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4-H WILDLIFE PROJECT—INTERMEDIATE UNIT BOOK 1

The Wildlife Ecologist

College of Agricultural SciencesCooperative Extension

C O N T E N T SIntroduction 1

Chapter 1: Nature Journaling 2How to Begin 3The Rules 3Getting Started 4Sample Journal Page 5Activity 1—Leaf Trace 6Activity 2—The Daily Double 6Activity 3—Looking at Levels 6

Chapter 2: Wildlife Habitat 8Habitat: What Animals Need

to Live 8Habitat Suitability: Why Animals

Live Where They Do 12Factors That Affect

Habitat Suitability 14Wildlife Habitat Relationships 18Activity 4—Focus on Habitat 11Activity 5—Habitat Suitability 16Activity 6—Bird’s Eye View 17

Chapter 3: Wildlife Populations 20What Is a Wildlife Population? 20Estimating Wildlife Populations 23Activity 7—A Neighborhood

Census 24Activity 8—Birds At Your

Feeder 24

Chapter 4: Wildlife Communities 26The Wildlife Inventory 27Activity 9—Inventory Your

Study Area 28

Appendix: Habitat Requirements ofPennsylvania Wildlife 29Insects 29Amphibians 30Reptiles 30Birds 31Mammals 36

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I N T R O D U C T I O NThis 4-H wildlife project is designed to help youbecome familiar with the natural world around you,whether it’s in your backyard, schoolyard, neighbor-hood park, or in a rural area. The book is dividedinto four chapters. Chapter 1 introduces you to thepractice of nature journaling, a skill you will usethroughout the book. Chapter 2 introduces theconcept of habitat and how habitat suitability affectsthe animals you will find in an area. Chapter 3covers wildlife populations, the natural processesthat affect them, and how wildlife ecologists studypopulations. Chapter 4 describes how wildlifespecies and populations fit together into wildlifecommunities.

This book provides an opportunity to studywildlife ecology and wildlife management. Tobecome a true wildlife ecologist, however, you willneed to go beyond simply learning facts and infor-mation. Most wildlife ecologists have an understand-ing and respect, maybe even a love, for wildlife andtheir habitats. This feeling for the outdoors will takeroot and grow if you spend time with nature, observ-ing the seasons, watching wild animals, and thinkingabout how wild systems work. You can learn factsabout the outdoors from a book, but you can onlyreally understand the outdoors by spending time init. So go outdoors and begin to learn how the wildworld works—it will be a lesson that stays with youfor life!

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Chapter 1 N A T U R E J O U R N A L I N G“Nature journaling” is the act of recording yourobservations about nature in a notebook. A naturejournal can serve many purposes. It may be a simplenature diary in which you record the events of anouting so that you can remember them later. It maybe a field notebook where you keep lists of speciesseen, plants identified, and bird calls heard in thefield. Or it can be a creative space where you usedrawings, poems, songs, or other artwork to captureyour feelings while spending time outdoors. This4-H project book uses many nature journalingexercises to help you gain a feeling for the wildlifeand wild places around you.

Most wildlife biologists and wildlife artists keepjournals. Some famous journal writers are CharlesDarwin, notable for his theory of evolution andnatural selection; John James Audubon, famousornithologist and wildlife artist; John Muir, father ofour national parks; Rachel Carson, author whowarned the world about the dangers of pesticides; andAldo Leopold, the father of wildlife management.

One of Pennsylvania’s best-known wildlifeartists, Ned Smith, was an avid nature journalist.Ned made it a point to walk in the fields and forestsaround his home nearly every day, recording thewild sights and sounds he observed. Ned’s love ofjournaling was accompanied by a love of sketching,so his journals included both written descriptions ofwhat he saw and detailed sketches. Eventually,Ned’s love of nature led to a career in wildlifeillustration and outdoor writing. Later in his life, hebegan painting Pennsylvania wildlife and wildscenes. Today, his paintings are the most soughtafter of all Pennsylvania wildlife artists. There is notelling where the practice of nature journaling maylead you!

“. . . to stop rushing around, to sit quietly on thegrass, to switch off the world and come back tothe earth, to allow the eye to see a willow, abush, a cloud, a leaf . . . I have learned thatwhat I have not drawn I have never really seen.”—Frederick Franck

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HOW TO BEGINPeople keep nature journals for different reasons.Some make detailed sketches and close observa-tions of nature as a way of studying plants andanimals. Others write poetry or paint pictures ofthings they see in the wild that inspire their creativ-ity. There is no right or wrong way to keep a naturejournal—whichever way you decide to keep yours isthe right way for you.

The tools you need for nature journaling arevery simple. First, decide what type of book youwill use for your journal. Some people use a three-ring binder or notebook so that pages can be addedor rearranged as their journal changes. With a three-ring binder, you can grab any piece of paper and gooutside to write or draw as the mood strikes you.Later, you can punch three holes in the paper andadd it to your journal. Other people prefer to keep ajournal with bound pages, such as a compositionbook, spiral notebook, or artists’ sketchbook. Thechoice is yours.

After you decide on the book you will use, theonly other tools needed for nature journaling are afew pens and pencils. If you plan to draw or paint inyour journal, you may also want to get a basic set ofcolored pencils, markers, or paints. It is often best tokeep all of your journaling supplies in one place sothat you can grab them and go outside quickly whenthe mood strikes you. Keeping everything togetherin a canvas tote bag, book bag, or backpack makes iteasy to run outside and journal any time you want.

If you get in the habit of nature journaling now,it may become an activity you’ll enjoy doing all ofyour life. Many people find it interesting to lookback at journals they kept in their childhood to seehow things have changed over time. Journals canserve as reminders of trips and times thatyou otherwise might forget. It is alsofun to see how your writingand drawings change asyou get older!

THE RULES

The “rules” for nature journaling are simple.

● Never say that you can’t.You may think you are not good enough at drawingor writing to keep a journal. But the beauty of anature journal is that it is whatever you make it.Your journal time should be relaxing. Do not pushyourself to be perfect. If you are not artistic, youcan use words to describe what you see and usemagazine pictures or photographs to illustrate. Ifyou would prefer to draw or paint, you can fill yourjournal with images and use just a few words to adddetail. Your journal may be very scientific, whereyou record wind and weather conditions and iden-tify every species you see . . . or it may be veryartistic, where you draw and sketch leaves, flowers,and bugs, having no idea what species they are.Many journals will be somewhere between thesetwo extremes. The important thing to remember isthat everyone can keep some type of journal.

● Give your journal honest effort.Journaling gets easier the more you do it. In thisbook there will be certain activities requiring youto write in your journal. Your journal will be muchmore meaningful if you write in it more often thanthe book requires. At first, journaling may seemhard and you may not know what to write. As youdo it more often, journaling will become easierand be more enjoyable. Eventually, you may lookforward to journal time! The more you put into it,the more you will get backfrom journaling.

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● Write without distraction.Journal time will be more meaningful if you allowyour brain to slow down and think while you write.For this reason, do not try to journal while watchingTV, listening to the radio, or watching a soccergame in the park. Instead, go to a comfortablespot (either outdoors or indoors near a window)where you will not be interrupted for awhile. Youshould allow at least 15 minutes of quiet time forjournaling.

● Write freely.No one will see your journal except your teacher or4-H leader. If anyone else wants to see it, theyshould ask your permission. You may want yourjournal to be a private place to record your thoughtson what you see around you and how you arefeeling. Or you may want to show your journal toothers. The choice is yours—but never write or drawwith an audience in mind. That leads to a loss ofcreativity and a frustrating drive for perfection.

● Balance images.Try to include both writing and pictures with eachentry. If you get frustrated when you draw, you cancut out pictures in magazines to illustrate what youare writing about. You may use a glue stick to pasteleaves, seeds, or papers into your journal. You mayuse your journal like a scrapbook of your project,including admission tickets from club outings,wildlife fact sheets, or photographs. You can coverjournal pages with contact paper or clear adhesiveto keep them together.

● Entries should be a minimum of two pages.At first, that will seem too long. Later, you willprobably pass the two-page mark with each entry.Two pages gives your brain time to slow down andfully absorb everything you are seeing, smelling,and hearing. (Two pages can be the front sides oftwo sheets of paper, or the front and back of onesheet.)

GETTING STARTED

Here is how to start your nature journal:

1. Select your journaling spot.Find a quiet place that is comfortable and safefor journaling. This may be a shady spot in a yard, aquiet corner of your schoolyard, or a comfortablespot in a local park. It can even be on a porch orbalcony. An indoor journaling spot near a windowcan also be used, though outdoor spots work betterbecause they put you in direct touch with the naturalworld around you. In this book, we will often referto your journaling place as your “solo spot.” Youmay want to go to this spot each time you journal,or you may want to seek out new journaling spotson different days.

2. Make a heading for the page.On the first three lines, fill in the date, location, andweather. On another line, fill in the activity number,focus, or purpose of the activity (if you arejournaling on your own, you can fill in “My OwnTime” on this line). Now you are ready to beginyour journal entry.

3. Begin your journal entry.Beginning an entry is often the hardest part ofjournaling. At the end of this chapter are some easyJournal Time! activities to help you begin yournature journal. You can use these quick and easyactivities any time you journal to get your brain“unstuck” and begin writing and observing.

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SAMPLE JOURNAL PAGERemember that a journal’s purpose is to record yournature observations and make ecological facts andinformation more real and meaningful for you.There is no right or wrong way to make a journalentry. The following are examples of one person’sjournal pages; your pages may be very different.

SCIENTIFIC SAMPLE:

ARTISTIC SAMPLE:

Date:

Location:

Weather:

Activity #:

Purpose:

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Journal Time!

Activity 1—Leaf TracePick up a leaf and trace it on the page. Add notesabout how it feels, what color it is, what plant youthink it came from. Draw in the veins and anyspots or tears in it. What caused the tears? Haveinsects been feeding on it? Are there any bugscrawling on it? By concentrating on one smallobject, you will slow your brain down and triggeryour observation skills.

Activity 2—The Daily DoubleOpen your journal to two blank sheets of paper.Label the right-hand page, “Observations.” Labelthe left-hand page, “Thoughts.” On the right-handsheet, record in detail everything you see, hear, orsmell: birds flying by, leaves shaking in the wind,wind whooshing through the trees, bugs crawlingon the ground, the smell of flowers or moss or drygrass, the colors of flowers, the texture of treebark—as many details as you can observe. On theleft-hand sheet, list the thoughts you have as youwrite: where have you seen these birds or bugsbefore? Does this place remind you of any otherplace? Do the smells remind you of other places?What does the tree bark feel like? Is it rough orsmooth? Completing the “Observations” pagehelps trigger your observation skills, while the“Thoughts” page helps you relate what you areseeing to your own life.

Activity 3—Looking at LevelsDraw or describe three things on the ground, such asa stick, a leaf, and an acorn. Then draw or describethree things at eye level, like a flower, a bush, orinteresting tree bark. Then draw three things aboveyour head, such as the structure of a tree branch, thepattern of leaves in a tree, and a squirrel nest or birdnest. Are there any relationships between the thingsyou are observing at different levels? Does theacorn on the ground come from the oak tree overyour head that holds a squirrel nest? Look forrelationships and describe them.

DEER ANTLER

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WILDLIFE CAREER:Wildlife Artist or Outdoor Writer

Wildlife artists and outdoor writers sharetheir love of the outdoors through sketches,paintings, or stories. Before beginning to paintor write, these people study wildlife speciesand their habitats to learn how natural systemswork.

Some wildlife artists and writers work foroutdoor magazines writing and illustratingarticles. Others may work on their own, sellingtheir paintings and stories to collectors orpublishers. Still others write and paint as apastime, and they do not attempt to makemoney at it.

Colleges and universities offer courses inwriting, journalism, and literature. Suchcourses are useful for outdoor writers. Somewildlife artists attend art school to learn thedetails of painting and drawing.

Often no special degree is required to be awildlife artist or outdoor writer—just a deeplove of the outdoors, skill in writing orpainting, and a desire to share your love ofthe outdoors with others.

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

PROGRESSION OF JOURNAL SKETCH

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Chapter 2 W I L D L I F E H A B I T A T

HABITAT: What Animals Need to LiveWild animals need food, water, and shelter tosurvive. Food, water, shelter, and space arehabitat requirements.

FoodFood is essential for all wildlife, and different specieseat different kinds of food. Some animals eat onlyplant parts, such as nuts, berries, grass, twigs, andleaves. These animals are called herbivores. Deer andrabbits are examples of herbivores.

Other animals eat only meat, such as live animalsor carrion (dead animals). These animals are calledcarnivores. Bobcats and hawks are carnivores.Insectivores, such as bats, shrews, and some birds,are specialized carnivores that eat only insects.

Animals that eat both plants and animals arecalled omnivores. These animals may eat nuts andberries in the morning, bird eggs in the afternoon,and frogs at night. Raccoons and opossums areomnivores. Are you a carnivore, omnivore, orherbivore?

With different animals eating different kinds offoods, the wildlife menu can get pretty complicated.Every day, animals eat plants or other animals tosurvive, and the whole time they are in danger ofbeing eaten themselves! Every species fits into afood web based on what it eats and what eats it.

Animals that eat other animals are calledpredators, and the animals they eat are called prey.A gray fox is a predator of meadow voles. Meadowvoles are prey for gray foxes, barn owls, andred-tailed hawks.

WaterWater is the most important substance on earth.Without it there would be no life. Animals can gowithout food for weeks, but they cannot go withoutwater for more than a few days. Puddles, springs,streams, and ponds provide drinking water forwildlife. Some animals get all of the water theyneed from their food.

The area that provides

an animal with

adequate food, water,

shelter, and space

is that animal’s

habitat.

BOBCAT

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ShelterShelter is any place that providesan animal and its young withprotection from the weather andfrom predators. Wildlife biolo-gists refer to shelter as cover. Arabbit hides under a bush whena fox or hawk is nearby. Thebush provides the rabbit withcover. Woodchucks take coverin underground burrows. Yourcover is your house or apartment.

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Learning Can Be Fun!

SpaceAlong with food, water, and cover, animals need

a certain amount of space to carry out their lifefunctions. A large animal may need a lot ofspace, while a small animal needs only a little.Black bears may travel several miles a day insearch of food, while a white-footed mouse

may spend its entire life just a few hundred feetfrom where it was born. The space that an animaloccupies during its life is that animal’s home range.

e. Animals need ______________________ to keep

themselves and their offspring protected.

f. An owl eats only meat. It is a

___________________________________.

g. The most important substance on earth is clean

________________________.

Answers: (a.) home range, (b.) space, (c.) web, (d.) omnivore, (e.) shelter, (f.) carnivore, (g.) water

a. __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __

b. __ __ __ __ __

c. __ __ __

d. __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __

e. __ __ __ __ __ __ __

f. __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __

g. __ __ __ __ __

OPOSSUM

1. Mystery WordFill in the blocks with the word or words describedby the clues below to reveal the mystery word.

a. The area an animal travels through to find its

habitat requirements is its _______________

___________________.

b. Animals that are too crowded do not survive well

because each animal needs a certain amount of

___________________.

c. Each animal, along with the food it eats and

its predators, is part of a complicated

food ______________.

d. An opossum eats meat, berries,

vegetables, and other foods.

It is an __________________ .

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2. Habitat Word SearchA raccoon is having trouble finding all of his habitatrequirements within his home range. In the spacebelow, please help him find his food, water, andshelter.

D B M O P Y G F C

W E T L A N D O B

A R N F G U V R I

T R A T I E U F R

E I M O R S L O D

R E L A H E H R E

M S E P F G E E G

A R I P O N D S G

T L O M A E R T S

E H S I F Y A R C

Raccoon habitat requirements:

Berries Pond Forest

Fish Stream Den trees

Bird eggs Wetland Brush pile

Crayfish Water Cover

3. The Web of LifeDraw a line from each animal to each of the items itmay eat (see the Appendix for information on whatanimals eat).

Eggs

Hawk Berries

Grass Rabbit

Seeds Deer

Acorns Vole

Shrubs Bear

Fox Squirrel

Raccoon

WHITE-TAILED DEER

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Journal Time!• Food. Do you see any sources of food thatanimals could use? Mark their location on yourmap. If you don’t know the names of plants andshrubs, draw their leaves on another page and try toidentify them later with a field guide. Do you seeany nuts or berries, or seed and nectar sources?

• Water. Do you see any sources of water? Are therestreams, pools, puddles, or wet seep areas that wild-life could use for drinking? Mark them on your map.

• Wildlife seen. Do you see any animals or birds inthis area? On another page, describe the birds andanimals you see, even if you don’t know what theyare. Do you see any wildlife signs or clues, such asfeathers, tracks, bones, or half-eaten nuts or leaves?Sketch wildlife clues on another page in your journal.

Activity 4—Focus on Habitat

PURPOSE: Identify the sources of food, water,and shelter available to wildlife in an area.

Go to your solo spot to search for food items,water sources, and areas of shelter that wildlifecould use. (The Appendix at the back of this booklists different resources used by the most commonPennsylvania wildlife species.) Make a map of thearea that includes the following items.

• Cover. Describe the cover type(s) in the area(grassy, shrubby, young forest, mature forest,farm field) and make a rough sketch of how coveris arranged.

• Shelter. Make a note of any places that wouldprovide nesting or resting cover for an animal. Treeholes, rock piles, fallen logs, and brushy thicketscould all give shelter to birds and animals (seeAppendix). Note their locations on your map.

SAMPLE HABITAT MAP

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In Pennsylvania, the typical stages ofplant succession include:

1. bare ground2. annual forbs (herbaceous plants) and

grasses3. perennial forbs and grasses4. shrubs5. young trees (woodland)6. mature trees (woodland)

HABITAT SUITABILITY:Why Animals Live Where They DoAn animal’s habitat is the place where it lives. Youcan think of it as the animal’s address. Within itshabitat, an animal can find everything it needs tosurvive. For example, the forest is ideal habitat forthe gray squirrel. The forest provides the squirrelwith tall trees for nesting and nuts and buds foreating. The forest also provides the squirrel withpools and streams for drinking and plenty of spaceto carry out its life functions.

The amount and type of food, water, shelter,and space in an area determines that area’s habitatsuitability for a species. For an animal to live inan area, the right kinds of food, water, and sheltermust be present and must be available at the righttime of year.

A habitat that is suitable for one species maybe unsuitable for another. The forest is excellenthabitat for the gray squirrel, but the tall trees of theforest do not make good habitat for muskrats andred-winged blackbirds. These species require open,grassy wetlands for their food and shelter.

Pennsylvania has many species of wildlifebecause it has many different habitat types. Habitatsin Pennsylvania include young and mature forests,farm fields and meadows, lakes and ponds, streamsand rivers, wetlands, brushy areas, cities, urbanparks, and residential neighborhoods.

The rest of Chapter 2 describes some of themost important factors that affect habitat suitability.It is important for wildlife ecologists to learn theseconcepts because once we understand what affectshabitat suitability, we can begin to understand howchanging a habitat can change the animals found inan area.

Plant SuccessionPlant succession is the process that occurs whenone plant community replaces another over time.This is one of the most important factors affectinghabitat suitability, because plants provide both foodand cover for wildlife.

If you quit mowing your lawn, the grass wouldgrow very tall, and eventually small shrubs wouldstart to grow. If you still didn’t mow it, tree seed-lings would join these small shrubs. Eventually, thetree seedlings would grow into large trees and couldshade out the grass and shrubs beneath them.

PLANT SUCCESSION—from old field to forest

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A single step in plant succession may takeweeks, months, years, or even centuries to becompleted. In some areas, soil or climate conditionsprevent an area from moving beyond a certainstage. That is why not all habitats end up as maturewoodlands.

If the plants in an area are killed or disturbed,succession drops back and starts over again. If themature trees in a forest are harvested, small plantsand shrubs will grow again. After several years,young trees will grow in the opening that the harvestcreated. Natural disturbances like fires, tornadoes,or disease outbreaks also can cause succession tostart again.

Vertical StructureThis concept refers to how plants are layered in anarea. To understand layering, just think of how tallplants get. Grasses and forbs (herbaceous plants)usually grow close to the ground and make up theground layer. The next highest level, usually madeup of shrubs, is called the shrub layer. The topsand branches of mature trees make the tallest layer.This is called the canopy layer.

How these different layers are arranged in anarea is important for wildlife. Some animals mayrequire a grassy ground layer for food but also needa tree canopy for cover. In general, the more layersin a habitat, the better the area is for wildlife.Although humans often like to see a “clean” forestof tall trees with little underbrush, these park-likesettings are not very good for wildlife.

EdgeEdge is the boundary where different types ofvegetation meet. Edges attract many wildlifespecies because various types of food and cover areclose together. Edge is not good for all wildlife.Some species need large, continuous areas ofgrassland for their survival, while others needlarge, continuous tracts of forest.

VERTICAL STRUCTURE

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FACTORS THAT AFFECTHABITAT SUITABILITYAn area’s habitat suitability is also influencedby how the habitat is put together. Factorsdescribing how a habitat is put together includethe interspersion of resources, fragmentation ofhabitats, and corridors between habitats.

InterspersionWildlife often need more than one type of cover inan area. For example, a rabbit feeds in grassy areasbut also needs to have thick shrubs nearby forprotection from predators. Wild turkeys feed on theberries of shrubs but roost at night in tall trees.These animals require different successional stagesin their habitats.

Mixed plots of different successional stages inan area are called interspersion. Interspersion canalso be thought of as habitat patchiness.

Usually, a habitat with high interspersion supportsmore species than an area with low interspersion.

Remember, though, that some species get all theirhabitat requirements from one successional stage.Interspersion would lower the habitat suitability ofan area for these species.

FragmentationWhen large blocks of natural habitat, such as forest,are broken up by roads, suburban areas, or agricul-tural areas, that habitat has been fragmented. Frag-mented habitats often do not provide enough food,water, and cover for species to survive in the area.

Sometimes fragmented habitats become danger-ous for wildlife. For example, millions of toads andsalamanders die every year in Pennsylvania as theycross roads near their breeding ponds.

As housing developments and roads fragmenta forest, habitat quality goes down for manyforest-dwelling species. Humans bring domesticcats and dogs into an area, and our garbage attractsraccoons and opossums. In turn, these animals preyupon forest-dwelling wildlife like songbirds andsalamanders.

INTERSPERSION refers to the mix of habitat types.

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CorridorsCorridors are areas ofsecure cover that permitanimals to travel fromone patch of suitablehabitat to another. Infragmented habitats,corridors can connectsmall islands of goodhabitat with one another,allowing animals to usean area they otherwisecould not. Preserving,creating, and maintainingunbroken corridorsis very important inwildlife management.

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Learning Can Be Fun!1. Habitat MatchMatch the term on the left with the correct description on the right.

_____ Corridors A. The way plant communities change over time

_____ Interspersion B. Where two or more habitat types come together

_____ Fragmentation C. Different types of plants growing to different heights

_____ Succession D. The way resources are arranged in a habitat

_____ Edge E. When wild areas become divided into smaller and smaller pieces

_____ Vertical layering F. Links between habitats

CORRIDORS have many shapes and sizes.

Answers: (F.) Corridors, (D.) Interspersion, (E.) Fragmentation, (A.) Succession, (B.) Edge, (C.) Vertical layering

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2. The HABITAT Rap

H is for homes,You need one to stay dry.

A is for air,You’ve got to breathe or die.

B is for bitesOf tasty food and drinks.

I is interspersion,Mix it up, but leave us links!

T is for terrestrial,We spend our lives on land.

A is for aquatic,We like the water, not the sand.

Put it allTogether. Are you getting all of that?

Animals and people—we all need HABITAT!!

Now make up your own song or poem abouthabitat. Write it in your journal. You couldpresent it to your class or group!

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Journal Time!

Activity 5—Habitat Suitability

PURPOSE: Recognize that habitatcharacteristics influence the speciesfound in an area.

1. Select an animal or bird that lives in Pennsylva-nia. Use a field guide or library book to learn aboutits habitat requirements. List the animal and itsrequirements in your journal. (Example: Blackbears eat berries, acorns, insects, small mammals,and carrion. They require large forested areas withden sites in caves, tree roots, or rock piles.)

2. Return to your solo spot and assess its habitatsuitability for the animal you picked. Can youfind any suitable food sources? Shelter? Draw ordescribe the food and shelter that your animalcould use in this area.

3. Is anything lacking? Food? Shelter? Space?How could you improve the area for the speciesyou picked? List ways that you could improve thehabitat for this animal.

4. Would this ever be ideal habitat for the animal?Why or why not?

5. What types of animals could live in the area ofyour solo spot? Use a library book or field guide toinvestigate habitat requirements of different ani-mals. You can also ask someone who is knowledge-able about wildlife. List a few of the possiblespecies at the end of your journal entry. Keep an eyeout for these species when you return to your solospot next time!

WOOD FROG

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Activity 6—Bird’s Eye View

PURPOSE: Identify factors affecting habitatat the landscape level.

1. Go to your solo spot and draw a sketch of it fromthe ground. Include patches of trees, shrubs, andgrasses. Does your solo spot have multiple layers ofvegetation? Draw them in and label them. Whatsuccessional stage best describes your solo spot?

2. Imagine a bird’s-eye view of the same area.Draw a map of your site in relation to other features:roads, buildings, mountains, streams, and patchesof forest or fields. If possible, use a road map,topographic map, or aerial photo to help you seehow your area fits into the larger landscape.

3. Now rank the area in your drawing based on thehabitat characteristics discussed in this section.Does the area have high or low interspersion? Arethere many or few edges? High or low fragmenta-tion? Are corridors available for wildlife?

BIRD’S EYE VIEW OF LANDSCAPE—example

18

WILDLIFE-HABITAT RELATIONSHIPSThe way an animal uses its habitat is called theanimal’s niche. If you think of habitat as an animal’shome address, then think of niche as the animal’sjob description or role.

Some species occupy a very narrow niche,meaning they have very strict habitat requirementsand can only survive under certain habitat condi-tions. These species are called habitat specialists.In Pennsylvania, the hooded warbler is a habitatspecialist. These bright yellow and black birdsrequire mature forests with dense undergrowth fortheir survival. They nest only in small trees orshrubs under the forest canopy. If anything happensto the forest canopy or to the shrubs in the under-story, hooded warblers will not nest in the area.They will not live in other types of habitat.

Other species occupy a broad niche, meaningthat they are very flexible in their habitat require-ments and can live in a variety of habitat conditions.These species are called habitat generalists. Theraccoon is a good example. Raccoons can live indeep forests where they eat berries, bird eggs,snakes, and young birds. They can also live in

agricultural areas where theyeat corn and mice. Theymay live in wetlandareas too and eatcrayfish and sala-manders. Andfinally, they can befound in urban andsuburban areaswhere they mightfeed on garbage,birdseed, or dogand cat food.

Usually, habitat specialists pose a greater chal-lenge for wildlife managers than habitat generalists.Populations of most habitat generalists are doingfine because they can thrive even when habitatconditions change quickly. Populations of habitatspecialists, on the other hand, often drop quicklyonce their habitat is fragmented or disturbed.

This difference between habitat specialists andgeneralists makes it difficult for people to under-stand that some wildlife populations are in troublein Pennsylvania. When people see deer in theirbackyards and house finches, starlings, and chicka-dees at their bird feeders, they think Pennsylvania’swildlife is healthy and protected. What they do notrealize is that they are seeing habitat generalists.Many of Pennsylvania’s habitat specialists are introuble because humans have dramatically changedtheir habitats. But because people rarely see thesespecies, their problems go unrecognized.

Early and Late Successional SpeciesWildlife species that depend on grasslands for theirsurvival are called early successional species.Meadow voles, meadowlarks, and ring-neckedpheasants are examples of early successionalspecies. Bears, barred owls, and scarlet tanagers areconsidered late successional species because theyrely on mature forests for their habitat requirements.Woodcock and snowshoe hares are good examplesof mid-successional species. Some animals can livein a variety of successional stages.

RACCOONS

AMERICAN WOODCOCK

19

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Learning Can Be Fun!1. Generalists and SpecialistsUse a field guide or library book to learn the habitatrequirements of each of the following species. Thenlabel each with a (G) for habitat generalist or (S) forhabitat specialist. Each of these animals can befound in Pennsylvania.

_____ Eastern massasauga rattlesnake

_____ Ovenbird

_____ Fisher

_____ White-tailed deer

_____ Opossum

_____ Brook trout

_____ Blue jay

2. Successional StagesLabel the following species as early (E), mid (M),or late (L) successional species, based on thehabitat information you find in a field guide orlibrary book.

_____ Eastern cottontail

_____ Fisher

_____ Hooded warbler

_____ Snowshoe hare

_____ Scarlet tanager

_____ Eastern meadowlark

_____ Timber rattlesnake

Answers: 1. S, S, S, G, G, S, and G; 2. E, L, M, E, L, E, L

WILDLIFE CAREER: Habitat Manager

State and federal agencies hire habitat manag-ers to manage public lands for fish and wild-life. Many of the habitat managers employedby state agencies are most concerned withincreasing populations of game species suchas deer, turkey, trout, and bass.

State and federal forestry agencies, natureconservancies, and corporations or huntingclubs owning large pieces of land also have aneed for habitat managers. The landowner’sgoals determine which species are beingmanaged. For forestry agencies, wildlifeconsiderations are often secondary to treeproduction. For nature conservancies, habitatmanagement may involve limiting wildlifepopulations to protect native plants.

Most habitat managers have a degree inWildlife, Fisheries Science, or Forestry.Studies in horticulture, land management, soilscience, and hydrology are also helpful. Manyhave experience with wildlife beyond theircollege education, such as being committedhunters, anglers, birdwatchers, or botanists.

CHICKADEE

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Chapter 3 W I L D L I F E PO P U L A T I O N SImagine you are a wildlife biologist who works withbobwhite quail, a small game bird that lives inagricultural habitats. You hear from more and morefarmers that they don’t see as many quail as theyused to. Birdwatchers and some hunters are alsoconcerned about quail numbers and are starting tosay that the quail hunting season should be closed.At the same time, some hunters don’t agree thatquail are declining and don’t think the seasonshould be changed. As a wildlife biologist, whatshould you do?

The first thing you need to know is whetherquail are actually declining or if it just appears thatway to some people. To answer that question, youneed to know how many quail there are and howpresent quail numbers compare with those of pastyears. In other words, you need to know the quailpopulation in your area.

WHAT IS A WILDLIFE POPULATION?The number of individuals of a particu-

lar species in an area is called apopulation. Wildlife populations

naturally rise and fall at differenttimes of the year. Wildlifepopulations increase throughbirth or when new animalsmove into the area (immigra-tion). Populations decreasethrough death or when animalsleave the area (emigration). Knowing the factors that

cause populations to change,we can use the followingformula to estimate how apopulation will changethrough the year: populationchange = (birth + immigration)– (death + emigration).

Population change =(birth + immigration) –(death + emigration)

BLACK BEAR AND CUBS

21

Wildlife Populations Through the YearMost wildlife populations show a regular patternof increase after the breeding season and declineduring other times of the year. You can see howthis works by graphing a white-tailed deer cycle inthe Learning Can Be Fun activity entitled, “DeerPopulation Cycle.”

Numbers of animals in a population may varyover the course of a year (as in the case of thewhite-tailed deer) or many times during a year.Little animals that have litters several times a year(like mice) may go through several populationfluctuations in just one year.

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Learning Can Be Fun!1. How Many Rabbits?Calculate the rabbits’ population change in a grassy meadow from the beginning of the yearto the end of the year. The original rabbit population in the meadow is 50 (25 males, 25 females):

a. In May, each of the females gives birth to four kits (young rabbits).

How many rabbits are added to the population? __________

What is the rabbit population now? __________

b. During early summer, predators and disease kill 50 kits and 20 adults.


c. An additional 20 rabbits immigrated to the meadow during early summer.


d. Because of crowded conditions, 25 rabbits left the meadow and emigrated to

other fields and fencerows. Now what is the rabbit population? __________

e. Compared to the original rabbit population you started with, the

rabbit population in the meadow now is: higher lower

(circle one)

EASTERN COTTONTAIL

Answers: a. 100, 150, b. 80, c. 100, d. 75, e. higher

WHITE-FOOTED MOUSE

22

2. Deer Population CycleIn this activity, you will see how a deer populationchanges several times in just one year.

a. In spring, fawns are born and the populationincreases. This is the season of highest deerpopulation. In the diagram below, place an (X) atthe high level above “spring” in Year One.

b. In summer, most deer are healthy, but growingfawns are vulnerable to predation. Put an (X)between medium and high population levels for“summer.”

c. In autumn, hunters harvest surplus individuals sothat populations will not be too high going intowinter. Put an (X) between medium and lowabove “autumn.”

d. During winter, some deer die from disease. Insevere winters, deer may die of starvation anddisease. Winter is the time when deer populationsare at their lowest. Place an (X) at the low levelabove “winter.”

e. Now repeat the above steps for Year Two.

f. Draw a line connecting the X’s to plot the yearlychange in a deer population.

HIGH

MEDIUM

LOW

SPRING SUMMER AUTUMN WINTER SPRING SUMMER AUTUMN WINTER

Year One Year Two

WHITE-TAILED FAWN

23

ESTIMATING WILDLIFE POPULATIONSOne way to estimate wildlife populations is to take acensus. A census is an exact count of every animalin an area. It is difficult to conduct a census ofwildlife. Wild animals are often difficult to see andwill not stand still long enough to be counted onceyou’ve found them.

When it is not possible to census animal popula-tions exactly, biologists use a sampling methodinstead. A sample is not an exact count—it is anestimate based on studying just part of the entirepopulation.

For example, the total population of ducks on apond can be estimated by counting the ones on halfthe pond, then doubling that number. Of course, ifall of the ducks happen to be resting on just one sideof the pond on the day you counted them, then yourestimate would be wrong. That is why biologistsnever rely on just one sample. Many samples areneeded to make an accurate estimate of the totalpopulation.

Population IndexIn some cases, we do not need to know the exactnumber of animals in an area. A population index isa method of telling how abundant animals are bycounting signs the animals leave instead of countingthe animals themselves.

Imagine that you walk around the edge of afarm field and see many deer droppings and deertracks. You would assume that a lot of deer use thisarea. Then you visit a city park and see no deerdroppings or deer tracks. You would assume thatdeer do not heavily use this area. You have justconducted a simple population index!

Almost any type of animal sign can be used fora population index, as long as it is something thateach animal leaves in roughly the same amount.Counts of animal droppings are often used becauseeach animal leaves droppings in roughly thesame amount.

DEER DROPPINGS AND WHITE-TAILED DEER TRACKS

Monitoring Wildlife PopulationsBiologists are often interested in how wildlifepopulations change over time. For example, abiologist may want to see how badly an endangeredbird has been affected after a storm destroyednesting habitat. Another may want to see if turkeypopulations increase after timber harvesting thatcreated more forest clearings. Both biologists needto do some population monitoring.

Population monitoring involves using censuses,sampling, or indexes to determine whether wildlifepopulations have changed over time. Monitoringusually does not result in an estimate of exactly howmany animals live in an area; it just tells youwhether there are more or fewer than the last timeyou checked.

TURKEY SCATAND FEATHERS

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Journal Time!

Activity 8—Birds At Your Feeder

PURPOSE: Observe birds at a feeder to seehow their numbers change over time.

1. If you do not have a bird feeder, find a feeder inyour neighborhood that you can visit regularly andoften. Make sure you get permission from the ownerand from your parents.

2. Observe the feeder for 15 minutes. Count thenumber of times birds visit the feeder. (Don’t worryabout counting the same bird more than once—justcount the total number of times the feeder is visited.)

3. Enter your tally in your journal as “number oftrips.” Write down a brief description of the weather.Is it cold, snowing, raining, windy, very hot?

4. Observe the feeder and count bird visits at leastonce a week for five weeks. Try to observe thefeeder at about the same time of day for each visit.Enter your tally and weather conditions in yourjournal each time.

5. Now graph your tallies to show how bird visitschanged from week to week. On the bottom axis,label the weeks 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Label the verticalaxis “bird visits.” Plot your bird visits for eachweek.

6. Below the graph, write an explanation of why youthink the number of bird visits changed from weekto week. Do you think weather affected the birds?Did the breeding season start or end? Did humansor pets scare birds away?

Activity 7—A Neighborhood Census

PURPOSE: Conduct a census of someanimal or plant in your neighborhood.

1. Choose an animal or plant to study. Make sureit is one that you can easily see and count. If it issummer, you could count the number of bloomingdandelions in a yard or park. If you observe care-fully, you may be able to count the squirrels in yourneighborhood. You could count people in yourbuilding or neighborhood. You could even censusrocks in an area.

2. Choose a study area. Make sure the size of thearea fits the thing you are studying. You wouldn’twant to count every dandelion or rock in yourwhole neighborhood!

3. Make careful observations and tally everyindividual of the species or object you havechosen to census.

4. In your journal, record your findings:

Object studied: __________________________

Size of study area: _______________________

Number counted: ________________________

Do you feel certain that you observed andcounted each one in your study area? ________

Why? _________________________________

______________________________________

______________________________________

______________________________________

______________________________________

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NOTE: If no bird feeder is available, you can dothe same study by counting the number offlowers in bloom fora certain species.For example, youcan count thenumber ofdandelionsblooming in ayard or local park.Follow the sameinstructions as for birds,but do not count forjust 15 minutes—try to count all ofthe flowers at eachvisit. If there are toomany to count, selecta small sample areaand count theflowers in thatarea only.

TOOLS OF THE WILDLIFE RESEARCHER

Wildlife biologists use many different tools toconduct wildlife research. Each is importantin collecting information about the animalbeing studied.

• Radio-telemetryA transmitter, placed on an animal’s body,sends out radio signals. The biologistcarries a radio receiver in order to hear theradio signals even without seeing theanimal. This tool is useful when you wantto know how the animal moves around inits habitat.

• Marking and bandingBiologists can mark animals with numberedear tags, leg bands, or wing bands, and thenrelease the animals. If the animal is foundlater, the biologist knows how long it tookthe animal to move a certain distance. Thispractice is useful for working with animalslike migrating birds that travel far distances.

• Trapper-hunter-birdwatcher surveysBiologists ask people who watch and huntanimals to keep track of how many theyhave seen or harvested. This is usefulbecause it provides more information thanone biologist could gather working alone.

WILDLIFE CAREER: Wildlife Research

• Wildlife biologist—Biologists designexperiments to answer questions about thespecies they are studying and supervise fieldpersonnel. Biologists usually have a master’sdegree in Wildlife and Fisheries Science.

• Wildlife ecologist—Many wildlife ecologiststeach courses in wildlife science at the univer-sity level. They also help their students designwildlife studies as part of their wildlife degree.Wildlife ecologists are often interested inanswering questions that have never beenstudied. They usually have a Ph.D. in Wildlifeand Fisheries Science or Ecology.

Wildlife and fisheries researchers design andcarry out studies that answer questions about thewelfare of wildlife populations. Researchers maywork with game animals and sport fish, somework with nongame species like songbirds andsalamanders, and some work with endangeredspecies.

• Wildlife technician—Technicians usuallywork directly in the field with wildlife. Theyconduct the studies that wildlife biologistsdesign and provide data to the supervisingbiologist. Technicians usually have anassociate’s degree or bachelor’s degree inWildlife and Fisheries Science.

BIRD FEEDER

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WI L D L I F E CO M M U N I T I E SA single wild animal or wild species does not livealone in a habitat. Every area is home to manykinds of species with different habitat requirements.A wildlife community is a group of different speciesthat live in the same area. Each species may useresources within the area in very different ways,but they still live side by side in a community.

For example, a grassland community is madeup of early successional plants and the earlysuccessional animals that rely on them for food andshelter. Grasses and herbs make up the foundationof such a community. So do plant-eating insectssuch as grasshoppers, aphids, and caterpillars—andgrass-eating animals such as meadow voles, rabbits,and woodchucks. Seed eaters, like goldfinches,bobwhite quail, ring-necked pheasants, indigobuntings, and white-footed mice, might also bepart of this community.

Along with animals that eat early successionalplants, there are animals that eat the plant eaters!These might include grasshopper sparrows that feedon grasshoppers and other insects, black rat snakesthat feed on white-footed mice, and barn owls,kestrels, and red foxes that feed on meadow volesand mice. This complicated community of animalsrelies on grasslands for its survival, so all theseanimals may be classed as an early-successionalcommunity.

Late-successional communities rely on matureforests for their survival. Oak, beech, hickory,hemlock, and maple make up late successionalforests, as do the smaller dogwood, striped maple,sassafras, and eastern redbud. Important wildlifeshrubs include spicebush, huckleberry, blueberry,witch-hazel, and arrow-wood.

Chapter 4

RED OAK LEAF WHITE OAK LEAF

Water plays an

important role

in all wildlife

communities.

27

Animals that rely on these plantsfor survival would make up the late-successional wildlife community.Such communities might includeovenbirds, wood thrushes, scarlettanagers, red squirrels, gray foxes,fishers, black bears, barred owls,wild turkeys, and goshawks.

Mid-successional plant communitiesmight support species that rely onshrubby cover. These animals mightinclude white-tailed deer, easterncottontail, raccoon, ruffed grouse, andwoodcock, among others. Plants andanimals depend on each other. Forexample, squirrels plant acorns, whichgrow into oak trees that produce moreacorns for squirrels to eat.

THE WILDLIFE INVENTORYOften, wildlife researchers want toidentify all the species that live in anarea. A wildlife inventory is used for identifyingall species found in an area, though it does notgive information on the number of individuals inthe area.

An inventory is done by going out into the fieldand closely observing animal signs and the animalsthat live there. Some species are easy to find in aninventory. You can usually tell pretty quickly if deerlive in an area just by looking for tracks and drop-pings. Some species are more difficult to find. Forexample, how would you design a study to identifyall of the moths living in an area?

Inventories are used when you are entering anew area that has never been closely studied andnobody knows what lives there. Many wildliferesearchers conduct inventories around the world toexplore and catalogue the diversity of life on earth.

Inventories are also useful if you want to seehow the diversity of animals in an area has changedover time. If thorough inventorieshad been conducted 100 yearsago, we would have a muchbetter idea of how habitatchanges affect Pennsylvania’swildlife.

Forest Bioblitz

In the summer of 1999, more than 300 wild-life biologists gathered in Dauphin County toconduct the most thorough inventory of aPennsylvania forest ever done. For 24 hours,teams of birdwatchers, mammal experts,insect specialists, and botanists thoroughlycombed a 2.7-square-mile area. Altogether,they identified more than 1,500 species ofplants and animals! Future wildlife biologistscan now look back at this study to get an ideaof what Pennsylvania forests were like at theend of the 1900s. Since 1999, bioblitzes havebeen staged in other locations, as well.

PAINTED TURTLE

The oak tree andthe squirrel are part of the

same COMMUNITY.

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WILDLIFE CAREER: Wildlife Biologist

Wildlife biologists sometimes choose tospecialize in a certain field of study. Theyusually get their bachelor’s and master’sdegrees in Wildlife Science or Ecology beforegoing on to get their Ph.D. Wildlife specialistsmay work as professors at colleges anduniversities, or they may work with zoos,museums, and other research institutions.

• Mammalogists—specialize in the study ofmammals

• Ornithologists—specialize in the study ofbirds

• Herpetologists—specialize in the study ofreptiles and amphibians

• Icthyologists—specialize in the study offish

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Journal Time!

Activity 9—Inventory Your Solo Spot

PURPOSE: Conduct an inventory of plantsand animals.

1. Label the top of a journal page “Trees.”

2. Use a field guide or The 4-H Summer Key toPennsylvania Trees to identify each tree speciesgrowing in your journal area.

3. On your “Trees” page, create a tree inventory bylisting all the tree species found in your study area.If you find a species you cannot identify, ask yourleader or teacher to help you. You may also ask yourcounty extension agent or service forester forassistance.

4. Now create an inventory of the shrubs, birds, andmammals found in your study area. To identify birdsand mammals, you will need to visit the site atdifferent times of the day and will have to observecarefully. You can also ask your teacher or leader tohelp you find knowledgeable people in your areawho can help you identify species.

AMERICAN BEECH

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Appendix HABITAT REQUIREMENTS OFPE N N SYLVA N IA WI L DL I F E

Of course, you won’t find every species describedhere in your solo spot or habitat area. Some willshow up only if you look for them near a forest;others will show up only if you search near a farm.Careful observation of your study area, combinedwith the use of field identification guides, willsoon make you familiar with Pennsylvania’smost common species. Additional information isavailable in the book, Wildlife of Pennsylvania andthe Northeast, by Charles Fergus (Stackpole Books,2000).

INSECTS

Bees (Family Apidae)Food: Larvae feed on food supplied by adults.

Adults feed on plant material and pollen.Honey bee adults are important insectpollinators, gathering and distributing pollenfrom a variety of flowers, fruits, vegetables,clover, cotton, tobacco, etc.

Water: Bees obtain adequate moisture from theirdiet. They sometimes drink from the edge ofopen water, birdbaths, and moist earth.

Cover/Shelter: Various species nest undergroundor in natural cavities, like hollow trees;some species nest in human-made nest boxesor hives.

Common species: Honey bee, carpenter bee,bumble bee, digger bee, cuckoo bee.

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Butterflies and MothsFood: Larvae of most species feed on plant

material, such as leaves, flowers, and fruit.Adults feed on nectar and other fluids.

Water: Obtain adequate moisture from diet. Adultssometimes drink from the edge of open water,birdbaths, and moist earth.

Cover/Shelter: Herbaceous and woody plants serveas both food and shelter for larvae and adults.Some species hibernate in brush piles androck piles. Larvae and adults of the samespecies may require very different hostplants. Plants and the species attracted tothem can be found in butterfly guides andgardening books.

Common families: Common butterflies includeswallowtails, sulphurs and whites, fritillaries,admirals, skippers, and metalmarks. Commonmoths include sphinx, silk moths, tigers,noctuids, cutworms, and underwings.

AMPHIBIANS

FrogsFood: Diet includes a variety of snails, insects,

earthworms, and other small invertebrates.Larger frogs, like the bullfrog, may feed onfish, other frogs, crayfish, reptiles, and smallmammals.

Water: Find most of their life requirements in ornear water.

Cover: Dense vegetation on shore adjacent to water.Frogs hide among floating vegetation inwater next to the shore. They need muddybottoms so that they can bury themselves forhibernation during the winter.

Common species: Bull frog, wood frog, pickerelfrog, spring peeper.

SalamandersFood: Hunt at night for earthworms, terrestrial or

aquatic insects, and other invertebrates.

Water: Moisture is an absolute necessity. Somesalamanders are completely aquatic; eventerrestrial species must have a dampenvironment. Freshwater pools and pondsare required for spring breeding.

Cover/Shelter: Terrestrial species rest during the dayin the damp earth beneath rocks, logs, andleaf litter, or underground.

Common species: Spotted salamander, Easterntiger salamander, red-spotted newt, duskysalamander, red-backed salamander.

ToadsFood: Hunt at night for earthworms, terrestrial or

aquatic insects, and other invertebrates.

Water: Moisture is an absolute necessity. Althoughusually terrestrial, toads must have a some-what damp environment. Require freshwaterpools and ponds for spring breeding.

Cover/Shelter: Toads rest during the day in thedamp earth beneath rocks, logs, and leaflitter, or underground. Sometimes usecommercial “toad houses” or small rockpiles placed in yards and gardens.

Common species: The American toad is the onlycommon toad of Pennsylvania.

REPTILES

LizardsFood: Feed on a variety of insects, spiders, and

other invertebrates.

Water: No specific requirements for open water,though often found near moist areas.

Cover/Shelter: Resting and escape cover understones, brush and rock piles, logs, leaf litter,and other structures. Some species may climbtrees.

Common species: Families include skinks and fencelizards.

31

SnakesFood: Feed on a variety of insects, spiders and other

invertebrates, rodents, frogs, lizards, birdeggs, and nestlings.

Water: No specific requirements for open water,though often found near moist areas.Some species are tied to aquatic habitats(e.g., water snakes).

Cover/Shelter: Resting and escape cover underfallen logs, stones, brush and rock piles, logs,leaf litter, buildings, and almost any otherstructure. Some species may climb trees.During the winter, snakes hibernate in rockycrevices. Found in all Pennsylvania habitats.

Common species: Black rat, garter, northern water,red-bellied, milk, ringneck, and hognose.Timber rattlesnake and northern copperheadare venomous species found in some habitats.

TurtlesFood: Feed on a variety of insects, spiders and other

invertebrates, leafy vegetation, fruit, andberries.

Water: Many species found near or in open water;even terrestrial wood and box turtles oftenfound near moist areas. Some speciesaquatic.

Cover/Shelter: Resting and escape cover understones, brush and rock piles, logs, leaf litter,and other structures. Hibernate in muddybottoms of lakes and ponds.

Common species: Box, wood, spotted, painted,snapping.

BIRDS

American CrowFood: Varied diet includes insects, frogs, snakes,

shellfish, grain, berries, carrion, eggs andyoung of other birds, and mice.

Water: No specific requirements for open water.

Cover/Shelter: Places bulky nests high up inlarge trees.

American GoldfinchFood: Weed seeds, flower seeds, and tree buds.

Water: No specific requirements for open water.Will drink and bathe in puddles and birdbaths.

Cover/Shelter: Brushy thickets and weedygrasslands with nearby trees. Places nest inupright fork of small sapling or shrub.

American KestrelFood: Various insects, including grasshoppers and

crickets, and mice, shrews, frogs, snakes, andsmall birds.

Water: No specific requirements for open water.Gets adequate moisture from diet.

Cover/Shelter: Open fields for hunting; often restson utility wires and fence posts. Will use nestboxes placed in or on the edge of open areas.

American RobinFood: In warm seasons, insects and worms; in

winter, fruits and berries from shrubs andtrees. Does not often use bird feeders.

Water: No specific requirements for open water.Will drink and bathe in pools and birdbaths.

Cover/Shelter: Nesting sites and hiding areas inshrubs and in evergreen and deciduous trees.Prefers evergreen trees for early spring nests.Commonly found in urban and suburbansettings with large open areas and nearbytrees and shrubs. Parks, golf courses, andlawns in residential areas are favorite places.Will use nesting platforms.

Baltimore OrioleFood: Caterpillars, insects, fruit and berries, nectar,

and wild grapes.

Water: No specific requirements for open water.Will feed from nectar feeders designed fororioles.

Cover/Shelter: Nests in high tree tops in residentialareas. Places finely woven pouch nests at theends of small branches high in deciduoustrees.

32

Black-capped ChickadeeFood: Insects and spiders gleaned from the branches

and boles of shrubs and trees. In winter, seedsand nuts from shrubs and trees.


Cover/Shelter: Nests in cavities, usually in dead orhollow trees. Can dig the cavity only in softor rotted wood. Uses woodpecker holes,natural cavities, and birdhouses. Thick shrubsand tree canopies provide hiding cover.

Blue JayFood: Varied diet including berries, seeds, nuts, and

insects. Also eats spiders, snails, fish, mice,eggs, and young birds. Plants many trees byburying acorns and other seeds.


Cover/Shelter: Nests of coarse sticks usually placedin well-concealed crotches of conifers 10-15feet aboveground.

Brown-headed CowbirdFood: Insects and weed seeds.


Cover/Shelter: Suburban areas, open fields,woodland edges. Often travels with otherblackbirds. Cowbirds are nest parasites—laying their eggs in other birds’ nests andforcing other birds to raise cowbird young.

Common GrackleFood: Varied diet, including insects and insect

larvae, snakes, crayfish, minnows, frogs andsalamanders, eggs and nestlings of otherbirds, grains, and fruit.


Cover/Shelter: Lawns, parks, fields, and openwoodland. Usually places nests high up indense conifers; may also nest in dense bushes.

Dark-eyed JuncoFood: Weed seeds and flower seeds. Feeds on

ground below bird feeders.


Cover/Shelter: Coniferous and mixed forests.Winters in fields, gardens, city parks,and roadside thickets. Places cup nests inwell-concealed areas on or near the ground.

Eastern BluebirdFood: Insects and spiders make up a large portion of

diet. Also eats a limited amount of fruit,especially during spring and fall migration.Usually forages in open grassy or weedy areas.


Cover/Shelter: Nesting sites are in natural cavitiesand old woodpecker holes.

Eastern PhoebeFood: Eats a wide variety of insects in summer and

berries in winter.


Cover/Shelter: Open woodland near streams. Buildsnests of mud and moss and places them oncliffs, bridges, and building ledges, and underthe roots of fallen trees.

European StarlingFood: Insects, fruit, seeds, human garbage, and

dog and cat food. Usually does not use birdfeeders.


Cover/Shelter: Nests in cavities found in trees, oldbuildings, and old houses. Prefers older urbanresidential areas with large trees and shrubs.Will use birdhouses.

33

Forest-dependent, Neotropical MigrantSongbirdsFood: Feed primarily on insects during the breeding

season in the United States. May switch dietsdramatically after migrating south for winter.

Water: No specific requirements for open water.Get adequate moisture from diet.

Cover/Shelter: Generally require mature deciduousor coniferous forests with brushy undergrowthfor nesting. Different species nest in differentvertical layers within the forest, althoughmany species nest on or near the ground.

Common species: Various warblers, vireos, tanagers,and thrushes.

Gray CatbirdFood: Beetles, grasshoppers, and other insects;

fruits and berries; wild grapes.


Cover/Shelter: Places a coarse nest in dense, leafyshrubs or vine tangles. Nests and rests inthickets and brush in residential areas andgardens.

Hairy Woodpeckera

Food: Ants, beetle larvae, caterpillars, and adultbeetles. Diet also includes some fruit andnuts. Searches for insects on tree trunks,stumps, snags, and downed logs, and on theground.


Cover/Shelter: Digs nest holes in mature and dyingtrees and dead snags. Nests in wooded areasand along streams.

House FinchFood: Soft fruits, buds, and weed seeds. Eats some

insects in the warm season. Will use artificialfeeders of all types.

Water: No specific requirements for open water.Drinks and bathes in pools and birdbaths.

Cover/Shelter: Found in nearly all urban areashaving trees, shrubs, and some open places.Not as abundant in inner cities. Nests onlow branches of trees, in bushes, in naturalcavities, in old woodpecker holes, and onbuilding ledges. Nests are built of weedstems, small branches, and leaves, and areplaced 5 to 7 feet above the ground.

House Sparrow (English Sparrow)Food: Eats a variety of insects, fruits, buds, and

weed seeds. Will use bird feeders of all types.


Cover/Shelter: Found in nearly all urban areas thathave trees, shrubs, and some open places.Nests on low branches of trees, in bushes, innatural cavities, in old woodpecker holes, andon building ledges. Nests, placed 5 to 7 feetabove ground, are built of weed stems, smallbranches, and leaves.

House Wrenb

Food: Spiders, grasshoppers, crickets, beetles,caterpillars, ants, bees, ticks, and millipedes.Also eats small soft fruits and berries. Usu-ally does not use bird feeders.

Water: No specific requirements for open water.Gets adequate water from diet.

Cover/Shelter: Prefers older residential areas withlarge shrubs and trees. Nests in naturalcavities in trees, old buildings, and otherstructures. Will use bird boxes, occasionallydestroying the eggs and nestlings of otherbirds if nest boxes are too close.

aDowny, red-bellied, and pileated woodpeckers have similarhabitat requirements.

bThe Carolina wren has similar habitat requirements.

34

Mourning DoveFood: Waste grain from cropland and a variety of

grass and weed seeds. Often feeds on seedfallen from bird feeders.


Cover/Shelter: Prefers tall shrubs and trees fornesting and resting. Nests are made of twigsplaced on branches of shrubs or trees. Nestsmay also be placed on the ground. Will useartificial nesting platforms.

Native SparrowsFood: Weed, grass, and flower seeds, as well as

insects. Will use bird feeders of all types.


Cover/Shelter: Meadows, fields, and shrub areas.Thick shrubs and weedy areas for nesting andhiding. Nests on the ground under shrubs orin thick weeds and grass. Nests are made ofgrass, leaves, and weeds.

Common species: Chipping, field, fox, song, andwhite-throated sparrows.

Northern CardinalFood: Waste grain from cropland, weed seeds, fruit,

buds, and insects.


Cover/Shelter: Dense shrubs and tangled vines forresting and hiding. Nests in forked branchesdeep in dense pines, spruce, and hemlocks,vines, or climbing roses.

Northern FlickerFood: Ants are a favorite; over half of the diet is

made up of insects. Also eats eat seeds, fruits,and berries. Often eats the fruit of poison ivy.Usually feeds in open areas and occasionallyuses bird feeders.


Cover/Shelter: Prefers older residential areaswith large trees, golf courses, and parks.For nesting, digs holes in trees, preferringsoftwood trees like poplar and willow.Likes old, mature trees that show signs ofdying or rotting. In treeless areas, will nest inposts, holes in banks, and holes in buildings.

OwlFood: Small mammals, birds, salamanders, frogs,

and insects.

Water: No specific requirements for open water.Obtains adequate moisture from diet.

Cover/Shelter: Forests and open areas near forests.Roosts during the day in thick woods orconifer stands. At night, often feeds in openareas near forests. Nests in tree cavities, or inabandoned hawk, crow, or squirrel nests.Great-horned owls construct their own largenests in trees.

Common species: Barred, barn, great-horned, andscreech owls.

Pigeon (Rock Dove)Food: Feeds on the ground, preferring waste grain

and weed seeds. In urban areas, lives mostlyon handouts. Will feed on seeds that havefallen from bird feeders.


Cover/Shelter: Nests on window ledges, rooftops,and bridges.

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Ring-necked PheasantFood: Cultivated grains and weed seeds; buds and

parts of herbaceous vegetation; fruits; andinsects.


Cover/Shelter: Prefers tall, grassy cover fornesting, especially cover located next tograinfields.

Ruby-throated HummingbirdFood: Nectar from flowers and insects found on

flowers. Requires high-energy foods. Nectaris high in sugars that supply energy, whileinsects are an excellent source of protein.

Water: Obtains adequate moisture from diet.Will drink from nectar feeders designedfor hummingbirds.

Cover/Shelter: Constructs tiny nests on treebranches, usually 5 to 20 feet aboveground.Occasionally builds nests on secludedareas of buildings. Nests are made of leafymaterials, lichen, and spider webs.

Ruffed GrouseFood: Buds, flowers, and twigs of aspen; grapes;

dogwood berries; and berries of other shrubs.Young feed primarily on insects.


Cover/Shelter: In summer, uses shrubs anddeciduous trees for cover; in winter, roostsin low branches of conifers.

Sharp-shinned Hawkc

Food: Birds and small mammals. In residentialareas, feeds on songbirds. Often perches nearfeeders to ambush visiting songbirds.


Cover/Shelter: Coarse nests placed high in treesdeep in forests.

Tufted TitmouseFood: Varied diet includes beetles, ants, and other

insects and insect larvae; seeds and nuts; andfruits and berries.


Cover/Shelter: Nests in tree cavities or inbirdhouses.

White-breasted Nuthatchd

Food: Insects and insect eggs, seeds, and nuts.


Cover/Shelter: Deciduous and mixed forests.Nests in natural cavities, in birdhouses, orin holes excavated in soft or rotten wood.

Wild TurkeyFood: For adults, acorns and hickory nuts are the

primary food. Adult turkeys also feed on theberries of dogwoods and other shrubs, wildgrapes, small grains, and corn. The youngfeed on insects.

Water: Requires water daily during the nestingand brood-rearing periods. Spring seepsprovide water. In the nonbreeding season,gets adequate moisture from diet.

Cover/Shelter: Roosts in flocks in large hardwoodtrees with open branches, or in maturepines. Mature forests with small, open fieldsprovide ideal habitat.

cThe slightly larger Cooper’s hawk has similar habitatrequirements.

dThe red-breasted nuthatch has similar habitat requirements,but it is usually found in mixed forests or stands of conifers.

36

MAMMALS

BatFood: Variety of nocturnal insects, ranging in size

from mosquitoes to large moths and beetles.

Water: Skims across the surfaces of lakes, ponds,streams, and swimming pools to drink.

Cover/Shelter: In spring and summer, requiresprotected roost sites for raising pups. Somebats form colonies in buildings during springand summer. Most bats require a cave forhibernation in winter.

Common species: Little brown, big brown, easternpipistrelle.

BeaverFood: Preferred winter food is the inner bark of

deciduous trees, such as aspen, birch, andwillow. Summer food includes leaves,grasses, flowering plants, and streamsidevegetation.

Water: Open water or streams are essential forbeavers to establish themselves in an area.

Cover/Shelter: Constructs dams to flood lowlandareas before building a lodge of sticksand logs. Entrances to the lodge are thenprotected by open water. Along lakes, rivers,and large creeks, will dig a burrow in thebank to serve as a den. Intermediate-ageforests of saplings and pole timber are themost favored.

Black bearFood: Feeds on a variety of seeds, grains, nuts,

berries, insects, mushrooms, roots and tubers,small mammals, and carrion.


Cover/Shelter: Makes dens in hollow logs,small caves, rocky outcrops, or depressionsin the ground.

BobcatFood: Rabbits, snowshoe hares, birds, eggs,

rodents, fish, and frogs.


Cover/Shelter: Uses a variety of shelters for densites, including rock ledges, hollow stumps,hollow trees, and root masses.

ChipmunkFood: Feeds on a variety of seeds, grains, nuts,

berries, insects, mushrooms, roots, and tubers.


Cover/Shelter: Creates extensive undergroundburrow system for nesting and semi-hibernation. For escape cover, uses logs,rock and brush piles, and rock walls.

Eastern CottontailFood: From spring through fall, eats a variety of

herbaceous plants, grasses, and gardenvegetables. In winter, eats the bark of trees andshrubs. Will eat small grains in food plots.


Cover/Shelter: Ideal habitats are one-thirdgrassland, one-third cropland, and one-thirdshrub cover all mixed together. Also makesuse of parks, golf courses, and streamcorridors in urban areas. Uses thick shrubor herbaceous cover for hiding and resting.Will use brush piles. Avoids extensiveforests or open areas with no cover.

Eastern Gray SquirrelFood: Spends much time foraging on the ground.

Feeds on a variety of nuts, grains, acorns,seeds, mushrooms, and buds.


Cover/Shelter: Nests in tree cavities or builds nestsof twigs and leaves. Nests are usually placedin the crotch of a tree over 30 feet above theground. Where den sites are scarce, will usenest boxes.

37

ElkFood: Primarily grazers, consuming a variety of

shrubs, herbaceous plants, grasses, wastegrain, and tree leaves; will eat buds andbranches when necessary. Acorns, nuts, andconifer needles also are eaten, particularlyduring the winter.


Cover/Shelter: Use brushy woodlands and tallshrubs for hiding and travel cover. Matureforests do not provide as much food asbrushy, intermediate-age forests.

Gray FoxFood: Apples, berries, cherries, grasses, grains,

insects, birds, eggs, carrion, small mammals,and rabbits.


Cover/Shelter: Makes dens in rock piles,hollow trees and logs, log piles, or burrows.Preferred habitat is unbroken forest.

MoleFood: Feeds on earthworms, insects, and other

invertebrates.


Cover/Shelter: Lives in a network of deep andshallow underground burrows, occasionallyventuring aboveground. May be found inmost Pennsylvania habitats.

Common species: Hairy-tailed, eastern, star-nosedmoles.

MouseFood: Varied diet includes grass, tree seeds, ferns,

moss, fungi, roots, leaves, acorns and othernuts, cherry pits, berries, snails, and insectsand other invertebrates.


Cover/Shelter: Uses a variety of shelters, includingfallen logs, boards, rocks, brush piles, rockpiles, leaf litter, old squirrel and bird nests,and buildings. Constructs soft, lined nest indry areas of fence posts, birdhouses, logs, orhollow trees. Found in most Pennsylvaniahabitats.

Common species: White-footed and deer mice.Jumping mice have slightly different habitatrequirements.

MuskratFood: Feeds on a variety of grasses and herbaceous

plants; also eats carrion and some crustaceans.

Water: Open water a necessity for muskratestablishment. Found in marshes and streams.

Cover/Shelter: In marshes, constructs lodges madeof cattails and other vegetation. Burrows intostream and pond banks.

OpossumFood: Varied diet includes insects, berries, carrion,

and eggs.


Cover/Shelter: Uses a variety of shelters, includingabandoned squirrel nests, woodchuckburrows, brush or rock piles, hollow logs,and buildings. Stays in den during coldestweather.

PorcupineFood: In summer, feeds on a wide variety of plant

materials, fruit, and berries; in winter, feedsprimarily on the inner bark of pine, hemlock,cherry, maple, aspen, birch, oak, and beechtrees.


Cover/Shelter: Dens may be in small caves, rockyoutcrops, and rock piles, and under buildings.

38

RaccoonFood: Wide variety of foods, including garbage,

birds, eggs, fish, small mammals, insects,crayfish, grains, seeds, fruits, and human andpet foods.


Cover/Shelter: Nests and rests during the day innatural tree cavities, in dens in the ground,under brush and junk piles, in abandonedbuildings, and on rocky cliffs and ledges.Most abundant near water, riparian areas, andareas near wetlands. Aso found in urbanareas. Prefers areas interspersed with varyingsuccessional stages.

Red FoxFood: Apples, berries, cherries, grasses, grains,

insects, birds, eggs, carrion, small mammals,rabbits, and domestic fowl when available.


Cover/Shelter: Dens in old woodchuck burrows,hollow logs, and hollow tree stumps. Femalesmay also dig their own dens. Most oftenfound in brushy open forests and agriculturalareas. Avoids dense, unbroken forest or openareas with little cover.

ShrewFood: Voracious insect predator; also consumes

spiders, snails, earthworms, and carrion.

Water: Obtains adequate moisture from diet.

Cover/Shelter: Uses fallen logs, rocks, leaf litter,rock and brush piles, and herbaceous andshrubby areas for nesting and resting cover.Often travels in shallow tunnels beneath leaflitter. Found in most Pennsylvania habitats.

Common species: Masked, smoky, short-tailed.

SkunkFood: Varied diet including insects, berries,

carrion, eggs, earthworms, mice, frogs, andground-nesting birds.


Cover/Shelter: Excavates own burrow or usesabandoned woodchuck and fox dens; alsomakes dens in brush piles and hollow logs,or under buildings. Stays in den duringcoldest weather. Found in most Pennsylvaniahabitats.

VoleFood: Varied diet including grass, ferns, moss,

fungi, roots, leaves, acorns and other nuts,cherry pits, and berries.


Cover/Shelter: Constructs grass-lined nests undervarious shelters, including fallen logs, rocks,brush piles, rock piles, and leaf litter. Travelsalong shallow or surface runways in leaf litterand grass. Stays in den during coldestweather. Found in most Pennsylvania habitats.

Common species: Red-backed, meadow, rock, pine.

White-tailed DeerFood: Variety of shrubs, forbs, and grasses; also eats

waste grain. Acorns and nuts are favoritefoods. In winter, deer feed on buds, leaves,and twigs of trees and woody shrubs. Water:No specific requirements for open water.

Cover/Shelter: Uses woodlands and tall shrubs forhiding and travel cover.

WoodchuckFood: Grass, clover, alfalfa, corn, fruit, and

vegetables.


Cover: Uses underground burrows for escape coverand true hibernation. Also burrows underrock walls, buildings, and other large,stationary objects. Most common in openfields and meadows with brushy fencerowsand young woods nearby.

39

NOTES:

40

NOTES:

4-H ACTIVITIES REPORTThis report will help you keep a better record of yourclub activities. Fill it in as you complete each assign-ment. Refer to this record when you are entering county,state, and national programs. Ask your 4-H leader toexplain these programs to you.

Projects taken

Offices held

Club

County

Committees

“Show-and-tells” or presentations given to:

Local club

County

Region

State

Others

News articles

Radio

TV

Displays or exhibits

Things done to improve your health

Community service or citizenship work done:

By yourself

With club

Number of meetings your club(s) held this year

Number you attended

Number of persons you encouraged to join 4-H

Number of 4-H’ers you helped with projects

In what way

Check activities in which you participated and tellhow you helped

❑ Camp

❑ Club or county tours

❑ Club picnic

❑ County fair

❑ Achievement programs

❑ Roundup

❑ Leadership training

❑ State 4-H Capital Days

❑ Penn State 4-H Achievement Days

❑ Pennsylvania Farm Show

❑ National 4-H Week

❑ State Ambassador Conference

❑ Quiz bowls

❑ Hippology

❑ Judging

❑ Others

Authors: Lisa M.Williams, wildlife biologist; Margaret C. Brittingham, associate professor of wildlife resources, Penn State; andSanford S. Smith, natural resources and youth specialist, Penn StateIllustrations: Anni Matsick, p. 2; Jeffery Mathison, pp. 12–15, 25; John Sidelinger, cover, and pp. 6, 8–10, 16, 18, 19, 20–23,26–28; and Trevor Smith, p. 7

Visit Penn State’s College of Agricultural Sciences on the Web: http://www.cas.psu.edu

Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences research, extension, and resident education programs are funded in part by Pennsylvania counties, the Commonwealthof Pennsylvania, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

This publication is available in alternative media on request.

The Pennsylvania State University is committed to the policy that all persons shall have equal access to programs, facilities, admission, and employment withoutregard to personal characteristics not related to ability, performance, or qualifications as determined by University policy or by state or federal authorities. It is thepolicy of the University to maintain an academic and work environment free of discrimination, including harassment. The Pennsylvania State University prohibitsdiscrimination and harassment against any person because of age, ancestry, color, disability or handicap, national origin, race, religious creed, sex, sexualorientation, or veteran status. Discrimination or harassment against faculty, staff, or students will not be tolerated at The Pennsylvania State University. Direct allinquiries regarding the nondiscrimination policy to the Affirmative Action Director, The Pennsylvania State University, 201 Willard Building, University Park, PA16802-2801, Tel 814-865-4700/V, 814-863-1150/TTY.

Produced by Information and Communication Technologies in the College of Agricultural Sciences.

© The Pennsylvania State University 2001 5M11/01nvo4442

D0610A

4-H Club Motto“To make the best better”

4-H Club PledgeI pledge

my head to clearer thinking,

my heart to greater loyalty,

my hands to larger service, and

my health to better living, for

my club,

my community,

my country, and

my world.

4-H Club ColorsGreen and White

18 U.S.C. 707

wildlife ecologist cover - uaex.edu...1 i n t r o d u c t i o n this 4-h wildlife project is...

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