Wildlife and Forestry inNew York Northern Hardwoods

A Guide for Forest Owners and Managers

PREFACE

Audubon New York’s mission is the protection of birds and other wildlife and the habitats that supportthem. Audubon New York undertook three years of research that supports this manual so as to help forest land-owners appreciate what the effects of different harvest regimes are likely to be on wildlife communities on theirproperties.

This manual is a result of the efforts of a collaborative partnership of stakeholders interested in forest andwildlife issues in New York. It was chaired by Mr. Frank Dunstan (New York State Department of Environ-mental Conservation [NYS DEC]). Much of the information presented in this manual resulted from the researchconducted by Audubon New York, which also spearheaded the partnership. A committee of academics and pro-fessionals chaired by Dr. Ross Whaley (SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry [SUNY-ESF] andnow Chair of the Adirondack Park Agency [APA]) provided technical review of the research and data analysis.(A full list of the technical review committee is provided below.) Partner organizations included Audubon NewYork, Consulting in the Public Interest (CIPI), Cornell University, Empire State Forest Products Association,International Paper Company, New York Forest Owners Association, New York Institute of Consulting Forest-ers, NYS DEC, Northeastern Loggers Association, SUNY-ESF and others. The primary authors of this manualare Mitschka Hartley (formerly with Audubon New York, now with the US Fish and Wildlife Service), KristiSullivan (Cornell University), and Michael Burger (Audubon New York). Graham Cox (Audubon New York)played an important role by shepherding this project through its many phases.

Funding for this project, including the research, data analysis and manual creation components, was pro-vided by the Park Foundation, the New York State Biodiversity Research Institute, the US Forest Service andAudubon New York. NYS DEC, New York State Office of Parks, Recreation & Historic Preservation, ThomasCamp, Watson Homestead, Frost Valley YMCA Camp and SUNY-ESF (through the Adirondack EcologicalCenter in Newcomb) also supported this effort through donations of field vehicles, accommodations and/ormeals. Finally, this manual would not have been possible without the cooperation of numerous private forestowners who provided access to their lands for research purposes, professional foresters who helped identify po-tential study sites, and field assistants who collected much of the data.

Technical Review CommitteeJan Beyea, Ph.D. (CIPI)

Michael Burger, Ph.D. (Audubon New York)James Gibbs, Ph.D. (SUNY-ESF)

Mitschka Hartley, Ph.D. (Audubon New York)Craig Hedman, Ph.D. (International Paper)

Don Leopold, Ph.D. (SUNY-ESF)Ralph Nyland, Ph.D. (SUNY-ESF)William Porter, Ph.D. (SUNY-ESF)

Tim Post (NYS DEC)Ken Rosenberg, Ph.D. (Cornell Lab of Ornithology)

Peter Smallidge, Ph.D. (Cornell University)Ross Whaley, Ph.D., Chair (SUNY-ESF)

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INTRODUCTION

What is the purpose of the manual? ..................................................................................3Why was this manual created? ...........................................................................................3Who should read this manual?...........................................................................................4How do I use this manual? .................................................................................................4What are the strengths of this manual? ............................................................................4

PART 1. HOW ARE ANIMAL COMMUNITIES RELATED TO FOREST CONDITIONS?What is habitat? ................................................................................................................... 7How do forested habitats differ?....................................................................................... 7How do forest conditions affect wildlife? ........................................................................ 8Which groups of wildlife were studied? ...........................................................................9What are forest condition categories? ............................................................................ 10How does forest condition affect birds? ......................................................................... 11How does forest condition affect amphibians? ............................................................. 17How does forest condition affect carrion beetles? ........................................................ 17How will harvesting timber affect the wildlife on my property? ............................... 18

PART 2. HOW CAN I BE A BETTER STEWARD OF MY FORESTLAND?Manage Your Forest Sustainably..................................................................................... 21Avoid High-Grading ........................................................................................................ 21Plan for the Future of Your Forest ................................................................................. 22Work with a Forester........................................................................................................ 22Case Study: “What condition is your forested property really in?”............................ 22Choose the Right Forester for You ................................................................................ 22Keep in Touch with Your Forest..................................................................................... 24

PART 3. HOW CAN I ENHANCE WILDLIFE HABITAT IN MY FOREST?........................................ 25PART 4. HOW DOES MY PROPERTY FIT INTO THE BIGGER LANDSCAPE? ....................................... 27PART 5. HOW HAVE NEW YORK FORESTS CHANGED OVER TIME? .............................................. 29PART 6. WHERE CAN I GO FOR FURTHER ASSISTANCE? ................................................................ 31GLOSSARY ........................................................................................................................................ 37

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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(Clockwise from top) Black-throated Blue Warbler, Dendroica caerulescens (Photo by Cornell Lab ofOrnithology); Red eft, the terrestrial stage of the Eastern newt, Notophthalmus viridescens (Photo by KristiSullivan); Wood frog, Rana sylvatica (Photo by Kristi Sullivan); Mixed deciduous and coniferous forest (Photo byKristi Sullivan)

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What is the purpose of this manual?

The purpose of this manual is to show howwildlife is related to different forest conditions in thenorthern hardwood forests of upstate New York. Themanual supplies science-based information about howdifferent methods of timber management (i.e., logging)change wildlife habitats, and how wildlife communi-ties change (and how they may be similar) acrossdifferent forest conditions. Timber harvesting directlyand predictably affects forest conditions and thequality of an area as habitat for certain wildlife.Therefore this manual can be used to predict how achosen logging practice is likely to affect various kindsof wildlife, or it can be used to select logging practicesthat are likely to benefit specific types of wildlife.

The manual also provides tips for some ways toimprove habitat conditions for a variety of forestwildlife no matter what the forest condition. Thismanual does not provide in-depth information aboutwildlife or forest ecology but does provide some ba-sic background on these topics, as well as informa-tion about forest resources and habitats in New YorkState.

In reality, many factors determine whether anyparticular property should be harvested or not, in-cluding landowner objectives, aesthetics, other uses,and legal considerations. This manual does not ad-dress those factors but rather provides informationabout how wildlife may respond to logging.

Why was this manual created?

Forests are the dominant type of land cover inthe state, covering nearly two-thirds of New YorkState. Therefore, forests provide habitat (that is, a

home) to most of the common wildlife in the state.For wildlife to thrive we must pay attention to thecondition of our forests and make sure that they con-tinue to provide habitat for all native forest species,now and into the future. This manual begins to ad-dress the question of how we do this.

Who owns and is responsible for the conditionof the forestlands in New York? Forestry profes-sionals distinguish forestland from timberlands. Ofthe total forestland cover, some 23% is in publicownership, 71% is owned and managed by manysmall landowners (known as non-industrial privatelandowners), and the remaining 6% is classified asindustrial forest land, managed by the large com-mercial timber and pulp and paper companies.About 85% of timberland in the state (that is, landavailable for silvicultural purposes and distinct fromthe total forestland cover) is privately owned andnon-industrial.

This ownership situation differs from someother states, where much of the forest is owned andmanaged by forest product companies (e.g., Maineand North Carolina) or by the federal government(e.g., many western states). Although the State ofNew York does own more than four million acres offorestland (and has the highest proportion of state-owned land east of the Mississippi), this amounts to23% of total forest acreage in the state, but just 7% oftimberland, that is, forestland available for timberharvesting.

In summary, therefore, hundreds of thousandsof individual property owners—most of whom ownless than 50 acres—play an important role as stew-ards of New York’s forest resources and determinethe quality of wildlife habitat that exists here.

INTRODUCTION

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Who should read this manual?

Surveys indicate that people who own forestland have a diversity of values and priorities in termsof why they own their land, what their managementpriorities are, and what they enjoy most about own-ing or living on forested property. One of the impor-tant values that many landowners share is that ofseeing, enjoying, and conserving wildlife on theirproperty. Whether they hunt, fish, hike, bike, orbird-watch, most landowners consistently reportthat wildlife is important to them. Therefore, thismanual was created to provide landowners with atool—in the form of information resources—to helpthem better meet their ownership objectives and bet-ter integrate wildlife and habitat management intotheir other ownership priorities.

Although intended primarily for the forestlandowner, this manual also was created with forest-ers, loggers, other natural resource professionals andthe general public in mind. Therefore, anyone inter-ested in the relationship between wildlife and for-estry should find this information useful. Themanual was designed as a “take home” educationalresource and reference for people who have attendeda “Wildlife & Forestry in Upstate New York” work-shop.

How do I use this manual?

This manual consists of six different parts, de-scribed briefly below:

Part 1. How are animal communities related to for-est conditions?

This part describes how the abundance (num-ber of individuals) and richness (number of species)of certain animal groups change across different for-est conditions. This information is based mostly onAudubon New York’s original field research.

Part 2. How can I be a better steward of my forest-land?

Part 2 discusses the concept of sustainable forestmanagement, looking at how and why forests arecommonly mismanaged, and provides landownerswith strategies for success. The manual also explains

how and why to work with a professional foresterwhen planning to harvest timber on your land.

Part 3. How can I enhance wildlife habitat in myforest?

This part describes the features you can add toor encourage in your forest, many of them on a verysmall scale and regardless of the forest condition,that can enhance wildlife habitat.

Part 4. How does my property fit into the biggerlandscape?

This part examines how and why to thinkabout how your property fits into the larger land-scape surrounding it, and argues for why you shouldthink about wildlife not just on your property butalso in terms of the “big picture.”

Part 5. How have New York forests changed overtime?

Part 5 provides information about the natureand state of forest resources and land-use patterns inNew York, from before European settlement,through recent decades up to today.

Part 6. Where can I go for further assistance?

This part provides contact information foragencies and organizations that private landownersmay use for technical assistance, program informa-tion and sources of funding for conservation relatedmanagement.

What are the strengths of thismanual?

This manual does not tell landowners how theyshould manage their forestland. Rather, it providesinformation about how different kinds of manage-ment will affect wildlife. Landowners who wantmore specific information than is provided in thismanual should contact a wildlife biologist, either onewho works for the New York State Department ofEnvironmental Conservation (NYS DEC), a non-profit wildlife conservation organization, a univer-sity, or a private consulting firm.

This manual is based largely on field re-search that was carried out in upstate New York

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from 1999-2001 by Audubon New York. The scopeof this research was limited to:

a) Certain types of wildlife, specifically birds,amphibians and carrion beetles

b) The northern hardwood forest type (i.e.,dominated by American beech, yellow birch andsugar and red maples)

c) Extensively forested landscapes of upstateNew York.

Audubon New York chose the three wildlifegroups because these groups play important ecologi-cal roles in forest ecosystems. In addition, they arecommon enough to study easily and thoroughly at areasonable cost. The research focused on northernhardwoods because this type of forest is most com-mon type throughout the state. Other forest types

(e.g., oak-dominated forests or southern hardwoods)are dominant only in about 15% of the state.

The research focused on forests in extensivelyforested landscapes in New York (i.e., areas whereforests made up >70% of the land-cover within a 3-mile radius of our sites) because there is a strong re-lationship between landscape composition and ani-mal communities. For example, many studies fromfragmented landscapes, where forests remain only inrelatively small or isolated patches, have shown thatanimal communities tend to be much poorer (e.g.,fewer individuals or species) in smaller and moreisolated patches than in larger or more-connectedpatches. Researchers wanted to be able to draw clearconclusions about how forest management affectsdifferent species without the possibility of the resultsbeing confounded or possibly confused by other fac-tors such as landscape composition.

6Forest patch with canopy opening

Peter Smallidge

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PART 1. HOW ARE ANIMAL COMMUNITIES RELATED TOFOREST CONDITIONS?

What is habitat?

The kind of environment where a particularanimal spends most of its time is referred to as itshabitat. Any large pond will provide habitat forbullfrogs; a large tract of older forest is likely to behabitat for birds such as Barred Owl; a young regen-erating forest is excellent habitat for many song-birds. Some animals use different habitats through-out the day, week, or year. White-tailed deer can aseasily be found deep in the woods as out in an openfield, and it’s not unusual to find them runningacross a large, shallow wetland or browsing througha suburban back yard. Deer may need to spendmuch of their time in a mature conifer forests to sur-vive severe winter weather conditions and they loveto forage in farmers’ crop fields during the summerand fall.

As the above examples demonstrate, wildliferelies on habitat for survival and to meet basic needs.These basic needs include food, water, cover, andspace sufficient for them to be sheltered from theweather, reproduce and raise young successfully, andavoid predators. Different animals have differentneeds and specializations, which determine whathabitats they tend to prefer and how they use theirhabitat. Some wildlife require large spaces—whether open or wooded—while other species mayspend most of their life within a few feet of wherethey were born. Often this relates to factors such astheir size (a moose requires more space than amouse!), but it also has to do with how they maketheir living. Do they move actively through the for-est to hunt for food, or do they mostly sit in oneplace and wait for food to come to them? Does aspecies feed on abundant plant material, or do they

eat other animals that are relatively uncommon?Each wildlife species—whether it is a bird, bat, but-terfly, deer, or brook trout—has its own preferredhabitat, and each uses its habitat differently to findfood, water, or cover, and meet its other needs suchas attracting a mate, raising its young, or spendingthe winter somewhere safe.

How do forested habitats differ?

Forests come in many shapes, sizes, types, andages. Some forests are dominated by certain types oftrees, such as “hardwoods” (like maples, beech, andbirch) or “conifers” (like pine, spruce, and hemlock).The species composition of a forest (what tree speciesare present or dominate a forest) can have a stronginfluence on the type of wildlife that is found there.The wildlife community you would expect to see ina typical hardwood forest will differ predictablyfrom what you would find in most coniferousforests.

Just as tree species composition influences thetype of wildlife found in an area, so does the struc-ture of the forest. Some forests have thick, brushyunderstories with little or no canopy. Others have aclosed overhead tree canopy that provides for shadeand moisture. Still other forests have a mixture ofplant layers including herbs, shrubs, understory andcanopy. Different species of wildlife use forests ofdifferent forest structures, or conditions, for theirhabitat.

Forests change quite predictably over time, asthey age. This process of change in plant communi-ties over time is known as succession (see Figure 1.1).When natural events like intense fires, hurricanes,landslides, or floods occur, they may leave an area

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completely devoid of vegetation. Likewise, landcleared for agricultural or other uses might also beleft with very little vegetation. Over time, left undis-turbed, certain plants will tend to reoccupy an openarea first and dominate it for some time. They maybe species that spread easily or grow rapidly, andthese traits give them a competitive advantage overother species. Over time, however, these “early suc-cessional” plants tend to die off and be replaced byother kinds of plants. This may happen because thefastest-growing plants tend to be short-lived, but itmay also be due to changing environmental condi-tions there over time. The rate of forest successionon any one property is difficult to predict and mayvary depending on many different factors like soiltype, climate, terrain, natural disturbances, and pastland uses including previous timber harvests. Typi-cally however, if undisturbed, an open field overtime will be colonized by shrubs and seedlings,which in turn will be replaced with saplings, youngtrees, and eventually a mature forest. Even matureforests change as small and large disturbances (e.g. atree dies) occur from time to time. Our forests areconstantly changing.

Forest succession affects the plant species thatare present in the forest, as well as the forest struc-ture. Likewise, the abundance and kinds of wildlifealso change as a forest changes over time, and the

quantity and quality of food, water,cover, and space changes. Young,early-successional forests, for ex-ample, often have an abundance ofberry-producing shrubs and brushycover but few hard mast (acorns,hickory nuts) or cavity trees. As aresult, species that feed on berries(e.g., Gray Catbird) and/or requiredense cover for safety (e.g., RuffedGrouse) do well there, but speciesthat eat acorns (e.g., squirrels) ornest in large decaying trees (e.g.,Pileated Woodpeckers) are moreabundant in older, more matureforests. Some species of wildlife, in-cluding the white-tailed deer andWild Turkey, prefer a combinationof plant succession stages. Deer

need the cover provided by thickets of shrubs andsaplings but they also feed extensively on acornsfound under trees in a mature forest and seek outsucculent green vegetation and grains in agriculturalfields.

Whether you wish to manage your land for avariety of wildlife species or for a single species, un-derstanding what stage(s) of forest succession eachspecies depends on for food and cover can help youto understand the effects of your forest and wildlifemanagement decisions.

How do forest conditions affectwildlife?

To find the answer to this question AudubonNew York conducted research to describe the wild-life communities in many recently harvested forests.The intent was to look at forests that had been man-aged by various methods to better understand howcertain wildlife are related to the forest conditionsthose methods leave behind. The Audubon researchincluded forests of many different conditions, fromclearcuts where almost no trees were left standing, topartial harvests with some trees standing, to un-har-vested stands with many or all large trees remaining.

This study was carried out in the Adirondackand Catskill regions of New York and in the

Figure 1.1 Typical forest succession over time.

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“Appalachian Plateau” that extends west from theCatskills along the “Southern Tier” border withPennsylvania and north towards (but not including)the Finger Lakes region. The research took place inthe northern hardwood forest type, because this typerepresents about 70% of all forests in New YorkState. Northern hardwood forest is usually made upmostly of sugar and red maple, American beech, yel-low birch and, to a lesser extent, black cherry andwhite ash. Other tree species that are fairly commonin northern hardwood forests include eastern hem-lock, basswood, red oak, and white pine. It was im-portant to focus on one forest type, because forests ofdifferent types (e.g., oak-hickory stands, spruce-firstands, or mixed stands that include combinations ofany of the species above) tend to have differentwildlife communities.

Which groups of wildlife werestudied?

The study focused on three different groups ofnon-game wildlife: birds, amphibians, and carrionbeetles. Birds were studied because they are one ofthe most diverse groups of animals in New YorkState. Different species of birds use forest habitats indifferent ways to take advantage of all three dimen-sions of forests, from the ground to the very top ofthe forest canopy, and from the trunks of trees to thetips of their branches. Therefore,the management and structure ofdifferent forests affect which speciescan live there. Also, birds are popu-lar with landowners, who appreci-ate them because they are attractive,interesting to watch and, comparedto many other animals, birds areeasy to see, hear, and enjoy.

Amphibians are recognized asimportant indicators of habitat con-ditions and disturbance. Thoughsmall and often unnoticed these ani-mals are very abundant in forests.Hidden under the logs and leaf lit-ter of the forest floor often there areat least three salamanders persquare meter. Because of their

abundance and size amphibians serve as food forothers and are effective and efficient predatorsthemselves. They feed on invertebrates that inhabitthe forest floor, which in turn affect the rate that nu-trients are cycled in the soil. With their semi-perme-able skin and unprotected eggs, amphibians are alsogood indicators of environmental health and waterquality.

Carrion beetles were also studied, in part be-cause they are a type of insect which is by far themost diverse and abundant group of animals in theforest. Unlike most insects, carrion beetles are largeand colorful which makes them easy to identify andthus handy for scientific studies. Carrion beetles canplay an important role in the rate of forest nutrientcycles because they speed up the process by whichthe bodies of dead animals are broken down. This isbecause they lay their eggs on pieces of dead tissue,which they bury in the soil, to nourish their develop-ing young. Nutrient cycles regulate how large andhow fast trees grow in a forest, which obviously af-fects the kind of wildlife habitat found in a placeover time. Because of their close association withdead animals, the numbers and kinds of beetles in anarea have been shown to be related to the totalamount (or biomass) of animals in a given forest.

Hardwood partial harvest site - Malone, NY.

John

McK

eith

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What are forest conditioncategories?

In this study forests were sorted into four dif-ferent groups (see Figure 1.2) based on the similari-ties in the numbers and sizes of trees and other as-pects of their habitat structure. These groups can bereferred to as forest condition categories. The fourcategories were:

• Mature or very lightly thinned• Moderate partial cuts• Heavy partial cuts• Clearcuts

In mature or lightly thinned forests only asmall percentage of the largest trees, if any, were re-moved. Many kinds of timber harvests are intendedto regrow a new forest of young trees, but a thinningis not. Thinnings are meant to “tend” the existingtrees, just as you would thin a garden. Mature orlightly thinned stands had a high canopy (the leafycrowns of the tallest trees) that was mostly closedand an understory that was relatively open. Therewas relatively little ground cover (e.g., ferns, wild-flowers, other herbaceous plants, and tree seedlings)in these forest stands.

Moderate partial cuts also have a high forestcanopy that is mostly closed. However, they typicallyhave had 20-30% of their timber volume removed.Stands in the more mature category were made upmostly of sawtimber and large sawtimber trees,whereas stands in the moderate partial cut categoryincluded mostly poletimber (6-12 inches diameter atbreast height [DBH]) sized trees. The biggest differ-ences between these two categories was in the sizesof trees that made up these stands and increasingground cover in moderate partial cuts due to morelight reaching the forest floor and generatingpockets of new growth.

Heavy partial cuts included stands that hadmost of their sawtimber and large sawtimber re-moved, resulting in much more open conditionsthan the first two categories. However, all of thesestands had some remaining large trees scatteredthroughout, or small patches of mature trees. Thiscategory included a variety of different kinds of

management, including some group selection cutsthat included both open patches and portions of thestand that were relatively undisturbed, mature for-est. It also included heavy “shelterwood” cuts, withrelatively few large trees remaining in the canopy,and a dense shrubby understory of young trees andraspberry bushes.

The fourth forest condition category is recentclearcuts. Clearcut stands had very few large trees

My forest doesn’t look like that....

Some readers will own or be familiar withother kinds of forests, which do not fall intoone of the four forest condition categories dis-cussed in this manual. That is because we fo-cused only on older mature forests and re-cently-harvested stands. The structure of anyforest changes over time and we focused on cer-tain points in time. Virtually all clearcuts andold fields and pastures eventually will turn intoa mature forest given sufficient time. However,they will go through a long period of develop-ment to arrive there and during this time willnot resemble stands in any of the four forestcondition categories we described.

Clearcuts are a very temporary habitat.The initial shrubby, open conditions that westudied only last for a few years. Within 10-15years of clearcutting most stands will form adense thicket of small (1-5” DBH) trees. Thisyoung forest will slowly mature as trees grow inheight and diameter. As it does it will pass verygradually through different structural phases.However, during this entire 20-40 year processit will not resemble any of the stands in ourstudy as we looked only at recently harvested orolder, mature forests, which had not been cut forsome 75 years. We do not discuss younger, de-veloping forests in depth in this manual,though these habitats are used by some wildlife,and landowners do have options in terms ofhow they manage them. For more informationon other forest conditions see the final section,which briefly presents some considerationsabout other types of forests.

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Plot View (0.2 acre) Profile View

Group B (Moderate Partial Harvest)

Group C (Heavy Partial Harvest)

Group D (Clearcut)

Group A (Mature or Lightly-thinned)

Figure 1.2 Four forest conditions for northern hardwood stands studied in New York.

left uncut. Such stands are dominated by dense,shrubby vegetation such as raspberry bushes anddense stands of small trees.

All four of these condition categories might beexpected to differ in terms of tree canopy, under-story, ground cover, temperature and moisture, inways that could affect the habitat for wildlife.

How does forest condition affectbirds?

Because over a hundred different bird speciesare found in New York forests, it is impractical todeal with each species individually and discuss howeach relates specifically to forest management.

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Despite the fact that each species of bird tends to useits forest habitat uniquely, many bird species usuallywill be found in the same kinds of forests and usingthe habitat in similar ways. These birds can be com-bined loosely into groups based on their preferencefor certain habitat characteristics.

Birds were sorted into three groups based ontheir apparent preference (according to other stud-ies) for forests with more and/or larger trees or

fewer and/or smaller trees (Table 1.1), or becausethey have no preference for either type of forest.Forests with relatively more and/or larger trees areoften referred to as being “mature”. Forest withfewer and/or smaller trees are forests in which manyor most trees were removed by events such as fire,wind, severe insect outbreak, or logging. Suchhabitats are commonly referred to as being “earlysuccessional”. The third group of birds includes spe-cies that occur at similar levels of abundance across a

Early SuccessionalAlder FlycatcherAmerican GoldfinchAmerican RedstartAmerican RobinBlack and White WarblerBrown-headed CowbirdCanada WarblerCedar WaxwingChipping SparrowCommon YellowthroatChestnut-sided WarblerEastern BluebirdEastern TowheeField SparrowGray CatbirdHouse WrenIndigo BuntingMagnolia WarblerMourning DoveMourning WarblerNorthern FlickerOlive-sided FlycatcherRose-breasted GrosbeakRuby-throated HummingbirdRuffed GrouseRed-winged BlackbirdSong SparrowVeeryWhite-throated SparrowYellow Warbler

GeneralAmerican CrowBaltimore OrioleBlue JayCommon GrackleDark-eyed JuncoDowny WoodpeckerEastern PhoebeEvening GrosbeakGreat-crested FlycatcherHooded WarblerNashville WarblerNorthern ParulaNorthern WaterthrushPine SiskinPine WarblerPileated WoodpeckerPrairie WarblerPurple FinchRed-breasted NuthatchRed-bellied WoodpeckerTree SwallowWarbling VireoWild TurkeyYellow-billed CuckooYellow-bellied FlycatcherYellow-rumped WarblerYellow-throated Vireo

Table 1.1. Bird species assigned to groups based on habitat preference for mature forests versus early-successional forests or with no preference (general).

Forest Habitat GroupsMatureBlack-capped ChickadeeBlue-headed VireoBlackburnian WarblerBrown CreeperBlack-throated Blue WarblerBlack-throated Green WarblerEastern Wood PeweeGolden-crowned KingletHairy WoodpeckerHermit ThrushLeast FlycatcherOvenbirdRed-eyed VireoScarlet TanagerSwainson’s ThrushWhite-breasted NuthatchWinter WrenWood ThrushYellow-bellied Sapsucker

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wide range of forest conditions. These birds can bethought of as habitat “generalists”.

Early-successional birds really preferred thoseforest conditions and were six times more abundantin recent clearcuts than in mature forests. Both theabundance and richness of this group was highest inthe clearcut forest condition category and lowest in

the more mature category, with incrementaldecreases in forests with heavy and moderate partialharvests (Figure 1.3). As expected, the forestgeneralists showed little preference for any particu-lar forest condition (Figure 1.4). In comparison tothe early-successional or mature forest bird groups,the generalists were not very abundant in any forestcondition. Put another way, these species make up a

Figure 1.3. Abundance of birds (above) and richness of species (below) for the assemblage ofbird species known to prefer early successional forests, across different forest conditions.

Mature(or thinned)

Heavy PartialHarvests

Moderate Clearcuts

# of Species (per 25 acres)

Richness of Species

Mature(or thinned)

Moderate Heavy PartialHarvests

Clearcuts

Abundance Index (per 25 acres)

Abundance

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somewhat minor component of the forest bird com-munity (regardless of what the forest conditions are).Not surprisingly, the mature forest birds showed apreference that was opposite of that of the early-suc-cessional birds (Figure 1.5). These species preferredthe mature forest condition. However, their abun-dance was similar in mature forestsand forests with moderate partialharvests, and only dropped to abouthalf in clearcut forest conditions. Soas a group, these species are foundin a wide range of conditions.

So far, we have discussed howthe abundance of the three birdgroups—early-successional, ma-ture, and generalists—differedacross our four forest condition cat-egories. The study also found verysimilar patterns when we looked atthe “species richness” of thesegroups. That is, the number of spe-cies of early-forest birds was highestin clearcuts and lowest in the ma-ture category (Figure 1.3). The

number of species of mature forest birds showed anopposite pattern (Figure 1.5), and the number ofgeneralist species was low and similar in all catego-ries (Figure 1.4). So these patterns hold whether weare talking about the number of birds (e.g., singingmales) or the number of species (i.e., species rich-ness).

There was considerable overlap in habitatsused by many bird species, despite preferences bysome species for certain forest conditions. No speciescould really be described as specializing in only oneforest condition category. However, some species,like the Chestnut-sided Warbler, strongly preferredearly successional forest habitats found in theclearcut or heavy partial harvest categories. Otherspecies like the Ovenbird and Black-throated GreenWarbler, thrived in the mature and partial harvestcategories, but decreased in abundance as theamount of forest disturbance increased. Many spe-cies (including some birds we had placed in eitherthe mature or early-successional group) were simi-larly abundant in several categories. For example,earlier studies have shown that the Red-eyed Vireo(perhaps the most abundant bird in New York) pre-fers mature versus heavily harvested forests, but wefound that it was quite abundant in a wide range ofmature and partially harvested forest conditions, andwas markedly less abundant only in clearcuts.

How was wildlife measured?

Each of the wildlife groups was measuredusing special methods appropriate to it. Birdswere counted from random points within eachforest stand; amphibians were counted bysearching cover objects throughout the stand;carrion beetles were sampled using baitedbucket traps. Each wildlife group was related toforest habitat characteristics in terms of theiroverall abundance (or number of individuals)and their species richness (or total number ofspecies in a group). The first tells you howmany animals are in an area, in terms of theirsheer numbers, while the latter tells you howmany different kinds of animals there are in agiven location. An animal’s abundance is equalto its density for a given area. Species richnesshas long been confused with “species diversity”at a site, but we avoid using this term because ithas different meanings to different people.

Chestnut-sided Warblers (Dendroica pensylvanica) prefer earlysuccessional forests.

Cor

nell

Lab

of O

rnith

olog

y

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Figure 1.4. Abundance (number of individuals, above) and richness (number of species,below)of birds determined to be habitat generalists, across different forest condition categories.

Similarly, the Black-throated Blue Warbler actuallypreferred mature forests that were disturbed by par-tial cuts but were much less abundant in clearcuts.

Finally, we wanted to make sure that we gavespecial consideration to species that are of specialconcern—species that are rare, restricted in range, ordeclining in abundance. We lumped them into onegroup regardless of their habitat preferences. As a

group, species of conservation concern were moreabundant in clearcuts than in mature forest. In NewYork, the more disturbed or open types of habitathave continued to disappear or become less commonover the last century, while mature forests have be-come more common in upstate New York. There-fore, birds that prefer open, early-successional habi-tat are currently declining more than birds that pre-fer mature forests.

Mature(or thinned)

Heavy PartialHarvests

Moderate Clearcuts

Abundance Index (per 25 acres)

Abundance

Mature(or thinned)

Heavy PartialHarvests

Moderate Clearcuts

# of Species (per 25 acres)

Richness of Species

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In summary, the bird species that occur in anyparticular forest will vary according to the forestcondition. Two of the three groups of birds stud-ied—mature and early-successional—showed con-trasting but clear preferences for either less or moreintensively harvested forests. However, all thegroups decreased or increased in abundance (andalso in terms of species) somewhat gradually

between forest condition categories, with numbers inany two most-similar (i.e., “neighboring”) groupsoften not differing greatly. Overall, early succes-sional forests had higher abundance and richness ofbirds than mature forests. Forest management canbe used to affect forest conditions and no singleforest condition can provide adequate habitat for allspecies. There are both strong similarities and

Mature(or thinned)

Heavy PartialHarvests

Moderate Clearcuts

Abundance

Abundance Index (per 25 acres)

Figure 1.5. Abundance of birds (above) and richness of species (below) for the assemblage ofbird species known to prefer mature forests, across different forest condition categories.

Mature(or thinned)

Heavy PartialHarvests

Moderate Clearcuts

Richness of Species# of Species (per 25 acres)

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noticeable differences in the species that can befound among the various forest conditions

How does forest condition affectamphibians?

Amphibians are recognized as important indi-cators of habitat conditions and disturbance.Though small and often unnoticed, these animalsare very abundant in forests, play a role in soil nutri-ent cycling and are effective and efficient predatorsof forest floor invertebrates. Their semi-permeableskin and unprotected eggs link amphibians to moisthabitats and many species require a healthy layer ofleaf litter on the forest floor, cool, shady conditionsand woody debris that provides moist refuge.

About 75% of all the amphibians observed be-longed to a single species, the red-backed sala-mander. Despite going unnoticed bymost of us, and hard to find at times,this species is the most abundant ver-tebrate (animal with a backbone, asopposed to invertebrates such as in-sects) in forests of the Northeast.

The relationship of amphibiansto forest conditions was similar to thepattern seen with mature forest birds.Red-backed salamanders, as noted,the most common species found, weremost numerous in mature forests, lessso in forests with moderate and heavypartial harvests, and least abundant in

clearcuts (Figure 1.6). Although no otherspecies was even one tenth as abundant asred-backed salamanders several other spe-cies were observed on many of the sites sur-veyed, including dusky, spotted, and slimysalamanders, wood frogs, and spring peep-ers. All these other terrestrial amphibianspecies were combined to look at their pat-tern as a group. Dusky salamanders andslimy salamanders were the most abundantmembers of this group. This group wasmost abundant in mature forests, and leastabundant in clearcuts, with intermediatenumbers in partially harvested stands with25-50% of timber removed (Figure 1.7).

How does forest condition affectcarrion beetles?

Carrion beetles also play a major role in the for-est nutrient cycle by breaking down the bodies ofdead forest animals. Because of this role, thesebeetles may be indicators of the total amount of ver-tebrate animals in a forest. If we grouped all the car-rion beetle species studied together, carrion beetleabundance was similar in all forest conditions, butspecies richness was highest in forests with heavypartial harvests. A few species did show strong habi-tat preferences, with one species preferring stands inthe mature category and others favoring forests withheavy partial harvests (Figure 1.8).

Red-backed salamanders (Plethodon cinereus) prefer matureforests.

Kristi Sullivan

Carrion beetles are found in a range of forest conditions.(Shown Nicrophorus tomentosus)

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How will harvesting timber affect thewildlife on my property?

Regardless of the current status of forests onyour property, you have several management op-tions. If you have a mature forest, you have the full

range of options available to you. You can choose notto harvest and the wildlife on your property may notchange much. Because forests constantly changewhether or not we manage them you can expect thatsome changes will occur over time even if you donothing. Careful management (e.g., thinning) can be

Figure 1.6. Abundance of red-backed salamanders among forest conditiongroups.

Figure 1.7. Abundance of other terrestrial amphibians (excluding red-backed salamanders)among forest condition groups.

Abundance of Redback Salamanders

Mature(or thinned)

Heavy PartialHarvests

Moderate Clearcuts

Abundance Index (per 25 acres)

Mature(or thinned)

Heavy PartialHarvests

Moderate Clearcuts

Abundance of Terrestrial AmphibiansA

bundance Index (per 25 acres)

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Figure 1.8. Abundance (above) and richness (below) of carrion beetles in different forest conditions.

used to encourage the forest understory and groundcover to grow, creating a more diverse habitat struc-ture for wildlife. You may also have the option ofhaving a moderate partial harvest, heavy partial har-vest or clearcut. If you are considering a harvest,consult a forester to ensure that the cut is done in amanner that will get you the results you are lookingfor. Think about what your wildlife objectives areand how the different harvests might affect thewildlife you will have on your property. For ex-ample, a clearcut will result in an increase in the

number and types of early-successional birds in yourforest, and probably a decrease in the number of am-phibians. A moderate partial harvest may add diver-sity to the bird community and have a minimal af-fect on amphibians.

Over the long term and in an extensive forestedlandscape, maintaining a diversity of wildlife speciesrequires maintaining a mosaic of harvest conditions—from mature, uncut forest areas to lightly thinnedto heavily cut and even clearcut stands. It is impor-

# of Species (per 25 acres)

Richness of Species

Mature(or thinned)

Heavy PartialHarvests

Moderate Clearcuts

Abundance Index (per 25 acres)

Abundance

Mature(or thinned)

Heavy PartialHarvests

Moderate Clearcuts

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tant to find a balance that allows a diversity of dif-ferent species, with different needs, to continue toexist. It should also be remembered that doing noth-ing—that is leaving nature to take its course—re-sults in a gradual change in the landscape and willlead to changes in the wildlife habitat and thus thetypes and total populations of wildlife living there.

The wildlife responses to management that re-sulted in the four forest conditions in this study arebased on statistical patterns of several stands per

group. Considerable variation in wildlife communi-ties still could be found among stands within thesame forest condition categories. Therefore, even ifyou manage your forest to be very similar to one ofthe forest condition groups, there is no guaranteethat the wildlife community will look like the aver-ages reported here. However, many stands managedto resemble one of the forest conditions would, onaverage, be expected to have wildlife communitiesresembling those reported in this manual.

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Manage Your Forest Sustainably

New York has robust forest resources today.Our forests are home to a rich diversity of wildlifeand timber harvesting can be used as a tool to helpus conserve our wildlife resources, provided that amix of different kinds and ages of forests are main-tained over time and across the landscape. Althoughtimber harvesting can benefit many wildlife species,cutting without attention to the forest that gets leftbehind can be detrimental. Not all logging will begood for wildlife—or for timber resources—overthe long-term. In order to be good for wildlife andfor the future of the forest, timber harvests must be“sustainable”. Sustainable forest management con-siders the entire forest ecosystem—all the parts of aforest—and not just the valuable timber trees. For-estry is sustainable if it plans for the future, and con-siders wildlife, soil, and water resources, in additionto timber resources, and both short- and long-termeconomic resources. Conversely, forestry that is notsustainable focuses on removing value from the for-est in the short-term and does not focus on regener-ating or regrowing a new forest. The wildlife habi-tats that result are usually a byproduct of other ac-tivities rather than a planned objective.

Avoid High-Grading

In New York, studies indicate that most har-vests on private land do not involve a professionalforester and are not done using sustainable practices.Only 38% of timber harvests in the state “resemblesilviculture” (sustainable forestry), 49% are in“silvicutural purgatory,” and 13% are in very badcondition due to past, unsustainable practices. Themost common practice that will degrade your forest

PART 2. HOW CAN I BE A BETTER STEWARD OF MYFORESTLAND?

and eliminate your future options is called high-grading. High-grading, also referred to as diameter-limit cutting or selective cutting, is what happenswhen a harvester “takes the best (trees) and leavesthe rest.” This practice leaves behind the low-value,often diseased and malformed trees. The quality ofthe forest declines rapidly. Selective cutting is allow-ing someone to come in and take what they wantwithout any planning or forethought. An analogy toselective cutting would be if you allowed someone tocome into your house and buy whatever he/shewanted versus having a yard sale. If you allow some-one into your home to choose what they wantedfrom your belongings, they would naturally take thenicest items, leaving you with the “junk” you mightnot even want (high-grading). On the other hand, ifyou have a yard sale, you select the items that are for

Often people think of the biggest and besttrees as being the oldest but this is not necessarilythe case. Most forests in NY today are even-aged.This means that most NY forests have a fairlysimilar “birth date,” and are between 60 and 90years old. Even if many of the trees in your foresthave different diameters (some larger, somesmaller), most of your trees may be about the sameage. The size differences are probably due to thefact that some trees grow faster than others. Differ-ent species grow at different rates, individuals ofthe same species have different genes and growthtraits, small-scale differences in nutrients or drain-age can affect tree sizes, and—perhaps most ofall—how many trees are around a given tree af-fects how fast it can grow. This means that thesmaller, more poorly formed trees are often ofpoorer genetic stock or are poorly adapted to thesite they are growing on.

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sale in order to balance the money you make withthe quality of items you retain (i.e., sustainable forestmanagement).

Plan for the Future of Your Forest

If managed properly your land can provideecological, social, and economic benefits forever. Thebest way to get the greatest benefits from your landand protect yourself from unsustainable practiceslike high-grading and selective cutting is to becomea forest steward. Forest Stewardship means settingand achieving objectives for your land while main-taining its integrity for future generations. Yourstewardship objectives may include some or all ofthe following:

• timber production• wildlife habitat enhancement• aesthetics• recreational use• protection of soil and waterNot all goals are completely compatible but a

variety of benefits are possible with careful planning.Whatever your objectives might be, there are peopleand resources available to help you identify your ob-jectives and develop a plan to achieve your goals.

A Forest Stewardship Plan is your road map tosustainable forest management. Developed in coop-eration with a forester, it is a guide to help you de-fine your objectives and describe your resources. Theplan also provides a gauge to evaluate opportunitiesand a schedule of activities to enhance the desiredaspects of your property. Your plan will consider notonly timber resources but also other resources andaspects of long-term forest management, like soiland water quality, riparian and wetland values,wildlife and fish habitat, outdoor recreation and aes-thetics, and maintenance of biological diversity (thedifferent varieties and variations of plants and ani-mals).

A Forest Stewardship Plan has several key ele-ments:

• Inventory & map of forest resources on yourproperty. A full inventory and map of yourproperty is a must for good stewardshipplanning. To plan realistically you need toknow what resources you have.

• Realistic goals & objectives set by you, withthe help of your forester.

• A step-by-step, 10-year activity schedule tohelp you meet goals. A step-by-step activityschedule can help you meet your goals andassess your progress along the way.

Work With a Forester

Would you cash in valuable antiques or jewelryto a dealer without first getting an independent ap-praisal? Would you negotiate a lawsuit or settlementby yourself, without a lawyer? Many people do theequivalent every day when they sell their timberwithout using a forester. Foresters serve as thelandowner’s advocate in the harvesting process.They promote and defend your best interests andcan protect you from individuals who might offeryou less money than your timber is worth. For a rea-sonable fee foresters can provide you with an objec-tive, accurate and current appraisal of your timberassets. They can design logging operations that aregentle on your property and protect its integrity inthe short and long term. They can also set up a bid-ding process to make sure that you get the best valuefor your timber. They are probably familiar with thelogging contractors in the area and which ones havethe best reputations. Foresters can also provide othervaluable technical information, like erosion-controladvice and which seedlings to select for planting. Fi-nally, a good forester will strive to leave a healthyand valuable forest behind after the harvest, and notfocus solely on how much money is made on the cur-rent cut. This is important in helping you meet yourlong-term objectives for your forestland. If youwork with a forester you will likely receive more netprofit and have a healthier forest following a harvestthan you would if you work directly with a timberbroker.

Choose the Right Forester for You

There are several types of foresters you shouldknow about. A NYS DEC public service forester ispre-paid through state and federal tax dollars andwill provide services free of any additional charges.These public-sector foresters will provide many im-portant services such as a developing a ForestStewardship Plan. However, because of time

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I grew up in Maine, next door to my grandpar-ents, and I spent many—if not most—spring, sum-mer, and fall days wandering around the woodlotand surrounding forest behind their farm. The“back 40” wooded acres have been in my family forabout 200 years, and I figured that I knew my wayaround them as well as anyone alive. As a univer-sity student I took many natural resources coursesthat I knew would prove useful to me should Ieventually inherit the family woodlot. After basiccourses in tree identification, soils, and forest man-agement I eventually took a real silviculture class,one intended for training professional foresters.The class was challenging but rewarding, as Ilearned an enormous amount about how to grow,tend, and harvest forests. Throughout the entireclass my family woodlot was always in the back ofmy mind. I imagined how I could apply my newknowledge to that property, and fantasized aboutmanaging the land so well that it would one day befull of towering trees, the envy of any forester.

When I made my first trip home after thecourse ended, I could hardly wait to walk throughthe woods and informally “cruise” the woodlot. Inmy mind I had a good sense of the dominant treespecies on different parts of the property, but Iwanted to more precisely determine how manytrees there were of each species, and where, howbig, and in what condition they were. I was anx-ious to begin planning, to decide where to do fu-ture thinning that would speed up the growth ratesof the larger and medium-sized trees, and to favorcertain species such as sugar maple, so that wecould continue to get maple syrup from the prop-erty as we had for generations.

When I did make that walk through thewoodlot, I quickly discovered that the property wasnot exactly as I remembered. The trees were mostlysmall to medium-sized and most were decadesaway from being large enough to harvest profitably.There were very few large trees left as most hadbeen cut during various small-scale logging opera-tions over the years. The species composition wasalso disappointing. Most of the dominant canopytrees were red maples, hemlock, and quaking as-pen. Not exactly the envy of most foresters. In short,I was profoundly surprised to realize that the forestI thought I knew well was not really what I had re-membered. When I looked at it with somethingmore like a forester’s eye, it looked very differentand, truthfully, sort of sad. I knew that my familyhad cut wood there over the years, even in recentdecades. What I didn’t know was that they had re-moved almost all of the valuable timber from theoverstory, and what they had left behind was prettyundesirable from a timber standpoint. I realizedthat it would take most of my lifetime to get thewoodlot back to the point where the species compo-sition was more desirable and it was not likely that Iwould see any of those new trees achieve a largesize. Nor was I likely to make any money if I car-ried out harvests to try to regenerate different spe-cies. On the up side, I noticed that there were manylarge red oak saplings around the youngest part ofthe woodlot. These oak poles were very abundant,healthy, and growing quickly, which was surprisinggiven that there were no oaks left in the overstory. Irealized that these trees were my growing stock.They were my opportunity to manage, to create (orat least shape) a new forest, to leave behind some-thing more beautiful and more valuable than what Ihad inherited. So all was not lost.

A Case Study by Mitschka Hartley

“What condition is your forested property really in?”

constraints and work-load demands, NYS DEC for-esters must limit the variety of services they provide.Thus, at some point, you may need to locate a pri-vate-sector forester. Foresters in the private sectorinclude consultants whose primary business is pro-viding services to landowners, or industrial foresters,

who work for the forest industry and provide ser-vices to landowners as part of the process ofsupplying wood to the mill. All foresters are impor-tant to forestry in New York. The landowner paysthe consultant a fee and the industrial forester is paidby the mill. Landowners should consider both

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consultant and industrial foresters when looking todevelop a relationship with a private sector forester.New York is fortunate to have exceptional forestersavailable from public and private sectors, but youneed to find the forester who is best suited to yourneeds.

Your forest is valuable to you for its monetary,recreational, and aesthetic qualities. You wouldn’thire someone for your company or business withoutasking for a resume and references and you shouldbe just as careful when hiring a forester. By consid-ering several foresters you improve the odds of find-ing one that will best suit your needs. What factorsshould you use to evaluate foresters and which for-esters do you evaluate? Select a forester based on acombination of factors. These factors include:

• educational background• involvement in continuing education• work experience• references from other landowners with

whom they have worked• visits to their previous jobs• a demonstrated commitment to sustainable

practices• certification through a professional society or

independent organization• their personal interactions with you• participation in their professional forestry

societyPrice for services is an issue but consider price

only after you are satisfied with the other factors.The best way to accumulate the information neededto evaluate several foresters is to write down whatyou want the forester to do based on your steward-ship plan and then ask several foresters to submit aletter of intent or brief proposal outlining the ser-vices they would provide and for what price.Foresters who are eager to serve landowners will behappy to comply with such a request.

Keep in Touch with Your Forest

There are many ways to be a good steward ofyour forest. Learning about the resources you haveon your property and setting realistic objectives

based on those resources is a great start. Then worktoward your goals by developing and following astep-by-step action plan and taking the opportunityto learn about your forest whenever possible. Theicing on the stewardship cake is spending time inyour forest, getting to know your land and enjoyingits many benefits.

Five Strategies for Finding the Forester for You

1. Start with a copy of the DEC Cooper-ating Forester Directory from your local DECoffice or their website. Those listed meet mini-mum eligibility requirements but the directoryisn’t a complete list of foresters in the state.

2. Go the Society of American Foresterswebpage and look for Certified Foresters inyour area. Foresters are certified by SAF basedon education, work experience, statement ofwork ethic, and a written exam that evaluatescompetency. Additionally, many NY consult-ing foresters are members of the NY Instituteof Consulting Foresters or the Association ofConsulting Foresters.

3. Talk with other forest owners and lookfor advertisements in forest owner magazines.Potentially good sources of information aremembers of the statewide landowners associa-tion, the New York Forest Owners Association(NYFOA) (to be called the New York Wood-land Stewards), or regional groups such as theCatskill Forest Association (CFA) and TugHill Resource Investment for the For Tomor-row (THRIFT).

4. Ask for a free visit and consultationwith volunteers in Cornell’s Master ForestOwner program. These landowner-volunteersare trained by Cornell Cooperative Extensionto provide non-technical assistance. They havetypically experienced and overcome, the sameissues you’re currently dealing with.

5. Attend landowner workshops andwoods-walks to meet with the foresters whoare investing time in supporting landownereducation.

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When a whole stand of trees is harvested insome way, it changes the basic habitat structure at amedium to large scale (e.g., 25-50 acres). However,this does not mean that management at a small scale(e.g., smaller than 1 acre) is unimportant to wildlife.This is definitely not the case. Some resources maybe limited to a small area but their importance maybe disproportionate to their size. There are manyfeatures you can add to your forest regardless of theforest condition—whether mature, early succes-sional, or somewhere in between—that can enhancewildlife habitat. Try adding or protecting some ofthese features on your property and see how wildliferesponds!

Evergreens

You can add or retain evergreens such as hem-lock, white pine, and rhododendron to providecover from snow and winter winds, and nest sitesfor birds in the summer.

Dead wood

Brush piles can be created or you can leavecut treetops to provide cover for rabbits, birds,and small mammals. By leaving logs and stumpslying on the forest floor instead of “cleaning themup,” you provide shelter for salamanders andsmall mammals. Dead wood also provides ahome to many invertebrates, which in turn serveas food for others. They also provide an impor-tant nutrient pool to nourish the same forest inthe future.

PART 3. HOW CAN I ENHANCE WILDLIFE HABITAT INMY FOREST?

Rock piles and rock walls

You can keep rock piles or maintain openhillslopes with exposed flat rocks. Snakes, skinks,and lizards, as well as other animals use these areas.

Cavity trees and snags

You can maintain or create cavity trees andsnags. Cavities in trees are used by many species ofbirds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians. To ben-efit the greatest number of species, retain a combina-tion of both living and dead cavity trees with cavitiesof different sizes.

Shrub cover

Even small patches of shrubs can make the dif-ference for some birds, like the Black-throated Blue

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A few conifers (evergreens) can increase the suitability ofhardwood forests for some species.

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Warbler, that strongly prefer to nest in adense shrub layer. However, a healthy shrublayer in the forest is not as common as it mayseem. Management of your forest can resultin more shrub cover, which can add morecomplexity to your forest habitat.

Tree and shrub diversity

Many different trees species that areclosely related (e.g., red oak and white oak,sugar maple and red maple, various conifertrees) produce seeds at different times of theyear. Including a variety of tree species helpsensure a continuous supply of food for wild-life. Increased plant diversity typically resultsin an increase in wildlife diversity. Also,plants are “wild life” too. If at all possible, thefull complement of native species should persist onyour property, even after it is managed.

Forested wetlands

Forested wetlands provide rich areas of habitat,with abundant food and excellent cover. The combi-nation of increased availability of water, abundantand diverse foliage for nesting and cover, and richinvertebrate food supplies, attracts a higher densityof wildlife than upland sites. By protecting these ar-eas on your property, you will be providing habitatfor many wildlife species.

Spring seeps

Spring seeps are areas where groundwatercomes to the surface. Because groundwater tempera-ture remains above freezing, seeps often remain freeof snow throughout the winter, providing access tovegetation and insect larvae. The wild turkey relieson spring seeps for winter food when snowfall isheavy.

Vernal pools

Vernal pools are small, often shal-low, wetlands that may dry up in thesummer or fall. Because they usually donot support predators like fish, thesepools are critical breeding areas for manynortheastern species like spotted sala-manders, spadefoot toads, and woodfrogs that court and lay eggs in theseponds, then return to the forest for therest of the year. Despite their small size,vernal ponds also provide a rich supplyof food for many organisms.

Kristi Sullivan

Vernal pools can provide important breeding areas for amphibians.

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Leaving tree tops can provide habitat for small mammals,amphibians and insects.

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Your property is one piece of a larger puzzle.How your land is managed can affect, or be affectedby, the surrounding landscape or region. Maintain-ing forest ecosystem functions and processes dependsupon many factors that extend beyond the scale of asingle property. For example, habitat patch size, con-nectivity among habitat patches, and forest agestructure are all factors that influence wildlife popu-lations in a given landscape.

Forest patch size is important because somewildlife species prefer small patches of habitat ofvaried ages and types, while others require large ar-eas of one age or type. The connection among habi-tats is critical because the ability of plants and ani-mals to disperse, or move from one suitable area ofhabitat to another, can mean the difference betweenlife and death. When habitats are connected or are inclose proximity to other similar habitat patches, ani-mals can move safely in search of feeding, nesting orbreeding opportunities on a dailybasis. They can also migrate season-ally if necessary. When similarhabitats are connected it also allowsyoung animals to move away fromthe area where they were born.

In addition to maintainingpatches of suitable size that are ad-equately connected, maintaining acontinuum of forest age structure isalso important for maintaining avariety of wildlife species. Somespecies prefer young early succes-sional forests like those created justafter a timber harvest. Others pre-fer older, more mature forest. Some

PART 4. HOW DOES MY PROPERTY FIT INTO THEBIGGER LANDSCAPE?

species require different stages at various times oftheir life cycles. Any forest creates habitat for somespecies of plants and animals. Habitat for speciesthat use early-successional forests is easy to providequickly and in abundance. However, habitat for spe-cies that prefer mature forest conditions may bemore difficult to provide and can take many years.Therefore, ensuring that there is enough habitat tosupport populations of all native species over timerequires a landscape or regional approach.

If you want to know what the importance ofyour property is to wildlife in the big picture youfirst have to take a look at it in a larger context.Your property is like one piece in a large puzzle thatis the landscape. What is the landscape like aroundyour property? Do you know who owns neighbor-ing lands? Have you spoken with them about theirmanagement plans? Consider forming a local land-owner group. Is your stand the only mature forest

Does your property provide something unique?

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left in the area, or is it part of thelargest single piece of maturewoods? Or are you surrounded byold stands that are part of the For-est Preserve? Does your propertycontain wetlands, evergreen trees orother habitat elements that areunique in the area?

The size of your property isrelated to its importance in a givenarea. If your property is vast andmakes up nearly half of the land-scape, you can have a lot of influ-ence over an area. Larger owner-ships (e.g., 500 acres) are typicallymade up of many different kinds ofstands. The owner has the option of managing dif-ferent stands differently, to meet different objectives.Some can be kept as mature “core areas,” while oth-ers can be harvested more or less intensively tomaintain a mosaic of different kinds of disturbancesamong the mature forest “matrix.” However, even asmall property can have an important influence onthe landscape depending on what it contains andhow it is managed. For instance, what does theproperty on the preceeding page (black box) containthat may be of value to wildlife in this landscape? Ifthis is your property, you are providing a type ofhabitat—dense evergreens—that is not present any-where else in the landscape. You are providing

habitat for some birds and other wildlife that preferevergreen cover as well as winter cover for grouseand deer.

Is your property surrounded by more of thesame kind of forest in the landscape like the pictureabove? How might you view your property’s contri-bution to the landscape if it were part of this land-scape? Here, in a landscape or region where distur-bances are relatively uncommon, disturbances canadd value for wildlife. No matter what landscapeyour property is part of, you can make a differencefor wildlife by considering your property as part ofthe big picture.

Is your property just like the surrounding area?

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PART 5. HOW HAVE NEW YORK FORESTSCHANGED OVER TIME?

New York’s forests have gone through manychanges over time. Our forests today are largely aproduct of past land uses. The abundance and diver-sity of wildlife in New York also has changed alongwith the structure and make-up of our forests. Be-cause most of New York is forested, the condition ofthose forests will significantly affect our wildlife re-sources.

At the time of European colonization (1600s),New York was almost entirely forested. Most forestswere old, large, mature stands with small patches ofyounger forest scattered throughout the landscape.Most often, these patches were small and createdwhen one of the largest trees in the canopy died orblew over, letting light “release” the smaller treesgrowing at its base. The dominant tree species werered spruce and balsam fir at the highest elevations;sugar maple, American beech, and yellow birch ongood soils; and oaks, hickory, and American chest-nut on the drier and warmer sites. White ash oc-curred as scattered, infrequent trees mixed withother species on fertile soils, and black cherry oc-curred on a wide range of sites.

In the 1700s, as colonists spread across NewYork shortly after the Revolutionary War, theycleared land in small patches for subsistence

farming. By the late 1800’s, most of the lands outsideof the Adirondacks had been converted to open agri-cultural lands. Large acreages of forests that werenot cleared for agriculture (in the Adirondacks andCatskills) had been cut as part of commercial timberoperations, and the landscape of New York lookedmuch different than it had when the colonists firstarrived.

Around 1900, many acres of unproductive agri-cultural lands were abandoned and began growingback to forest. The lightweight seeds of early-succes-sional maples, ash, and aspen blew onto agriculturalfields, starting many of the forests that now coverthe state. At the same time, the heavily forestedlandscapes that had been exploited for timber werealso starting to regenerate. These forces resulted in alot of young, brushy early-successional habitat. Manywildlife species that thrive in early-successional habi-tat began to increase, including white-tailed deer,Ruffed Grouse, Chestnut-sided Warblers, and oth-ers. Half a century later (Table 5.1), New York wascovered by forests in varying stages of growth,though young forests still dominated the region.

Because many of today’s forests originated atabout the same time, New York forests have a fairlysimilar “birth date”, but they differ depending on

Table 5.1. Characteristics of New York Forests in 1953.

New York Forests in 1953

Tree size Percent forest acreage (acres)Seedling or sapling sized 52% (6.6 million acres)Pole sized (trees 6 to11 inches in diameter) 20% (2.3 million acres)Sawtimber (trees > 12 inches in diameter) 30% (3.8 million acres)

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the first species to invade and survive and the rate atwhich they grew. The rate of change in the characterof the forest was not constant across the state. Areasthat seeded into the faster growing but shorter-livedaspen reached pole size sooner, and areas that seededto sugar maple were slower to reach pole size. Treesin other areas, particularly those having poor soils,may not have grown so quickly or as tall. The foreststhat started from field have changed through time,some of the early invaders have died, leaving anopening filled either by the leafy crowns of theirneighbors or by seeds and then seedlings from sur-rounding areas. Many forests around the state arebetween 60 and 90 years old, ages that reflect thechanging land use and history of disturbances.

Today we have more forestland in New Yorkthan we have had for centuries (Figure 5.1). NewYork forests today are beautiful, abundant, and pro-ductive. Other than the virtual loss of American

Table 5.2. Characteristics of New York forests today.

New York Forests in 1993

Tree size Percent forest acreage (acres)Seedling or sapling sized 17% (3.16 million acres)Pole sized (trees 6 to11 inches in diameter) 30% (5.58 million acres)Sawtimber (trees > 12 inches in diameter) 53% (9.85 million acres)

chestnut by the chestnut blight (caused by thefungal pathogen Cryphonectria parasitica), allthe species present in the 1700’s remain. Today,forests occupy 23% more area than in 1953,covering 18.6 million acres of our 30 milliontotal acres. And our forests are older, larger,and more mature (Table 5.2) than they havebeen since the late 1800s.

This means that habitat for wildlife spe-cies that prefer mature forests has increased.This change is reflected by population trends ofthese types of species. Most forest songbirdshave increased or remained stable in the lastfew decades.

Conversely, the amount of forest in seed-ling/sapling stage has decreased by 34% since the1950s. The wildlife species that depend on this stageof forest, like grouse and woodcock, Chestnut-sidedWarblers, and others, have been declining as thosehabitats dwindle. The American Woodcock, for ex-ample, has declined 40% in the northeast over thepast 30 years.

New York is facing a time of great opportunity.Clearly New York has robust forest resources today.A large part of our forestlands is being maintainedas mature forest in the Adirondack and Catskill For-est Preserve. Throughout the state the volume ofwood that is available from our forests has been in-creasing, and our forests are growing about threetimes faster than products are being removed. Withcareful planning landowners can sustainably harvestwood from their forests, create habitat to support adiversity of wildlife and meet their recreational,aesthetic and economic needs.

25%

39%

62%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

Late 1800s 1953 1993

Figure 5.1. Change in percent forest cover in NewYork over time.

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NYS Department of EnvironmentalConservation

Division of Lands and Forests

http://www.dec.state.ny.us/website/dlf

The mission of DEC’s Lands and Forests Divi-sion is to foster public awareness and appreciationfor forest stewardship and the contribution forestsmake to the enhancement of rural and urban envi-ronments; to encourage the highest attainable levelof management of forestland to meet landownergoals; to improve contact between landowners, pro-fessional foresters, and timber harvesters; to protectand manage, in a manner that best serves the well-being of the people, both the human and forest re-sources on public lands placed under the jurisdictionof the Division; and to highlight the obligations in-cumbent upon the stewards and users of New Yorkforestlands.

DEC has State Service Foresters who can pro-vide on-site assistance with forest management (ad-vice and planning), establishment of forest planta-tions, and care of immature stands. In addition, Ser-vice Foresters can provide advice about marketingtimber products. The Division of Lands and Forestshas a one-on-one landowner technical assistanceprogram. DEC service foresters prepare stewardshipplans that include wildlife habitat information andrecommendations.

The DEC maintains a web site (see above) thatincludes a directory of cooperating foresters. A list

PART 6. WHERE CAN I GO FOR FURTHER ASSISTANCE?

and location of the DEC’s Natural Resources upstateregional offices and sub-offices is included below.

Bureau of Wildlife

http://www.dec.state.ny.us/website/dfwmr/

The Bureau of Wildlife is responsible for man-aging all the wildlife species in the state. The bureauwas created by law in 1895 at a time when wildlifepopulations were at one of their lowest points in re-corded history, due mostly to massive habitatchanges and unregulated harvests, both for subsis-tence and market hunting.

Today, many species have been brought backfrom near extirpation. The bureau is involved in therestoration, recovery and range expansion of manyspecies, such as the river otter, Black Tern, Karnerblue butterfly and bog turtle to enhance and stabilizepopulations for the enjoyment of future generations.

The bureau manages many common species,controls populations of some species, provides publicinformation about wildlife, provides technical assis-tance in land management to attract wildlife or en-hance wildlife populations. The bureau also providestechnical assistance to reduce damage caused by nui-sance wildlife, and further, identifies and inventoriespopulations of rare species and assesses overall diver-sity. They also protect wildlife through permittingprocesses and manage more than 200,000 acres inWildlife Management Areas across the state. Thebureau’s focus is to ensure that the state’s wildlifeheritage remains for future generations.

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Natural Resources Offices, Division of Landsand Forest and Bureau of Wildlife

Region 3 (Dutchess, Orange, Putnam, Rockland,Sullivan, Ulster, Westchester)

Wappingers Falls: 845-831-8780New Paltz: 845-256-3076

Region 4 (Albany, Columbia, Delaware, Greene,Montgomery, Otsego, Rensselaer, Schenectady,Schoharie)

Stamford: 607-652-7365Schenectady: 518-357-2066

Region 5 (Clinton, Essex, Franklin, Fulton,Hamilton, Saratoga, Washington, Warren)

Ray Brook: 518-897-1200Northville: 518-863-4545Warrensburg: 518-623-1200

Region 6 (Herkimer, Jefferson, Lewis, Oneida, St.Lawrence)

Watertown: 315-785-2263Lowville: 315-376-3521Potsdam: 315-265-3090Herkimer: 315-866-6330

Region 7 (Broome, Cayuga, Chenango, Cortland,Madison, Onondaga, Oswego, Tioga, Tompkins)

Syracuse: 315-426-7400Sherburne: 607-674-4036Cortland: 607-753-3095Kirkwood: 607-775-2545

Region 8 (Chemung, Genesee, Livingston, Monroe,Ontario, Orleans, Schuyler, Seneca, Steuben, Wayne,Yates)

Bath: 607-776-2165Avon: 585-226-2466Basom: 585-948-5182Montezuma: 315-365-2134

Region 9 (Allegany, Cattaraugus, Chautauqua, Erie,Niagara and Wyoming)

Allegany: 716-372-0645Buffalo: 716-851-7000Falconer: 716-665-6111Belmont: 585-268-5392

Cornell Cooperative Extension

Cornell Cooperative Extension provides a vari-ety of educational programs in counties throughoutNew York. Programs provided in a specific countyreflect local needs and the availability of resources.The county cooperative extension office is an idealplace to begin if you are not certain where to go, ifyou are interested in a specific educational program,such as landowner workshops, or if you would like avisit from a Master Forest Owner (MFO).

Master Forest Owner volunteers are part ofCornell Cooperative Extension program that trainsprivate forest landowners to provide free NON-technical assistance to other private forest landown-ers. Master Forest Owners (MFO) are a peer-coun-seling program, and have been effective in providingprivate forest landowners with a “neighbor” whohas asked the same questions and had the same con-cerns. MFOs will make a free visit to your propertyand help you focus you questions and determinewhere to look for technical advice. There are over140 MFOs throughout New York who can be con-tacted through your local Cornell Cooperative Ex-tension office.

County PhoneAlbany.................... 518-765-3500Allegany................. 585-268-7644Broome .................. 518-772-8954Cattaraugus ........... 716-699-2377Cayuga ................... 315-255-1183Chautauqua ........... 716-664-9502Chemung ............... 607-734-4453Chenango .............. 607-334-5841Clinton ................... 518-561-7450Columbia ............... 518-828-3346Cortland................. 607-753-5077Delaware ............... 607-865-6531Dutchess ................ 845-677-8223Erie ......................... 716-652-5400Essex ....................... 518-962-4810Franklin ................. 518-483-7403Fulton .................... 518-762-3909Genesee .................. 585-343-3040Greene.................... 518-622-9820Hamilton ............... 518-548-6191Herkimer............... 315-866-7920

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Jefferson ................. 315-788-8450Lewis ...................... 315-376-5270Livingston ............. 585-658-3250Madison ................. 315-684-3001Monroe................... 585-461-1000Montgomery ......... 518-762-3909Nassau .................... 516-454-0900NY City ................. 212-340-2900Niagara .................. 716-433-8839Oneida ................... 315-736-3394Onondaga .............. 315-424-9485Ontario................... 585-394-3977Orange ................... 845-344-1234Orleans ................... 585-589-5561Oswego .................. 315-963-7286Otsego .................... 607-547-2536Putnam .................. 845-278-6738Rensselaer .............. 518-272-4210Rockland ............... 845-429-7085St. Lawrence ......... 315-379-9192Saratoga ................. 518-885-8977Schenectady ........... 518-372-1622Schoharie ............... 518-234-4303Schuyler ................. 607-535-7161Seneca .................... 315-539-9251Steuben .................. 607-664-2300Suffolk ................... 516-727-7850Sullivan .................. 845-292-6180Tioga ...................... 607-687-4020Tompkins .............. 607-272-2292Ulster ...................... 845-340-3990Warren ................... 518-623-3291Washington ........... 518-746-2560Wayne .................... 315-331-8415Westchester ........... 914-285-4630Wyoming ............... 585-786-2251Yates ....................... 315-536-5123

Private Consulting Foresters,Industrial Foresters

Private consulting foresters or industrial forest-ers can provide landowners with technical assistance,timber appraisals, tax information, and timber saleassistance. Contact your regional DEC Service For-ester for a directory of private Cooperating Forestersin your area.

Three organizations represent the professionaland consulting foresters in the state. These are: theSociety of American Foresters, with about 500 mem-bers in the state, the Association of Consulting For-esters and the New York Institute of ConsultingForesters, both of which have smaller memberships.Each organization has a web site that includes mem-bership directories.

Woodland Owner Associations

Landowner associations are well establishedand very active in New York. These landowner as-sociations are dedicated to the needs of the privateforest landowners and are private organizations,composed of private forest landowners. Landownerassociations typically have a newsletter or magazinethat provides articles, calendars of events and addi-tional information of interest to landowners.

NY Forest Owners Association (NYFOA)800-836-3566

http://www.nyfoa.org

NYFOA is an organization dedicated to assist-ing owners and the public in making decisions forthe best use of forests, working to increase profitabil-ity of woodlot investment, and educating the publicon the value of a healthy tree growing industry.(Please note: at publication date, NYFOA is in theprocess of changing their name to New York Wood-land Stewards.)

Catskill Forest Association845-586-3054

http://catskillforest.org

The Catskill Forest Association, Inc., is a pri-vate, non-profit organization serving the entireCatskill Region. The goal of CFA is to stimulate theregion’s economy while conserving its forests, soil,water, wildlife and natural beauty.

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New York City (NYC) Watershed ForestryProgram607-865-7790

http://www.nycwatershed.org

The mission of the NYC Watershed ForestryProgram is to assist the agriculture and forestrycommunities in the New York City watershed toadopt best management practices for water qualityprotection and economic viability.

Tug Hill Resources Investment forTomorrow (THRIFT)315-841-8874

http://www.tughillresources.org

THRIFT is a growing group of people dedi-cated to the wise stewardship of the Tug Hill Region(Jefferson, Lewis, Oneida and Oswego Counties.)THRIFT exists to help sustain the unique character,lifestyle and resources of the Tug Hill Region bypromoting informed management and care of itsforests, wildlife, water and lands, and by providing avoice for area landowners.

American Tree Farm System in New York585-377-6060

http://www.treefarmsystem.org

The goal of the American Tree Farm System isto promote sustainable forestry by publicly recogniz-ing landowners who practice forest managementand by persuading non-managing forest owners toimplement forest management practices on theirwoodlots.

Empire State Forest Products Association518-463-1297

http://www.esfpa.org

The Association has a diverse and growingmembership. Membership stands at over 400 busi-nesses and individuals. Members include forest land-owners, timber harvesters, furniture companies,lumber manufacturers, pulp and paper companies,and other wood product manufacturers from acrossNew York state. Members own and manage 1.2 mil-

lion acres of New York forests and employ over one-third of the 65,000 individuals employed in the forestproducts industry in New York state.

The Forest Stewards Guild505-983-3887

http://www.foreststewardsguild.org

The mission of the Guild is to promote ecologi-cally and economically responsible resource manage-ment that sustains the entire forest across the land-scape. The Guild provides a forum and support sys-tem for practicing foresters and other resource man-agement professionals working to advance this vi-sion.

The Forest Stewards Guild is a growing orga-nization with a core membership of field foresterswhose work is broadly acknowledged for providingtangible examples of sustainable forestry. Membersare located throughout the United States andCanada, with major concentrations in California,New England, and the southern Appalachians. TheGuild attempts to carry forward and build upon aphilosophical tradition that includes Heinrich Cotta,Gifford Pinchot, and Aldo Leopold. The Guild wasformed in 1997 as a program of the Forest Trust, aregional conservation organization working in theSouthwest since 1984.

Web Sites

Forest Landowner’s Guide to InternetResources: States of the Northeast:

http://www.na.fs.fed.us/pubs/misc/ir/index.htm

This site provides a listing of internet resourcesfor the private forest landowner. Links to publica-tions, brochures, and fact sheets, as well as state-by-state information is provided. Topics such as wildlifeand biodiversity, timber harvests, silviculture, estateplanning, riparian forests and wetland managementand many others are included. The following ex-cerpt from this USDA Forest Service web site de-scribes the resources available from this federalagency.

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The Northeastern Area is a USDA ForestService designation for the 20 States and theDistrict of Columbia as shown on the map :

A Forest Landowner’s Guide to InternetResources: States of the Northeast

This listing of internet resources was developedto provide the Non-Industrial Private Forest(NIPF) landowner, with a better understanding ofthe information and resources available on theinternet relating to forest stewardship. In brows-ing the document, you’ll hopefully find links toareas you’re already interested in, and perhapsalso find your interest captured by other, previ-ously unfamiliar, aspects of forest stewardship.

This document is structured as follows:

• Part 1: Publications, Brochures, and Fact Sheets• Part 2: Internet Resources by State

The selection of sites presented here is not in-tended to represent everything of possible inter-est to the NIPF landowner, nor should inclusionbe considered an endorsement. This is especiallytrue where the section on income tax and estateplanning is concerned (Landowners are advisedto seek professional guidance). Rather, it is thecompiler’s best effort at identifying what a typicalNIPF landowner might find of most interest.

Developing Forest Stewardship Plans:

http://www.dnr.cornell.edu/ext/stewardship

This site provides links to federal standards forstewardship plans, examples of plans, guides forwriting, and articles or other publications related toforest stewardship plan development

National Web-Based Learning Center:

http://www.forestandrange.org

This site provides information and hands-onactivities relating to wildlife, forest management andstewardship, water resources, economic issues, andother natural resource topics. The site is intended forprivate forest and range landowners. The “You andYour Forest” module on this site is intended to pro-vide the background landowners need to preparethem to be good forest stewards.

Source: USDA Forest Service Web Site

36Regenerating clear cut strip in the Catskills

Peter Smallidge

37

GLOSSARY

Forest Ecology

Biological diversity: the variety of plants and animals,the communities they form, and the ecological func-tions they perform at the genetic, stand, landscape, andregional levels.

Birds – Forest Habitat Groups: Many bird speciesusually will be found in the same kinds of forests andusing habitat in similar ways. These birds can becombined loosely into three groups based on theirpreference for certain forest habitat conditions, asfollows: early successional, general, and mature.

Community: a collection of living organisms in adefined area that function together in an organizedsystem through which energy, nutrients, and watercycle.

Ecology: the study of interactions between livingorganisms and their environment.

Ecosystem: a natural unit comprised of living organ-isms and their interactions with their environment,including the circulation, transformation, and accumu-lation of energy and matter.

Forest interior dependent species: animal species thatdepend upon extensive areas of continuous, unbrokenforest habitat to live and reproduce, and are susceptibleto higher rates of predation and population declinewhen interior forest habitat is fragmented or dis-turbed.

Guild: species similar in their habitat needs as well astheir response to habitat changes (e.g., ovenbird andwoodthrush). One species in a guild is often used torepresent the others when developing a stewardshipmanagement plan.

Habitat: the geographically defined area where envi-ronmental conditions (e.g., climate topography, etc.)meet the life needs (e.g., food, shelter, etc.) or anorganism, population or community. The kind of

environment where a particular animal spends most ofits time.

Habitat connections/corridor: a strip of wildlifehabitat, unique from the landscape on either side of it,that links one isolated ecosystem “island” (e.g., forestfragment) to another. Corridors allow certain speciesaccess to isolated habitat areas, which consequentlycontributes to the genetic health of the populationsinvolved.

Indicator species: species with such specialized ecologi-cal needs that they can be used for assessing the quality,condition, or extent of an ecosystem on the basis oftheir presence and density, or the accumulation andeffect of materials in their tissues.

Invasive species: a plant or animal that spreads rapidlyand in great numbers in a region, often to the point ofbeing a nuisance in an ecosystem where it is not native.

Native species: an indigenous species that is normallyfound as part of a particular ecosystem.

Species: a subordinate classification to a genus; repro-ductively isolated organisms that have commoncharacteristics, such as eastern white pine or white-tailed deer.

Species Abundance: the number of individuals.

Species Richness: the number of species present in acommunity or a defined area.

Species of special concern/or special responsibility:species that are rare, restricted in range, or declining inabundance.

Threatened species: a species likely to become endan-gered in the foreseeable future, throughout all or asignificant portion of its range, unless protected.

Wildlife community: an integrated group of speciesinhabiting a given area and influencing one another’sdistribution, abundance and evolution; all the living

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organisms sharing a common environment andinteracting with one another.

Forests

Canopy: the upper level of a forest, consisting ofbranches and leaves of taller trees. A canopy is com-plete (or has 100 percent cover) if the ground is com-pletely hidden when viewed from above the trees.

Disturbance: a natural or human-induced environ-mental change that alters one ore more of the floral,faunal, and microbial communities within an ecosys-tem. Timber harvesting is the most common humandisturbance. Windstorms and fire are examples ofnatural disturbance.

Dominant tree species: one that appears more fre-quently in a forest stand or tends to be much tallerwith a higher canopy, receiving full light from above.

Extensively forested landscape: areas where forestsmade up more than 70 percent of the land cover withina three-mile radius of the stand study sites.

Forest recovery: the complex natural process by whichfloral, faunal, and microbial communities respond todisturbance in the forest ecosystem. More resilientecosystems respond rapidly to disturbance, returningto pre-disturbance ecological state within a relativelyshort time period (perhaps decades as opposed tocenturies.)

Forest structure: forests come in many shapes, sizes,types and ages. Some forests have thick brushy under-stories with little of no canopy. Others have closedoverhead tree canopy that provides shade and mois-ture. Others have a mix of plant layers, includingherbs, shrubs, understory and canopy.

Forest succession: forests change predictably over timeas they age. Land cleared land for farming or otheruses, if left undisturbed, will be colonized by certainplants that tend to reoccupy an open area. Over timeearly successional plants are replaced, from shrubs andseedlings, to saplings and young trees, to mature forest,which in turn change as they impacted by small andlarge disturbances.

Fragmented landscape: where forests remain only inrelatively small or isolated patches, where animalcommunities tend to be much poorer – few individualsor species – in smaller or more isolated patches than inlarger or more connected patches.

Fragmentation: the segmentation of a large or contigu-ous tract of forest to smaller patches that are isolatedfrom each other by non-forest habitat. Results fromthe collective impact of residential and commercialdevelopment, highway and utility construction, andother piecemeal land use changes.

Mast: all fruits of trees and shrubs used as food forwildlife. Hard mast includes nutlike fruits such asacorns, beechnuts, and chestnuts. Soft mast includesthe fleshy fruits of black cherry, dogwood and service-berry.

Northern Forest Hardwood Type: usually made upmostly of sugar and red maple, American beech,yellow birch, and to a lesser extend black cherry andwhite ash. This type represents about 70 percent of allforests in New York State.

Old growth/mature forest: forests that approximate thestructure, composition, and functions of native forestprior to European settlement. They vary by foresttype, but generally include more large trees, canopylayers, standing snags, native species, and dead organicmatter than do young or intensively managed forests.

Patch: a small area of a particular ecological commu-nity surrounded by distinctly different ecologicalcommunities, such as a forest stand surrounded byagricultural lands or a small opening surrounded byforestland.

Riparian zone: an area adjoining a body of water,normally having soils and vegetation characteristic offloodplains or areas transitional to upland zones.These areas help protect the water by removing orbuffering the effects of excessive nutrients, sediments,organic matter, pesticides, or pollutants.

Stand: a grouping of forest vegetation sufficientlyuniform in species composition, age, and condition tobe distinguished from surrounding vegetation typesand managed as a single unit.

Succession: the natural series of replacements of oneplant community (and the associated fauna) by anotherover time and in the absence of disturbance.

Understory: the smaller vegetation (shrubs, seedlings,saplings, small trees) within a forest stand, occupyingthe vertical zone between the overstory and the herba-ceous plants of the forest floor.

Vertical structure: the arrangement of plants in a givencommunity from the ground (herbaceous and woodyshrubs) into the main forest canopy; a complex vertical

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structure is characterized by lush undergrowth andsuccessive layers of woody vegetation extending intothe crowns of dominant and co-dominant trees.

Virgin forest: a forest that has never been harvested oraltered by humans.

Forest Management

Clearcutting: a harvesting and regeneration techniquethat removes all the trees, regardless of size, on an areain one operation. Clearcutting is most often used withspecies like aspen or black cherry, which require fullsunlight to reproduce and grow well, or to createspecific habitat for certain wildlife species.Clearcutting produces an even-aged forest stand.

Diameter-limit cut: a timber harvesting treatment inwhich all trees over a specified diameter may be cut.Diameter-limit cuts often result in high-grading.

Even-aged stand: a group of trees that do not differ inage by more than 10 to 20 years or by 20 percent of therotation age.

Forest condition: forests can be managed by variousmethods that result in many different conditions, fromclearcuts where almost no trees are left standing, topartial harvests with some trees standing, to un-harvested stands with many large trees remaining.

Forest Condition Categories: Forest stands in thisstudy were sorted into four different groups based onthe similarities in the number and sizes of trees andother aspects of their habitat structure. These catego-ries were: mature or very lightly thinned; moderatepartial cuts; heavy partial cuts; and clearcuts.

Forest management options: the choices facing a forestlandowner regardless of the current status of forests onhis/her property.

Forest Stewardship Plan/Management plan: a docu-ment prepared by natural resource professionals toguide and direct the use and management of a forestproperty. It consists of inventory data and prescribedactivities designed to meet ownership objectives.

High-grading: a type of exploitive harvesting in whichlarger trees of commercially valuable species areremoved with little regard for the quality, quantity, ordistribution of trees and regeneration left on the site;often results when a diameter-limit harvest is imposed.

Improvement cut: any cutting treatment used to alterspecies composition and tree spacing to realize owner-

ship objectives. Thinning is a type of improvementcut.

Non-industrial private forestland (NIPF): forestlandowned by a private individual, group or corporationnot involved in wood processing.

Ownership objectives: people who own forestland havea diversity of values and priorities in terms of why theyown the land, their management priorities, what theyenjoy the most about owning or living on forestedproperty.

Pole stand: a stand of trees with diameter at breastheight (dbh) ranging from 5 to 9 inches.

Reforestation: the re-establishment of forest cover bynatural or artificial means on areas recently supportingforest cover.

Regeneration: the replacement of one forest stand byanother as a result of natural seeding, sprouting,planting, or other methods; also young trees which willdevelop into the future forest.

Regeneration cut: a timber harvest designed to pro-mote and enhance natural establishment of trees.Three types of regeneration cuts perpetuate even-agedstands: seed tree, shelterwood, and clearcutting.Uneven-aged stands are perpetuated by selectingindividual or small groups of trees for removal (e.g.,the selection system).

Residual stand: trees remaining following any cuttingoperation.

Rotation: the planned time interval between regenera-tion cuts in a forest.

Salvage cut: the removal of dead, damaged, or diseasedtrees with the intent of recovering value prior todeterioration.

Sapling: a small tree, usually defined as being between2 and 4 inches diameter at breast height (dbh).

Sawlog: a log large enough to yield lumber. Usuallythe small end of a sawlog must be at least 6 to 8 inchesin diameter for softwoods and 10 to 12 inches forhardwoods.

Second growth: the forests re-established followingremoval of virgin (i.e., previously unharvested) or old-growth stands. Most northeastern forests are eithersecond or third growth.

Seed tree cut: a regeneration cut where mature treesare left standing in a harvested area to provide seed for

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regeneration of the cut-over site.

Seedling: a young tree originating from seed that is lessthan 4 feet tall and smaller than 2 inches in diameter atground level.

Selection cut: a regeneration cut designed to create andperpetuate an uneven-aged forest. Trees may beremoved singly or in small groups. A well-designedselection cut removes trees of lesser quality and trees inall diameter classes along with merchantable andmature high-quality sawlog trees. Should be differen-tiated from “select” or “selective” cuts, which oftenequate to high-grading.

Shelterwood: a regeneration cut designed to stimulatereproduction by removing all overstory trees. This isachieved by a series of cuts over several years. Gradualreduction of stand density protects understory treesand provides a seed source for stand regeneration.

Sustainable forest management: management thatmaintains and enhances the long-term health of forestecosystems for the benefit of all living things, whileproviding environmental, economic, social and cul-tural opportunities for present and future generations

Sustained yield: historically, a timber managementconcept in which the volume of wood removed isequal to growth within the total forest. The concept is

applicable to nontimber forest values as well.

Thinning: removal of trees to encourage growth ofother selected individual trees. May be commercial orpre-commercial.

Timber cruising: the process of estimating the quality,quantity, and characteristics of trees in a forest.

Timber harvesting: removal of produce from the forestfor use; includes timber cutting and initial processingand extraction.

Timber management: the practice of silviculture, theart and science of controlling the establishment,growth, composition, health and quality of forests andwoodlands to meet the diverse needs and values oflandowners and society on a sustainable basis.

Timber stand improvement (TSI): a combination ofintermediate treatments designed to improve growthand composition of the forest; often spoken of as TSI.

Timberland: forestland producing or capable ofproducing crops of industrial wood (more than 20cubic feet per acre per year), and not withdrawn fromtimber utilization. Formerly known as commercialforestland.

Uneven-aged stand: a group of trees of various agesand sizes growing together on a site.

Printed on Accent Opaque paper proudly produced at and donated by International Paper’s Ticonderoga mill fromworking Adirondack forests, managed responsibly in accordance with the principles of the Sustainable Forestry Initiative.Paper used for the cover is 80# Accent Opaque Cover.Paper used for the text is 70# Accent Opaque Text.

Designed by Aimee TweedieCover Photo by Peter Smallidge of seed trees in forested patch

Funding for this project provided by:Park Foundation

NYS Biodiversity Research InstituteUS Forest Service

Blue-headed Vireo, Vireo solitarius Photo by Cornell Lab of Ornithology

200 Trillium LaneAlbany, NY 12203518-869-9731http://ny.audubon.org