. Victor Maloy Anne Ross Stewart

O u t s i d e t h e T h e m e

Wesley, the Consti tut ion, and Secular H u m a n i s m 396 Theodore W. Jennings, Jr.

T h e C h u r c h i n R e v i e w

H o w can The United Methodis t Church mos t effectively employ licensed local pastors in ministry?

Gary D, Moody 407 James L. Mayfield 407

A W o r d o n T h e W o r d

Lect ionary Study Cathie Leimenstoll 414

Issues In: Science and Religion Joseph A. Bracken, S.J, 423

B o o k R e v i e w s

The Logic of Renewal, by William J. Abraham (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003) Reviewer: Rober t Allan Hill 430

Claiming Theology in the Pulpit, by Bur ton Z. Cooper and John S. McClure (Louisville: Wes tmins te r / John Knox, 2003) Reviewer: G. Lee Ramsey, Jr. 432

I n d e x t o V o l u m e 25 , 2 0 0 5 435

Editorial

Extending the Witness and Service of Christ in the World

H E N D R I K R . P I E T E R S E

The Book of Discipline describes the labor of Uni ted Methodis t elders and deacons in extension ministr ies as "extending the ministry of the

Uni ted Methodis t church" (f 343.3) in "the witness and service of Christ 's love and justice" in t h e world (If 343.1; cf. 331.3). This final issue of Quarterly Review focuses on o n e particular form of extens ion ministry, namely, pastoral counseling. The articles in t roduce readers to the rich panoply of care, scholarship, a n d service tha t const i tu tes t h e practice of pastoral counseling in The United Methodis t Church. In the open ing essay, Dona ld H o u t s chronicles the his tory of Uni ted Methodis t pastoral counsel ing in t h e context of the emergence of the Pastoral Counsel ing movemen t and places three issues o n the denomina t ion ' s agenda for ongoing discussion: the changing priorit ies of clergy; the paucity of pastoral counsel ing and cognate courses in seminary curricula; and t h e place of extens ion ministr ies in the life of the church.

Theodore Runyon explores t h e Wesleyan roots of pastoral care and counseling, H e uses Wesley's exposi t ion of the restorat ion of the image of G o d in the journey of faith as theological context for a discussion of pastoral counsel ing in a Wesleyan mode . For Wesley, grace operates in different ways—prevenient, justifying, and sanctifying—at different stages in the journey of faith. Runyon shows h o w these ways "significantly parallel bo th the stages of salvation and the stages of counseling."

E m m a n u e l Lartey poin ts ou t the challenges of practicing pastoral counsel ing in our increasingly multicultural, multif aith, pluralistic world. For Lartey. this emerging context challenges pastoral counsel ing to transcend parochially conceived denomina t iona l and faith identities; be "at h o m e with" and recognize the holy in bo th sacred and secular expressions;

QUARTERLY REVIEW VOLUME 25, NUMBER 4, WINTER 2005

337

EXTENDING THE WITNESS A N D SERVICE OF CHRIST IN THE WORLD

enable respectful dialogue with and be tween religious and nonrel igious persons; emphas ize relat ionship over "technique" and "belief"; balance "disease" and "health and s t rength" models in an approach tha t integrates spirituality, moral educat ion, and pastoral counseling; be theologically astute; and take persons and contexts seriously.

Michael Potts examines the relat ionship of t h e professional pastoral counselor to t h e overall ministry of t h e church. H e helpfully argues that pastoral care and counsel ing should b e seen as o n a c o n t i n u u m tha t begins, o n t h e o n e end, wi th the biblical m a n d a t e for all bapt ized Christ ians to care for o n e ano ther and extends, o n the o the r end, to t h e professional pastoral counselor, au thor ized and equ ipped by the community of faith to perform "a specialized type of pastoral care" o n its behalf.

In the final article, three United Methodis t pastoral counselors in active practice reflect o n the question, "What are the most impor tan t challenges and opportuni t ies you experience as a United Methodis t pastoral counselor in our world today?" N o t surprisingly, a central t h e m e in their responses corresponds with a key refrain in the previous essays: Uni ted Methodis t pastoral counselors need to a t tend to the issue of h o w to unders tand and navigate their professional identi ty and practice in the midst of swirling rapids of ethnic, demographic, theological, and cultural change.

As men t ioned earlier, this instal lment is the final issue of Quarterly Review, and wi th it my t enure as its editor comes to a close. It has b e e n a profound privilege to guide the conversat ion in these pages over t h e past six years as the journa l sought to s t imulate and nur tu re theological discourse at the intersect ion of scholarship and ministry.

I pray that Uni ted Methodis ts , like their e ighteenth-century progeni tor in the faith, will face the m o m e n t o u s challenges of our day wi th an identi ty b o r n e of sus ta ined intellectual reflection, passionate spiritual commitment , and courageous social engagement .

Hendrik R. Pieterse is the editor of Quar ter ly Review.

338 QUARTERLY REVIEW

Issue Theme

Practicing Pastoral Counseling in the United Methodist Mode

Pastoral Counseling in the United Methodist Tradition: History and Issues

D O N A L D C . H O U T S

This issue of Quarterly Review celebrates the place of pastoral counseling in the United Methodist tradition. As one of the varieties of gifts, services,

and activities being practiced within our faith tradition, it is our privilege as authors in this issue to sketch historic continuities, un ique emphases, and current realities in the developing specialty of pastoral counseling.

The generic basis of pastoral-counseling practice in the church is well established. Pastoral counselors are those so designated by their gifts, commitments , priorities, training, and certification. Pastoral counsel ing is the particular practice of this calling unde r the umbrella of the reconciling, healing, sustaining, and guiding ministr ies of t h e church. Pastoral counseling may be practiced wi th faithful m e m b e r s of t h e church, wi th persons w h o are outside the circle of the faithful, or wi th those w h o are par t of the church but suffer from guilt, self-doubt, chi ldhood t rauma, relational failure, or personal alienation. Pastoral counsel ing may start wi th any crisis b u t may ultimately lead toward conversion, reconciliation, remediat ion, forgiveness, renunciat ion, or even a sense of n e w birth.

Pastoral counsel ing is a specialized ministry wi thin pastoral care and is often more t ime consuming, more in touch with cur ren t psychological and therapeut ic unders tandings , and more s t r ingent in its requi rements regarding ethical guidelines, realistic goals, and collaboration wi th o ther sources of preferred help. Pastoral counsel ing m a y take place wi th in t h e context of the local church or unde r the commun i ty umbrella of faith-based clinicians w h o share c o m m o n s tandards of care. In any case, t h e


339

PASTORAL COUNSELING IN THE UNITED METHODIST TRADITION: HISTORY A N D ISSUES


pastoral counselor uniquely represents the authority, commitment , and character of the faith community .

The current directory of the Amer ican Association of Pastoral Counselors lists s o m e 468 United Methodists—one ou t of six of the total interfaith member sh ip of 2,937. Of the 468 Uni ted Methodis ts , 338 are male and 130 female. The n u m b e r would be considerably greater were United Methodis t s within t h e American Association of Marriage and Family Therapists and the Chris t ian Associat ion of Psychological Studies and Pastoral Counsel ing to be included. While s o m e overlap of membership exists, t h e n u m b e r of Uni ted Methodis t s w h o identify themselves wi th t h e Pastoral Counsel ing m o v e m e n t is certainly greater t han the above figures would indicate were we able accurately to count t h e pastors t rained in this field bu t serving in par ishes and o ther venues .

However, the impor t ance of t h e m o v e m e n t in t h e life of the church cannot be measured by n u m b e r s of specialized clergy or by t h e consistency of suppor t and appreciat ion wi thin t h e denomina t ion alone. In this article, I tell the s tory of pastoral counsel ing in United Method i sm in the context of the deve lopment of t h e Pastoral Counsel ing movement in the United States in order to encourage a dialogue about this Uni ted Methodis t history and abou t issues relevant to t h e future.

Pastoral Counseling: Ancient Antecedents While the Pastoral Counsel ing movemen t got its start only in the twent ie th century, the Christ ian church has cared for t h e souls of the faithful since the beginning. Indeed, this preoccupat ion has bo th religious and secular roots. In his landmark book A History of the Cure of Souls, John T. McNeill writes abou t the "Guides of Israel," w h o were wise men, scribes, and rabbis. H e traces t h e record of Greek phi losophers as "physicians of the soul" and points to the spiritual direction wi th in Asian faiths. H e also sees a pa t te rn of discipline and consolat ion inheri ted from the early church fathers of Chr i s tendom.

McNeill notes that in t h e beginning of Mark's Gospel , Jesus d rew large crowds to wi tness his miracles and hear his teaching. Again and again, Jesus seemed to prefer to minister to a few at a t ime and frequently withdrew from t h e crowds. Indeed, Jesus instructs t h e leper he cleanses to tell n o one . O n e is r eminded that t h e origin of private acts of confession in the history of the church and t h e counsel of Jesus to humility—even secrecy—

D O N A L D C. HOUTS

WINTER 2005 341

about our acts of charity are consonan t wi th con tempora ry practice of pastoral counsel ing. 1

Clebsch and Jaekle delineate four basic functions in the history of t h e Chris t ian church: healing, guiding, sustaining, and reconciling. 2 "Guiding" encompasses the pu rpose of pastoral counseling, which should be "to help a pe rson mobilize h i s / h e r inner resources for handl ing a crisis; for making a difficult decision; for adjusting constructively to an unalterable problem; or for improving h i s / h e r in terpersonal relationships, including h i s / h e r relat ionship with God." 3

This pu rpose is deeply imbedded in the e thos and his tory of Method ism. Take John Wesley. In A History of the Cure of Souls, McNeill gives considerable a t tent ion to the ministry of John Wesley

Wesley, like Luther and Calvin and in accordance with the Book of Common Prayer, approved confession of sins "to a spiritual guide for disburdening of the conscience." But he held that to make it obligatory for all "is to make of what may be a useful means, a dangerous snare." Under this limitation he was, in effect, father confessor to very many. . . . [E]ven when he writes of administrative problems, the dominant note is that of meeting the spiritual needs of men and women. This meant not merely bringing them into a religious life by the experience of conversion, but also holding them on the right way and reclaiming those who lapsed from it.4

Liston Mills characterizes Wesley's influence o n the m o d e r n pastoral counsel ing movement as follows:

Wesley was himself a model for his followers. He talked constantly to the anxious, perplexed, and distressed, visited the sick, and attended prisoners condemned to death. His correspondence was voluminous but its constant theme was the spiritual needs of persons. He wanted conversion, to be sure, but he was equally concerned to encourage the pursuit of holiness and to reclaim the lapsed.5

The Pastoral Counseling Movement: Explicit Beginnings A whole n e w field of interest developed wi thin theological circles in the twent ie th century. William James had just publ ished his book The Varieties

PASTORAL COUNSELING IN THE UNITED METHODIST TRADITION: HISTORY AND ISSUES


of Religious Experience (1902). James's work, along with that of G. Stanley Hall and James Leuba, began to raise the issue of an intersection be tween science and theology. Hartford School of Religious Pedagogy, Boston University School of Theology, and the University of Chicago—all began to offer courses in t h e psychology of religion.

However, as E. Brooks Holifield no tes in his careful analysis of pastoral care in America, pas tors were no t happy simply wi th courses o n t h e psychology of religion.

[Ministers complained that most seminaries had failed to teach them how to apply their theology, analyze the soul, understand their parishioners, or give counsel and, in shor t , how to minis ter to congrega t ions with new expectations.6

In 1925, A n t o n Boisen, a clergyman w h o struggled wi th menta l illness dur ing his own lifetime, began to train theological s tudents in what came to be k n o w n as "clinical pastoral education." This ushered in a n e w era in theological educat ion. The needs of seminary s tudents to unders tand psychological dynamics and to exper ience supervis ion of their actual ministry began to take shape and to have a growing significance in t h e his tory of theological educat ion. The clinical training m o v e m e n t became influential in t h e 1930s; and by the 1950s, many theological schools suppor ted depa r tmen t s in pastoral care and counseling, often related to t h e clinical exper iences for s tudents . Faculty m e m b e r s in this field were heavily influenced by the not ion of s tudying "the h u m a n documents ," as Boisen called them. N e w courses in "practical theology" began to emerge and became increasingly popular a m o n g s tudents , a l though not uniformly suppor ted by o ther faculty members .

By 1963, a g r o u p of concerned teachers and practi t ioners in the field m e t in N e w York to discuss the urgent need for a s tronger cohesiveness among those dedicated to the field of pastoral counseling. In 1964, the first formal gather ing of the Amer ican Associat ion of Pastoral Counselors (AAPC) took place in Grace Cathedral , St. Louis. Howard J. Clinebell, Jr., was elected as t h e first president . Carroll A. Wise became the association's third pres ident in 1967. These early teachers and pract i t ioners served with distinction wi thin t h e pastoral counsel ing movemen t . 7

Five o ther Uni ted Methodis t s (Clinebell and Wise were bo th Uni ted


Methodists) have served as pres idents of AAPC so far: John H, Patton, Dona ld C. Houts , James C. Wyrtzen, Gerald J. DeSobe , and A n n e Ross Stewart. O t h e r United Methodis t s h o n o r e d by the Associat ion for their cont r ibut ions th rough the years include Paul E. Johnson, Q u e n t i n L. Hand, Rober t C. Leslie, Merle R. Jordan, and Bonnie J. Niswander . Orlo Strunk has served for many years wi th distinction as editor of The Journal of Pastoral Care and Counseling,

The ranks of regional and national commit tees of pastoral counsel ing and the posi t ions of responsibili ty wi thin pastoral counsel ing centers also boas t many United Methodis t pastoral counselors . The direction and standards of t h e association certainly have profited from the theological commi tments , intellectual honesty, and creativity of many w h o have represen ted Uni ted Me thod i sm powerfully and wi th distinction. Likewise, t h e Amer ican Association of Marriage and Family Therapists has profited repeatedly from the work of United Methodis t pastoral counselors.

In recent years, the pastoral counseling movement has begun to take o n a more international flavor. In the early 1980s, the AAPC began to train pastors and theological s tudents from across the world in the field of pastoral counseling. After coming to the United States for training, two of these persons were suppor ted by the association in building n e w pastoral counseling programs within their own countries—Olgierd C. Benedyktowicz in Warsaw, Poland, and Philip del Rosario in Cabanatuan City, Philippines. At the present time, nine additional United Methodis ts are listed in overseas settings, including James Farris in Sao Paulo, Brazil; John C. Blair in Australia; Christine Kayte in England, Shui-Man Kwan in H o n g Kong; Soo-Young Kwaon in South Korea; and Elizabeth K. Mtimkulu and N d u u m u l a n d M u t o m b u in the Republic of South Africa.

The extensive travels of Howard Clinebell and o ther leaders to teach in overseas settings have influenced the adapta t ion of Amer ican pastoral counsel ing methods . In recent years, a n u m b e r of articles have appeared by pastoral counselors wi th a d e e p unders tand ing of cultural differences relevant to the practice of pastoral counseling. Also recently, a n u m b e r of o ther pastoral counselors have provided leadership in short- term overseas programs.

Certainly the advent of many more w o m e n and people of color into this field has brought changes and improvements in earlier forms of training and therapeut ic processes. They have provided challenges to

WINTER 2005 343



gender and racial bias and have effectively b roadened bo th the thinking and the practice of pastoral counsel ing in our day. Such sensibilities are increasingly vital in a worldwide church and an internat ional movement of practi t ioners.

The Unique Impact of Pastoral Counseling on United Methodism O n e of the most un ique influences of the deve lopment of pastoral counseling wi th in Uni ted Me thod i sm has b e e n t h e deve lopment of a series of annual conference and area programs in pastoral care and counseling. As early as 1957, Bishop Richard Raines suppor t ed the deve lopment of a pastoral counsel ing center in the N o r t h Indiana Conference. James D o t y was the director for t h e first n ine years, followed by Foster W. Williams, w h o cont inued tha t direct ion from 1966 th rough 1986. It is no tewor thy that, before being elected bishop, Richard Raines served as senior minister at H e n n e p i n Avenue Uni ted Methodis t Church in Minneapolis . Carroll Wise served o n staff as a pastoral counselor and subsequent ly took a posit ion at Garre t t Evangelical Theological Seminary.

In 1961, Bishop Hazen Werner he lped initiate an area program in Ohio. David Chamber la in was the first director. In 1969, the Oh io program became two conference programs. Paul Schurman, Sam L. Slack, Howard K. Humphress , and Terry Dal ton have led the Oh io East Conference program ever since, while Rober t M. Collie was in charge of t h e O h i o West p rogram until 1978. Subsequently, Louis Hoyer cont inued t h e program for more than twenty years.

In 1966, Bishop Kenne th Pope worked wi th the N o r t h and Central Texas annua l conferences in establishing an area program, wi th DeFores t Wiksten as its director. This program cont inued u n d e r his leadership until 1973, w h e n it evolved into a series of pastoral counsel ing resources. In 1972, t h e Baltimore Conference began a p rogram under Bishop John Wesley Lord, wi th Leroy Graham as its first director. In later years, Berkely Ha tho rne and Bruno Heidik gave leadership as directors.

The Hols ton Conference began its p rogram in 1972 u n d e r Bishop L. Scott Allen, wi th William H. Balch as director. At present , t h e program is led by G a r y Mauldin. The Iowa area s tar ted a p rogram in 1973 u n d e r Bishop James Thomas , directed by Larry W. Sonner. O n his ret irement,


WINTER 2005 345

Mary L. Fraser took over the reins. In 1974, the Illinois area, u n d e r Bishop Lance Webb, launched a program, wi th Dona ld C. H o u t s as director. U p o n his ret irement, Daniel C. H e n d e r s o n has con t inued t h e program.

The N o r t h Alabama Conference began its p rogram in 1974 u n d e r the leadership of Bishop Kenne th Goodson . William Clements was director for a shor t t ime, followed by Charles E. Alexander, w h o was later assisted by John G, Gallaway and Rachel Julian, That p rogram is cont inuing to this day.

Bishop Edward L. Tullis led the South Georgia Conference in s tar t ing a p rogram in 1974 under the direction of Robert Hudspe th , followed by Andrew Summers . The Missouri area, u n d e r Robert Goodrich, inst i tuted a program in 1976, wi th James T. Walker as director. The mos t recent p rogram was begun in 2001 in t h e N o r t h Carolina Conference u n d e r Bishop J, Lawrence McCleskey, wi th Jane C. N o r m a n as director. 8

Most of these Uni ted Methodis t p rograms began as direct services to clergy and their families by compe ten t and certified directors of pastoral care. A n u m b e r of t h e m developed training for clergy wi thin the b o u n d s of the p rogram and began to use o ther compe ten t clinicians and teachers to assist. Some combined the direct pastoral counsel ing services wi th satellite centers to minimize the problem of travel dis tance for clients. O the r s emphas ized the cont inuing educat ion of clergy in small g roups and workshops related to such varied subjects as marriage counseling, grief and bereavement , conflict management , peer supervision, as well as ongoing suppor t groups and o ther clergy-oriented programs. All of these programs con t inued to serve clergy and respond to their needs . For example, they offered "transition seminars" for clergy w h o are changing appo in tmen t s and retreats for the children of clergy.

Since 1974, area and annua l conference directors have me t annual ly for mutua l support , enr ichment , and sharing of pilot projects. It is to the credit of these directors that their record shows consistent, faithful service to the church. Clergy and their families have long needed a place to go whe re they would no t be judged and where they could count on receiving help at modera te cost.

It needs to be said that in mos t of these programs, boards of ordained minis t ry have offered s t rong suppor t . These boards quickly began to appreciate the quality of care available to clergy families and the n e w range of opt ions to assist clergy in their g rowth and professional development .

O n e of the key characteristics of the more successful and cont inuing



area and annua l conference programs has b e e n t h e ability of conference leaders to free area directors from repor t ing specifics of therapeut ic contacts to ecclesiastical superiors . Fear of losing their protected confidentiality has always b e e n a factor in programs for clergy. Trust in our pastoral counsel ing leadership by church super iors is an obvious prerequisi te for effective and cont inuing programs. Where there has b e e n mutua l trust, t h e programs have succeeded in a dependab le and predictable manner .

At a t ime w h e n annua l conferences face skyrocketing heal th insurance costs and o ther emerging concerns , it remains to be seen h o w these programs and o ther potent ial n e w programs can remain viable. Some programs have begun to charge small fees for their services, while several o thers have benefi ted from large gifts of charitable foundat ions to supplem e n t their budge t needs . The creative and suppor t ive function of these programs cont inues to be wor th any reasonable cost and it would be difficult to devise alternative programs that would be more effective.

In summary, I believe this exper iment , qui te un ique to United Methodis t polity, has served and is serving t h e church very well. Clergy from o ther denomina t iona l and faith g roups have often remarked about t h e paucity of resources available to t h e m for personal spiritual growth. They also speak of feeling lonely and fearful in recognizing tha t they are wi thout the advocacy offered by a pastoral counsel ing service. These feelings often cloud their effectiveness and joy in ministry. Bishop Raines's vision and t h e suppor t of many individuals and annua l conferences mark t h e area and annual-conference pastoral counsel ing programs as Uni ted Methodism's un ique cont r ibut ion to more effective clergy suppor t .

A second major impact of pastoral counsel ing o n The United Methodis t Church is in the prevent ion of sexual abuse by clergy. Any annua l conference tha t has exper ienced the public trial of a clergyperson will know t h e terrible price that comes from sexual abuse of even o n e victim. Having exper ienced only o n e such trial in n ine teen years of practice, I have b e c o m e convinced tha t the church mus t work proactively to assure that such instances are very few and are never glossed over.

In the early 1980s, Marie Fo r tune was almost alone in he r campaign to call a t tent ion to issues of clergy sexual abuse. Through retreats and educational p rograms a imed at challenging clergy a n d judicatories alike, she has helped to provide pa t te rns for change. Thanks to her p ioneer ing work and to the early efforts of o thers to speak to these issues, a few programs were


developed for assisting judicatories to r e spond effectively and preemptively. O n e such resource, the Extension Division of the University of Wisconsin, developed the first in a series of v ideotaped resources, set wi th in a context of training for clergy. W h e n these materials became available there seemed little excuse not to use t h e m extensively.

The first and mos t extensive use of such programs was largely wi th in United Methodism. Scores of annua l conferences no t only worked o n relevant codes of sexual ethics but also p lanned and carried ou t manda to ry programs that reached a very high percentage of clergy. There is n o way to know exactly h o w effective these programs have b e e n in prevent ing sexual abuse by individual clergy members ; but certainly they have begun to sensitize many clergy to the impor tance of the issue and have port rayed a wide variety of relevant situations. In our denomina t ion , these sexual prevent ion programs have consistently used male-female leadership teams,

At about the same time, the church was beginning to identify therapeut ic resources. Minnesota , Kansas, and o the r places launched pilot treatm e n t programs for perpetrators . Conference policies were developed for those w h o would teach in church schools or supervise in you th s u m m e r camps. Trained pastoral counselors he lped develop and expedi te such educat ion.

In 1993, the entire Uni ted Methodis t Counci l of Bishops u n d e r w e n t t raining programs similar to those carried o u t wi th m a n y of thei r clergy, To our knowledge, n o o ther denomina t ion has b e e n as dedicated, consistent, and tho rough in its a t tempts to deal wi th this problem. While t h e work that has b e e n done to da te is less t han uniform, each annual conference has b e e n challenged to del ineate a c o m m i t m e n t bo th to protect ing vulnerable persons and to enabling clergy to unders tand the processes of harassment and victimization.

Overall, The Uni ted Methodis t Church has m a d e substantial progress in the ongoing fight for safety and sensitivity in our relationships wi th others , It is t ime for all conference leaders w h o have no t done so yet to follow suit.

The official posi t ions of the church on peace and justice have no t always b e e n preached and pu r sued wi th vigor. O n e of the mos t ambi t ious and effective voices of faith groups has b e e n the Interfaith Pastoral Counse lors for Social Responsibility. For a generat ion, it has b e e n a s teady and vocal factor wi thin pastoral counsel ing professional meet ings. As one

WINTER 2005 347



of its founders, Howard Clinebell was again ahead of his church and his fellow pastoral counselors in seeing the relevance of social justice, fair trade, and ecology as commi tmen t s toward world peace. Thus, the Pastoral Counsel ing m o v e m e n t has suppor ted t h e goals of global missions and world peace th rough its internat ional scope and its effective networking across the globe.

Continuing Questions for Discussion The aim of this pape r has b e e n to o p e n dialogue about the history of pastoral counsel ing wi thin United Me thod i sm and about issues relevant to t h e future. Three such issues come to mind: the changing priorities of parish clergy, seminary curriculum, and appo in tmen t s to extension ministries in The Uni ted Methodis t Church.

C h a n g i n g P r i o r i t i e s of C l e r g y

In the past generat ion, theologians such as Daniel Day Williams, Albert C. Outler, and Henr i N o u w e n have sought to find c o m m o n language for classical theologians and behavioral scientists to converse and thoughtfully discuss impor tan t faith issues. As early as 1950, David Roberts published Psychotherapy and a Christian View of Man. Roberts argued tha t acquaintance wi th psychotherapeut ic t heo ry would enr ich theologians ' interpretat ion of Christ ian doctr ine. Within the Pastoral Counsel ing movement , theologians such as Seward Hiltner consistently tr ied to emphasize the impor tance of keeping the movemen t close to t h e church.

Prior to the AAPC's first ga ther ing in 1964, Carroll Wise required all of his graduate s tuden ts to a t tend t h e meet ing to assure that the movemen t saw its place as a minis t ry of the church. I was o n e of those s tudents and have never forgotten Wise's concern. As early as 1980, AAPC's annual programs balanced clinical presenta t ions wi th theological papers and theological discussions wi th clinically relevant discussion. In my view, this a t tempt to find meaningful c o m m o n g round be tween theology and pastoral psychology has b e c o m e a product ive and comfortable g round for most pastoral counselors .

Recently, there appears to be a widespread shift in the priorit ies of seminary graduates wi th regard to h o w they spend their t ime and energy. In my experience, younger pastors consistently are less interested in spend ing significant t ime in visiting wi th in the parish. To be sure, in s o m e


cases, there are reasonable explanations: bo th spouses work or par ishes have less-discrete geographical boundar ies . However, a m o r e subtle reason underlying the rejection of this role may be that many of these pastors are no t comfortable visiting parishioners, particularly if it involves a m e m b e r w h o is experiencing acute stress. For some, fear of sexual t empta t ion in the face of marked anxiety about b o u n d a r y issues may play a role.

John Wesley never rel inquished the priori ty of knowing persons as individuals. His desire to be where people were in their pa in and to share in their struggles and sense of "lostness" was cons tan t and uncompromising. Pastors have always b e e n t empted to avoid unpleasant or difficult activities. In the past, some have sought relief t h rough alcohol, drugs, or television. Nowadays, the In ternet may offer escape. Until we are able once again to translate our concern for evangelism and n e w life to face-to-face relationships, I fear many of our clergy will cont inue to s h u n this central task of traditional M e t h o d i s m - t h e "care of souls."

S e m i n a r y C u r r i c u l u m

This change in priori ty a m o n g younger pas tors has b e e n gradual in coming, bu t the review of United Methodis t seminary catalogues t ends to bolster this observation. While most of our seminar ies give credit for clinical pastoral education, it is listed in the catalogue as an elective; and the n u m b e r of United Methodis t theological s tuden ts w h o enroll in clinical pastoral educat ion courses has gradually fallen. Likewise, t h e current catalogues of all of our Uni ted Methodis t seminaries list clinical pastoral counseling as o n e required course of two or three semester hours or offer elec-tives that include a choice be tween two or th ree courses in Chris t ian Educat ion, Evangelism, Pastoral Care and Counsel ing, or Worship. Some catalogues cont inue to list addit ional electives in the field bu t appear n o t to offer enough faculty t ime to make those courses available, given the wide variety of elective courses and the apparen t increase of curr iculum requi rements in Bible, Church History, and Theology. Few seminary graduates today can be assumed to have special skills in pastoral counseling.

E x t e n s i o n M i n i s t r i e s Paragraphs 343-344 of the Book of Discipline list a wide variety of ministries approved by the general church as potentially appropr ia te appoin tments . We take for granted tha t a good n u m b e r of appo in tmen t s to extens ion ministry will take place. However, the shor tage of parish clergy in many

WINTER 2005 349



annual conferences creates the t empta t ion for b ishops to treat appointment s beyond the local church as per ipheral and in s o m e sense regrettable.

The Discipline makes it very clear that the i t inerant ministry supercedes t h e needs of extens ion ministries whenever d e e m e d advisable by the bishop.

Elders in appointments extending the ministry of the local United Methodist church are full participants in the itinerant system. Therefore, a conference member in an appointment beyond the local United Methodist church must be willing upon consultation to receive an appointment in a pastoral charge.9

Whether or no t this "consultation" is a two-way communica t ion or simply a conference to indicate a decision by the b ishop is no t clear to me . While I have n o evidence to indicate h o w common ly such appo in tmen t s are made, I have heard anecdotal repor ts tha t in s o m e conferences it has b e c o m e a frequent occurrence. Nonethe less , it is clear that The United Methodis t Church functions mos t effectively o n the basis of a fully itinerant system regarding appoint ive practice. In c o m m e n t i n g o n this issue, John H. Patton says:

Pastoral Care and other specialized ministers simply don't fit in denominational structures such as geographical Annual Conferences, presbyteries, or associations organized to facilitate congregational or parochial ministry. 1 0

Fortunately, t h e Uni ted Methodis t Endors ing Agency (UMEA) at t h e General Board of Higher Educat ion and Ministry has a t ime-honored tradit ion of suppor t for those of us w h o have b e c o m e specialists in particular areas of ministry such as pastoral counseling. F rom early days, staff member s have t ended their flock of people in extens ion ministries. They function as p r imary links to the larger church for many of us in a variety of special appo in tments .

U M E A has also b e e n helpful in taking o n t h e certification process for the board. It has carefully carried ou t t h e in tent of the Genera l Conference in paying a t tent ion to s tandards for and personal deve lopment of clergy in extension ministries. Hopefully, the his tory of t h e past generat ion has justified the cont inuing confidence of the larger church in the competence , loyalty, and un ique cont r ibut ions of he r clergy in extension appoin tments .


Donald C. Houts, retired, spent a career in parish ministry, chaplaincy, teaching, and pastoral counseling,

Endnotes 1. John T. McNeill, A History of the Cure of Souls (New York: Harper & Bros. 1951), 1, 69. 2. William A. Clebsch and Charles R. Jaekle, Pastoral Care in Historical Perspective (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1964), 32-63. 3. Howard J. Clinebell, Mental Health through Christian Community (Nashville: Abingdon, 1963), 213. 4. McNeill, History of the Cure of Souls, 279-80. 5. Liston O. Mills, "Pastoral Care: History, Transitions, Definitions," in Rodney J. Hunter, ed., Dictionary of Pastoral Care and Counseling (Nashville: Abingdon, 1990), 843//.

WINTER 2005 351

Conclusion It is no t easy to summar ize the issues in pastoral counsel ing over the past one-hundred years or the un ique relationship of the field to Uni ted Methodism. Perhaps o thers will be able to use these c o m m e n t s in helpful ways to insure that the church is continually p roud of t h e work that we d o in pastoral counseling. Methodis t s in John Wesley's day worked in cottage, mine, and slum. While the sett ings and qualifications may be different today, the overall witness and overarching concern for the task of "going on to perfection" will never be wi thou t wi tness and power.

Liston O. Mills summar izes his historical view of the Pastoral Counsel ing movement as follows;

Thus pastoral care seeks its roots in a theological world view at the same time that it comes to terms with the forces and contending voices of the contemporary scene. What is reflected in these more recent enterprises is a continuation of a long and honorable tradition. For the commitment to persons which pastoral care's history reveals and the effort to discern the meaning of life in relation to God remain as fundamental ideals in those who would care for souls. 1 1

We commi t ourselves to this cont inuing challenge.

PASTORAL COUNSELING IN Tl IE UNITED METHODIST TRADITION: HISTORY A N D ISSUES


6. E. Brooks Holifield, A History of Pastoral Care in America: From Salvation to Self-Realization (Nashville: Abingdon, 1983), 176. 7.1 dedicate this article to these Methodist pioneers. Clinebell was a long-time friend, colleague, and mentor; and Wise a profoundly influential teacher and example. 8. While we have attempted to retrieve this information with accuracy, there may be some omissions or actual errors. We included all these programs, because at the present time there is no public record of the history and impact of these trailblazing programs. 9. The Book of Discipline of The United Methodist Church-2004 (Nashville: The United Methodist Publishing House, 2004), 1 344. 10. John H. Patton, "Response," Journal of Pastoral Care and Counseling 5 8 / 5 (Supplement):429. 11. Mills, "Pastoral Care: History, Transitions, Definitions." Dictionary of Pastoral Care and Counseling, 44.

Wesleyan Roots of Pastoral Care and Counseling

T H E O D O R E R U N Y O N

Is there a distinctively Wesleyan approach to pastoral care and counseling—a characteristic theological g rounding that m a y prove useful t o

those seeking resources in the founder of Method ism for their own practice of pastoral care? To be sure, John Wesley has not provided us wi th the kind of case studies that Seward Hiltner found in the nineteenth-century Brooklyn pastor Ichabod Spencer, whose cases appeared in A Pastor's Sketches, published in 1851—cases that Hil tner drew o n extensively in his classic Preface to Pastoral Theology.1 But Wesley, wri t ing 100 years earlier than Spencer, did provide a richly nuanced soteriology that offers resources for developing a theology of pastoral care surprisingly relevant to today's needs,

Every theology of pastoral care p resupposes an anthropology: assumptions about w h o h u m a n beings are, their high calling and their l imitations, and their capabilities and foibles. And a Wesleyan star t ing po in t for counseling is n o exception. H u m a n s are created in t h e image of God. This is Wesley's foundational anthropological assertion. Their Creator in tends for t h e m to s tand in a role and relationship for which they are equ ipped with special gifts and the accompanying responsibilities. In defining t h e image of G o d Wesley differentiates be tween the natural image, the political image, and the moral image. 2 Unde r the natural image he includes the gifts of reason, will, and freedom. These are the basic capacities necessary for h u m a n s to be in conscious relat ionship with their Creator. With regard to h u m a n reason Wesley's view was functional and pragmatic, geared to the world that was emerging at the beginning of the e igh teenth cen tu ry th rough Locke and empir icism rather t han the intuit ional capabilities tha t had b e e n ascribed to reason by Descartes , the Cambr idge Platonists, and the Deists. Reason receives sense da ta and grasps h o w things work together. It discerns order and relat ionships that make possible right judgments . The gift of will enables h u m a n s to exercise agency, sort o u t priorities, make commitments , and execute responsibilities. The gift of freedom

QUARTERLY REVIEW VOLUME 25. NUMBER 4, WINTER 2005

353

WESLEYAN ROOTS OF PASTORAL CARE A N D COUNSELING


gives to reason and will the power to choose the good and resist evil. These were Enl igh tenment values, which Wesley shared.

The political image reflects the way in which humani ty "images" o n the finite level God 's ordering of the universe. In Genesis humani ty is described as having "dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the air and over every living thing that moves u p o n the earth" (1:28). Humani ty thus has a place of special responsibility for the care of the ear th and its creatures. Wesley notes, "So . . . m a n was God 's vicegerent [manager] u p o n earth, the prince and governor of this lower world; and all the blessings of God flowed through him to the inferior creatures." 3 We are the stewards of a world entrusted to us.

The moral image is t h e most strategic mark of the h u m a n imaging of God, for it is the o n e o n which t h e o the r two depend . It consists of a relat ionship in which the creature receives cont inuously from the Creator and mediates further wha t is received. " 'God is love': accordingly m a n at his creation was full of love, which was t h e sole principle of all his tempers , thoughts , words and actions. G o d is full of justice, mercy and truth: so was m a n as he came from the hands of t h e Creator." 4 The image in its relation to its Source images and transmits further those qualities it receives from beyond itself. This relat ionship Wesley t e rms "spiritual respiration":

God's breathing into the soul, and the soul's breathing back what it first receives from God; a continual action of God upon the soul, the re-action of the soul upon God; an unceasing presence of God, the loving pardoning God, manifested to the heart, and perceived by faith; and an unceasing return of love, praise, and prayer, offering up all the thoughts of our hearts, all the words of our tongues, all the works of our hands, all our body, soul, and spirit, to be an holy sacrifice unto God in Christ Jesus. 5

What Wesley is describing is theosis as it is unders tood in the Eastern C h u r c h - G o d ' s participation in our lives by the power of the Spirit and our participation by the same Spirit in the life of God. What is necessary for this participation, however, is "the absolute necessity of this re-action of the soul (whatsoever it b e called) in order to the cont inuance of the divine life therein. For it plainly appears God does no t cont inue to act u p o n the soul unless the soul re-acts u p o n God." 6 It is clear to Wesley that humans have failed to "re-act," faithfully to image G o d as part icipants in the divine life.

THEODORE RUNYON

The result is tha t the componen t s in the natural image have become distorted. They have been tu rned in a direction opposi te from the purpose for which they were given, so that our reason is n o w used to excuse and rationalize, our will is tu rned to serve egocentric purposes , and our freedom becomes bondage as we pursue false goals that, once chosen, d o not allow us to choose what we know to be better. In the familiar words of Paul, "I can will wha t is right, but I cannot do it. For I do not d o the good I want, b u t the evil I d o not want is what I do" (Rom. 7:18M9). Thus we retain the characteristics of reason, will, and freedom; bu t they n o longer function in the way intended, and often we are unable to d o anything about it.

The political image is also distorted. As the steward, we have no t b e e n faithful in t h e care of the world placed in our hands . We th ink no t of future generat ions but only of our present needs and desires. The ea r th suffers from our exploitation. While we retain our role of "prince and governor," we mismanage that over which we have b e e n m a d e stewards and exploit it to satisfy our selfish, excessive consumpt ion .

If t h e natural image and political image have b e c o m e distorted, it is t h e moral image that has b roken down mos t completely; for we have lost the ability to t ransmit to o thers t h e justice, mercy, t ruth, and love that we have received from our Maker. We n o longer re-act to God ' s action. We have b e c o m e desensit ized to grace tha t flows from t h e divine Source. Therefore, we d o no t fulfill our calling of shar ing that grace with others .

It is no t surprising, therefore, tha t Wesley's doct r ine of salvation focuses o n the fundamental h u m a n need for the renewal of the image of God. This is his most frequent way to descr ibe salvation. "You know tha t the great end of religion is to r enew our hear ts in t h e image of G o d , . . . [and] all tha t s tops short of this . . . is n o o ther t han a poo r farce and a mere mockery of God." 7 Therefore, it is God ' s in ten t ion to '"create us anew' in the ' image of God, where in we were first created. '" 8 A n d it is this renewal tha t is the goal of pastoral care and counsel ing insofar as it is consciously g rounded in the Wesleyan tradition. H o w does this renewal take place?

Wesley sets out for us a kind of template of t h e factors involved tha t mark the developmenta l stages in the journey of faith. Undergirding this soteriology is the conviction that salvation is no t a one- t ime event bu t an ongoing process of divine grace operative in h u m a n exper ience tha t Wesley describes in te rms broader than those often a s sumed by his contemporar ies . "What is salvation?" he asks. It is "not wha t is frequently

WINTER 2005 355



unders tood by that word, the going to heaven, eternal happiness It is no t a blessing which lies o n the o the r side of death, or (as we usually speak) in t h e o the r world." Referring to Eph. 2:8, he comments ,

The very words of the text itself put this beyond all question. 'Ye are saved.' It is not something at a distance: it is a present thing, a blessing which, through the free mercy of God, ye are now in possession o f . . . . So that the salvation which is here spoken of might be extended to the entire work of God, from the first dawning of grace in the soul till it is consummated in glory.9

This grace nur tu res t h e person th rough ever-greater maturat ion. Basic to this soteriology is therefore the concept of divine grace: the kindness, mercy, blessing, and "outgoingness" of G o d toward human i ty given expression in the life, death, and resurrect ion of Jesus Christ and in the activity of the Spirit. Grace is a gift undeserved by h u m a n s bu t overflowing ou t of t h e generosity of t h e Creator. It is t h e means by which G o d seeks to overcome the es t rangement that has distorted the relat ionship be tween the creatures, their Maker, and o n e another . And it is t h e divine caring that su r rounds and sustains everything tha t has breath. It is this grace tha t is a chief presupposi t ion of pastoral counsel ing in a Wesleyan mode , for it can be p resupposed even w h e n it is no t obvious to t h e counselor and even w h e n it is not evident to t h e counselee. The presuppos i t ion is tha t the Spirit is already at work in the life of every pe r son w h o seeks ou t counsel. This is the objective presence of grace in any counsel ing relationship.

Because grace is the tr ini tarian God ' s good will toward us, it is of one piece and canno t be divided, w h e t h e r it comes from t h e Father, the Son, or t h e Spirit. But for pu rposes of explanat ion and analysis, Wesley can see grace operat ing in different ways at different stages in the journey of f a i t h -ways tha t significantly parallel bo th t h e stages of salvation and the stages of counseling. These ways are prevenient grace, justifying grace, and sanctifying grace.

Prevenient Grace The first stage in t h e template is prevenient grace. This is, so to say, t h e porch by which o n e first approaches the h o u s e of faith, health, and wholeness. According to Wesley, this is often t h e mos t subtle form of grace. It is "the first dawning of grace in the soul,"

THEODORE RUNYON

the first dawn of light concerning [God's] will, and the first slight, transient conviction of having sinned against him, All these imply some tendency toward life, some degree of salvation, the beginning of a deliverance from a blind, unfeeling heart, quite insensible of God and things of God. 1 0

These prompt ings of prevenient grace may cause a pe r son to seek out counseling, for persons often cannot clearly identify w h y they have come and have difficulty saying wha t it is tha t is t roubl ing t h e m and causing their uneasiness, their "dis-ease." But they sense that a pastoral counselor will be able to assist t h e m in getting to the root of t h e problem. From Wesley's s tandpoin t they have rightly identified t h e role of a pastor, for "the religion of Jesus C h r i s t . . . is therapeia psyches [soul therapy], God ' s m e t h o d of healing a soul which is thus diseased." 1 1

This identification of salvation with therapy, or healing, is our clue to the fact that Wesley benefitted from the unders tanding of salvation characteristic of the early Eastern Fathers, w h o m Wesley wi th his colleagues in the Holy Club at Oxford s tudied in the original Greek. His favorites were Macarius and Ephrem Syrus, w h o could describe sin as an illness and salvat ion as overcoming illness and bringing about health. Christ is the Great Physician w h o has come to heal the lame, the blind, and the possessed. This is in contrast to the p redominan t Western definition of sin as a criminal offense, a breaking of the Law. In the West, the scene is a cour t room and the sinner appears before the Judge, w h o could rightly c o n d e m n the guilty were it not that the Son intervenes. The judgment that should fall on us falls instead on him. He bears the bu rden of our guilt, pays the price for our crime, and sets us free, Wesley could call u p o n this tradition as well, and in describing Christ 's a toning action he often employs the motifs of substitution, satisfaction, and sacrifice. However, the point is that he explicitly utilized the Eastern tradition and its emphasis u p o n t h e healing arts. This may be due to what he describes as his long-term interest in medicine, which he studied at Oxford in preparat ion for his mission in colonial Georgia, where "I imagined I might be of some service to those w h o had n o regular Physician a m o n g them." 1 2 H e cont inued his interest in ana tomy and medicine, reading extensively in the field. And later, at his London headquarters, the Foundery, he opened a clinic and apothecary for the t rea tment of the poor, enlisting the help of physicians and pharmacists w h o volunteered their services. Consul t ing the medical texts of the t ime, he published

WINTER 2005 357



a medical tract in 1745 titled A Collection of Receipts for the Use of the Poor, In 1747, Wesley revised the tract to make it a comprehensive self-help book of diagnoses and remedies for some 250 maladies and published it unde r the title Primitive Physick: An Easy and Natural Method of Curing Most Diseases. The book carefully marked those cures Wesley had tried himself and approved. It was the mos t popular of Wesley's publications and went through twenty-three edit ions dur ing his lifetime. 1 3 Most of the cures have in the meant ime proved to be if no t beneficial then at least harmless . 1 4

Prevenient grace is evident in the p h e n o m e n o n of conscience, says Wesley. "No m a n living is entirely dest i tu te of wha t is [commonly] called 'natural conscience. ' But this is no t natural; it is more properly t e rmed 'preventing [i.e., prevenient] grace.' Every m a n has a greater or less measure of th is ." 1 5 This is testified to by the impulses that strike every h u m a n breast.

Everyone has . . . good desires, although the generality of men stifle them before they can strike deep root or produce any considerable fruit. Everyone has some measure of that light, some faint glimmering ray, which sooner or later . . . enlightens every man that cometh into the world . . . . Everyone . . . feels more or less uneasy when he acts contrary to the light of his own conscience. So that no man sins because he has not grace, but because he does not use the grace he hath. 1 6

This implied positive view of conscience helps to clarify the differences be tween Wesley and the Lutheran and Calvinistic approaches . For Luther, t h e conscience can condemn; it joins t h e Law in accusing the sinner before God. The role of grace is to free from the condemna t ion of conscience. To be sure, Wesley warns against an overly "scrupulous conscience," which he te rms "a sore evil" that requires correct ion by scriptural authority. There are some, he says, "who fear where n o fear is, w h o are continually condemning themselves wi thou t cause; imagining some things to be sinful which the Scripture nowhere condemns ; and suppos ing o ther things to be their du ty which t h e Scripture nowhere enjoins." 1 7 Yet he accords a m o r e positive role to conscience, perhaps because he detects prevenient grace at work in the lives of the poo r who, t hough un tu to red and unlettered, testify to the au then t ic voice of conscience within. This he felt was g rounded in Christ, t h e u n k n o w n compan ion of every h u m a n being.

THEODORE RUNYON

WINTER 2005 359

It is not nature but the Son of God that is "the true light, which enlighteneth every man which cometh into the world." So that we may say to every human creature, "He," not nature, "hath shown thee, O man, what is good." And it is his Spirit who giveth thee an inward check, who causeth thee to feel uneasy, when thou walkest in any instance contrary to the light which he hath given thee. 1 8

The contrast wi th Calvin's approach has to d o more with Wesley's emphasis u p o n h u m a n freedom in appropriat ing grace. Wesley scholar Albert Out ler observed that the Calvinists "stressed t h e Father 's elective will," which, before the worlds began, was the first cause of everything that was to follow. The absoluteness of divine sovereignty was therefore t h e characteristic way in which God 's grace was conceived. The immutable divine will is the source of all the gracious benefits for the elect and, because that will is immutable, the grace that results is necessarily viewed as irresistible. Wesley's therapeutic approach shifts the emphasis to the third person of the Trinity. Because it is not an eternal decree bu t a healing power that is the guiding motif, and because there must be a willing cooperat ion if grace is to be effective, this grace of the Spirit can be resisted by h u m a n s too threatened by the implications of grace for change . 1 9 While not disagreeing with the Calvinist content ion that G o d is sovereign Lord and therefore able to intervene directly and pu t things right by fiat, Wesley asserts that this would defeat God 's purpose to restore humani ty to the image of God, which includes h u m a n freedom. The Almighty could, of course,

act irresistibly, and the thing is done; yea, with just the same ease as when "God said, Let there be light; and there was light." But then man would be man no longer; his inmost nature would be changed. He would no longer be a moral agent, any more than the sun or the wind, as he would no longer be endued with liberty, a power of choosing or self-determination. Consequently he would no longer be capable of virtue or vice, of reward or punishment. 2 0

Like his mentors a m o n g the Eastern Fathers, Wesley under s t ands divine grace as cooperant . It invites into par tnership . This par tnersh ip cannot be imposed b u t instead opens u p a greater degree of genuine freedom.

WESLEYAN ROOTS O F PASTORAL CARE A N D COUNSELING


You know how God wrought in your own soul when he first enabled you to say, "The life I now live, I live by faith in the Son of God.". . . He did not take away your understanding, but enlightened and strengthened it. He did not destroy any of your affections; rather they were more vigorous than before. Least of all did he take away your liberty, your power of choosing good or evil; he did not force you; but being assisted by his grace you, like Mary, chose the better p a r t 2 1

Freedom is necessary in order to ensure synergy, the cooperative working together of the h u m a n and t h e divine at every s tep in the process of salvation. Synergy is generally at t r ibuted to the Eastern Fathers, a l though Wesley quotes a Western Father, St. Augustine, to make the point: "He that made us wi thout ourselves, will no t save us wi thout ourselves." (Wesley admits, however, tha t wi th regard to h u m a n freedom August ine "is generally supposed to favour the contrary doctr ine.") 2 2 Wesley was criticized by his Calvinist o p p o n e n t s for defending synergism, which they considered Pelagian and taking away from the glory of God. It is t rue that Wesley defended Pelagius and felt he was misrepresented by Augustine; bu t the version of synergism that he espoused at t r ibuted all t h e initiative to God ' s grace and was, in the tradition of t h e Eastern church, perfectly o r thodox . 2 3

Synergy is an impor tan t presuppos i t ion of pastoral counseling. The counselor may have his or her assumpt ions abou t t h e diagnosis of the counselee 's issues and possible avenues of resolut ion bu t knows tha t his or her solutions, if imposed, are n o solut ion at all. What is required is a mutua l process of explorat ion and discovery freely en te red into and cont r ibuted to by the counse lee . 2 4 For it is in h im or he r tha t under s t and ing and change mus t take place. The counselor 's role is to reinforce t h e gentle nudgings of the Spirit in prevenient grace.

Justifying Grace The next stage in the process of salvation in Wesley's theological template is justifying grace. If prevenient grace is t h e porch leading to the house of faith, t h e n justifying grace is the doo r by which we are b rought in. Prevenient grace is God ' s good will toward all humankind , and we can assume it is operat ive in t h e lives of all. "It is found, at least in some small degree, in every child of m a n , . . . n o t only in all Christ ians " 2 5 Just as t h e pastoral counselor mus t therefore p re suppose t h e opera t ion of prevenient

THEODORE RUNYON

grace in all of his or he r clients, justifying grace is analogous to t h e breakth roughs that occur in the counsel ing process itself, especially if t hose breakthroughs bring no t just insights for t h e individual bu t reconciliation in relationships.

To use t h e te rm in a way familiar to us from compute r language, justification is the way our relat ionship to G o d is realigned, rectified, restored, a n d renewed. This begins wi th t h e admiss ion tha t some th ing has gone wrong; that the gifts and talents we have b e e n given have n o t proved sufficient or have b e e n distorted; that our reason, will, and freedom have not always served us well and have often led to self-deception, misunders tanding, and bondage. The first s tep out of this p red icament is dissatisfact ion and frustration, a desire to be reor iented and to t u rn things around. Theologically, this is descr ibed as repentance, Yet this is no t someth ing we can accomplish by ourselves. We need an "other" to help us sort th ings out and come to terms with our situation. This is whe re the pastor, counselor, or therapis t comes in. It is not the therapist 's job to make repen tance easy; for wha t is necessary is an utterly realistic look at all the factors involved in our quandary. Wesley describes r epen tance as a "kind of self-knowledge," 2 6

b u t a knowledge which can best be facilitated by another . "Why is it tha t it is often easier to confess our sins to G o d t h a n to a brother?" wri tes Dietr ich Bonhoeffer. "We mus t ask ourselves w h e th e r we have no t often b e e n deceiving ourselves wi th our confession of sin to God, w h e th e r we have no t ra ther b e e n confessing our sins to ourselves and also grant ing ourselves absolution." But w h e n we repen t in t h e presence of ano the r person, we "experience the presence of G o d in the reality of the o ther person ." 2 7 The role of the counselor is to be that o ther pe r son and to media te divine grace. The counselor accepts the counselee as he or she is. The counselor does no t require that the individual first mee t any criteria for insight into him- or herself or his or her s i tuat ion but opens u p by his or he r warmth and expert ise the possibility for candid exchange. Both t h e in terpersonal warmth and the professional expert ise are necessary because, to be authentic, grace involves no t just acceptance bu t also the ability t o a rouse t rust so tha t the counse lee can in t u rn d rop defenses. The word of forgiveness, whe the r communica ted verbally, or nonverbally in attitude , comes from beyond and assures pa rdon and reconciliation.

Justification is often identified wi th a s u d d e n breakthrough and this event of forgiveness and reconciliation. Things fall into place and the client

WINTER 2005 361



or par ishioner sees him- or herself in a n e w light. They know themselves to be accepted by that which is infinite. In Wesley's terms, they have experienced "assurance"; they have b e e n affirmed by the ult imate. "If G o d is for us, w h o is against us?" (Rom. 8:31). Things are n o w aligned differently t han before and the relat ionship to G o d is reestablished. Leading u p to this realignment, however, is a dialogical process in which t h e counselor guides toward greater insight. Is the result en l igh tenment or conversion? O n the intellectual level, it could be called enl ightenment ; bu t if it is undergi rded by the acceptance tha t communica tes divine grace, it br ings the counselee into a relation with the divine that can be read as conversion. Usually it is no t a one-t ime conversion, however, because it is often followed by further insights and breakthroughs .

Persons frequently testify t o t h e sense of f reedom and release tha t accompanies these breakthroughs . Therapists may be caut ious about such experiences, because they know these can be followed by per iods of depression. Wesley was convinced, however, tha t grace is perceptible—that it can be sensed and exper ienced so that we b e c o m e conscious of it. In this he differed from the usual church posi t ion that grace is forensic; i.e., it is declared a n d d ispensed th rough t h e officially au thor ized administrators of grace—the clergy—in an event that takes place, for example, in the sacraments , w h e t h e r t h e recipient is aware of it or not . Wesley felt that G o d was reaching ou t precisely in t h e Eucharis t to br ing the knowledge of the hear t of God to h u m a n hearts . And tha t involves experiential knowledge. Feelings are an impor tan t factor in counseling—indeed, often the mos t memorab le factor. Nevertheless , Wesley did no t advocate an uncritical attit ude toward feelings. H e recognized tha t they could mislead and be misinformed. Therefore, Scripture remains the s tandard by which feelings are to be judged as to their consis tency with the t ru th of t h e gospel, and feelings are not in any sense to be taken as absolute in themse lves . 2 8 But the healing power of feelings often cont r ibutes to t h e nu r tu r ing process introduced by justification.

Sanctifying Grace The final piece Wesley offers us in the theological template for use in the ministry of counsel ing is sanctifying grace. As w e have seen, Wesley identifies salvation as a healing process, a tberapeia tha t is ongoing, If prevenient grace is the porch and justifying grace t h e door, t hen sanctifying grace

THEODORE RUNYON

invites healing into all of t h e rooms of the house . The healing power generally does n o t accomplish everything at once bu t makes its way into the various rooms of a life one by one , br inging the reconciliation that has b e e n discovered in justification to the various aspects of t h e individual 's life and the network of relationships in which he or she is involved. Some are relationships to kindred, o thers to friends and colleagues, and yet o thers to t h e larger society of which we are a part .

As Thomas O d e n poin ts out, Jesus came into conflict wi th the religious authori t ies because he practiced healing o n the Sabbath. They t hough t the Sabbath should be reserved for religious observances only. W h e n Jesus r e sponded tha t t h e Sabbath was m a d e for h u m a n beings a n d n o t h u m a n beings for the Sabbath, he ex tended the limits of wha t const i tuted service to G o d into the secular arena. "He offered therapeia o n the Sabbath as a sign of the emerging reign of God, thus in t ruding u p o n t h e holy day wi th his minis t ry to sick bodies and souls and erasing the strict b o u n d a r y be tween sacred and secular funct ions." 2 9 Just as healing was needed for the religious and social s t ructures of Jesus ' t ime, so healing is needed today, especially in the sanctifying of humani ty as the political image of God.

The healing process requires nur tu r ing that usually takes t ime and commitment , on the par t of bo th the pastor-counselor and t h e counselee, for "human freedom is nur tu red even amid the condi t ions of estrangement . " 3 0 Wesley was well aware of this need for a nu r tu r ing env i ronment and so he developed wi thin his societies smaller groups—classes and bands—in which m e m b e r s came together weekly for Bible study, prayer, and shar ing of the issues they faced in their own lives. They had n o professional training in therapy; bu t often class leaders began the sessions by confessing their own tempta t ions and problems and were adep t at drawing o u t from t h e ten or twelve pe r sons in the g roup t h e issues wi th which they had b e e n confronted dur ing the previous week—a process not unlike therapy groups today. Wesley was convinced tha t h u m a n beings were social creatures m e a n t to be fulfilled in social relat ionships and he reacted against those w h o argued that t rue piety was cultivated only by withdrawal from society. The quietists and mystics advocated, "To the desert l to the desert! and God will build you up." Wesley countered,

Directly opposite to this is the gospel of Christ. Solitary religion is not to be found there. "Holy solitaries" is a phrase no more consistent with the gospel

WINTER 2005 363


Theodore Runyon is Professor Emeritus of Systematic Theology at Candler School of Theology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, and author of The N e w Creation: J o h n Wesley's Theology Today (Abingdon, 1998).

Endnotes 1. Seward Hiltner, Preface to Pastoral Theology (New York: Abingdon, 1958). 2. The Works of John Wesley, Bicentennial Edit ion, ed. by Albert C. Out le r (Nashville: Abingdon, 1985), 2:474/; hereafter Works. 3. Ibid., 2:440. 4. Ibid., 2:188. 5. Ibid., 1:442. 6. Ibid.


than holy adulterers. The gospel of Christ knows of no religion but social, no holiness but social holiness, 3 1

The goal of counseling, therefore, is to s t reng then persons so tha t they can play a creative and engaged social role, shar ing the healing in which t hey have par t ic ipated in all of thei r social relationships.

Ye "are the salt of the earth." It is your very nature to season whatever is round about you. It is the nature of the divine savour which is in you to spread to whatsoever you touch; to diffuse itself on every side, to all those among whom you are. This is the great reason why the providence of God has so mingled you together with other men, that whatever grace you have received of God may through you be communicated to others. 3 2

Although sanctification includes disciplines of spiritual renewal, it means not withdrawal b u t active involvement that draws a person ou t of preoccupat ion wi th self into a life of conce rn for others . "Faith working th rough love" (Gal. 5:6) was Wesley's favorite descr ipt ion of sanctification. And it could well serve as the goal of t h e empower ing tha t takes place th rough any pastoral counsel ing relationship.

This is the template that Wesley suggests can make us o p e n and sensitive to the action of grace at every stage of t h e counsel ing process, w h e t h e r in prevenient, justifying, or sanctifying grace.

THEODORE RUNYON

7. Ibid., 2:185. 8. Ibid., 3:77. See Theodore Runyon, The New Creation: John Wesley's Theology Today (Nashville: Abingdon, 1998), 8. 9. Ibid., 2:156. 10. Ibid., 3:203/. 11. Ibid, 2:184. 12. The Works of John Wesley (Jackson edition) (Grand Rapids: Zondervan , 1872), 8:264 (hereafter Works [Jackson]). 13. See the discussion in E. Brooks Holifield, Health and Medicine in the Methodist Tradition (New York: Crossroad, 1986), 32//. 14. See A. Wesley Hill, John Wesley among the Physicians (London: Epworth, 1958). 15. Works, 3:207. 16. Ibid. 17. Ibid., 3:487. 18. Ibid., 3:482. 19. Albert Outler, Introduction to Works, 1:81. 20. Works, 2:488/ 21. Ibid., 2:489. 22. Ibid., 3:208. 23. Jose Miguez Bonino, "Sanctification: A Latin American Rereading," in Faith Born in the Struggle for Life, ed. Dow Kirkpatrick (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988), 21. 24. Cf. Runyon. New Creation, 22, 31,55/. 25. Ibid., 4:163. 26. Ibid., 1:336. 27. Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Life Together (New York: Harper & Row, 1954), 115/. 28. Cf. Runyon, New Creation, 146-67. 29. Thomas Oden, Kerygma and Counseling (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1966), 150. 30. Ibid., 77. 31. John Wesley, "Preface to H y m n s and Sacred Poems (1739)," in Works (Jackson), 14:321. 32. Ibid., 1:537.

WINTER 2005 365

Pastoral Counseling as Faithful Practice amid Liminality, Uncertainly, and

Multiplicity

E M M A N U E L Y . L A R T E Y

As a result of their practice be ing closely related to people 's everyday life experience, pastoral counselors have historically had to invoke

cultural analytical skills. John Wesley in his ad populum m a n n e r of speech and practice, became very adep t at this, relating his theological insights to the exper iences of ord inary folk. Wesley's "practical divinity" involved making life-giving connec t ions be tween Scripture, reason, tradition, and exper ience and do ing so in ways tha t communica ted clearly wi th t h e "ordinary" person.

Pastoral counselors still face this challenge today bu t wi th the added realization of the particular issues facing t h e multicultural and multifaith world in which we n o w increasingly live. Of course, t h e world has always b e e n multicultural and pluralistic. However, it is only now, as a result of rapid technological deve lopments and the realities of t h e m o v e m e n t of people across nat ional and cultural borders , tha t we are able to face squarely t h e challenges and oppor tun i t ies of this reality.

The world of today throws people of very different social, cultural, economic, religious, and e thnic backgrounds into close proximity wi th o n e ano ther in very many places. The challenges of communica t ion across linguistic and cultural barr iers face us all the t ime. Moreover, people of different cultures w h o are in contact influence o n e ano the r in subtle and, at times, overt ways. The power of t h e media is considerable in this regard. The influence of a radio in a remote village commun i ty can be p h e n o m enal. Political and even national revolutions have b e e n traced to t h e power of the media ei ther in sowing seeds or else in giving the oxygen of publicity to little-known causes. We n o longer live, anywhere in the world, in communi t ies tha t are completely closed or impenetrable . Compute r technology invades even t h e mos t inaccessible terrain.

We can n o longer assume that o u r neighbors speak the same language

366 QUARTERLY REVIEW VOLUME 25, NUMBER 4, WINTER 2005

EMMANUEL Y. LARTEY

as we or share our beliefs. What makes the task even m o r e intractable is tha t we not only have to deal wi th varieties of experience, background, culture, and faith but also are called u p o n to respond to these baffling differences while they too are in a state of change th rough interact ion and influence.

H o w are we to proceed wi th pastoral counsel ing in this situation? What does Christ ian pastoral counsel ing m e a n in today's circumstances? H o w are Christ ian pastoral counselors to relate to Musl im or Sikh clients? What happens w h e n the chaplain available in the hospital at t h e crucial m o m e n t of critical care is Buddhist or H indu and the pat ient is Musl im or Christian? H o w d o different religious faiths come into play in pastoral counseling? How are Christ ian pastoral counselors to counsel persons of Genera t ion X or the N e w Mi l lenn ia l , for w h o m pos tmode rn i sm is already beginning to become outdated?

Multiplicity and Plurality We live increasingly in contexts in which the p remodern , modern , and p o s t m o d e r n (and wha t is already beginning to be descr ibed as the post-pos tmodern) are juxtaposed. These three are n o longer historical epochs separable from each other. They exist together and are in cons tan t interactive relationship. The p o s t m o d e r n disi l lusionment wi th ambit ious total explanat ions such as offered by science, religion, and economic or political ideologies is already fracturing into extremism, o n the one hand, and nihilism, o n the other. Violence against self and o thers b o r n of religious fundamental ism and despera t ion stalks the world. "Cutting" and o ther forms of self-injury, teenage suicide, retreats into the fantasy world of drugs, altered states of consciousness and nihilistic self-absorption—all are commonplace . At the same time, and often in t h e same ne ighborhoods , it is possible to find people wi th "affluenza" in close proximity wi th those suffering t h e effects of poverty and disease. While many have access to computers and the Internet , o thers can barely read and write.

Varieties of religious faith and practice are n o w taken for granted in many places. Interfaith dialogue and respect were on the increase until September 11,2001. In some places, 9 /11 spurred o n these efforts. In many other places, interfaith dialogue has given way to mutual suspicion and recrimination. This is a very fragile and turbulent t ime for people w h o believe in peace, ecumenism, coexistence, tolerance, and good neighborli-

WINTER 2005 367

PASTORAL COUNSELING AS FAITHFUL PRACTICE


ness. Atrocities commit ted against m e m b e r s of o ther religions in "ethnic cleansing" operat ions are coming to light in Europe and other unexpected locations. Targeted killings of high-profile persons w h o appear in the eyes of some radical fundamentalists to have in some way violated their sacred faith are chilling reminders of the lengths to which some will go in defense of their religious values.

Following widespread d i senchan tmen t wi th first civilian and t hen milita ry regimes in various African and o ther so-called "Third World" countr ies tha t promised independence , freedom, redempt ion , liberation, revolution, and progress, postcolonial discourses are increasingly critical of the neocolonialist governments and societies tha t emerged. Civil society cont inues to be nonpar t i san if no t completely apolitical and deeply skeptical of calls for "democracy" and "freedom," especially w h e n they emana te from powerful, militaristic forces.

The need for renewed forms of pastoral counsel ing that e m b o d y values of communa l as well as personal well-being is clear. The characteristics of such n e w forms of pastoral counsel ing are conta ined in a descr ipt ion of pastoral care I first wrote in 1993 and revised slightly in 2003. The descript ion is as follows:

Pastoral care consists of helping activities, participated in by people who recognize a transcendent dimension to human life, which, by the use of verbal and non-verbal, direct or indirect, literal or symbolic modes of communication aim at preventing stress, relieving anxiety or facilitating persons coping with anxieties. Pastoral care seeks to foster people's growth as full human beings together with the development of ecologically and socio-politically holistic communities in which all persons may live humane lives.1

In my view, pastoral counseling, which in essence involves intensive psychotherapeut ic and theological a t tent ion to individuals and small groups, needs to be set wi thin a framework of such pastoral care. Pastoral counsel ing can be compared to surgical intervention, while pastoral care functions as communi ty healthcare. Pastoral counsel ing is an intensifying and focusing of t h e general skills and aims of pastoral care u p o n an individual or small g roup of persons-in-relation. Pastoral counseling, then, needs to be related to the wider ministry of pastoral care as framework and context. Pastoral counsel ing is premised u p o n a recognit ion of transcen-

EMMANUEL Y. LARTEY

dence, which is a way of affirming that it has to do wi th spirituality, significance, s t ructures of meaning, and faith. In exploring this further it is instructive to pay a t tent ion to different ways in which the adjective pastoral is used to qualify and illuminate the na ture of t h e counsel ing tha t is o n offer th rough pastoral counseling.

In spite of protests from practi t ioners and teachers, by far the mos t c o m m o n unders tand ing that seems to be evoked by t h e expression is that it is counsel ing of or by o rda ined clergypersons. Here pastoral counsel ing m e a n s counsel ing of pastors or, simply put, talking wi th pastors to he lp t h e m wi th their problems. Along similar lines it is unde r s tood as counseling by pastors, or pastors talking with persons about their personal , family, or relational problems. Howard Clinebell describes pastoral counseling as "the utilization by clergy of counsel ing and psychotherapeut ic m e t h o d s to enable individuals, couples and families to handle their personal crises and problems in living constructively." 2 In this way of under s t and ing pastoral counseling, t h e focus is o n t h e o n e w h o receives or else gives t h e counseling, namely, the pastor. This "clerical" paradigm cont inues to shape the practice of pastoral counsel ing in many places.

Such pastoral counseling takes religious issues seriously. Exploring and analyzing faith development, taking religious histories, and gauging theological acuity are important features of it. For some pastoral counselors, religious verbiage indicates the pathological or transferential material that is the focus of therapeutic work. That is to say, religion has a place in the transference and countertransference between counselor and client, the exploration of which is crucial for effective therapy, For others, faith-talk, w h e n properly and directly at tended to, can help the therapeutic process move forward in helpful ways. In either case, though in very different ways, issues of faith are not dismissed. Instead, there is a serious engagement and at tempt to integrate theology with psychology, bo th in diagnosis and in treatment.

However, religion not only is notor iously difficult to define bu t also hard to categorize. As such, s o m e w h o wish to retain the designat ion pastoral counseling as demarcat ing a religious interest seek to include wi thin it any mat ters of faith or ul t imate concern and no t merely religious affiliat ion. 3 This approach seeks to address the fact tha t many w h o "believe do no t belong" to any religious communi ty . 4 Moreover, various part icipants in communi t ies of faith hold wha t may be descr ibed as unconvent ional or u n o r t h o d o x beliefs. Pastoral counsel ing o n these t e rms would include any

WINTER 2005 369


and all mat ters of faith and ult imate concern, or "spirituality," however defined or described. In general, the clerical paradigm has b e e n criticized as being overly individualistic and not sufficiently in t une wi th the plurifor-mity and unofficial na ture of m u c h pastoral counseling.

Anothe r way of looking at pastoral counsel ing is to see it as arising out of and occurr ing wi thin a communi ty of faith. In this view, pastoral counseling is communi ty counsel ing tha t is engaged in, by, and wi thin community. The whole commun i ty is t h e counselor and individual counselors see themselves as representat ives of the communi ty . Here teamwork and collaboration are vital. Different persons have different forms of expert ise wi thin the communi ty , and they offer these skills in concer t and wi th consultat ion. A great example of this from Methodis t practice is the "class meeting," which was and remains a significant hallmark of Methodis t faith and practice. In fact, for Wesley, member sh ip of the Methodis t society was to be established by one 's n a m e be ing present in a cur ren t class book. Class meet ings capture crucial e lements of early church Christianity, such as personal g rowth th rough and wi th in the context of loving fellowship, accountabil i ty for Christ ian s tewardship and discipleship, "bear[ing] o n e another ' s burdens" (Gal. 6:2), and "speaking the t ru th in love" (Eph. 4:15). Wesley m a d e these c o m m u n a l g roups the touchs tone of faithful service, and they became the venues of m u c h nur tu re and pastoral counsel ing within t h e Methodis t scheme, Class meet ings, then, wi th faithful leadership and commit ted membersh ip , are examples of pastoral counsel ing within communi t ies of faith. Recapturing t h e spirit of communi ty wi th in t h e practice of pastoral counseling, as early Me thod i sm did, is a con temporary challenge well wor th a t tending to . 5

Faithful through Liminality and Uncertainty Two other approaches to pastoral counsel ing seem to m e to offer m u c h of value to faithful practice in the midst of the liminality, uncertainty, and multiplicity of o u r t imes.

In the first approach pastoral counsel ing is envisaged and practiced as counsel ing for t h e whole person-in-community. The pass ion of pastoral counselors w h o envision their practice in these t e rms is for what I call "relational holism." The aim of their charge is not t h e isolated, tough, self-directed, self-regulated individual of Enl igh tenment rationalism but ra ther emotionally intelligent persons w h o are in touch with themselves, relate


EMMANUEL Y. LARTEY

effectively and compassionately wi th others , and seek the well-being of whole communit ies . The genius is learning to relate well wi th self and others . These counselors d o no t work in isolation. They respectfully engage the expert ise and practice of o ther heal thcare professionals and expect also in these teams to be t reated in the same way. Mat ters of faith and belief are impor tan t to t h e m no t as imposi t ions from wi thou t b u t as emanat ions from wi th in persons in relation with a self-giving and responsive God. Matters of faith are n o t solely the preserve of active part icipants in communities of faith. Whoever wishes to p o n d e r their life c i rcumstances th rough lenses of significance may find help and suppor t from pastoral counselors . The desire is to help persons find internal and in terpersonal wholeness . In this day and age many people seek this wholeness b u t d o no t find it because almost everyone is t rying to sell t h e m a p roduc t wi th their own s t amp o n it. Pastoral counsel ing that aims at p romot ing relational holism eschews any at tempts to make people after our o w n image. Rather, t h e skills acquired by the counselor enable her or h im to accompany persons o n their o w n journeys in ques t of personal wholeness .

Here an impor tan t distinction be tween "individual" and "person" may be helpful. The t e rm individual derives from the idea tha t there exists a unit-of-life substance (e.g., t he atom) that cannot be subdivided. In society, t h e individual is tha t unit—the smallest uni t of society. O n the o ther hand, t h e mean ing of person derives from relationship. The Zulu saying "A person is a pe rson by reason of o ther persons" captures this sense beautifully, We b e c o m e persons from before the t ime of our b i r th th rough an interactive process wi th o ther persons . N o o n e achieves holistic deve lopment wi thout t h e challenges and joys of in terpersonal interaction. As such, unlike individual, person is a relational term. Many pastoral counselors have found a combina t ion of the psychodynamic Object Relations Theories, the socially engaged theor ies of Family Systems therapies, and t h e sociohistorical ideas of Narrat ive Therapy useful in responding to realities and challenges of our social na ture as persons .

Pastoral counseling that aims at facilitating the growth of whole communi t ies does so th rough journeying with persons as they navigate t h e deep waters of internalized oppression, societal devaluing, and cultural denigration. Pastoral counseling in quest of relational holism develops out of models of illness, disease, and deprivation but also draws from the wells of wisdom, strength, and courage found in communi t ies tha t have under-

WINTER 2005 371


gone t rauma and hardship. Wholeness and holiness go together. For Wesley, holiness is a social concept, not merely a narrowly individual achievement. An impor tant shift is taking place in psychotherapeut ic and psychological studies from an exclusive focus o n pathology to more s tudy of h u m a n strengths and virtues. In the end, there needs to be more balance so tha t we benefit from both. As Daniel Schipani has argued, "As providers of a special form of pastoral care, pastoral counselors are primarily concerned with helping people live more wisely in the light of G o d as they face life challenges and struggles." 6

In Grea t Britain there is a decidedly secular usage of the te rm pastoral counseling, which may seem strange bu t which offers m u c h in the climate we have b e e n describing. The t e rm is used wi thin educat ional circles. Pastoral Care as used in schools in Britain a t tends to four d imens ions of s tudents ' lives:

• Discipline and order • Welfare and personal well-being • Curr iculum and academic achievement • Adminis t rat ion and organizat ion

Though it may deal wi th "spirituality," pastoral care in this setting has no th ing overtly to d o wi th religion or religious belief. Teachers, tutors, guidance and career counselors, academic advisors, and supervisors, all have, a m o n g o ther things, a "pastoral" responsibili ty toward their s tudents . It is significant that t h e t e rm pastoral has b e e n retained, allowing it to be reframed so tha t its essential functional referent is b rought out. Pastoral refers not so m u c h to "who is doing it" bu t to "what is d o n e and how." O n this view, pastoral counsel ing is counsel ing that p romotes or enables well-being, good order, disciplined living, and achieving of potential in a well-s t ructured envi ronment .

There is someth ing of d e e p theological, contextual , and operat ional significance in these last two approaches to pastoral counsel ing that I wan t to explore further.

First, t he concerns of pastoral counsel ing need no t be narrowly parochial. In this day and age, pastoral counsel ing needs to rise above being merely an inner dialogue be tween pe r sons of t h e same faith or a t tempts to recruit along faith lines. Anyone, regardless of religious tradit ion or t h e lack of it, should find s o m e benefit from t h e careful, thoughtful, practice of pastoral counseling. This means that pastoral counselors need a


EMMANUEL Y. LARTEY

multifaith or ienta t ion that is familiar wi th different faiths in a nonthrea t -ening, nondefensive manner . Pastoral counselors need to be able to be respectful of all faiths n o mat ter h o w different they may be . A story is told of a zealous Methodis t dragging a young lady to Mr. Wesley for wear ing bracelets and other fine jewelry on her hands . His expecta t ion was that Wesley, k n o w n for his fiery preaching against excessive self-decoration and flowery adornments , would have a word of censure for this woman . We are told that Wesley looked d o w n from his horse at the young lady and observed, "What beautiful h a n d s you have!"

Second, pastoral counseling in this context lends itself bo th to the sacred, or religious, and the secu la r - the unexpectedly sacred as well as the "holy" secular. Pastoral counseling in the current envi ronment needs to be at h o m e with and recognize t ranscendence in various forms. An age of multiplicity needs the flexibility of a faith that recognizes G o d in unexpected spaces and places. Taking faith seriously requires a t tent ion to theology and h o w it has developed in particular people 's experience. It also means attent ion to unconvent ional and unchar ted forms of religious experience—and secular experience that is invested with sacred value. The expertise that pastoral counselors br ing will be that of exploring the significance of conscious and unconscious ideas, images, and relationships. These will include overtly religious symbols as well as nonreligious and secular ones .

Third, the forms of pastoral counseling that will be relevant in our current context will make respectful dialogue with and be tween a wide range of religious and nonreligious persons possible. I have gained much th rough studying and living closely with persons of Islamic faith. The w i sdom of mystics like Khalil Gibran, Rabindranath Tagore, and the Dalai Lama, a m o n g others, have illuminated my own journey as well as those of many other Christians. In the ques t for wise living, we mus t acknowledge that persons from many different religious faiths have made very significant contr ibut ions. A rich and broad literature of the wisdom of the ages drawn from many different religious faiths could enrich the theory and practice of pastoral counseling, if the practit ioners could rise above exclusive wedded-ness to particular psychologies, theologies, and traditions. Pastoral counseling needs an interfaith or ientat ion of respect and interaction.

It is instructive that the Gospels por t ray Jesus as having m u c h to say in c o m m e n d a t i o n of the faith of non-Jews, even of despised Samari tans and Romans (e.g., t he Canaani te w o m a n in Matt. 15:21-28; the Roman centur ion

WINTER 2005 373



in Luke 7:1-10; the Samari tan leper in Luke 17:11-19, w h o was the only o n e of the ten w h o re tu rned thanks for his healing). Jesus ' sharpes t rebukes were reserved for those of his o w n faith (the Scribes and Pharisees) w h o refused to recognize G o d outs ide of their own narrow schemes.

Fourth, pastoral counseling now mus t cont inue to emphasize relation-ality above technique and belief. Along with a theological rediscovery of the richness of the doctr ine of the Trinity has b e e n a realization that a more adequate way of talking of the "Persons" of the Godhead is to talk of "relations." God the Blessed Trinity is a movement of relations that interpenetrate and interact within and among each other. The language of relations is very dear to the hear t of pastoral counselors because so much of our practice has to d o with exploring the impact of past and present significant relat ionships u p o n our emotional and psychological health and well-being today. There is thus much to be gained by exploring wha t is meant by relat ions within God for learning about relations a m o n g and within h u m a n beings created in the image of God. A hallmark of pastoral counseling in our new circumstances today must be a deeper and more thoughtful theological analysis. Pastoral counseling cannot and must not merely be a sprinkling of a psychological baby with cold theological water or the overlaying of a thin veneer of shallow theology u p o n a psychological product.

Fifth, pastoral counsel ing n o w has to be or ien ted toward a balance be tween a "disease" mode l and a "health and strength" model . So m u c h of t h e discipline of pastoral counsel ing has followed the disease mode l e m b e d d e d in medical practice. As wi th psychology the main interest has b e e n in diagnosis and t rea tment of pathology. While this has clearly b e e n valuable and will cont inue to be so, there is growing recognit ion of t h e impor tance of t h e m o r e "positive psychology" that s tudies strength, vir tue, and ability. The cultivation of vir tues and s t rengths has long been a practice associated with spiritual direction. Spirituality has t ended in the direction of the practices that empower and enhance s t reng thened relations wi th t h e divine. As Len Sperry has argued in Transforming Self and Community, much of value could result from an integrative approach that draws together the practices of spiritual direction, moral educat ion, and pastoral counsel ing. 7

Sixth, pastoral counsel ing as argued above increasingly draws u p o n a rich and varied theological heritage. Pastoral counsel ing needs to be theologically astute in a t tempt ing consciously and unconsciously to mirror God 's presence in the world, which is framed in Christ ian unders tand ing

EMMANUEL Y, LARTEY

as self-giving (kenotic), self-effacing, unobtrusive, nonthrea tening , and life-giving. "Secular" pastoral counsel ing in particular holds potent ial for such mirroring. In recognit ion of the G o d who , t hough self-disclosing, invites all h u m a n s to "search for G o d and perhaps grope for h im and find him— though indeed he is no t far from each o n e of us" (Acts 17:27), pastoral counsel ing may by its very practice engage in such invitational practice. God ' s presence in the world is subtle and often unrecognized or inadequately celebrated. Similarly, the most effective forms of care and counseling are unannounced . It seems to be the way of t h e Holy Spirit to w o o and lure ra ther than to overwhelm and compel. The G o d "in [whom] we live and move and have our being" (Acts 17:28) does no t s eem anxious to constant ly make her presence felt overtly. In Christ G o d gives God ' s self to humani ty in faith and trust tha t the divine self-giving will eventually be discovered. Pastoral counsel ing mirrors such self-giving love.

Seventh, now more t han ever pastoral counsel ing needs to take persons and contexts seriously. As we learn just h o w m u c h we are impacted by the contexts in which we live and grow, we recognize the need for pastoral counselors to be cultural analysts if our practice is to be of any significance for the persons and communi t ies in which we practice, It is as pastoral counselors become aware of and sensitive to t h e changing cultural circumstances at work within and a round our clients tha t we b e c o m e bet ter able to be authentically present wi th them. The world, as it were, is closing in o n us in the global village. As the West has influenced o thers wi th language and cultural products , so are we n o w subject to the influences that exist and arise from different regions of t h e world. Potentially we are human ized by empath ic relations wi th all humankind , n o mat ter how different culturally and ethnically. As it was for Wesley, the world indeed is our parish, whe re we bo th teach and learn.

Emmanuel Y. Lartey is Professor of Pastoral Theology, Care, and Counseling at Candler School of Theology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia.

Endnotes 1. Emmanuel Y. Lartey, In Living Color: An Intercultural Approach to Pastoral Care and Counseling (London & New York: Jessica Kingsley Press, 2003), 30-31. 2. Howard Clinebell, "Pastoral Counselling," in A Dictionary of Pastoral Care, ed.

WINTER 2005 375



Alastair V. Campbell (London: SPCK, 1987), 198. 3. See, for example , J. Fosket t and M. Jacobs , "Pastoral Counsel l ing," in Handbook of Counseling in Britain, ed. by Windy Dryden , et. al. (London: Tavistock/Routledge, 1989). 4. Grace Davie, Religion in Britain since 1945: Believing without Belonging (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994); Gordon Lynch, After Religion: Generation X and the Search for Meaning (London: Darton, Longman, and Todd, 2002). 5. See Michael D. Henderson, John Wesley's Class Meeting: A Model for Making Disciples (Nappanee, Indiana: Francis Asbury Press, 1997). 6. Daniel S. Schipani , The Way of Wisdom in Pastoral Counseling (Elkhart, Indiana: Institute of Mennonite Studies, 2003), 29. 7. Len Sperry, Transforming Self and Community: Revisioning Pastoral Counseling and Spiritual Direction (Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 2002).

Professional Pastoral Counseling in the United Methodist Mode

M I C H A E L D . P O T T S

Adiscussion of professional pastoral counseling in the United Methodis t mode needs to begin with an unders tanding of the biblical and histor

ical context out of which pastoral care and pastoral counseling as we have come to know t h e m have evolved. The Dictionary of Pastoral Care and Counseling defines pastoral care as "the ministry of oversight and nur tu re offered by a religious communi ty to its members , including acts of discipline, support , comfort and celebration." Pastoral Counsel ing (upper case P, upper case C) is defined as "a specialized type of pastoral care offered in response to individuals, couples or families." 1 For purposes of this article, Pastoral Counsel ing is defined as a particular type of pastoral care offered by the communi ty of faith th rough designated persons to a specific segment of the community.

Pastoral Care and Counseling in Historical Perspective The biblical mandate to care for one another as a ministry of oversight and nur ture derives from the Hebrew Scriptures and reflects the Semitic tradit ion to care for the stranger by treating the other as one would want to be treated. For Israel, failing to care for the stranger, the widow, the orphan, or the poor was considered a violation of bo th societal expectations and Israel's covenant wi th Yahweh, thus forfeiting an essential quality of their uniqueness as God 's chosen people. Israel must know that their God is "Lord of lords . . . w h o executes justice for the o rphan and the widow, and w h o loves the strangers" (Deut. 10:17-18). More than an act of altruistic reciprocity, showing love and mercy to the other was part of what it means to be the Chosen People, who care for those w h o suffer. In fact, for the prophets , one of the reasons for Israel's suffering was the loss of their unique identity, shown by their selfishness and their reluctance to care for o n e another.

The love and care that G o d required was the kind of love and care that G o d provided for the people of Israel from the beginning of t ime. The

QUARTERLY REVIEW VOLUME 25, NUMBER 4. WINTER 2005

377

PROFESSIONAL PASTORAL COUNSELING IN THE UNITED METHODIST MODE


psalmist likens this divine caring to a good shepherd w h o cares for his flock (Psalm 23). The adjective pastoral in pastoral counsel ing derives from this m e t a p h o r of a shepherd caring for his flock.

In t h e Hebrew Bible, pastoral care is seen as a manda te from G o d to t h e people of G o d to be like good shepherds to the stranger and the less fortunate in the same way that G o d shepherds Israel. This is part of t h e covenant be tween G o d and the people and is a characteristic of wha t it means to be God ' s people . Failure to care breaks the covenant and negative consequences follow.

The N e w Testament perspect ive o n pastoral care is b o t h t ranscendent and incarnational. The N e w Testament cont inues Old Testament not ions that caring, or love (agape), originates from G o d and that to love ano the r is of God. The Johann ine corpus states repeatedly that we should love o n e ano ther as G o d has loved us. "Beloved, since G o d loved us so much, we also ought to love o n e ano ther [I]f we love o n e another , G o d lives in us, and his love is perfected in us" (1 John 4:11-12). For the Apost le Paul, this love is t ranscendent , calling us n o t only to love those in our own communi ties bu t also, like Christ, to be willing to en te r into t h e suffering of all w h o "are weary and are carrying heavy burdens" (Matt. 11:28).

Pastoral care in t h e N e w Testament is incarnat ional in that h u m a n suffering and even dea th are seen no t as God ' s p u n i s h m e n t or abandonm e n t of h u m a n beings b u t as the c o m m o n denomina to r of the h u m a n condi t ion into which G o d in Christ en tered as a willing act of compass ion to r edeem t h e world and its suffering. Thus, Paul could exclaim,

Who will separate us from the love of Christ? Will hardship, or distress, or persecution, or famine, or nakedness, or sword?... No, in all these things we are more than conquerors through him who loved us. For I am convinced that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor rulers, nor things present, nor things to come, nor powers, nor height, nor depth, nor anything else in all creation, will be able to separate us from the love of God in Christ Jesus our Lord. (Rom. 8:35,37-39)

The N e w Testament provides a further d imens ion to wha t it means to care from a "pastoral" perspective. O n e mus t be in a posi t ion of oversight or leadership wi thin the communi ty in o rder to offer care and counsel from a pastoral perspective. Jesus descr ibed himself as the G o o d Shepherd (John 10:11-18). The resurrected Jesus instructs Peter to "feed my sheep"

MICHAEL D. POTTS

(John 21:17). Since a shepherd is not one of the sheep, these inst ruct ions imply that Jesus has set apar t Peter and given h im the responsibili ty and author i ty for oversight and nur ture .

This same act of intentionally sett ing apar t cer tain leaders for pastoral care is evident in Acts 6. Here the communi ty sets apar t S tephen and o thers to oversee the daily dis t r ibut ion of food to the widows. They were to be "of good standing, full of the Spirit and of wisdom" (Acts 6:3). Clearly, caring for o thers in need had become an accepted and expected function of the communi ty of faith. Leaders were to be set apar t for overseeing the care and ensur ing that it was d o n e in an intentionally pastoral manner .

A n o t h e r implication from Jesus' injunction to Peter and the disciples is tha t pastoral care requires intentionality. It was unde r s tood tha t all bapt ized Christians are b rought into the suffering and resurrect ion of Jesus Christ and are thereby to be caring toward o thers as Jesus himself was. M e m b e r s of the communi ty are expected to engage in everyday acts of k indness and caring. However, caring from a pastoral perspect ive requires an addit ional intentionali ty and willingness to en te r into t h e suffering of ano ther for the sake and well-being of the o ther by s o m e o n e w h o represents the communi ty of faith as well as the presence of Christ . Pastoral care is more t han acts of k indness or sharing in t h e c o m m o n suffering of others. It is a willingness to enter into the suffering of ano the r wi th the same intentionali ty as that of Jesus. Fur thermore , it is to en te r into the sufferings of o thers from the perspective of a shepherd of the flock w h o has b e e n given a posi t ion of leadership by the commun i ty of faith.

By the third century, the church had b e c o m e more centralized and pastoral care fell more and more to the clergy. "Pastoral minis t ry was delegated by t h e bishop to deacons, and, subsequently, to presbyters, whose task became that of gather ing the flock, keeping it unified, and protect ing its m e m b e r s from threat." 2 Dur ing the next several centuries , the church assimilated the prevailing culture and increasingly became more diverse in its membersh ip . Conce rn for clarity, or thodoxy, and right th inking became the focus of the church. Pastoral care became largely instruct ional and didactic. Caring from a pastoral perspect ive came to include teaching or "counseling" others in right religious practices and guiding t h e m in right moral behavior.

Over the centuries, the function of pastoral care and counseling in the life of the church became known as cura animarium, or "cure/care of the

WINTER 2003 379

PROFESSIONAL PASTORAL COUNSELING IN THE UNITED METHODIST M O D E


soul." The phrase care of the soul sums u p the work of the office of the priest, which includes leading worship, preaching, visiting, and organizing parish life. All acts of ministry (including pastoral care and counseling) have as their ultimate aim the salvation and perfection of persons unde r God . 3

The Reformation began as a pastoral-care movemen t in response to t h e overly didactic rigidity of the medieval Roman Church. Influenced by b o t h t h e human i sm of the Renaissance and his internal struggle wi th his o w n r ighteousness , Mar t in Luther was dis turbed by t h e excesses he experienced o n a t r ip to Rome. His identification wi th and compass ion for the poo r and disenfranchised moved h im to p e n his famous Ninety-Five Theses. For Luther, salvation is n o t a result of r ight th inking or religious practices. Rather, Christ becomes present to us in and th rough the relationships const i tut ing the commun i ty of faith—a view that is close to the relational no t ion of pastoral care found in the N e w Testament . John McNeill notes that t h e G e r m a n Reformation had its beginning in "matters concern ing the cure of souls." 4 Indeed, it is from t h e Lutheran tradit ion tha t we have retained the word pastor as descriptive of the clergy.

Like Luther, John Calvin began wi th a profound concern for the people. H e o p e n s his magisterial Institutes of the Christian Religion wi th these words: "Without knowledge of self there is n o knowledge of God." 5

While shar ing Luther ' s relational perspect ive o n salvation, Calvin approaches pastoral care and counsel ing more in the traditional way of "cure of the soul," in which right th inking and practice were codified as doct r ine and practices necessary to salvation.

The Dictionary of Pastoral Care and Counseling summar izes the influences of t h e Reformation o n pastoral care and counsel ing as follows:

The confessional as institution was abandoned and the pastor emerged as a central figure. However, the pastor's ordination did not set him apart (as it did for the Roman Catholic priest). A married clergyman emphasized his identification at every point with his people. Moreover, though the primary acts of care were preaching and the communion, the message of reconciliation symbolized in these events was felt to be central to the life of the entire community. Pastors and laypersons alike were mutually to comfort, correct, and sustain each other. 6

Thus, over t h e centuries , the biblical m a n d a t e to care for one ano the r

MICHAEL D. POITS

WINTER 2005 381

became wha t we today call "pastoral care and counseling." This same practice also has deep roots in Methodism, beginning with John Wesley.

It could be said that John Wesley was to the Anglican Church of his t ime wha t Mart in Luther was to the Roman Catholic Church of the s ixteenth century. Both Luther and Wesley were dr iven by their own search for holiness and were sensitized to the suffering of o thers th rough their own experiences of suffering. Nei ther sought to start a n e w church; they strove only to be faithful to G o d and to care for the needs of God ' s people . In this sense, the Methodis t movement , m u c h like Luther 's , began as a pastoral-care concern for the poor and disenfranchised, motivated ou t of compass ion born of pain.

To unders tand wha t Pastoral Counsel ing in the Uni ted Methodis t m o d e might look like, it helps to start wi th John Wesley's life exper ience and his role in the emerging Methodis t movement in England. In John Wesley and the Methodists, Cyril Davey recounts an event in the life of the y o u n g Wesley that was pivotal to his self-understanding and his approach to ministry, including his practice of pastoral care.

When he was five there was a near-tragedy. The rectory caught fire and, though the rest of the family managed to escape, John was unable to get down the burning staircase from the top storey. He dragged a chair to the window, climbed on it, called for help and waited calmly until he was lifted down. For once his mother's austerity broke down, as they all prayed thankfully together in the farmyard. Turning to Scripture for the right phrase, she thanked God for the "brand plucked from the burning" and assured the small boy that God had saved him "for a purpose." 7

This was arguably a t ransforming event for John Wesley. Throughout his life Wesley had a passion—almost an obsession—to make the mos t of his life as G o d intended. At the same time, he had compassion, b o r n of his o w n pain, for those w h o suffered. We know that people w h o have gone th rough traumatic, life-threatening exper iences have an urgency about their lives. O n the one side, they b e c o m e more focused and intent ional about the direction of their lives, many t imes to t h e po in t of be ing obsessive. O n the o ther side, this kind of exper ience can lead to identification with those w h o suffer.

Wesley's concern and compass ion for the disenfranchised, the poor,



t h e sick, and the prisoner, while at the same t ime seeking after holiness, can be seen in his involvement wi th t h e Holy Club dur ing his days at Oxford. Wesley regularly me t wi th a g roup of l ike-minded friends for Bible study, bu t t h e g roup also visited the poor, cared for t h e sick, organized classes for poo r children, visited prisons, and s tood wi th t h e criminals w h e n they were hanged.

From the beginning, then, Wesley saw that the pursuit of the holy life required a communi ty that would offer support , accountability, and a space for self-reflection. It was here that he first learned what would later become one of the principal qualities of Pastoral Counsel ing in the United Methodis t mode, namely, a communi ty of faith found in small groups dedicated to seeking holiness.

John Wesley's genius lies in his un ique combina t ion of passion, compassion, and pragmatism. His passion for holiness and his pastoral compass ion for o thers were firmly g rounded in t h e biblical not ion tha t G o d is the originator and initiator of all care and compassion. Wesley's unders tand ing of salvation as a process allowed for his pastoral compass ion to be bo th t ranscenden t and incarnational. H e mainta ined the dignity of t h e individual by insisting that n o o n e is beyond the grace of G o d and tha t each person has a par t to play in his or her o w n salvation. For Wesley, we are part icipants wi th G o d th rough Christ in the process of salvation. Wesley's pragmat ism is reflected in his focus o n the process toward holiness, n o t only the content of belief. Therefore, we could move beyond the walls of the church into the world to mee t the people whe re they were on their journey of faith, regardless of t h e ci rcumstance.

Pragmatically adapt ing from his own experience, Wesley knew tha t it was in the context of a relat ionship tha t an act of care becomes "holy ground" where t h e t ranscenden t G o d becomes manifest in the here-and-now. It is t h e communi ty of faith tha t incarnates the t ranscendent G o d th rough relat ionships in which the divine encoun te r can occur. For Wesley, compass ion for o thers was the essence of community . Car ing for ano the r was not an option. N o t to care was to violate the very pu rpose for the communi ty ' s existence. Thus, for followers of Wesley, there can be n o pastoral care or counsel ing apart from a commun i ty of faith.

Much of Wesley's later ministry was abou t equ ipp ing and sett ing apar t leadership for his movement . Wesley unders tood tha t the communi ty of faith not only was to be a safe, suppor t ive space for his followers bu t also

MICHAEL D. POTTS

had the responsibility to provide and equip those w h o had the gifts and grace to go into the world to "offer t h e m Christ." M u c h like Acts 6, Wesley's leaders were approved by the communi ty to be of good character, "going o n to perfection," and intent ional about going into t h e world to mee t the needs of God ' s people.

Professional Pastoral Counseling and the Church The Uni ted Methodis t m o d e of practicing Pastoral Counsel ing embodies Wesley's pragmatic compass ion in four respects. (1) A n act of pastoral compass ion is at the same t ime bo th t ranscenden t and incarnational. (2) An act of pastoral compass ion is uniquely a function of the communi ty of faith. (3) A n act of pastoral compass ion is a function of minis t ry directed to those outs ide the commun i ty of faith w h o are less for tunate and are alienated from society. (4) Pastoral care and counsel ing are practiced intent ionally by the equipping and author iz ing persons to perform acts of compassion o n behalf of the community .

The "professional" Pastoral Care and Counsel ing movemen t in t h e Uni ted States began with A n t o n Boisen (1876-1965) w h o in 1925 brought ministers and theological s tudents into the menta l hospitals to provide pastoral care to the mental ly ill. In so doing, Boisen applied t h e clinical (or case-study) m e thod of learning developed in medic ine and social work so as to learn t h e art of ministry from "living h u m a n documents ." A n act of pastoral care was recorded by each s tuden t and t hen shared in a g roup of peers to be reflected u p o n for personal and professional learning purposes . By the 1950s, the clinical pastoral educat ion movemen t of applying the action-reflection mode l of learning to ministry moved beyond Boisen's own psychiatric hospi tal into inst i tut ions such as pr isons, general hospitals, parishes, and training schools. M u c h like the pastoral-care movement s of b o t h Luther and Wesley, con tempora ry professional Pastoral Counsel ing was bo rn ou t of a pastoral concern for the disenfranchised (especially the mental ly ill), motivated ou t of compass ion b o r n of pain. It is clear tha t the clinical m e t h o d as in t roduced and applied to minis t ry by Boisen fits well wi th Wesley's pragmatic compassion, men t ioned above.

Those w h o have b e e n designated and equ ipped as pastoral counselors intentionally to offer care and counsel to specific segments of t h e community o n behalf of the church e m b o d y the biblical manda t e to care for the stranger. For a United Methodis t , the practice of Pastoral Counsel ing is first

WINTER 2005 383


of all a minis t ry of t h e faith communi ty tha t ex tends into the world to reach persons w h o o therwise may no t be reached. Indeed, there can be n o Pastoral Counsel ing apar t from t h e commun i ty of faith. It is the community of faith that gives any act of care and counsel its "pastoral" quality. Just as a shepherd wi thou t a flock cannot shepherd , so a pastoral counselor cannot offer a pastoral perspect ive apart from t h e communi ty of faith that calls and sets h im or her apart for ministry. For instance, w h e n a pastor refers a par ishioner to a professional pastoral counselor, it is an act of shar ing in ministry. This is especially applicable for persons w h o are seeking help wi th addict ions, marital conflict, or family difficulties, since there are obvious moral and spiritual c o m p o n e n t s to these kinds of difficulties. The professional pastoral counselor shares wi th all clergy the un ique pastoral perspect ive o n t h e helping process that set-apart ministry brings. However, each pe r son in that process makes a un ique cont r ibut ion to the faith journey of the parishioner.

Professional pastoral counselors work in a variety of settings that usually are no t a t tached to a local church or church agency. However, pastoral counselors are not just a sub-specialty of allied heal th professionals. Their work has a quality that dist inguishes it from other helping professions. The word pastoral suggests an aspect of "guiding" in t h e counseling relationship. Directly or indirectly, t h e ident i ty of o n e w h o is "pastoral" denotes an author i ty to provide moral and spiritual guidance. Professional pastoral counselors are in a posi t ion to provide shepherd ing to persons w h o may o therwise have n o involvement in the church.

O n e way to unde r s t and professional Pastoral Counsel ing as an extension of the ministry of the faith commun i ty is to th ink of pastoral care and counsel ing as a con t inuum. It begins wi th the biblical manda t e for all bapt ized Christ ians to care for o n e another . All acts of compass ion d o n e by t h e church, whe the r as direct services or by way of a relationship, fall into this category. Activities such as dis tr ibut ing food to the needy, staffing clothing closets, and offering emergency assistance are examples of this level of pastoral care. Fur ther along t h e con t inuum, pastoral care becomes counseling, provided by designated lay and clergy o n behalf of the community of faith. Visiting persons in hospitals and nurs ing h o m e s are examples of this level of pastoral care and counseling. The next level comprises pastoral care and counsel ing provided primari ly by t h e clergy by vir tue of their ordinat ion and posi t ion as shepherd of a flock. Examples include pre-


MICH A FX D. POTTS

martial counseling; religious instruct ion about bapt i sm and t h e mean ing of church membership ; and the suppor t and guidance given at t imes of illness, funerals, weddings, or family crises. Professional Pastoral Counsel ing overlaps and extends the previous levels of pastoral counsel ing b u t can address more pervasive emot ional or relational concerns , such as mari tal and family therapy, grief counseling, and t h e diagnosis and treatm e n t of menta l disorders such as clinical depress ion and anxiety disorders.

O n e level of professional Pastoral Counsel ing tha t has emerged over t h e past twenty-five years is pastoral psychotherapy. Many professional pastoral counselors have m e t the educat ional and clinical s tandards to b e c o m e licensed as Licensed Professional Counse lors (LPC) or Licensed Marital and Family Counselors (LMFT) in their respective states. These l icensures allow professional pastoral counselors to d iagnose and t reat menta l disorders, thereby offering u n d e r their own l icensure long-term psychotherapy from a pastoral perspective.

Conclusion The Uni ted Methodis t professional pastoral counselor is characterized by faithfulness to the biblical manda t e to care for the stranger, whoever or wherever he or she may be, as well as by the passion to seek the Holy in the midst of relationships. Fur thermore , they live ou t Wesley's pragmatic compass ion th rough their clinical training by applying the best t echniques and theor ies borrowed from the behavioral sciences to acts of ministry. Pastoral counselors speak the languages of theology, medicine, and t h e social sciences in order to adapt and apply the G o o d N e w s to t h e ever-changing needs of t h e world.

Truly, the practice of Pastoral Counsel ing in the Uni ted Methodis t m o d e is one of living out t h e words of John Wesley w h e n he said of himself, "I look u p o n all the world as my parish This is the work which I know G o d has called me to do. And sure I am that His blessing a t tends it."8

Michael D. Potts is Co-director of Associates in Psychotherapy and Religion, Edmond, Oklahoma.

Endnotes 1. Dictionary of Pastoral Care and Counseling, Rodney J. Hun te r , gen. ed.

WINTER 2005 385

PROFESSIONAL PASTORAL COUNSELING IN THE UNITED METHODIST M O D E


(Nashville: Abingdon, 1990), 213, 849. 2. "Pastoral Care of t h e Congrega t ion ," in Dictionary of Pastoral Care and Counseling, 214. 3. "Cure of Souls," in Dictionary of Pastoral Care and Counseling, 122. 4. John T. McNeill, A History of Cure of Souls (New York: Harper, 1951), 163; quo ted in "Pastoral Counseling," Dictionary of Pastoral Care and Counseling, 838. 5. John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion I, vol. 20 of The Library of Christian Classics, ed. by John T. McNeill (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1967), 335. 6. Dictionary of Pastoral Care and Counseling, 839. 7. Cyril Davey./ofon Wesley and the Methodists (Nashville: Abingdon, 1985), 5-6. 8. John Wesley, The Bicentennial Edition of the Works of John Wesley (Nashville: Abingdon, 1984-), 25:616.

United Methodist Pastoral Counselors Reflect

/ asked three United Methodist pastoral counselors in active practice the following question: "What are the most important challenges and opportunities you experience as a United Methodist pastoral counselor in our world today?" Below are their reflections. - E d i t o r

R I C H A R D B R U E H L

The reflections below are informed by long exper ience in the field. I have b e e n involved in pastoral counsel ing as a professor at a major

divinity school, director of a pastoral counsel ing center, therapis t to pas tors and their families, training supervisor for a mul t i tude of pastoral-therapy s tudents , and independen t pract i t ioner of pastoral therapy. I have b e e n deeply involved in the broader life of the profession th rough the Amer ican Association of Pastoral Counselors at bo th national and regional levels.

Inevitably, these exper iences have shaped my thoughts o n t h e cur ren t topic. O the r s w h o have explored different par ts of t h e proverbial blind sages' e lephant will c o m m e n t quite differently.

The ongoing issue of the professional identity of pastoral therapists remains pivotal. Whatever ambiguity exists currently in the pastoral therapy role is affected by many factors, bo th cultural and pastoral/ theological . The cultural context in which we practice pastoral counseling and therapy today, powerfully influenced by managed-care organizations, has firmly established the n o r m of "medical necessity" for psychotherapy. Though in some ways this approach is a corrective to past insurance abuses, the wholesale assault u p o n the traditional practice of therapy cannot be ignored. In addit ion to the n o r m of medical necessity, the over-prescription of psychoactive drugs, the severe curtai lment of "approved" sessions, and impossible expectat ions of practitioners bo th reflect and shape the current cultural bias toward quick fixes and the n o r m of functionality. A byproduct of this emphasis, perhaps intentional, has been the devaluing of the possibility of healing th rough relationship u p o n which, bo th psychologically and theologically, pastoral therapy has been based.


387

UNITED METHODIST PASTORAL COUNSELORS REFLECT


Hence, the tradition of dep th soul-care, growth orientat ion, and transformative therapeut ic exper ience has b e e n unde r subtle bu t serious attack. In contrast to the current cynicism about any healing relationships, pastoral therapists have emphasized their value.

In t h e main, pastoral therapists have embraced the t ru th that life is not primarily an exper ience to be fixed bu t ra ther someth ing to be understood, deepened , and su r rounded by meaning. The awareness that genuine c h a n g e - a n internal shift of s ignif icance- takes place in its own fashion and o n its un ique t imetable appears in stark contrast to cultural norms.

The second major challenge to pastoral therapy is t h e effect of the burgeoning evangelical Christian movement in counseling, exemplified by "biblically based Chris t ian counseling." This approach appears to be relatively superficial as counselors in this t radi t ion t end to offer biblical prescript ions to persons in ways tha t are at worst repressive and at best avoidant w h e n it comes to genu ine therapeut ic encounter .

O n e could characterize this approach as "spiritual managed care." It t ends to ignore the complexity of the h u m a n psyche and to "solve" problems in wha t can easily b e c o m e moralistic and author i tar ian ways.

Finally, so-called "Christian" counseling seems to avoid the tension inherent in effective pastoral therapy be tween psychological sophistication and the use of theological and religious resources. This "holy ambiguity" is what pastoral therapists at their best have been willing to endure wi thout easy resolution. Tolerance of uncertainty has been our greatest gift to clients, churches, and culture. While a gift, t he willingness to steer a course be tween moralism and relativism can lead to misunders tanding and confusion.

O n e could hope , t hough no t naively, tha t t h e future will be long to those w h o perceive t h e n o r m for seeking effective pastoral therapy no t as a medical bu t as a psycho-spiritual necessity. Coun te r to those w h o feel the church should no t be in t h e "mental-health" business , pastoral therapists believe tha t we are providing genu ine pastoral services tha t are characterized by their un ique focus, appropr ia te boundar ie s and confidentiality, and endurance over t ime in ways tha t typical parish pastoral counsel ing cannot and should no t be.

Professional pastoral therapis ts have b e e n quietly learning and funct ioning for over fifty years. For a variety of reasons, the utilization of our knowledge by t h e church has b e e n spot ty and inconsistent . What follows is a list of oppor tuni t ies for applying the work of pastoral therapy to ministry.

RICHARD BRUEHL

• We should cont inue to develop pastoral counsel ing and therapy as a t rue "extension ministry" in par tnersh ip wi th traditional ministr ies for the benefit of a hur t ing world. Practically this means t h e encouragement of endorsement , the suppor t of endorsees , and the furtherance of specialized training for this ministry.

• Through its trained therapists, the church could b e c o m e a bast ion of non-market-driven therapy. We can hold ou t h o p e for t ransformation and healing rather t han simply focusing o n gett ing people to work o n Mondays . That this h o p e could be lost is a p resen t danger.

• Pastoral therapists have a great deal to offer parish ministers. O n e can conceive of an ongoing relationship be tween pastoral therapists and pastors that is preventative rather than corrective. Such endeavors would be focused u p o n promot ing healthy leadership for churches and o ther settings. Having engaged in a n u m b e r of such relationships over the years, I am convinced of the validity of the concept. Churches would d o well to suppor t such relationships financially and emotionally,

• Careful a t tent ion needs to be paid to the deve lopment in local communi ties of referral ne tworks for pastoral therapy. Such networks as n o w exist t end to be informal and haphazard. Problems of pastoral turnover are great. As a result, mos t annua l conferences and communi t i e s have only scratched the surface of the issue.

• The identification of models for the funding of pastoral counsel ing and therapy ministries is a great need. N o d o u b t m u c h exper ience exists t h roughou t the world, bu t this information is difficult to obta in and no t readily available to interested churches. Plans will have to be creative and realistic, honor ing the constraints of church budgets and liability issues. Significant research needs to be d o n e to codify parish models of pastoral therapy ministry. Progress o n these and o ther related issues will move the field of

pastoral therapy forward. However, at root the acceptance of t h e hard-won amalgam of pastoral identi ty and psychological sophist icat ion and training as a viable, legitimate minis t ry is crucial. At this point , wi th reference to the possibilities, the field of pastoral therapy remains in its infancy.

Richard Bruehl is Diplomate Pastoral Counselor in independent practice in Nashville, Tennessee.

WINTER 2005 389



W . V I C T O R M A L O Y

In 1976,1 m a d e the transi t ion from parish ministry to t h e ministry of pastoral counseling. Back then, pastoral counsel ing as a specialized

extension of ministry, wi th its o w n professional organizat ion (the American Associat ion of Pastoral Counse lors [AAPC]), had been in existence a scant twelve years. The field was marked by t h e energy and exciteme n t that accompanies a n e w venture . There was a s t rong sense a m o n g pastoral counselors tha t wha t they were doing was deeply relevant to society's needs and an impor tan t extens ion of t h e church's ministry.

In t h e first two decades of its professional existence, t h e field of pastoral counsel ing was domina ted by white, male, ordained clergy, many of w h o m for one reason or ano ther had n o t found a comfortable fit in parish ministry. Those first twenty years saw t h e fairly rapid growth of the discipline of pastoral counsel ing and of t h e ranks of those enter ing this n e w expression of ministry—the integrat ion of theology and psychology in providing counseling. Early on, t h e AAPC developed a certification process for those seeking to b e c o m e pastoral counselors . In addi t ion to a formal theological educat ion and ordinat ion in a denomina t ion , the applicant went th rough a r igorous training and supervis ion process tha t led to certification by the AAPC.

The training led to a professional identi ty that was relatively well defined. O n e was an ordained minister, recognized by one 's faith group, and had addit ional training to provide counsel ing from a theological and psychological perspective—and tha t t raining was certified by a professional pastoral counsel ing organization.

Importantly, many of those w h o first became pastoral counselors were United Methodis t ministers, and tha t t rend has cont inued. AAPC's first pres ident was a Uni ted Methodis t minister, as were a n u m b e r of subseq u e n t presidents , including myself and t h e association's current president .

Why should so many United Methodis t ministers be drawn to the specialized field of pastoral counsel ing and give leadership to the profession? I believe the reason lies in John Wesley's theological emphasis o n exper ience alongside Scripture, reason, and tradit ion and his passion for bringing the message of grace to the vulnerable and the marginalized.

Writing in t h e Virginia United Methodist Heritage, James Logan says it this way:

W. VICTOR MALOY

WINTER 2005 391

Wesley was consumed with this message of grace already working preve-niently in all people and universally available to all as justifying and sanctifying grace. This theology of grace was readily understood by the masses, even those with little or no educational background. It was a theology simple and yet experientially deep and probing. 1

Pastoral counseling is built u p o n the clinical pastoral-education movement , founded by A n t o n Boisen. Like Wesley, Boisen emphas ized experience th rough what he t e rmed "the s tudy of the living h u m a n document ." By tha t Boisen mean t that t h e way ministers could b e c o m e adep t at providing pastoral care was th rough the experience of providing care and t h e n reflecting on that exper ience. The training context that Boisen developed, no t unlike Wesley's field preaching, was general and psychiatric hospitals, where the dep th of h u m a n suffering would be exper ienced firsthand by those being t ra ined to b e c o m e ministers.

Therefore, our Wesleyan heritage, wi th its emphasis o n meet ing h u m a n suffering wherever it manifests itself, is a natural fit wi th pastoral counseling's emphasis o n br inging the message of grace in t h e context of the counsel ing room as people come to talk about their depression, anxiety, loss of faith, and alienation. It is a version of preaching in the streets, and in that way pastoral counsel ing is a natural expression of Wesleyan theology for t hose of us w h o are Uni ted Methodis t ministers .

The past two decades have seen a variety of changes wi th in the field of pastoral counseling. A growing n u m b e r of w o m e n have entered the field, along wi th a smaller n u m b e r of minor i ty persons . A n increasing n u m b e r of nonorda ined persons working in o ther mental-heal th fields have b e c o m e interested in learning to integrate the theological perspect ive into their counsel ing practice and in belonging to a professional organizat ion that represents tha t integration. In response , t h e AAPC has created a non-certified category of member sh ip for those seeking affiliation from o ther mental-heal th disciplines, and a certified category for those from o ther mental-health disciplines w h o have a formal theological educat ion b u t are not ordained.

The movement toward increased inclusiveness and pluralism has occas ioned the mos t significant challenge facing Uni ted Methodis t pastoral counselors today, n a m e l y defining and maintaining their professional identity as pastoral counselors. To some degree the issue of professional ident i ty is


W. Victor Maloy is Executive Director of the Virginia Institute of Pastoral Care and past president of the American Association of Pastoral Counselors.

Endnotes 1. James Logan, "Wesley's Theology and the Calvinist Challenge," Virginia United Methodist Heritage XXLX/2; 21. 2. Ibid.


an extension of the impact of pluralism o n religion and o n United Methodis ts generally in our p o s t m o d e r n society.

C o m m e n t s Logan, "Contemporary Uni ted Me thod i sm is confronted wi th a lack of clarity regarding its theological identi ty and missional purpose . Lay and clergy people alike are clamoring for an oppor tun i ty to reclaim their theological heri tage as Wesleyans and to apply the energy of tha t heri tage to t h e d e m a n d s of t h e p o s t m o d e r n society in which we live." 2

United Methodis t pastoral counselors wi tness this lack of clarity every day in our clients—an identi ty crisis p roduced by an increasingly shallow, media-driven culture. Opin ions are formed th rough sound bytes and fleeting images, feeding t h e assumpt ion that there should be quick, s imple solutions to life's mos t complex problems.

Fewer and fewer people w h o seek the help of pastoral counselors are rooted in a long-standing faith tradition. As a consequence , our clients have fewer faith resources to help t h e m unde r s t and and construct mean ing from their pain and thus to sustain them.

The pr imary challenge and oppor tun i ty before Uni ted Methodis t pastoral counselors today is to main ta in t h e clarity of our own professional identi ty as those w h o integrate theology and psychology, while helping clients find a greater sense of mean ing in their lives.

Pastoral counsel ing as practiced by Uni ted Methodis t s should be a reflection of wha t James Logan has called Wesley's evangelistic zeal, passion for the poor, organizational skills, and "catholic spirit."

A N N E ROSS STEWART

WINTER 2005 393

A N N E R O S S S T E W A R T

It is hard for me to see the con tempora ry si tuation as challenging only to Uni ted Methodis t pastoral counselors . In my cur ren t role as pres ident of

the Amer ican Association of Pastoral Counselors (AAPC), I have the opportuni ty to affirm and p romote the ministry of pastoral counsel ing in an ecumenical and interfaith envi ronment . Also, as an affiliate faculty m e m b e r of the Loyola College in Maryland 's Pastoral Counsel ing D e p a r t m e n t for the past twenty years, I have enjoyed being in a Jesuit school wi th a multi-faith, multicultural faculty and s tuden t body. Finally, as a pastoral counselor I have always been a par t of agencies wi th an interfaith staff, wi th Uni ted Methodis t churches host ing many of the counsel ing locations.

In recent m o n t h s I have been working with AAPC colleagues to define our mission and goals for 2005-2009. As we have looked at ways to p r o m o t e our profession and the practice of pastoral counsel ing and train t h e next generat ion of pastoral counselors, we have sought to identify the challenges and oppor tuni t ies before us. What we have found is tha t it will con t inue to be impor tan t to advocate the minis t ry of pastoral counseling, which integrates psychology, theology, and spirituality. Part of our strategic plan is to cont inue part icipating in the Commiss ion o n Ministry in Specialized Settings (COMISS) ne twork and to find ways to increase our visibility a m o n g endors ing denomina t ions and judicatories represented in our membersh ip . We are also working with o ther pastoral care and counseling cognate groups th rough the Council o n Collaboration to affirm c o m m o n s tandards of ethics and practice in our professions as chaplains and pastoral counselors.

Dur ing the past quadrennium, I served as the pastoral counselor const i tuent representative to the then Section of Chaplains and Related Ministries (now the United Methodis t Endorsing Agency) of the United Methodis t General Board of Higher Educat ion and Ministry (GBHEM). It has been good to know that the denomina t ion cont inues to suppor t and endorse the specialized ministry of pastoral counseling. In working with the United Methodis t Endorsing Agency, AAPC will cont inue to suppor t our ordained elders and deacons, as well as laypersons, w h o are called to the ministry of pastoral counseling. Respecting differing denominat ional polities while maintaining s tandards of credentialing cont inues to be a high value for AAPC. AAPC has welcomed a representative from the religious



endors ing body network to be a part icipant wi th the AAPC Certification Commit tee as o n e way of fostering mutual accountabili ty and dialogue.

One of the challenges that is facing pastoral counselors is the need to protect and promote our right to be providers of mental-health services for the general public. In the United States this means that pastoral counselors must meet state requirements for licensure. Pastoral counselors may be licensed as professional counselors, marriage and family therapists, or, in some cases, as social workers or psychologists. Only a few states have licenses for pastoral counselors per se. The good news about the requirement for licensure is that it protects the public, ensuring that consumers have highly trained professionals providing their counseling or therapy. The challenge for pastoral counselors is that legislation, regulations, and policies that affect the practice of pastoral counseling must be monitored in every state and the District of Columbia. Sometimes this means advocating/lobbying for the inclusion of certified pastoral counselors as states develop and change their legislative policies, as happened recently in the State of N e w York.

Uni ted Methodis t pastoral counselors share the challenge of letting our light shine more brightly so that the general public, faith and spiritual communi t ies , and mental-health and heal thcare providers recognize us as t rusted and respected colleagues.

The In ternet may help pastoral counselors gain greater recognition. While pastoral counselors still rely o n referrals from congregat ions and pastoral colleagues, there is the need to be available to t h e wider communi ties in which we live.

Many pastoral counselors have b e e n accepted o n "insurance panels" and are working with clients w h o found information about t hem on insurance websites, where they are listed as qualified service providers. Some pastoral counselors are also providing services for businesses through employee-assistance programs. A large challenge accompanying these newer opportuni t ies is the t ime-consuming paperwork of verifying and submit t ing insurance claims. For some pastoral counselors and clients, this hassle is no t wor th the effort. For o ther clients, the fact tha t pastoral counselors are a par t of their insurance network is a great blessing. In the future, there may be more people opt ing to use Heal th Savings Accounts (HSA), which will give t h e m more control in choosing their menta l health providers.

O n e of AAPC's goals is to b e c o m e an active par tner wi th pastoral counselors and o ther faith-based mental-heal th pract i t ioners outs ide N o r t h

A N N E ROSS STEWART

America. It is imperative in our global env i ronment to provide oppor tun i ties for cross-cultural training. John Wesley reminded us that the world is our parish. While no t a tool for evangelism, the pastoral counsel ing profession is definitely a ministry of healing and compass ion for those in need.

As par t of a world church, Uni ted Methodis t pastoral counselors have a responsibili ty to join wi th colleagues in expanding the profession and suppor t ing those w h o serve outside N o r t h America. AAPC plans to develop a Web-based clear inghouse for individuals w h o are seeking opportunit ies to train or teach active counsel ing ministries in settings o ther t han their h o m e countries. Partnering with key training inst i tut ions outs ide N o r t h America will enhance global oppor tuni t ies to serve.

As with o ther ministr ies of the church, the future of the pastoral counseling ministry means that n e w pastoral counselors mus t be recrui ted and trained and those active in this ministry need to be sustained. In the past quadrenn ium, I have b e e n pleased to see G B H E M reach ou t to those in pastoral counsel ing ministries and encouraging endorsed counselors to a t tend retreats the board has scheduled for them. As n e w promot iona l materials are developed and as G B H E M s websi te is utilized for information, it will be impor tant that the ministry of pastoral counsel ing be featured as a specialized ministry in The Uni ted Methodis t Church.

United Methodis t clergy and pastoral counselors are required to participate in ongoing educat ion and formation. To this end, G B H E M mus t look for n e w ways to par tner wi th seminaries, graduate programs in pastoral counseling, and cognate g roups such as AAPC to provide oppor tuni t ies for support , collegiality, and cont inuing learning. While s o m e of these opportunit ies may be at educat ional facilities or in retreat settings, there may be some creative ways to use electronic media for interactive educat ion.

In conclusion, our profession, like m u c h of our culture, is in a "white-water rapids" period of change and transition. We are working faithfully to navigate these paradigm shifts while cont inuing to provide high-quality pastoral counseling services.

Anne Ross Stewart is Executive Director of InterFaith Counseling Services, Montgomery County, Maryland, and an affiliate faculty member at Loyola College in Maryland, Baltimore, She currently serves as President of the American Association of Pastoral Counselors (AAPC).

WINTER 2005 395

O u t s i d e T h e T h e m e

Wesley, the Constitution, and Secular Humanism

T H E O D O R E W . J E N N I N G S , J R .

Today t h e s tudied indifference toward religion enshr ined in the Const i tu t ion has come u n d e r attack from the Religious Right in such

matters as school prayer and t h e sort of tex tbooks used in the schools. This has resulted in t h e deve lopment of a political agenda designed to protect the interests of religion from the onslaught of wha t is often called "secular humanism."

Meanwhile, there are those w h o mainta in that current practice does not properly reflect the indifference of the Const i tu t ion toward religion— tha t this mus t be taken to its logical conclusion th rough such measures as eliminating official chaplaincy in governmenta l inst i tut ions such as the military and t h e legislature; the el imination of tax exempt ion for churches; and the el imination of government subsidies for quasi-religious celebrat ions (Christmas displays, and so on).

More recently, this deba te has improbably focused o n the quest ion of the display of t h e Ten C o m m a n d m e n t s in s ta te cour t rooms. What is remarkable is t h e degree of passion for the law displayed by those w h o call themselves "evangelicals." Scarcely less remarkable has b e e n the fervor of the a t t achment to a "graven image" of a Decalogue that forbids graven images. There was the famous vignet te caught o n nat ional news of a m a n fervently wrapp ing himself a round t h e grani te m o n u m e n t to the Ten C o m m a n d m e n t s , crying, "They can't take away my God!" Yet such was the passion generated by the decision of Alabama's Chief Justice Roy Moore to display a 5,000-pound granite m o n u m e n t engraved wi th t h e words of the Law (a decision o n t h e basis of which the good citizens of Alabama had elected h im to his honorab le pos t in 2000) tha t the State of Alabama had

396 QUARTERLY REVIEW VOLUME 25. NUMBER 4, WINTER 2005

THEODORE W. JENNINGS, JR,

b e e n thrus t into const i tut ional crisis. Al though Judge Moore was removed from office because of his refusal to obey the order of the courts, the related cases cont inued to be litigated. O n June 28 ,2005 , the Uni ted States Supreme Court , in a sharply divided opinion, ruled tha t t h e display of the Ten C o m m a n d m e n t s in cour thouses and other public buildings, whe re the display had clear religious over tones or intent, was prohibi ted u n d e r the First Amendment—a ruling that even some o n t h e cour t regarded as an attack u p o n religion. (One wonders wha t the attraction is of a m o n u m e n t that forbids covetousness and murde r in a nat ion whose existence d e p e n d e d to a significant degree on the genocide of Native Americans; a m o n u m e n t that forbids theft in a region w h o s e economy was built o n the stealing of h u m a n beings from their native Africa.)

Of course, this is only t h e most dramatic (or dramatized) of the struggles concern ing the role of religion in relation to the state. Certainly the a t tempt by many of Judge Moore ' s suppor te r s to pass a const i tut ional a m e n d m e n t enshr ining the allegedly biblical definition of marriage as be tween o n e m a n and one w o m a n (a definition that would have astonished any of the patriarchs or kings of Israel) is ano ther apparen t a t tempt to enshr ine certain "Christian values" into the basic law of this land.

In this way the deba te about the Const i tut ion, which began more t han two-hundred years ago, cont inues today and remains focused o n the issue of t h e proper relation of Church and State. We Uni ted Methodis t s have recently b e e n celebrating the th ree -hundred th anniversary of the b i r th of John Wesley. What has John Wesley to do wi th t h e U.S. Const i tu t ion and the con temporary debate about the relation of religion to the republic?

It is generally well k n o w n that John Wesley strongly disapproved of the rebellion of Britain's N o r t h Amer ican colonies (or, as we like to say, the Amer ican Revolution). 1 But Wesley's at t i tude toward certain o ther aspects of t h e U.S. heri tage is less well known. Two-hundred years ago the n e w U.S. Const i tu t ion was still in the process of be ing ratified. The Convent ion in Philadelphia had d o n e its job. N o w it was the t ime for deba te and discussion—a process that culminated in the ratification of the Const i tu t ion and t h e Bill of Rights in 1791. It is appropr ia te to recall t h e a t t i tude taken by Wesley toward one of the central tenets of that d o c u m e n t as it was finally ratified. The only aspect of the emerging const i tut ional government o n which Wesley explicitly commen ted was its a t t i tude toward religion. That a t t i tude was embod ied in t h e provision that there should be n o religious

WINTER 2005 397

WESLEY, THE CONSTITUTION, A N D SECULAR HUMANISM


test for the holding of public office (Article VI) and ultimately in the First A m e n d m e n t establishing governmenta l indifference toward religion.

To be sure, t h e views of an e ighteenth-century evangelical cannot be held to be b inding o n Uni ted Methodis t s today. Still, Wesley's views are especially interest ing since they show how a leader of the eighteenth-cen tury Evangelical Revival viewed t h e religious indifferentism then o n its way to be ing enshr ined in the Const i tu t ion.

In many respects, Wesley's views appear to parallel those of con temporary evangelicals. H e was a tireless evangelist, preaching th ree t imes a day for more t han a half century—a feat tha t n o m o d e r n evangelist comes remotely close to matching. Moreover, his credentials in combat ing t h e spread of wha t was t hen called "Deism" (the forerunner of "secular humanism") are unimpeachable . H e tirelessly fought the erosion of biblical faith wi thin the church and fearlessly opposed those w h o supposed it to be possible to offer a watered-down Christ ianity tha t catered to m o d e r n tastes in place of "the plain old gospel."

It may therefore come as a surpr ise to learn that Wesley found t h e religious indifferentism of the n e w Amer ican government to be a signal act of divine providencel Far from attacking the stark separat ion of Church and State in the Amer ican Const i tut ion, he welcomed it and even poin ted to it as a sign of the action of G o d in history!

H o w does Wesley c o m e to such an astonishing view? And wha t insight does it offer as we p o n d e r the conflicting views of t h e relation be tween government and religion today?

Wesley's view wi th respect to the religious indifferentism of t h e n e w American government is to be found in his s e r m o n "Of Former Times," published in final form as par t of a collection of s e rmons t h e year following the signing of t h e Const i tu t ion in 1788. Albert Out ler gives this account of the writ ing of t h e se rmon.

The written sermon was produced in June 1787, in the midst of Wesley's long stay in Ireland that year; it is dated Dublin, June 27, which would have been the day following Thomas Coke's return from a missionary journey to America: "We were agreeably surprised with the arrival of Dr. Coke, who came from Philadelphia in nine and twenty days and gave us a pleasing account of the work of God in America." {Journal, 26 June 1787] It was published in the Armenian Magazine in the winter of that same year (November and December, X. 566-72,620-25).2

THEODORE W. JENNINGS, JR.

O n this reckoning Coke had left Philadelphia as the Const i tut ional Convent ion was get t ing underway (it was supposed to have begun o n May 14, achieved a q u o r u m for t h e first t ime on May 25, and began ser ious discussion o n May 29, or about the t ime Coke left). With Wesley's keen interest in politics it is safe to assume that he grilled Coke o n wha t was going o n in Philadelphia. The Convent ion adjourned o n September 17, two m o n t h s before Wesley first publ ished the s e r m o n in quest ion. His reference to "the government there" may be taken to refer to t h e p roposed Const i tu t ion or to the various state const i tu t ions (several of which insisted o n separat ion of Church and State) or to all of these, together wi th the Articles of Confederation. In any case, of most interest to Wesley was the principle of total separat ion of Church and State, which eventually came to be formulated in the First A m e n d m e n t bu t already in 1787 was a principle recognized by several of the states and by the mos t influential m e m b e r s of the Const i tut ional Convent ion.

In "Of Former Times," Wesley is conce rned to combat t h e view tha t things used to be better—the religious and secular nostalgia that looked u p o n some par t of the past as the golden age of w i sdom or faith. Of course, this is the very at t i tude that is expressed in the yearning of many m o d e r n evangelicals to restore a religiously h o m o g e n e o u s past.

Wesley's content ion, which we will consider at length in a m o m e n t , is tha t whatever may be the case wi th respect to o ther values it is clear that at n o t ime before had t rue Christ ianity had so clear an advantage as at t h e e n d of the e ighteenth century. A n d that which creates such a favorable climate is t h e dawning of the age of religious toleration. Let us see Wesley's o w n words:

For whoever makes a fair and candid inquiry, will easily perceive that true religion has in nowise decreased, but greatly increased in the present century. To instance in one capital branch of religion, the love of our neighbor. Is not persecution well nigh vanished from the face of the earth? In what age did Christians of every denomination show such forbearance to each other? . . . Nothing like this has been seen since the time of Constantine; no, not since the time of the Apostles.3

Unquestionably, for Wesley, as for the e igh teenth cen tu ry generally, the end of religious warfare was a major achievement . But Wesley is no t

WINTER 2005 399



unaware tha t the spirit of toleration so lately spread over the face of Europe was. in par t at least, the consequence of the rise of Deism, or wha t would today be called "secular humanism."

If it be said, "Why, this is the fruit of the general infidelity, the Deism which has overspread all Europe," I answer, Whatever be the cause, we have reason greatly to rejoice in the effect: And if the all-wise God has brought so great and universal a good out of this dreadful evil, so much the more should we magnify his astonishing power, wisdom, and goodness herein. 4

It is clear tha t Wesley is n o friend of Deism (he calls it "this dreadful evil"); bu t he does see tha t it has b e e n m a d e to serve the divine pu rpose of bringing an end to religious persecut ion. The benefit derived from the emergence of pagan toleration is no t merely negative, namely, to end t h e calamities of religious persecut ion and warfare. There is a positive benefit as well, o n e near to t h e hear t of any t rue "evangelical":

Indeed, so far as we can judge, this was the most direct way whereby nominal Christians could be prepared, first, for tolerating, and, afterwards, for receiving, real Christianity. While the governors were themselves unacquainted with it, nothing but this could induce them to suffer it. O the depth both of the wisdom and knowledge of God; causing a total disregard for all religion, to pave the way for the revival of the only religion that was worthy of God! 5

To this po in t Wesley has b e e n mainta in ing that there is a connec t ion be tween an official "total disregard for all religion" and t h e possibility of in t roducing genuine Christianity to the general populace. Only an entire indifference to religion o n the par t of the government makes it possible for a government to tolerate t rue Christianity. To p u t it ano the r way: if the government were itself religious, t hen it would inevitably persecute t rue Christianity. Wesley, evangelical and priest of an established church, maintains that t h e cause of t rue or vital Christ ianity is bes t served by a governme n t infested wi th Deism, and that t rue Christ ianity is imperiled w h e n some version of Christ ianity receives official sanction!

It is in this connec t ion that Wesley remarks u p o n the emerging constitut ional government of England's former N o r t h Amer ican colonies:

THEODORE W. JENNINGS, JR.

WINTER 2005 401

I am not assured whether this [toleration] be the case or no in France and Germany; but it is so beyond all contradiction in North-America: The total indifference of the government there, whether there be any religion or none, leaves room for the propagation of true, scriptural religion, without the least let or hindrance. 6

A n u m b e r of poin ts call for c o m m e n t here. In the first place, we should recall tha t this is about the only good th ing Wesley has to say about those he generally regarded as impious rebels. And the good th ing he says refers to the "total indifference of the government there, w h e t h e r there be any religion or none." Precisely that which occasions so much consternation among the adherents of the Religious Right is for Wesley an instance of divine providence!

It is wor th noting in this connect ion that Wesley's reading of the intent of the Founding Fathers suppor ts the argument of those w h o maintain that the intent of the Consti tut ion is not only not to establish any religion b u t also to be utterly indifferent to religion. Wesley knew what many have forgotten, namely, that the founders of our form of government were themselves entirely pagan in their philosophical commitments . In Wesley's day this was called "Deism"; today it is called "secular humanism." The framers of the Const i tut ion decided to protect the rights of "any religion or none." Thus, the a rgument that the Const i tut ion does not permit school prayer (which at the very least would favor religion over atheism and give privileged status to religion as such) is clearly suppor ted by the evidence of at least o n e eighteenth-century reading of the "intent" of the framers of the Constitution.

But Wesley does more t han give suppor t to a human i s t reading of the Const i tu t ion. H e also maintains that this very h u m a n i s m - t h i s very indifference to religion—is t h e providential condition for the proclamat ion of t rue Christianity. Thus, any a t tempt to make government m o r e "religious" mus t have the effect of impeding the proclamat ion of evangelical Christianity. If th is is so, t h e n the program of t h e Religious Right mus t be regarded as self-stultifying or as subversive of t rue Christianity. And t h e appropr ia te s tance of an evangelical Christ ianity wor thy of the n a m e would be to suppor t a view of government tha t makes it t he expression of secular humanism. In order to see how this is so, let us a t tempt to clarify some of Wesley's reasons for taking a view tha t is so at odds wi th wha t many people today would consider "common wisdom."

The basis for Wesley's view is supplied in the same s e r m o n w h e n he



replies to t h e posi t ion of a b ishop of his o w n established church. The b ishop held that the greatest day in the his tory of the Christ ian Church was the day Emperor Cons tan t ine declared himself a Christ ian and so ended the persecut ion of the Christ ians. It is no t surpris ing that a b ishop of England's State church should take such a view. What is surprising is that John Wesley, w h o regarded himself as a zealous priest of that same church, should so vehement ly disagree. Here is his reply.

I cannot, in any wise, subscribe to the Bishop's opinion in this matter. So far from it, that I have long been convinced from the whole tenor of ancient history, that this very event, Constantine's calling himself a Christian, and pouring that flood of wealth and honour on the Christian Church, the clergy in particular, was productive of more evil to the Church than all the ten persecutions put together. From the time that power, riches, and honour of all kinds were heaped upon the Christians, vice of all kinds came in like a flood, both on the Clergy and the laity. From the time that the Church and State, the kingdoms of Christ and of the world, were so strangely and unnaturally blended together, Christianity and Heathenism were so thoroughly incorporated with each other, that they will hardly ever be divided till Christ comes to reign upon earth. So that, instead of fancying that the glory of the New Jerusalem covered the earth at that period, we have terrible proof that it was then, and has ever since been, covered with the smoke of the bottomless pit. 7

Wesley's position, derived we recall from the s tudy of "the whole tenor of ancient history," is that t rue Christianity is fatally compromised w h e n it enters into an alliance with wealth and power. It t hen tu rns away from its task of announc ing good news to the poor and becomes the guardian of privilege. It forsakes the following of the Crucified to become the handmaid of imperial power. It was this corrupt ion against which the Reformers had protested two centuries earlier. But that protest had unleashed a fresh wave of violence as churches allied themselves wi th and became the pawns of contending princes and principalities. Thus, in Wesley's view, history itself made clear that t rue Christianity mus t ever be the victim of any alliance with the State. For this was to mix "the k ingdoms of Christ and of the world." From this vantage point, then, the emergence of a studied indifference to religion as the corners tone of political phi losophy in the e ighteenth century could be viewed as an act of divine providence that delivered the


WINTER 2005 403

gospel from its Babylonian captivity to the Constant in ian temptat ion. Wesley's view of the danger of an alliance of t h e church wi th wealth

and power was derived no t only from an academic s tudy of the his tory of the church, It was also a product of his own exper ience in leading the Evangelical Revival of the e ighteenth century. Wesley's a t tempt to call people from a merely nominal , or conventional, Christ ianity to a truly evangelical commi tmen t to the gospel was me t wi th p r o n o u n c e d opposit ion o n the part of the established church and the wealthy and powerful of England. The story of the persecut ion of t h e Methodis t s by m o b s incited by influential clergy and wealthy merchants and of t h e courage of the early preachers like George Whitefield and the Wesley bro thers remains a fascinat ing tale even today.

What Wesley learned from this persecut ion was that w h e n the church becomes hostage to the s tatus q u o in a particular society, it reacts puni-tively against any a t tempt to alter that s tatus quo, especially w h e n such an a t tempt calls for real r epen tance and thus reversal of tha t context. Thus, the church was m a d e to be an o p p o n e n t of the gospel by t h e very means by which it sought to acquire a posi t ion of protect ion or privilege in the world.

This persecut ion was no t e n d e d by an enl ightened decision o n t h e par t of t h e church, It came about by way of the de te rmina t ion of Deists, especially the much-maligned King George, that the State would protect the right of any religious expression, or none . That is, t he Crown decided o n deistic or humanis t ic g rounds that n o persecut ion o n the basis of religious expression would be tolerated. Practically, this m e a n t that, as Wesley expressed it, "there was a law even for Methodists ." Much later, Wesley gave this account in his s e r m o n "On God ' s Vineyard":

God stirred up the heart of our late gracious Sovereign [George II] to give such orders to his Magistrates as, being put in execution, effectually quelled the madness of the people. It was about the same time that a great man applied personally to his Majesty, begging that he would please to "take a course to stop these run-about preachers." His Majesty, looking sternly upon him, answered without ceremony, like a King, "I tell you, while I sit on the throne, no man shall be persecuted for conscience' sake."8

The King's magistrates were instructed to pun i sh those w h o at tacked evangelicals because the King was officially (and also personally) indif-



ferent to religion. To under s t and this it is only necessary to ask wha t would have been the result if the King had b e e n a zealot for the Church of England (of which, after all, h e was t h e head)? In such a case, if it appeared that the evangelicals were unde rmin ing t h e posi t ion of that church, he would have b e e n pe r suaded easily by his own bishops to oppose the Methodis ts , The King's indifference to religion m a d e it possible for h im to protect Methodis t s from persecut ion.

What the framers of t h e Const i tu t ion managed to d o was to t u rn this religious indifferentism in to the very foundat ion of a m o d e r n state. As a consequence , Wesley could hail t h e emerging const i tut ional government of t h e Uni ted States as a singular act of Providence in spite of his oppos i t ion bo th to the revolution that m a d e it possible and to the Deism that was its philosophical basis.

What Wesley knew, and wha t m a n y of today's evangelicals have forgotten, is that the possibility of unh inde red proclamation of evangelical Christianity is best assured by a government that makes indifference to religion a mat ter of pe rmanen t , strict, and unwavering policy. The call today o n the par t of certain evangelicals for the State to be the pa t ron and protector of religion represents a terrible confusion wi th respect to the character of bo th democracy and t h e Chris t ian faith. It seeks to remake the Cons tan t in ian alliance be tween t h e church and t h e s t ructures of this world. In so doing, it unde rmines the very f reedom of t h e gospel that is at t h e hear t of a truly evangelical piety.

The agenda of the Religious Right would make the State t h e protector of religion. It would d o this, for example, t h rough adding an a m e n d m e n t to allow schools to encourage prayer. There are o thers w h o would require schools to teach religious doct r ine (as in the case of scientific creationism). Still o thers would have t h e State subsidize private religious instruction. In all of these ways, t h e State would be m a d e t h e pa t ron and protector of religious interests.

What is no t clearly seen is tha t this mus t lead to the des t ruct ion of the gospel itself. As Wesley saw, the minu te the State becomes t h e protector of religion it takes an interest in defending religion from attack. But wha t it may be led t hus to defend religion against may in fact be t h e gospel itself. And those it punishes for impiety may be those w h o are seeking to proclaim t h e au thent ic gospel, real as opposed to formal religion. This is no t a mere fantasy. The Roman persecut ion of Christ ianity was possible


because t h e State was the defender of Roman religion. A n d the threat of persecut ion directed against early evangelicals was motivated by calls for t h e State to defend tha t religion of which it was the champion. The twent ieth-century witnesses cont inual illustrations of t h e same t endency of putatively religious states to attack the religious convictions of those w h o are d e e m e d to be harmful to their interests. For Christ ians to willingly place their necks in this noose is a t r ibute to our shor tness of m e m o r y and our perennial desire to supp lement the work of t h e Holy Spirit wi th t h e t rappings of respectability, wealth, and power.

For its part, there are always those who, in the interest of the power and prestige of the State and its policies, are only too happy to wrap themselves in the robes of piety. They are eager to persuade us that no t only wise policy b u t also piety require of us allegiance to their causes and programs. The cynical manipulat ion of piety to cloak the interests of avarice and arrogance was denounced by the prophets . It cont inues to be o n e of the chief strategies of worldly power. But the Founding Fathers realized that this was inimical to democratic government . For that which wraps itself in the robes of religion does so wi th the aim of not submit t ing itself to question, of s tanding somehow above criticism. W h e n this happens , though, the exercise of democracy becomes impossible. Thus, in the n a m e of the responsible exercise of political rights it was necessary to banish religion from the sphere of t h e State. In so doing, religion was set free for t h e first t ime in history to be itself. That is wha t Wesley called a "singular providence."

Instead of seeking to s t rengthen the ties that b ind religion and government , evangelicals should be seeking to complete t h e work of this separation. The very protect ions that we enjoy (special tax exemptions, f reedom from military service for clergy, and so on) derive from Constantine—from tha t very alliance be tween church and empire tha t resulted in t h e corrupt ion of the gospel and the absolute domin ion of the State over the Church. For the sake of the freedom of the gospel, these privileges should be renounced .

While we are at it, it would be a very good idea if our churches were to have the courage to get Amer ican flags out of their sanctuaries. The presence of these flags in t h e worsh ip space provides g r o u n d s for t h e confusion be tween ultimate and ear thly loyalty, which is t h e fertile seedbed of idolatry. Removing the flag should in n o way be cons t rued as an unpatr iotic act. O n the contrary, it would be a gesture of solidarity wi th the

WINTER 2005 405


Theodore W. Jennings, Jr., is Professor of Biblical and Constructive Theology at Chicago Theological Seminary, Chicago, Illinois.

Endnotes 1. For a discussion of Wesley's political views in this regard, see my Good News to the Poor: John Wesley's Evangelical Economics (Nashville: Abingdon, 1990), 199-222. 2. The Bicentennial Edition of The Works of John Wesley, ed. by Albert C. Outler (Nashville: Abingdon, 1986), 3:441 (hereafter Works). 3. Ibid., 451. 4. Ibid., 451-52. 5. Ibid., 452. 6. Ibid. 7. Ibid., 450. 8. John Wesley, "On God's Vineyard," in Works, 3:513.


framers of the Cons t i tu t ion in perfecting their work of separat ing Church and State.

There may be those w h o would po in t ou t tha t t h e framers of t h e Const i tu t ion did no t themselves carry mat ters to this extreme. That would be true. But, as in t h e case of t h e enfranchisement of w o m e n and the abolit ion of slavery, t h e work of the Cons t i tu t ion is ongoing. It requires of us t h e willingness to take further t h a n t h e framers dared the basic principles that an imated their work. Just as a c o m m i t m e n t to justice led successors of those w h o wrote t h e Const i tu t ion to abolish slavery; as a c o m m i t m e n t to democracy led o thers to recognize the right of t h e poor, African-Americans, and w o m e n to vote—so also a p roper regard for the achievem e n t of t h e Found ing Fathers would rightly lead us to cont inue and perfect their work of separat ing Church and State.

W h o knows, we may discover in this effort tha t secular humanis t s and evangelicals may again recognize a c o m m o n purpose—one that p romotes bo th democrat ic freedoms and t h e freedom of t h e gospel.

I ill M

The Church in Review

How can The United Methodist Church most effectively employ licensed local pastors in ministry?

G A R Y D . M O O D Y

The Uni ted Methodis t Church has a long history of using local

pastors to facilitate ministry in rural and small-church settings. A perceived shortage of orda ined clergy has brought about the proliferat ion of persons choosing local-pastor ministry in answer to the call of the church for affordable clergy for our small churches. As a result, we n o w have more t han 6,500 full-and part- t ime local pastors u n d e r appo in tmen t in our churches, no t count ing t h e associate m e m b e r s u n d e r the 1992 Discipline, I believe tha t if The Uni ted Methodis t Church were to be innovative in its dep loyment of these individuals who , ou t of their d e e p exper iences of faith have responded to the church's call for more clergy, the denomina t ion would find itself once again growing in places where sending ordained clergy would no t be cost effective.

We need to develop the n e w ideas for pastoral ministry that have already begun to bear fruit in many

continued on page 408

J A M E S L . M A Y F I E L D

The op t ion of persons serving The Uni ted Methodis t Church

as l icensed local pastors gives our denomina t ion practical flexibility in providing pastoral leadership to local churches . Four of t h e ways in which our denomina t ion is well served by having this op t ion have been a round for s o m e t ime. A fifth is relatively new.

What these five opt ions have in c o m m o n is that they help The Uni ted Methodis t Church provide clergy leadership to congregations. Let m e explain.

First, there is wha t I call "the apprent ice pastor" use of l icensed local pastors. This takes two basic forms. O n e is the s tuden t apprentice w h o is serving as a pastor of a congregat ion while she or he is enrolled in formal educat ion, prepar ing for seminary, or complet ing he r or his seminary degree. These l icensed local pastors are serving congregat ions as a way of earning m o n e y to help t h e m cont inue their jou rney toward a

continued on page 411


407

LICENSED LOCAL PASTORS

continued from page 407 annual conferences, For example, the Nor thwes t Texas and Florida annua l conferences are using local pastors wi th great success in new-church starts as well as in transformational appo in tmen t s for marginal churches. Many of our annual conferences have "transitional churches" that are o n the br ink of be ing closed. Some of these churches are in t rouble because they are located in areas whe re the popula t ion is shrinking. O the r s are in need of "intentional interim" clergy bu t canno t afford them. In many of these situations, cooperat ive minis t ry efforts or multi-charge appo in tmen t s could be designed tha t could be served very well by local pastors.

Local pastors are ideal for transit ional church settings for several reasons. First, their lower salary presents less risk and enables marginal churches to have pastoral ministry. Second, local pastors ' life exper ience often resonates well wi th t h e life exper iences of persons in small churches , t hus making it easier to spearhead innovative ministry. I know of a local pastor in Florida, a former au tomobi le dealer, w h o has o n e of the fastest-growing churches in his district. His abilities matched the need of his congregat ion and he cont inues to lead t h e m forward in ministry. This pastor 's t ime and effort have tu rned ou t be a very good investment for t h e congregation. Third, qui te often the chi ldren of local pastors are grown. Thus, these pastors don ' t have to wor ry abou t t h e educat ional and family issues tha t arise for clergy wi th school-age children. Local pastors are very i t inerant clergy.

Rural districts could be very creative wi th appo in tmen t s in si tuat ions whe re medium-size churches tha t are su r rounded by a n u m b e r of small rural churches need part-t ime associate pastors. Forty percent of s tudents currently enrolled in t h e Course of Study have bachelor 's or more advanced deg ree s 1 and are trained, exper ienced teachers. Why not use such a pastor to serve s imultaneously as a part- t ime associate pastor in a medium-size church and also as pas tor in o n e of t h e su r round ing rural churches? In fact, a significant n u m b e r of local pastors and associate member s have extensive exper ience in business adminis t ra t ion or professional careers that could be used wi th great effect in these settings.

Ano the r innovative oppor tun i ty for using local pastors is to deploy ethnic—particularly Hispanic—local pastors in communi t ies wi th large, growing e thn ic popula t ions . Fur thermore , local pastors could serve in communi ty- and social-service minis t ry while also pastor ing a local church.


GARY D. MOODY

They could serve in specialized minis t ry in hospital and industrial chaplaincy 2 as o n e c o m p o n e n t of their pastoral ministry. Their communi t i e s and their congregat ions could benefit greatly from this.

The deployment oppor tuni t ies for local pastors and associate m e m b e r s are limited only by the inability or the reluctance of The Uni ted Methodis t Church to be innovative in the way it prepares t h e m for their work, Called to minis t ry o u t of the mids t of o u r churches , local pas tors represent to the denomina t ion the vast secular work exper ience of the people in our congregations. The denomina t ion should capitalize o n this reservoir of exper ience and use local pastors ' zeal to serve G o d in pastoral ministry. It is t ime for t h e General Board of Higher Educat ion and Ministry to review the Course of Study School system in light of the needs of small-membership churches as well as financially challenged medium-size churches and to design a curr iculum that will use local pastors and associate m e m b e r s to facilitate n e w and effective ministry in these settings.

D o we need chaplains w h o are able to work in isolated and low-paying situations? Let us train and appoin t local pastors to this work. D o we need pe r sons wi th financial, educational , or administrative skills w h o also feel called to pastor small churches? Let us give t h e m specific training to serve bo th as associate pastors in medium-size churches as well as the ministry and leadership training they need for pastor ing small churches. Are new-church starts too expensive for seminary graduates? Appo in t local pas tors and associate member s w h o have shown abilities in these areas to s tar t n e w churches that will keep The Uni ted Methodis t Church alive and vitally active in serving Christ.

Finally, I would like to look at two impor tan t actions tha t will impact the possibilities for deploying local pastors and associate m e m b e r s in the future. First is the re ins ta tement of the category of "associate member" of the annual conference by the 2004 General Conference. Though somewha t different from its 1992 definition, this category affords local pas tors a level of social and vocational acceptance wi thin our clergy system. The oppor tunity to become associate m e m b e r s of the conference is a significant boos t to the morale of local pastors and also expands their usefulness.

The second action is the s tudy of ministry assigned to the General Board of Higher Educat ion and Ministry by General Conference last year. The study is an oppor tuni ty to help those engaged in ministry to define what they d o and how best to do it. In a recent article in The Source, Robert

WINTER 2005 409


Gary D. Moody is an Associate Member in the Oklahoma Annual Conference and editor of The Source, a newsletter of the National Fellowship of Associate Members and Local Pastors of The United Methodist Church.

Endnotes 1. Ellis L. Larsen, "What Is the Future Need for Local Pastors?" The Source (March 2005): 3. 2. The 2004 General Conference has made it possible for licensed local pastors to be appointed to extension ministries. See The Book of Discipline of The United Methodist Churcb-2004 (Nashville: The United Methodist Publishing House, 2004), 1 316. 3. Rober t F. Kohler, " C o m m i s s i o n o n t h e S tudy of Min i s t ry Welcomes Participation of Local Pastors," The Source (May 2005): 2.


Kohler, assistant general secretary in the Board's Division of Ordained Ministry, says that the s tudy "will engage the Order of Deacons, the Order of Elders, the Fellowship of Local Pastors and Associate Members , and the laity of the church in a discussion of t h e mission of t h e church, the order ing of ministry, and their effect on those w h o minister in the n a m e of Jesus Christ.'^

H o w can The Uni ted Methodis t Church mos t effectively deploy local pastors in ministry? While the responsibil i ty for answer ing this ques t ion finally rests wi th t h e whole denomina t ion , we mus t t rus t G o d to show us h o w to work it ou t together.

JAMES L. MAYFIELD

continued from page 407 seminary degree; and they are also learning about be ing a pastor, the way any apprent ice learns her or his craft or profession. The congregat ions served by these s tuden t apprent ice pastors no t only receive minis t ry bu t also have a special oppor tun i ty to part icipate in the ministry of educat ing pastors.

Second, the use of l icensed local pastors in an apprent ice role also makes conference member sh ip a possibility for persons for w h o m t h e seminary route to ordinat ion and conference member sh ip is no t a realistic option. This route is analogous to o ther apprent ice routes to professional compe tence and certification. The major por t ion of their educat ion is no t in the classroom bu t in on-the-job training. This g roup of l icensed local pas tors is focused only o n serving local congregat ions as pastors and not o n ministr ies that require more formal theological educa t ion and specialized training.

Third, licensed local pastors w h o m I am calling "second-career servant pastors" are those persons w h o have retired from s o m e o ther type of work and have financial resources sufficient to free t h e m from depend ing u p o n a congregat ion as their only source of income. Because of bo th their stage in life and their financial freedom, these pastors t end to be remarkably free from wha t I call "preacher ambit ion" and tend to be con ten t where they are appointed, wi th minimal concern about their next appoin tment .

These second-career servant pastors differ from apprent ice l icensed local pastors in that they have n o desire to move toward conference membersh ip . Their goal is to be used by t h e b i shop to serve a local church. In my annua l conference, they usually serve small, rural congregat ions that need a pastor w h o "loves the Lord and will love the folks."

Fourth , another group, "part-time worker-pastors," are licensed local pastors whose pr imary employment is not related to the church bu t w h o serve small congregat ions o n a part-time basis. I r e m e m b e r a m a n dur ing my chi ldhood w h o worked in a local bank bu t who, for many years, each week-end served a tiny congregat ion in a rural town with a popula t ion of approximately 750 people located 30 miles from his h o m e . Part-time worker-pastors are not available to be sent anywhere in the annua l conference b u t are willing to serve small congregat ions wi thin a reasonable driving distance from where they live and work dur ing the week.

Fifth, a relatively recent use of the licensed local pastor opt ion is by

WINTER 2005 411


persons w h o have comple ted seminary a n d are qualified in every way b u t o n e for conference member sh ip and ordinat ion. They are not able honest ly to say they are willing to go wherever the b i shop would send them. They have too m u c h integri ty to play "word games," m u c h less to lie in order to be ordained. So t hey offer themselves in pastoral minis t ry as l icensed local pastors, to be used by the b ishop and the church within cer tain geographical limits as needed .

Two of the associate pastors of t h e congregat ion I serve are licensed local pastors. They are a m o n g the mos t gifted and effective clergy wi th w h o m I have had the privilege to work. They are licensed local pastors bu t have more formal educat ion t han mos t orda ined clergy. Helen Almanza has B.A.. M.A., Ph.D., and M.Div. degrees, while Ron Campbel l has B.A., M.Ed., M.Div., L.P.C., and D.Min. degrees . Both are unable to say with integrity that they are willing to go wherever the b ishop wishes to appoin t them. Both mus t stay wi thin the Aust in area for family reasons. So rather t han play word games or lie, they have chosen the route of licensed local pastor and serve at t h e will of t h e b ishop and the need of the conference. W h e n they can be of use in the Aust in area, they will serve the church; bu t should the b i shop choose not to use t h e m in this area, they will earn their daily bread in o ther ways. Ron has gone back to work for the public schools at least twice since earning his D.Min. degree, because there was n o appo in tmen t for h im in or near Austin.

The op t ion of employing licensed local pastors gives our denomina t ion additional practical flexibility in providing needed pastoral leadership to congregations.

What is the pr imary difference be tween t h e minis t ry of the licensed local pastor and that of the ordained elder in The Uni ted Methodis t Church? In our cur ren t practice, t h e difference has less to d o wi th t h e author i ty to adminis ter sacraments and m o r e to do wi th issues of church order in regard to (1) supervision, (2) the covenant be tween t h e annua l conference and elders wi th reference to appo in tments , and (3) issues related to the order ing of the church at large (especially issues related to t h e annual, jurisdictional, and general conferences).

The implied wisdom is that the p r imary responsibili ty for clergy input and leadership in the order ing of the church is best served by those wi th formal theological educat ion and exper ience that includes but also goes beyond on-the-job-training of serving congregat ions.


JAMES L. MAYFIELD

O n e final quest ion. Would it not be wise to provide deacons wi th the same sacramental author i ty we currently accord licensed local pastors? Again, as it s tands now, the pr imary practical difference be tween elders and deacons has primarily to do with w h o supervises w h o m rather than wi th w h o is author ized to adminis ter t h e sacraments—a relat ionship n o t unlike that be tween t h e elder and the licensed local pastor. I am convinced that, if deacons had the same sacramental responsibilit ies as licensed local pastors, many w h o feel called to specialized ministries o n church staffs or beyond the local church would be more appropriately ordained deacon and have the deacon's relat ionship to the appo in tmen t process.

James L, Mayfield is Senior Pastor at Tarrytown United Methodist Church in Austin, Texas, and an elder in the Southwest Texas Annual Conference.

WINTER 2005 413

Lectionary Study

C A T H I E L E I M E N S T O L L

Epiphanyl The word itself is surely heard as an exclamation, for an ep iphany is an exper ience of divine revelation. H o w could one

acknowledge such a manifestat ion wi thou t shout ing "Glory."? The celebrat ion of Epiphany is t h e oldest e lement of t h e three-part Chris tmas cycle and was t h e third Chris t ian holy day established, following Easter and Pentecost. In s o m e areas, this celebration day may have b e e n in place as early as t h e late second century. Originally, Epiphany signified the b i r th of Jesus, t h e revealing of G o d to t h e world. However, in t h e fourth century, w h e n Chr is tmas was eventually established and connec ted to a particular date, Epiphany was refocused o n the bapt ism of Jesus. John Chrysos tom explained t h e mean ing of Epiphany to a congregat ion in Ant ioch in 387 C.E. wi th these words:

For this is the day on which he was baptized and made holy the nature of the waters. . . . Why then is this day called Epiphany? Because it was not known when he was born that he became manifest to all, but when he was baptized; for up to this day he was unknown to the multitudes.1

Over the years, this remained the focus of t h e day in t h e East, b u t the West m a d e Epiphany t h e commemora t ion of t h e visit of t h e Magi—the manifestation of t h e Divine to t h e Genti les.

Al though t h e Sundays following Epiphany have not const i tuted a special season per se, t he Lect ionary passages certainly lend themselves to such a t rea tment . Between Epiphany and Lent, G o d is revealed in the Gospel accounts of Jesus ' bapt ism and ministry. Additionally, the t h e m e s of light overcoming darkness, of God ' s active involvement in the world, and of the impor tance of t ransforming encoun te r s wi th G o d in the concrete events of life are teachings that appear th roughou t the Scripture selections of these weeks. Helping worshipers connec t the events and


VOLUME 25, NUMBER 4, WINTER 2005

CATHIE LEIMENSTOLL

WINTER 2005 415

t h e m e s of the Scriptures wi th the season of the Chris t ian year can surely enr ich unders tandings and reinforce our own oppor tun i t ies for epiphanies in the day-to-day living of the n e w year,

The passages from the Book of Psalms for t h e Sundays following Epiphany connect well wi th the overall t hemes of the season, and they link in interest ing ways to the o ther lectionary passages for each week. Many people express great love for t h e psalms, bu t tha t fondness often reflects their familiarity and comfort wi th only certain well-known psalms. Many more psalms are se ldom read or heard as t h e topics of se rmons . However, as N a h u m M. Sarna poin ts out, the un iqueness and power of t h e psalms are as a record of the "human ques t for God." 2 In the Law and t h e Prophets , G o d reaches ou t to h u m a n beings. The initiative is wi th G o d and the message that is shared is a divine word. G o d speaks and people listen. But in the Psalms, it is h u m a n beings that reach out to God. The people initiate the conversation and h u m a n language is t h e vehicle of communication. In this sharing, G o d receives and chooses to r e spond based o n divine wisdom. 3 Thus, the h u m a n laments and praises, the struggles and hopes , expressed in the psalms emphas ize impor tan t t ru ths about the journey of faith: G o d listens to the praises of our lips and t h e needs of our hearts . G o d enters into our struggle to align our beliefs wi th the dissonant experiences of life; and, like Jacob at Penuel, there are blessings in the struggle. These are t ru ths wi th which worshipers can identify: their ques t for God, their struggle to ha rmonize faith and life, their yearning to be blessed. With God ' s grace, epiphanies abound .

January 8 f 2006—First Sunday after the Epiphany P s a l m 29; Gen. 1:1-5; Acts 19:1-7; Mark 1:4-11 Consensus suggests that Psalm 29 reflects an older Canaani te psalm that was taken over by Israel and refocused o n the absolute power of Yahweh. The ability to absorb and adapt ideas and beliefs from t h e various cultures a round t h e m is a well-known aspect of the Hebrew faith. Originally, this psalm may have b e e n a song of praise to Baal, t h e Canaani te wea ther god, w h o was believed to have power over floods and waters. But n o w the psalm expresses t h e sovereignty of Yahweh over all o ther gods, over the forces of nature , and over chaos in general. Some scholars have identified this as a praise psalm following the form of a beginning imperative to worsh ip (w. 1-2); a listing of reasons for that worship, shown in t h e descr ipt ions of

LECTIONARY STUDY

God 's power over life and events (w. 3-9); and a conclusion showing G o d en th roned as King offering s t rength and blessings (w. 10-11). However, Walter Brueggemann labels Psalm 29 a "psalm of en th ronemen t " and further identifies it as a psalm of "new orientation." The es tabl ishment of Yahweh as King brings order and well-being to t h e world. This order overcomes the anxieties and threats of life and "the very act of singing t h e song is itself a practice of that n e w order." 4 The song reminds believers that G o d is o n the t h rone and all is u n d e r divine command .

Wi thout a doubt , Psalm 29 presents G o d as a G o d of ult imate power. This power is expressed th rough God ' s voice that t h u n d e r s above t h e waters. It is a voice of power and sp lendor tha t flashes fire (v. 7). It can "break the cedars of Lebanon" (v. 5fr)-an example mean t to get people 's at tent ion. The cedar is a t ree of great height and strength; and King Solomon chose the cedars of Lebanon for w o o d w h e n the t ime came to build t h e Temple. God ' s voice does n o t shat ter just any tree; it can shat ter the strongest of trees. God ' s voice can make the moun ta in s of Lebanon "skip like a calf, and Sirion [another n a m e for M o u n t H e r m o n ] like a y o u n g wild ox" (v. 6). God ' s voice can affect all of nature . In light of such power, t h e psalmist suggests, t h e only appropr ia te response is to w o r s h i p - t o cry "Glory!" (v. 9b).

This act of worship comes from a g roup of "heavenly beings" w h o are in t roduced at the beginning of the psalm as par t of the call to worship. "Ascribe to t h e LORD, O heavenly beings, ascribe to t h e LORD glory and strength" (v. 1). This expression seems to reflect the older image of a heavenly cour t comprised of lesser gods a n d / o r angels. Al though the m e m b e r s of this cour t are c o m m a n d e d to worship, their expression of "Glory!" comes only after they see t h e demons t ra t ion of God ' s power, tha t is, after they witnessed an epiphany, if you will. Only t hen are they moved to an appropr ia te response .

The psalm ends wi th G o d en th roned forever and above all: above heavenly beings, chaos, and creation, from where G o d gives s t rength to God ' s people and blesses t h e m wi th peace. God ' s power is no t power for power 's sake bu t ra ther power that br ings order to a world of anxiety and threat so tha t people can live in s t rength and peace.

Psalm 29 presents several t hemes to explore in s e r m o n preparation. Both the t ranscendence and immanence of G o d are reflected in the presentation of God 's mighty power and in God ' s desire and willingness to bless.


CATHIE LEIMENSTOLL

The "heavenly beings" serve as a kind of model for h u m a n worshipers. Like the heavenly court, h u m a n beings are called to worship God, recognize God 's s t rength and splendor, and respond appropriately. In a sense, ear th is challenged to mirror heaven and cry "Glory!" Recognizing and exploring this call to appropriate worship may be one approach to a s e r m o n focused o n Psalm 29. In his book The Bible Jesus Read, Philip Yancey suggests that U.S. Americans struggle to express praise and adorat ion to God. Sports fans and en ter ta inment afficionados seem to have n o t rouble idolizing and worshiping outs tanding athletes or famous singers or actors. But w h e n it comes to praising the Lord w h o m a d e heaven and earth, people seem inhibited and unsure . 5 O n e way to make this psalm come alive may be to preach "around" the events of a worship service—sharing the call to worship and discussing to what people feel they are being called. What might be God ' s expectat ion of God 's people in a worship setting? The hymns, the Scripture, the proclamation of the Word—all are examples of God ' s power and glory that should lead to appropriate response (i.e., affirmation of faith, offering, etc.). All these are ways of proclaiming "Glory!"

Several images in this psalm connec t in interest ing ways to t h e o ther lect ionary texts of t h e day. First and foremost, Psalm 29 descr ibes t h e demons t ra t ion of divine sp lendor as happen ing th rough t h e power of God ' s voice. Al though God ' s voice is represented as affecting many aspects of creation, controlling the na ture of water is m e n t i o n e d more t han once. Both of these images—voice and water—are central to the Genes is and Markan lections. In t h e open ing creation story, t h e Spirit of G o d is hovering, brooding, over t h e face of the waters—and then God speaks. God ' s powerful voice calls light into being and separates light from darkness. As in Psalm 29, here is a G o d wi th a voice that br ings order from chaos and light from darkness and w h o blesses God ' s people . This same power of voice and s t rength appears in the Markan bapt ismal story. As soon as Jesus comes u p out of the water, he sees the heavens be ing "torn apart" (v. 10), the Spirit descends on him, and a voice from heaven says, "You are my Son, the Beloved; wi th you I am well pleased" (v. 11). This is a voice that tears o p e n the heavens, tha t claims Jesus as Son, and creates a m o m e n t of epiphany. In t h e Markan per icope, a bapt i sm of the Spirit is also in t roduced by John the Baptist, w h o confesses tha t this is no t a bapt i sm he can offer bu t o n e tha t will be given by t h e promised O n e w h o is coming. The bapt ism of the Spirit is often expressed wi th the image of

WINTER 2005 417

LECTIONARY STUDY

fire as at Pentecost, an image used also in Psalm 29:7, "The voice of t h e LORD flashes forth flames of fire." This image connec ts wi th the third lection for this Sunday, which describes Paul at Ephesus talking with believers w h o had received only John's bapt ism of repentance . Paul proceeds to bapt ize t h e m in the n a m e of the Lord Jesus and they receive t h e Holy Spi r i t Clearly, t hese images lend themselves to a s e r m o n o n bapt ism that stresses the centrality of G o d / C h r i s t as Lord of our lives.

January 15,2006—Second Sunday after the Epiphany Ps . 139:1-6,13-18; 1 Sam. 3:1-10; 1 Cor. 6:12-20; John 1:43-51 The lection uses only a par t of this psalm, avoiding t h e sect ion that asks G o d to kill the enemies of the psalmist, w h o m the wri ter also identifies as God 's enemies . The section of Psalm 139 tha t is the focus of the lectionary reading presents a n all-knowing, ever-present G o d w h o encircles the psalmist and knows every though t and every action. This is a G o d w h o is so closely connec ted to the writer that G o d has k n o w n him or her since his or her creation in the w o m b and will con t inue in this int imate relat ionship to the end of his or her life.

This beautifully wr i t ten psalm expresses the unders tand ing that we are fully and completely known by God. There is nowhere we can r u n or hide and nowhere we can be overtaken by darkness because the Divine and the light of t h e Divine are always present wi th us. G o d s hand is u p o n us. This is a message that can be heard from two different perspectives; and somet imes these perspectives are even held together in a kind of intel lectual / emotional paradox. For example, a great sense of comfort issues from the reassurance that, wherever we find ourselves, G o d is wi th us. We are never cut off from the cons tan t p resence of the Divine. G o d "hems" us in, "behind and before" (v. 5)—words reminiscent of the pillar of cloud and fire that went before the Hebrews as they left slavery in Egypt and that moved beh ind t h e m to protec t t h e m from t h e pursu ing Egyptian army. Put in t h e vernacular of our day, "God has our backs." This is o n e perspective. Yet, o n the o ther hand, d o we really want to be known so completely that even our very thoughts are divinely ascertained? This is a perspect ive that often leads to feelings of unwor th iness and fears of be ing judged. In the Companions in Christ Bible study, t h e story of Jesus ' encoun te r with the Samari tan w o m a n at t h e well is discussed in t e rms of how m u c h Jesus k n e w about the woman. The wri ter includes the verses above from Psalm


CATHIE LEIMENSTOLL

139 in the discussion, suggesting that we worship a G o d w h o bo th knows us intimately and loves us comple te ly 6 After present ing this material in a s tudy g roup I was facilitating, I ask the part icipants, "How do you feel w h e n you think about G o d knowing you so completely?" Immediately, a shy y o u n g w o m a n in the g roup exclaimed with a feigned look of terror, "Aaahl" Even w h e n we realize tha t God ' s complete knowledge of us is t empered with love, we still exper ience mixed feelings. Perhaps Psalm 139 gives the preacher the oppor tun i ty to emphasize that God ' s knowledge of us allows our needs to be k n o w n so that God ' s love for us can address those needs . We are k n o w n and loved as we are, so that, in turn, we can become the people G o d is calling us to be.

Viewing the divine knowledge and love that call us into a deeper relat ionship with God in this way enables a connect ion with the o ther lectionary texts of t h e day. The Gospel s tory is Jesus' call of Philip and Nathanae l to discipleship. Al though Nathanae l is skeptical of Philip's exuberant reporting of having found the Messiah, he agrees to "come and see" (John 1:46). W h e n Jesus sees Nathanael , he identifies h im as an "Israelite in w h o m there is n o deceit!" (v. 47). W h e n Nathanae l skeptically inquires h o w Jesus could possibly know that, Jesus informed Nathanae l that he saw him "under the fig tree before Philip called you" (v. 48). The point is, Jesus, the manifestation of the Divine, knows people intimately and lovingly calls t h e m beyond w h o they are to be the people they can become,

Call is also the focus in 1 Sam. 3:1-10. Samuel is p resented as trustwor thy and is called to carry the Lord's message of change and punishm e n t to the house of Eli. G o d knows t he wickedness of Eli's sons and a n n o u n c e s the consequences of that wickedness . This is a G o d w h o knows people intimately and acts o n tha t knowledge for blessing and pun ishment . Certainly, this passage recalls the paradoxical feelings w h e n we realize just h o w intimately God knows us and yet calls us to faithful, r ighteous living.

January 22, 2006—Third Sunday after the Epiphany P s . 62:5-12; Jonah 3:1-5,10:1 Cor. 7:29-31; Mark 1:14-20 This sect ion of Psalm 62 presents the t h e m e of t rus t ing in God. Psalm 62 is a r eminder of the musical na ture of the Book of Psalms. Many of us learned in seminary that t h e Book of Psalms was the "hymnbook of t h e Second Temple," Psalm 62 carries musical directions and nota t ions that remind us that this psalm was indeed par t of t h e worship exper ience of the

WINTER 2005 419

LECTIONARY STUDY

people. The instruct ion T o the leader" suggests that t h e nota t ions were being given to a g roup of musicians or a particular musical director responsible for leading t h e congregat ional singing. "According to Jedu thun" may relate to a particular style of singing, 7 and t h e obscure te rm selah could have marked a congregational response of s o m e sort. At any rate, we are reminded once again that, even t hough a psalm may express a personal situation, t h e communi ty is the place whe re worship occurs and where faith informs exper ience.

Psalm 62:5-12 expresses the psalmist 's t rust in God—in G o d alone does the psalmist feel safe, protected, and r edeemed (w. 6-7). This trust is so unwavering that the wri ter can advise the communi ty to claim the same trust (v. 8). Placing t rus t in o the r peop le or s ta tus or weal th is useless (v. 10). Such success and power are only illusions; they are he re today and gone tomorrow. O n t h e o ther hand, God ' s faithfulness is rock solid—strong as a fortress (v. 6). G o d provides the refuge tha t gives rest to t h e weary, s t rength to the weak, and h o p e to t h e hopeless. Surely, m e m b e r s of m o d e r n congregations yearn to hear such reassurance as they struggle to be faithful and to p u t their t rust in G o d in the midst of cultural influences tha t point instead to status, wealth, and d ishones ty as sources of security.

The t h e m e of trust can also connect this psalm to the o ther lectionary passages for this Sunday. The preacher may want to explore not only Jonah's inability to t rust in G o d and the consequences of that for Jonah bu t also t h e consequences for the Ninevites w h e n Jonah grudgingly follows God 's call. The passage from 1 Corinthians is a warning that the end is near and people should respond accordingly. Certainly, trusting in the Lord would be imperative in anticipating the day of judgment , the fulfillment of salvation. Finally, the Gospel passage is Mark's t rea tment of Jesus' calling of the first disciples. The distinctive element in Mark's account of the calling is his use of the word "immediately." Mark wants to stress the urgency of Jesus' ensuing ministry. However, in the context of trust, t he word may also suggest that Simon, Andrew, James, and John responded to Jesus' call because they immediately trusted the O n e w h o called them, the manifestation of the Divine. Here we have a "seashore epiphany."

January 29, 2006—Fourth Sunday after the Epiphany P s a l m 111; Deut 18:15-20; 1 Cor. 8:1-13; Mark 1:21-28 Psalm 111 can be identified in several different ways. It is a psalm of praise.


CATHIE LEIMENSTOLL

The psalmist begins wi th t h e imperative "Praise t h e LORD!" (v, 1) and t h e n explains the appropr ia teness of the c o m m a n d wi th a descript ion of the character of God. G o d does great works full of h o n o r and majesty, is righteous and merciful, r emember s the covenant, and redeems God ' s people . This descript ion picks u p the t h e m e of an ancient confession seen in Exod. 34:6; N u m . 14:18; Neh . 9:17, 31; and Jonah 4:2. 8 Thus, because this is the character of God, praise is the appropr ia te response of God ' s people .

O t h e r aspects of this psalm can lead to addit ional identification as to form. The fact that Psalm 111 is an alphabetic acrostic reminds o n e immediately of some of the Torah psalms that were used to teach and to suggest t h e orderliness of God ' s creation and rule. Additionally, v. 10, "The fear of the LORD is the beginning of wisdom," hints of a w i sdom psalm. Walter Brueggemann acknowledges those two possibilities b u t chooses to categorize Psalms 111 and 112 as "songs of retr ibution" and par t of a larger category of psalms he calls "psalms of orientat ion." 9 Psalms of or ien ta t ion "express a confident, serene se t t lement of faith issues. Some things are settled and beyond doubt , so that o n e does no t live and believe in the midst of overwhelming anxiety. Such a happy se t t lement of life's issues occurs because God is k n o w n to be reliable and trustworthy." 1 0 The acrostic form gives a sense of a world of order and stability, and the text suggests tha t recognizing and reverencing G o d gives a pe rson the wisdom n e e d e d to live appropriately wi th praise and joy.

The Gospel lection is the first healing Jesus performs. In Capernaum, Jesus is confronted in the synagogue by a m a n wi th an unclean spirit. This spirit identifies Jesus as the "Holy O n e of God" (v. 24), a manifestat ion of the Divine. As the Holy O n e of God, Jesus embodies the character of God; and this character is just beginning to be revealed in this first encoun te r of healing in the synagogue. This is a G o d w h o redeems people—in this case, from an unclean spirit—and restores their lives to order and stability, It is just t h e beginning of the encoun te r s Jesus will have wi th a wide variety of people: Simon's mother-in-law, a leper, a paralytic, and the disciples themselves. These encounters will restore wholeness , br ing wisdom, and order the world in a new way.

The people in C a p e r n a u m are amazed and respond appropriately—as d o we—with praise: "A n e w teaching—with authority!" (v. 27). Epiphany! Glory!

WINTER 2005 421

LECTIONARY STUDY

Cathie Leimenstoll is Pastor ofRehoboth United Methodist Church in Gallatin, Tennessee.

Endnotes 1. Hoyt Hickman, D o n B. Saliers, Laurence Hull Stookey, James F. White, Handbook of the Christian Year (Nashville; Parthenon. 1986), 23. 2. Nahum M. Sarna, "Understanding the Book of Psalms,M Bible Review (August 1993): 32. 3. Ibid., 32. 4. Walter Brueggemann, The Message of the Psalms: A Theological Commentary (Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1984), 143. 5. Philip Yancey, The Bible Jesus Read (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1999), 125. 6. Marjorie J. Thompson and Melissa Tidwell, Companions in Christ: The Way of Grace, Leader's Guide (Nashville: Upper Room, 2004), 52. 7. Wayne A. Meeks, ed., The Harper Collins Study Bible (London: Harper Collins Publishers, 1989), n.77:l-20,870. 8. Ibid., no. 103.8, 895. 9. Brueggemann, The Message of the Psalms, 45. 10. Ibid., 25.


Issues In; Science and Religion

J O S E P H A . B R A C K E N , S . J .

From the very beginning of Christ ianity there have b e e n tensions be tween those wishing to uphold t h e pur i ty of t h e gospel message in a

hostile or indifferent secular world and those hop ing to make that s ame gospel message more appeal ing th rough accommoda t ion to the prevailing t hough t pa t terns of t h e day. O n e need th ink only of Tertullian's celebrated comment , "What indeed has Athens to do wi th Jerusalem?" and contrast it wi th t h e more philosophical approaches to the exposi t ion of Chris t ian doct r ine of Justin Martyr, C lement of Alexandria, and, above all, Origen. In fact, even Tertullian used philosophical a rguments w h e n it sui ted his apologetic purposes . So it is no t surpris ing that in the Middle Ages Thomas Aquinas, for example, was suspected of heresy because he used the philosophy of Aristotle to undergird his phi losophical / theological s cheme in the Summa Theologiae and o ther writings. Of course, in t h e early m o d e r n period, this tension became more p ronounced because the Aristotelianism once d e e m e d heretical by some had b e c o m e synonymous wi th the necessary philosophical presupposi t ions of the Christ ian faith. As Galileo found out, to quest ion the philosophical worldview implicit in Aristotelianism was sufficient g rounds for a charge of heresy.

At the present time, the tension be tween classical Christ ian belief and the latest advances in science and technology centers on the complex of issues generated by the not ion of evolution and, in particular, the origin of the h u m a n species. From the t ime of Darwin onward, creationism (i.e., t he belief that the universe was created by God in t h e manne r described in Genesis 1) has always been quite popular among a large segment of conservatively or iented Christians in N o r t h America. To be sure, there are "strict creationists," w h o argue that God created the world in literally six days, and there are "progressive creationists," w h o interpret the "days" of t h e biblical account as different ages of the world. Likewise, there are "scientific creationists," who, at present, are arguing in the courts of this count ry that

QUARTERLY REVIEW

VOLUME 25, NUMBER 4, WINTER 2005 423

SCIENCE A N D RELIGION

the creationist hypothesis should be regarded as a legitimate alternative to contemporary theor ies of evolution in high-school classrooms. But all creationists share a c o m m o n presupposit ion, namely, that God ' s Word as revealed in the Bible has to be safeguarded against the inroads of the "atheistic materialism" implicit in the use of contemporary scientific method . O n one level, of course, they are r igh t Scientists deliberately prescind from the quest ion of God ' s existence and activity in this world so as to focus o n purely natural explanations of wha t happens . But this methodological materialism does not necessarily imply ontological materialism, or atheism, since many scientists are practicing Christ ians w h o d o science as par t of their personal mission and ministry. Of course, these same scientists have to reconcile within their own minds and hear ts the somet imes conflicting claims of religion and science; and this task is no t always easy.

For example, Charles Darwin , while wri t ing the Origin of Species (1859), clearly believed in the existence of G o d and in divinely ordained laws of nature . But by the t ime he publ ished The Descent of Man in 1871, he had become an agnostic, finding it impossible to believe in the existence of a personal G o d w h o allowed for so m u c h pain and suffering as a consequence of t h e pitiless workings of the principle of natural selection in nature . But theistic scientists like Asa Gray (1810-1888) in the Uni ted States saw in evolution God ' s mechan i sm for ongoing creation. The difference be tween Darwin and Gray—indeed, t h e difference be tween materialistic and theistic believers in evolution to this day—has to d o with the issue of chance versus purpose in t h e unde r s t and ing of evolution. Darwin and his followers concluded that natural selection was based o n strictly r andom changes in bodily design which, given an unexpec ted alteration in environmenta l condi t ions, would favor cer tain species over o ther species and certain individuals over o the r individuals wi th in a given species. Accordingly, evolution is purposeless—a process of ongoing exper imentat ion in na ture wi th n o evident goal beyond the survival of the individual. In contrast, Gray and o ther theistic scientists (e.g., Ar thu r Peacocke and John Polkinghorne) to this day insist tha t chance in na ture is par t of God 's plan for creation. G o d uses the spontane i ty wi thin na ture to br ing forth n e w and more complex forms of life. While this trial-and-error approach to t h e work of creation will inevitably involve pain and suffering for mos t creatures, m o r e advanced forms of life, such as h u m a n beings, would presumably never have come into existence wi thou t it. O n e p rominen t


JOSEPII A. BRACKEN, S.J.

con tempora ry theologian w h o has m a d e this case for an "unfinished universe" qui te well is John Haugh t in his much-acclaimed books God after Darwin (2000) and, more recently, Deeper Than Darwin (2004).

Ano the r area in which tens ion has existed be tween the traditional claims of religion and theor ies based o n scientific research is in t h e area k n o w n as sociobiology—the conscious application of the principle of natural selection to t h e survival and propagat ion of popula t ions ra ther than simply of individuals wi thin a given populat ion. The key issue he re is t h e no t ion of altruism, t he sacrifice of self-interest for the sake of another . For example, Edward O. Wilson, in his book Sociobiology (1975) claims tha t al truism is less a conscious choice on our par t t han an unconsc ious mechanism in our bodies whereby our genes seek to reproduce themselves. For al truism is normally beneficial for bo th individual and g roup survival. What is usually at stake in those cases where individuals make unusua l sacrifices to mee t the needs of o thers is still enl ightened self-interest. O n e has a vested self-interest in protect ing family and friends from harm. In the rare cases where assistance is offered to a total stranger, it is d o n e in the expecta t ion that this person or s o m e o n e else will d o the same for m e at a later date, Richard Dawkins aptly s u m m e d up this line of t hough t in his controversial book The Selfish Gene (1989): G e n e s are ruthlessly selfish but, likewise, qui te clever in finding ways to reproduce themselves.

Naturally, this line of thinking represents an affront to the traditional beliefs of Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and most of the o ther world religions. At least for the first three, altruism is g rounded in God 's antecedent love for h u m a n beings and all other creatures. We respond in love to God and to one another because we have consciously or unconsciously already experienced God 's care and concern for us. But a simple denial of Wilson's and Hawkins's claims in the name of personal religious experience does little to advance the ongoing religion-and-science dialogue, As with the claims made by scientists about the key role of chance in cosmic evolution, so Christian philosophers and theologians need to learn more about the genetic base of h u m a n behavior and make appropriate qualifications to the otherwise sweeping claims of those same geneticists. As a starting point, they may well choose to read Pitirim Sorokin's classic work The Ways and Power of Love (1954; reissued 2002). A Harvard sociologist, Sorokin sought in that book to s tudy love from a scientific perspective in all its various dimensions. His work was largely snubbed by his colleagues in sociology, but in recent years has been taken up

WINTER 2005 425


again by Stephen Post and his collaborators at the Institute for Research o n Unlimited Love at Case Western Reserve University, with funding from the John Templeton Foundation. A volume of essays edited by Post, Lynn Underwood, Jeffrey Schloss, and William Hurlbut and published under the tide Altruism and Altruistic Love (2002) sets forth their findings thus far. O n e contributor, Stephen Pope of Boston College, found a way to combine Thomas Aquinas 's ordo caritatis (the "proper order of love," beginning with love toward members of one 's immediate family) wi th theories about t h e influence of genes on h u m a n behavior as indicated above.

A third area whe re the religion-and-science dialogue has recently intensified is in neurophysiology, whe re empirical evidence is building u p that the classical dist inction be tween the soul and t h e b o d y or, more specifically, the mind and the brain cannot be sustained. Scientists on principle d o not favor dualistic schemes in which a break in the cont inui ty of natural processes is s t ipulated so tha t a n e w a n d m o r e complex form of existence and activity can be brought into being. Hence , many would prefer to th ink of consciousness as a function of the h u m a n brain and of the brain itself as a p roduc t of still-lower-level bodily, even subatomic, processes. Others are willing to admit top-down as well as bo t tom-up causat ion wi thin the h u m a n body so tha t t h e mind is no t reducible to t h e brain bu t nevertheless is intrinsically d e p e n d e n t u p o n the brain for its p roper functioning. Thus, w h e n t h e brain is damaged, t h e m i n d suffers an irreparable loss; a n d w h e n brain activity ceases at death, the mind, or soul, dies wi th it. Faced wi th these alternatives, s o m e theologians have conceded that the mind, or soul, is indeed only functionally distinct from t h e brain and o ther bodily processes since t h e psychosomatic uni ty of t h e h u m a n being is beyond dispute. At the same time, they defend traditional belief in personal immortality or life after dea th o n the g rounds that G o d reconst i tutes a h u m a n be ing as an immaterial reality wi th a spiritual b o d y immediate ly after dea th so that the individual can enjoy eternal life wi th G o d as promised in the N e w Testament (see, e.g., Whatever Happened to the Soul? [1998]).

However, in his book The Emergent Self (1999), William Hasker argues tha t ongoing personal identi ty seems to be lost wi th this under s t and ing of the doctr ine of resurrection. Conceivably G o d could create two or m o r e replicas of t h e deceased person ra ther than just one . In addit ion, would even the single replica of a deceased pe r son exper ience itself as identical wi th its former bodily self or as a n e w and qui te different reality? As his


JOSEPH A. BRACKEN, S.J.

own solution to the issue of bodily resurrection, Hasker argues first tha t in place of the Platonic dualism of mat ter and mind p roposed by Ren6 Descartes , or even the Aristotelian dualism of mat ter and form worked out by Thomas Aquinas in the Middle Ages, Chris t ian phi losophers and theologians should think in te rms of "emergent dualism." By tha t t e rm he means that t h e mind, or consciousness , is indeed emergent out of the h u m a n brain as soon as the latter has at ta ined a specific level of complexity bu t that, once emergent , it can exercise top-down causation. Mind is no t simply the passive product of neuronal activity bu t an agent in its o w n right that, in some measure , controls bo th the workings of the brain and t h e h u m a n body as a whole. Just as a magne t generates a magnet ic field wi th properties separate from the magnet , so the brain generates a field of consciousness distinct from itself as an organ of the body. Second, he concludes that G o d could conceivably sustain this "soul-field" after the dea th of the b o d y and even provide the soul-field wi th a spiritual body fitted to its n e w level of existence and activity. Hasker stresses that this is only an analogy, not a causal explanation, since t h e not ion of "field" even a m o n g natural scientists is so ambiguous, at least at present.

Underlying Hasker 's proposal , of course, is still ano the r issue o n which not only theologians and natural scientists disagree b u t o n which theologians a m o n g themselves are divided, namely, the appropr ia te mode l for the G o d - w o r l d relationship. If G o d is Pure Spirit, t hen h o w could G o d br ing into existence a material world and t h e n exercise providence over tha t world wi thou t interfering with its normal opera t ion in t e rms of natural laws? Thomas Aquinas provided the classical mode l for the G o d - w o r l d relat ionship with his con ten t ion in Summa Theologiae (I, Q. 8, art. 3) that God, t hough t ranscendent of the world as its Creator, is nevertheless i m m a n e n t within it in vir tue of divine knowledge and power. Creat ion exists only because G o d gives it t he power to be at every m o m e n t and guides it in its exercise of that same limited power. But many con temporary theologians have no ted that, while G o d is thus i m m a n e n t wi thin the world, the world is not i m m a n e n t wi thin God. God and t h e world are basically separate realities; and the p rob lem of divine activity first in creating a material world and then in guiding its deve lopment once created still remains.

What these same theologians p ropose instead is the no t ion of panen-theism, i.e., tha t everything finite exists in G o d as the sole infinite be ing and yet maintains its o w n existence apart from God. Of course, the p rob lem is

WINTER 2005 427


h o w to explain this non-dual reality of creation apart from G o d wi thout lapsing into pantheism. Charles Har t shorne , an early s tuden t of the process-oriented phi losophy of Alfred N o r t h Whitehead, suggested tha t G o d should be unde r s tood as the "soul" of the universe, wi th the universe itself as God ' s "body." Some years later, in her book Models of God (1987), Sallie McFague endorsed t h e same under s t and ing of t h e God-wor ld relat ionship bu t wi thou t explicit reference to Whitehead 's philosophy. In bo th cases, G o d is said to be i m m a n e n t in the world as the soul is i m m a n e n t in the body. The limitations of the analogy, however, are likewise clear. G o d and creatures seem thereby to be too closely aligned wi th o n e another . G o d needs a "body" (if no t this world, t hen some o ther world) in order to be God. Likewise, h u m a n beings and o ther creatures are reduced to divine "body-parts," wi th little or n o sense of i ndependen t existence and activity.

In his book Nature, Human Nature, and God (2002), Ian Barbour suggests tha t a m o r e apt model for the G o d - w o r l d relat ionship might be tha t of a cosmic commun i ty of enti t ies of which G o d is the p reeminen t member . In this way G o d and creatures could share a c o m m o n "space" in which to engage o n e ano the r while mainta in ing their necessary differences from one another . In my own work (see The One in the Many [2001]), I have urged that the mode l of a cosmic commun i ty would be further enhanced if G o d were unders tood in explicitly tr ini tarian terms, i.e., if creation were conceived as taking place wi thin the all-encompassing space, or field, of activity proper to the divine persons in their dynamic interrelation (on this point, see also Denis Edwards, The God of Evolution: A Trinitarian Theology [1999]). Creatures would t hus come forth from G o d by divine decree, exist in God consciously or unconsciously dur ing their t ime in this world, and eventually re turn to G o d so as to share in e ternal life. All this speculation, of course, only points the way to wha t John Haugh t in Deeper than Darwin called "a deeper theology," one in which con tempora ry belief in God is linked to a phi losophy and theology of evolution wi th conscious reliance o n explicitly process- and future-oriented m o d e s of thought . Yet the exact shape of this evolut ionary scheme is still n o t agreed upon . Readers wi th t ime and interest in t h e subject would be well advised to read o n a regular basis the articles in two academically or iented religion-and-science periodicals, Zygon and Theology and Science. Likewise, for more popular presentat ions of many of the same issues, Science and Theology News and Science and Spirit, two periodicals sponsored by t h e John Templeton Foundat ion, could


JOSEPH A. BRACKEN, S.J.

be consulted. Finally, for In ternet users, the w e b site at www.metanexus .net provides m u c h useful information abou t conferences and n e w publications in the field of science and religion.

Joseph A. Bracken, SJ„ is Director Emeritus of the Brueggeman Center for Dialogue at Xavier University in Cincinnati, Ohio.

Works Cited Altruism and Altruistic Love: Science, Philosophy, Si Religion in Dialogue, ed. by S tephen G. Post, Lynn G, Unde rwood , Jeffrey B. Schloss, and William B. Hurlbut (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002). Barbour, Ian G. Nature, Human Nature, and God (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2002). Bracken, Joseph A. The One in the Many: A Contemporary Reconstruction of the God-World Relationship (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001), Dawkins, Richard. The Selfish Gene (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989). Edwards, Denis, The God of Evolution: A Trinitarian Theology (New York: Paulist, 1999). Hasker, William. The Emergent Self (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999), Haught , John F. God after Darwin: A Theology of Evolution (Boulder, CO: Westview, 2000).

. Deeper than Darwin: The Prospects for Religion in the Age of Evolution (Boulder, CO: Westview, 2003). McFague , Sallie. Models of God: Theology for an Ecological, Nuclear Age (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1987). Peacocke, Arthur. Theology for a Scientific Age: Being and Becoming-Natural, Divine, and Human (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993). Polk inghorne , John. Belief in God in an Age of Science (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998). Science and Religion: A Historical Introduction, ed. by G a r y B. F e r n g r e n (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2002), Sorokin, Pitirim A. The Ways and Power of Love: Types, Factors, and Techniques of Moral Transformation (Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation Press, 2002), Whatever Happened to the Soul? Scientific and Theological Portraits of Human Nature, ed. by Warren S. Brown, Nancey Murphy, and H. Newton Malony (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1998). Wilson, Edward O. Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975).

WINTER 2005 429

http://www.metanexus.net

The Logic Of Renewal, by William J. Abraham (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans , 2003)

Across the street from o n e of our parsonages there spread out a beautiful cemetery, ado rned wi th oaks and graves and capacious walkways

from m e a d o w to meadow. In the winter, our children used t h e hillsides to toboggan. In the summer , they played ball across the tombs . We marked t h e fall wi th long walks amid the sarcophagi. I can still see my father lifting his g randson to sit, for a momen t , astr ide a grave-top elk.

In the Nor theas t e rn Jurisdiction of The Uni ted Methodis t Church, we may think of our minis t ry after t h e m a n n e r of children playing in t h e graveyard. Wyoming Conference lost 5 percent of its membersh ip in o n e year (2003). N o r t h Central N e w York is a combina t ion of 70,000 m e m b e r s from N o r t h e r n and 80,000 m e m b e r s from Central a genera t ion ago. Today the total member sh ip is u n d e r 80,000. N e w Jersey had a membersh ip of 200,000 thir ty years ago; today it is 100,000. Those of us r iding sleds and catching flies and g rounders in minis t ry today d o so a top a full graveyard. In The Logic of Renewal, Abraham cites R. R. Reno's sober ing words, "As a believer in the n o w late- (or post-) m o d e r n West, I suffer t h e d imin ishment and debili tation of Christianity. The church . . . is in ruins. If you, the

reader, have faith, t h e n you suffer this ruinat ion as well To be in t h e church is to endu re a broken form of life" (140). N o t all jurisdictions in the Uni ted States are so conditioned—yet. But the exper ience of the Nor theas t awaits others , as building gives way to rebuilding and n e w ministry to the very different labors of renewal.

For those (still relatively few) w h o will admit what condi t ion our condit ion is in, Abraham's book may provide some substantive reflection, especially in its last forty pages. There, he helps us come u p o n a most interesting voice in his s u m m e r reading collection, that of R. R. Reno. And Abraham "comes clean," if not entirely clear, about his own view of t h e stew.

The book provides a "map" of fourteen opt ions in renewal, summarized here in a sen tence each. Draper: Renewal requires a literalistic reading of Scripture, rejection of existentialism and t h e scientific method ,

430 QUARTERLY REVIEW VOLUME 25, NUMBER 4, WINTER 2005

ROBERT ALLAN HILL

and avoidance of the world's religions. Bennett; Renewal d e p e n d s o n a particular (Augustinian) encoun te r wi th the Holy Spirit. Newbigin: Renewal depends o n a robus t representa t ion of classical dogma. Spong; Renewal depends o n total rejection of the d o g m a and its forms, espoused by Newbigin. Ruether; Renewal requires a kind of free-church community , characterized by healing, friendship, and nur ture . Ratzinger: Renewal needs to rely on the uni ty and catholicity of the b o d y of Christ, protected by the Bishop of Rome. King and Romero: Renewal will come in the genuine struggle for justice. Schmemann: Renewal begins wi th eucharist ic revival. Bilezikian: Renewal is such to the extent that it is an ongoing, carefully crafted, seeker event. Cupitt : The church needs to die to make way for t h e Kingdom, which is secular life as we n o w know it. N o r m a n : Renewal needs only a pr ies thood commit ted to the teaching of revealed doctr inal t ruth . Wagner: Renewal requires the combina t ion of technical and spiritual principles of church growth. Reno: Renewal requires t h e faithful to endu re t h e church's ruin, ne i ther runn ing away into dis tancing nor clamoring for separat ion.

A b r a h a m has chosen to affirm wi thou t qualification t h e struggle for justice in t h e voices and lives of King and Romero as an essential feature of au thent ic renewal. Otherwise , in the above list (itself a s u m m a r y of about 150 pages in Logic, which for their par t are a s u m m a r y of 59 books and articles), the author has found s t rengths and weaknesses to consider in each wri ter and n o o ther single po in t of full affirmation. This is a commendab le choice. Abraham's o w n view of renewal can be summar ized in two points . 1. The logic of real renewal is theological, ecclesiological, simple, paradoxical, discerning, and just. 2. Renewal requires a ques t for intellectual integri ty that avoids whin ing pessimism, eschews universalistic tendencies , p romotes justice (narrowly defined), replaces Tillich wi th August ine, avoids Congregat ional i sm, affirms Pentecostals, acclaims the work of the Holy Spirit (traditionally construed), eagerly discusses epistemology, and takes the long view.

The Logic of Renewal seems to be an assor tment of notes from s u m m e r reading, summar ized with liberal citation, in varied author ia l p a i r i n g s -denominat ional , thematic , and theological. (The chapters formed the basis of earlier public addresses.) As such, it is a helpful topography of s o m e recent literature o n renewal. The book 's t reasure comes at the e n d in a cursory review of the work of R. R. Reno. O n c e an editor at Harper Collins

WINTER 2005 431

LOGIC OF RENEWAL/CLAIMING THEOLOGY IN THE PULPIT

was asked h o w he could read h u n d r e d s of books and know which ones to print. "I k n o w in a paragraph, or a page, w h o can write . You know fast. Did you ever listen to s o m e b o d y sing? You don ' t need the whole opera. A verse will do." Reno can sing. I am going to use t h e honora r ium for wri t ing this review to buy his book In the Ruins of the Church: Sustaining Faith in an Age of Diminished Christianity (Grand Rapids: Brazos, 2002).

Robert Allan Hill is Senior Minister at Asbury First United Methodist Church in Rochester, New York.

Claiming Theology in the Pulpit by Bur ton Z. Cooper and John S. McClure (Louisville: Wes tmins te r / John Knox, 2003)

Over the past three decades, preaching has been reinvigorated by the "turn to the listener," signaled by the groundbreaking work of Fred

Craddock and amplified by a host of teachers and preachers. This fruitful n e w direction in homiletics, especially wi th the appeal of an inductive form, has taught us to conceive and prepare se rmons that are more a t tuned to the person in t h e pew, to the way hearers of se rmons listen and respond to preaching. Any preacher w h o missed this tu rn in the theory and practice of homiletics mus t have b e e n locked in the church basement for a generation.

While t h e gains for preaching and s e r m o n listening have been immense , yellow flags of caut ion have begun to appear. With all this concern for the "fittingness" of a se rmon 's form, particularly a form based u p o n the listener's and preacher 's experience, wha t h a p p e n s to theology? In our haste to shape a s e r m o n to t h e contours of the listeners' perceptions, have we tossed theological integri ty aside? Teachers of preaching have b e g u n to be conce rned that after three or four years of formal seminary educat ion, s tudents ' s e rmons are often theologically shallow, muddled, or vapid. O n e fears tha t the same state of affairs broadly prevails in the church. If t h e pulpit has eschewed theology, should we be surpr ised that congregat ions are also perplexed abou t their own theological convictions? Such a si tuation begs for a "turn to theology" in preaching, which is n o w well underway.

Claiming Theology in the Pulpit is o n e of t h e bes t guides thus far to preaching wi th theological integrity. Cooper , professor emeri tus of Philosophical Theology at Louisville Presbyterian Theological Seminary,


G. LEE RAMSEY, JR.

and McClure, professor of Homilet ics at Vanderbilt University Divinity School, offer s turdy suppor t for preachers w h o want to gain solid theological footing for preaching, Convinced that preaching mat ters and that "congregations respond appreciatively, even enthusiastically to good preaching," the au thors help the beginning and well-seasoned preacher unde r s t and h o w to achieve "a clear and consis tent theological perspect ive in the con ten t of the se rmon" (1).

These wise guides know that wha t preaching needs is no t formal theology per se but theological awareness o n the par t of the preacher. They are no t appealing for a re turn to drab doctr inal se rmons . Rather, they are calling for a higher level of theological self-awareness o n the par t of t h e preacher that will translate into lively and theologically informed se rmons that will engage the congregat ion in more faithful under s t and ing of themselves, the work of the church in the world, and, ultimately, the work of God. They d o not want to force theological o r thodoxy u p o n the preacher. Instead, recognizing the pluralism that is inherent in congregational and social life today, they claim that a preacher 's sha rpened awareness of theological difference can help to "mitigate misunders tand ing of the sermon, provide t h e basis for an at t i tude of respectful engagement wi th divergent posi t ions o n theological and social issues, and widen the reach and positive power of the sermon" (5).

The book unfolds in two parts . Part 1 lays ou t a theological profile that covers method , authority, and worldview (the h idden theological assumpt ions of the preacher and t h e congregation) and examines five consciously held theological categories: theodicy, a tonement , ethics and ecclesiology, the relation of Christianity to o ther religions, and eternal life/eschatology. A genuine s t rength of t h e book is the way in which Cooper and McClure define their categories succinctly yet sufficiently. The busy preacher can begin to locate him- or herself, for example, wi th respect to theodicy or views of the A t o n e m e n t wi thou t becoming overwhelmed by theory. They include a helpful profile and chart in the append ix tha t encourage t h e reader to identify his or her own theological convictions. Indeed, o n e way to read the book is to look first at the profile and chart to get a sense of Coope r and McClure 's categories and t hen to read the text for definitions and clarifications.

Part 2 demons t ra tes h o w the theological profile can be used in s e r m o n bra ins torming and preparat ion. It includes actual t ranscripts from conver-

WINTER 2005 433

CLAIMING THEOLOGY IN THE PULPIT

sat ions a m o n g preachers and the au thors while working with the theological profiles. In this way, t h e au thors "show and tell" h o w preachers gain clarity about their own theological assumpt ions and h o w these assumpt ions affect the con ten t of a sermon. The book concludes wi th sample s e rmons from bo th Coope r and McClure in which they evaluate each other 's s e rmons according to the theological profile.

If there is a slight weakness in this book, it is mostly d u e to its brevity (142 pages). The theological profile will prove so helpful to many working preachers that they will wish for a more comprehens ive t rea tment of o ther categories of Christ ian doctr ine. If so, readers might consul t McClure 's earlier work in The Four Codes of Preaching for a more expansive presentation. Finally, the au thors acknowledge tha t the theology of the listener is dynamically related to t h e theology of the preacher. Yet t h e book does no t explore t h e theology of those w h o listen regularly to the proclaimed word or how the listeners ' theology(ies) bear u p o n the theological shape of the sermon. This is no t so m u c h a fault wi th the book, since Cooper and McClure d o no t in tend such exploration, as it is an anticipation of further s tudy in this direction. For example, Ronald Allen and Mary Alice Mulligan's recently released Believing in Preaching: What Listeners Hear in Sermons (Chalice, 2005) takes n e w str ides d o w n the road of unders tand ing the theology(ies) of t h e s e rmon listener.

For every preacher or teacher of preaching w h o has wanted be t te r theological grips for s e r m o n concept ion and preparat ion, this book is a gift. Well-written, clear, and concise, it will help the preacher go to the pulpit wi th renewed confidence that proclaiming t h e gospel wi th theological integrity is not only possible bu t crucial for the church in the world today.

G. Lee Ramsey, Jr., is Professor of Pastoral Care and Pastoral Theology at Memphis Theological Seminary and the author of Care-full Preaching; From Sermon to Car ing C o m m u n i t y (Chalice, 2000).


INDEX TO VOLUME 25 ,2005

WINTER 2005 435

Index to Volume 25, 2005

E d i t o r i a l

"Blessed Are the Peacemakers," 5-6 Come, Holy Spirit, 11546 The Promise of Pragmatism for Theology, 225-26 Extending the Witness and Service of Christ in t h e World, 337-38

I s s u e T h e m e

The Palestine-Israel Conflict: A Short History, E l a i n e C. H a g o p i a n , 7-30 Reflections of a Recovered Christ ian Zionist, B a r r y E. Bryan t , 31-43 Uni ted Methodis ts and the Israeli-Palestinian Situation, R h o n d a M c C a r t y , 44-59 The Conflict over Palestine: A Palestinian Chris t ian Response, Na i rn Ateek , 60-72 A Jewish Renewal Unders tand ing of the State of Israel, Michae l L e r n e r , 73-82 The Emerging Holiness Movement , E l a i n e A. H e a t h , 117-25 The Theological Significance of the Hol iness Movement , S a m u e l M. Powel l , 126-40 "The Arts of Holy Living": Holiness and the M e a n s of Grace, R e b e k a h Miles , 141-57 H o w America Got the Holy Ghost : The Uniqueness of the African-Amer ican Exper ience of Holiness, Love H e n r y W h e l c h e l , Jr., 158-70 Pragmatism's Empowermen t of Religious Life, S t u a r t R o s e n b a u m , 227-40 Pragmatism and Theology's Truth, R o b e r t C u m m i n g s Nevil le , 241-53 So H u m a n a Book: Pragmatism and Scriptural Authority, Cl i f ton F. G u t h r i e , 254-73 Me thod i sm and Pragmatism: Promise or Peril? T y r o n I n b o d y , 274-91 Pastoral Counsel ing in the Uni ted Methodis t Tradition: His tory and Issues, D o n a l d C. H o u t s , 339-52 Wesleyan Roots of Pastoral Care and Counsel ing, T h e o d o r e R u n y o n , 353-64 Pastoral Counsel ing as Faithful Practice amid Liminality, Uncertainty, and Multiplicity, E m m a n u e l Y. Lar tey , 366-76 Professional Pastoral Counsel ing in the Uni ted Methodis t Mode , Michae l D . Po t t s , 377-86

INDEX TO VOLUME 25 ,2005

United Methodis t Pastoral Counselors Reflect, R i c h a r d B r u e h l , W. Victor Maloy, A n n e R o s s S tewar t , 387-95

O u t s i d e t h e T h e m e

Symposium: Bruce W. Robbins, A World Parish? Hopes and Challenges of The United Methodist Church in a Global Setting (Nashville: Abingdon, 2004), T i m M c C I e n d o n , H e i n r i c h Bolleter , R u d i g e r M i n o r , B r u c e R o b b i n s , 171-89 Coaching, Pastoral Counsel ing, and Ministry, T h o m a s R, H a w k i n s , 292-303 Wesley, the Const i tut ion, and Secular Human i sm, T h e o d o r e W. J e n n i n g s , Jr., 396-406

T h e C h u r c h I n R e v i e w

The Uni ted Methodis t Church as a Global Church, D a v i d J. L a w s o n ; Pa t r i ck Streiff, 83-87 The Key to Renewal in The United Methodis t Church, E l a ine S tanovsky ; R o n a l d K. C r a n d a l l , 190-96 Will This Holy Mystery Serve Uni ted Methodis t s Well? Wi l l i am M c D o n a l d ; K a t h y Black, 304-10 H o w can The Uni ted Methodis t Church most effectively employ licensed local pastors in ministry? G a r y D . M o o d y ; J a m e s L. Mayfield, 407-13

A W o r d o n t h e W o r d

Lectionary Study. J o h n C. H o l b e r t (Spring), 89-100; J o h n Col le t t (Summer), 197-208; Wi l l i am Turner , Jr. (Fall), 311-22; C a t h i e L e i m e n s t o l l (Winter), 414-22 Issues In: World Mission, Joon-S ik P a r k (Spring), 101-07; Philosophy of Religion, W i l l i a m H a s k e r (Summer), 209-15; U.S. La t ino/Lat ina Theology, H a r o l d J. R e c i n o s (Fall), 323-30; Science and Religion, J o s e p h A. Bracken , S J . (Winter), 423-29

B o o k R e v i e w s

Lovett H. Weems, Jr., Take the Next Step: Leading Lasting Change in the Church (Abingdon, 2003), El ise Es l inger , E l i z a b e t h W o u r m s , R i ch a rd Esl inger , 108-09 Riley B. Case, Evangelical and Methodist: A Popular History (Abingdon, 2004), Laceye E. W a r n e r , 109-110 Kenda Creasy Dean, Practicing Passion: Youth and the Quest for a Passionate


INDEX TO VOLUME 25, 2005

Church (Eerdmans, 2004), S u s a n H . Hay, 216-17 Kenne th H. Carter, Jr., A Way of Life in the World; Spiritual Practices for United Methodists (Abingdon, 2004), V o n W. U n r u h , 217-18 Ellis Cose, Bone to Pick: Of Forgiveness, Reconciliation, Reparation, and Revenge (Atria Books), Y o u t h a H a r d m a n - C r o m w e l l , 219-20 William J. Abraham, The Logic of Renewal (Eerdmans, 2002), R o b e r t A l l a n Hill, 430-32 Bur ton Z. Cooper and John S. McClure, Claiming Theology in the Pulpit (Westminster /John Knox, 2003), G. L e e R a m s e y , 432-34

WINTER 2005 437

IN TfflS ISSUE: Issue Theme:

Practicing Pastoral Counsel ing in t he United Methodis t Mode

Pastoral Counse l ing in the United Method i s t Tradition: His tory and Issues

Donald C. Houts

Wesleyan Roots of Pastoral Care and Counsel ing Theodore Runyon

Pastoral Counse l ing as Faithful Practice amid Liminality. Uncertainty, and Multiplicity

Emmanuel Y. Lartey

Professional Pastoral Counse l ing in the Uni ted Methodis t M o d e Michael D. Pot:s

United Methodis t Pastoral Counselors Reflect Richard Bruehl

W. Victor Malay Anne Ross Stewart

Outs ide t he Theme Wesley, the Const i tut ion, and Secular H u m a n i s m

Theodore W. Jennings. Jr.

The Church in Review Effectively Employing Licensed Local Pastors in Ministry

Gary D. Moody James L. Mayjield

A Word on the Word Lect ionary Study Cathie Leimenstoll

Issues In: Science and Religion

Joseph A. Bracken. S.J.

Book Reviews The Logic of Renewal, by William J. Abraham (Eerdmans, 2002)

Reviewer Rober t Allan Hill

Claiming Iheology in the Pulpit, by Bur ton Z Coope r and John S. McClure (Westminster /John Knox. 2003) Reviewer. G. Lee Ramsey

winter 2005 quarterly review - theological resources for ministry

Documents