Patricia Rankin and Donna Caccamise

Why Women Aren’t Where They Are Needed in the Workforce: Putting the Pieces Together

Contents

Abstract 2

Overview 3

Social, Economic and Scientific Problem-Solving ‒ the Value of a Diverse Workforce 6

Cognitive Errors and Stereotype Threat 9

Patterns of Women’s Representation 13

Cultural Impacts on Employment of Women 15

Models of Workplace Cultures in STEM 16

Women in Leadership Roles 17

Impact of Leadership Styles 19

Biases Especially Impacting the Employment of Women 23

Addressing the Causes of Under-Representation 24

Keeping Women Interested 29

Work/life Balance 30

Work Teams Thrive with the Right Norms 31

Better Ways to Recruit and Assess Individuals 32

Developing Leadership Potential ‒ Existing Programs 33

Developing Future Leaders with the Right Professional Skills 35

Assessment of the Climate and Effectiveness of Interventions 37

Recommendations 39

Conclusions 42

Acknowledgements 43

Useful Materials/Further Reading 44

References 47

Patricia Rankin and Donna Caccamise1

Why Women Aren’t Where They Are Needed in the Workforce: Putting the Pieces Together

The paper forms part of

the Sasakawa Peace Foundation Expert Reviews Series on

Advancing Women's Empowerment.

To cite this paper, please use:

Rankin, P. and Caccamise, D. Why Women Aren’t Where They Are Needed in

the Workforce: Putting the Pieces Together. The Sasakawa Peace Foundation Expert

Reviews Series on Advancing Women's Empowerment, 2017.

1 Dr.RankinisProfessorofPhysicsattheUniversityofColorado,Boulder,Colorado.Dr.CaccamiseisAssociateDirector

oftheInstituteofCognitiveScienceattheUniversityofColorado,Boulder,Colorado.Allcorrespondenceshouldbe

addressedtoDr.Rankin,DepartmentofPhysics,CampusBox360,Boulder,CO80309.Phone:(1)(303)492-1449;

Email:Patricia.Rankin@colorado.edu

Contents

Abstract 2

Overview 3

Social, Economic and Scientific Problem-Solving ‒ the Value of a Diverse Workforce 6

Cognitive Errors and Stereotype Threat 9

Patterns of Women’s Representation 13

Cultural Impacts on Employment of Women 15

Models of Workplace Cultures in STEM 16

Women in Leadership Roles 17

Impact of Leadership Styles 19

Biases Especially Impacting the Employment of Women 23

Addressing the Causes of Under-Representation 24

Keeping Women Interested 29

Work/life Balance 30

Work Teams Thrive with the Right Norms 31

Better Ways to Recruit and Assess Individuals 32

Developing Leadership Potential ‒ Existing Programs 33

Developing Future Leaders with the Right Professional Skills 35

Assessment of the Climate and Effectiveness of Interventions 37

Recommendations 39

Conclusions 42

Acknowledgements 43

Useful Materials/Further Reading 44

References 47

Patricia Rankin and Donna Caccamise1

Why Women Aren’t Where They Are Needed in the Workforce: Putting the Pieces Together

The paper forms part of

the Sasakawa Peace Foundation Expert Reviews Series on

Advancing Women's Empowerment.

To cite this paper, please use:

Rankin, P. and Caccamise, D. Why Women Aren’t Where They Are Needed in

the Workforce: Putting the Pieces Together. The Sasakawa Peace Foundation Expert

Reviews Series on Advancing Women's Empowerment, 2017.

2

Abstract

Thispaperprovidesabroad reviewofevidence-based research,underlying theories,and

interventionsrelatedtowomen’srepresentationintheworkforce.Itintroducesthecomplexissues

atplayintoday’sworkplace.Theseissuescontributetocreatingaworkculturethattoooftenis

unfriendlytowomenandsubtlyornotsosubtlydriveswomenfromtheworkforce,particularly

fromscience, technology,engineering,andmathematics (STEM) related fields.Adiverse

workforcecanleadtobetteroutcomes,especiallyinaknowledge-basedeconomy.Theassertion

hereisthatachievingaworkforcefullyinclusiveofwomen,includingattheleadershiplevelsis

desirable,andthatthiswillrequirelookingbeyondlawsandpoliciestoaddressthebiasesthat

womenfaceaswellaspracticalconcernssuchashowtocombinefamilylifewithacareer.Simple

stepssuchasusingaqualificationschecklistintheassessmentofcandidatesforapositioncan

helpimprovehiring,aswouldtheavailabilityofaddedcareerplanningadvicetargetedatwomen

andagreaterawarenessofthevalueofprovidingrolemodels.Leadershipprogramsdesigned

tosupportthenewmodelsofcollaborativeworkandencouragetheparticipationofwomencan

alsohelp.

3

Overview

Asthenewknowledge-basedeconomygrowsinimportance,therearebothfundamentaland

practicalargumentsforensuringthatwomenareequalpartnersinit.Theprojectionsarethat

thepopulationoftheworldwill increasefromaround6.5billionin2015toaround9.3billion

in2050.Overthesameperiod,theprojectionisthatthepercentageofthepopulationover65

willdoublefrom8%to16%(PewResearchCenter,2014).Initiallycountriesmaybenefitfroma

demographicdividend(UnitedNationsPopulationFund,2017)ofacceleratedeconomicgrowth

whenmortalityandfertilityratesdecline.However,thereisonlyalimitedwindowofopportunity

beforetheoldagedependencyratio(whichmeasuresthedependenceof thoseover65on

theworkingagepopulation)increasesandanagingpopulationstartstohavemoreandmore

negativeimpacts.TheoldagedependencyratioisrisingrapidlyinJapanandIndonesiacompared

tocountriessuchasSwedenandBrazil (Magnus,2014).Thesedemographicshiftsdrivethe

necessityofquicklymovingtowardsincreasingwomen’srepresentationintheworkforce.

However, this isnot justamatterofusingwomen tobridge thegapsdeveloping in the

supplychain.Womenbringuniqueperspectivestoproblem-solving,andcomplexproblems

benefitfromtheapplicationofadiversesetofskills.Effectiveteamscombineaverageability

withacomplementarydiversityofperspectivesandexpertise. It is likelythat increasingthe

representationofwomenwillhaveamultipliereffectoneconomicgrowth,increasinginnovation,

andimprovingresponsestorapidchange.Inturn,thecharacteristicsoforganizationsthatmake

themwelcomingtowomenoftenmakethemsuccessfulatinnovating.

Achievingthedesiredlevelofinvolvementofwomenwillrequirenotjusthavingmorewomen

becomeinterestedintraditionallymalefieldsandintraditionallymaleroles,butalsoensuring

that theypersistandareable tosucceed.Thispaper focuseson thescience, technology,

engineering,andmathematics(STEM)fieldsbecausetherepresentationofwomeninthesefields

isnoticeablylow.Inparticular, itconsiderstheunder-representationofwomenin leadership

roles,suchasleadingaproductdevelopmentgroup,whythisisaproblem,andhowthisunder-

representationcanbechanged.Someofthestepsneededtochangethesituationareconcrete:

amatterofadoptingappropriatepoliciesandallocatingresourcestoaddresspracticalconcerns

suchasbalancingafamilyandacareer. It ismoredifficulttochangeorat leastmitigate,the

effectsoftheunderlyingattitudesofbothmenandwomenthatarecontributingtothelackof

womeninthissector.

Belowwehighlightthekeythemes inthispaperand indicatethesectionscontainingmore

detailsaboutthesethemes.

ImprovingProblem-Solving(“Social,EconomicandScientificProblem-Solving:TheValueofa

DiverseWorkforce”and“HowWorkTeamsThrivewiththeRightNorms”)

• Modernbusinessandsocietalchallengesarecomplexandsolvingthemrequiresexpertsfrom

differentdisciplinestocometogethertoworkininterdisciplinaryteams.Thismeansthatthere

needstobeashiftawayfromprojectsdrivenbyindividualstowardsmoreholisticteam-based

problem-solvingeffortsinbothacademiaandindustry.Thesesectionspresentargumentsfor

howamorediverseworkforcecanleadtobettersocialandeconomicoutcomesifconditions

areconducive.

UnderstandingBias(“CognitiveErrorsandStereotypeThreat”and“BiasesEspeciallyImpactingthe

EmploymentofWomen”)

• Manyfactorsinfluencedecision-makinginwaysthatcancauseustodevaluewomenwithout

beingawareofwhatwearedoing.It is importanttobebothawareoftheseinfluencesand

tostructuredecision-makingprocessestominimizetheir impacttoensurethatevaluations

4

arefair. Evidenceshowsthatwomenandmenvaryinhowtheyself-assesstheirabilitiesand

eventhewordingofanadvertisementcanencourageordiscouragewomenapplicants.These

sectionsdiscusstheissueofcognitiveerrorsandtheirimpactsontheemploymentofwomen.

EmploymentPatterns(“PatternsofRepresentation”and“TheCulturalImpactsoftheEmployment

ofWomen”)

• Thepatternsofemploymentforwomenandmencanbeverydifferentandmanywomen

“accumulatedisadvantage”throughouttheircareers.Numerousfactorsaffectwomen’scareer

pathsandprogression,includingsocialculture(forexample,thefactthatwomenareprimarily

responsibleforchildcareandotherdomesticwork)andstructure(forexample,womenare

under-representedinleadershiprolesandscience-relatedfields).Thefirstsectionprovidesa

generaloverviewofemploymentpatterns,andthesecondlooksatissuessuchashowwomen

aremorelikelytobeemployedinpart-timework.

Leadership(“WomeninLeadershipRoles”and“TheImpactofLeadershipStyles”)

• LessthanonepercentofCEOsinJapanarewomen,creatingalackofrolemodelsandother

problems.However,leadershipstylesareevolvingtowardsatransformationalstyle,supporting

collaborativeandteambasedworkandbenefitingfrominterpersonalskills.Theleadership

styleoftheseniorstaffofanorganizationcansupportorhinderachievinggenderequality

dependingonthelevelofresponsibilityindividualleaderstakeforbeingpartofthesolution.

Poorleadershipcanaffectwomenmorethanitaffectsmen.

Changing theCulture (“Addressing theCausesofUnder-representation”,“KeepingWomen

Interested”,and“Work/LifeBalance”)

• Womenarestillunder-representedinmanyindustries,especiallySTEM-relatedprofessions

andlawsandpoliciesalonewillnotchangebehaviorsunlessthereisasharedsenseofwhat

isappropriate.Usinganapproachthatincorporatesdifferentperspectivesandintegratesthem

intoamoreeffectivewholebenefitseveryone.However, it isalsoimportanttocombatthe

mythologythatsimpleinclusioniscountertoameritocracy.Thereisaneedforbettercareer

planningadviceandforrolemodels.Womenalsooftenoptforlowerstatusand/orpart-time

positionstogaintheflexibilitytheyneedtomanagetheirwork/lifebalance.Inthesesections,

weintroduceworkthatshowshowstructuredapproachescanreducebiasandexaminehow

recentinitiativestodesignflexibleworkplaceswillhelpwithretention.

Recruitment(“BetterWaystoRecruitandAssessIndividuals”)

• In this section,wediscussapproaches to tackleunconsciousbias,manyofwhichare

surprisinglysimpleyeteffective,suchasusingaqualificationschecklist intheassessmentof

candidatesforaposition.

TheFutureofLeadership(“DevelopingFutureLeaderswiththeRightProfessionalSkills”)

• Thedesignof leadershipprogramsneedstosupportthenewmodelsofcollaborativework

andencouragetheparticipationofwomen.Thebestwaytodisruptthecurrentstatusquoisto

workinwaysthatdonotdirectlychallengeit.Inthissection,wediscusshowemphasizingthe

valueoffollowingprofessionalpracticewillhelpachievechange,andintroducetheconceptof

T-shapedprofessionals.

MonitoringProgress(“AssessmentoftheClimateandEffectivenessofInterventions”)

• Assessmentofinterventionsiskeytounderstandingtheireffectiveness.Theabilitytointervene

andadvancegenderequityrequiresanewemphasisonassessmentmethodsthatare less

reliantonself-reporting.Recent“bigdata”/computationalapproachesdemonstrategreat

promise.

ConsiderationsfortheFuture(“Recommendations”and“Conclusions”)

• Thediscussionfocusesonhoweffectiveorganizationalchangeneedstoworkacrossmultiple

5

constituencies. Manyof the issues facingus todayoriginate in the fact that thecurrent

dominantleadershipstyletendstobecompetitivenotco-operative,negativelyimpactingthe

long-termhealthofsocietyasawhole.Inviewofthis,weargueforachangeintheworking

culture.ItisparticularlyurgenttohavemorewomenparticipatefullyintheworkforceinJapan

andpartsofAsiaduetothedemographicsandthecomparative lackofnatural resources.

TheimportanceofSTEMworkerstotheknowledge-basedeconomymeansthatthereisan

immediatereturnoninvestment in increasingthenumberofwomen.Thelownumbersof

womeninSTEMmakesiteasiertohighlighttheissuesandhardertoresistthecaseforchange.

Weclosewithrecommendationsforfoundationsandgovernmentagenciestoconsiderrelated

todesigningprogramsandpoliciestoincreasewomen’sparticipationintheworkforce,andto

promotinggenderequalityinallsectorsandindustries.

6

Social, Economic and Scientific Problem-Solving – the Value of a Diverse Workforce

There isgrowingrecognitionthatcontinuedprogressrequiresnewapproachestoproblem-

solvingincludingincorporatingdiverseperspectives.Muchofthediscussioncentersaroundthe

needtoshiftfromthetraditionalmodelinresearchofanindividualresearcherwithexpertise

inasingledisciplinetoateam-basedapproachthatbringstogetherexpertsfromavarietyof

disciplinestosolveproblemsthatcrossdisciplinaryboundaries.Industrialinnovationalsoneeds

toadapttoshiftingmarketsandfindnewones. Page(2007)hasputforthaconvincingcase

thatadiverseskillsetpromotesbetterproblem-solving.Theessentialargumentisthatthemore

similartheskillsarethattwopeoplebringtothetable,themoreredundancythere is inthe

systemandthisredundancydoesnotimprovethelikelihoodoffindingasolution.Toopenup

abroaderspacetofindasolution,youneedtobringinsomeonewithadifferentskillset.This

differentskillsetincreasesthevarietyoftoolsthatmightbeusedinsolvingtheproblem.Page

takesthisfurther,whichhelpsinunderstandingwhattypesofproblemsaremostlikelytobenefit

fromadiversegroupapproach.

FromPage’s(2007)perspective,somefieldsaremore“ladder-like”thanothersareinthatlater

conceptsbuilduponearlierones;thatis,thereisagenerallyagreeduponorderinwhichtolearn

tools.Physics isagoodexampleofa ladder-likefield.Physicists,forexample,studyNewton’s

workbeforeEinstein’s.Considerateammadeupoftwophysicists;thelessexperiencedphysicist

willaddlittletotheoverallskillsetofthepair. Ifyouaresolvingaproblemthatonlyinvolves

physics,thereislikelytobelittleadvantagetobringinginsomeonefromacompletelydifferent

field.Expertsgenerallyoutperformrandomgroupsinfindingsolutionsforproblemswherethere

isahighprobabilityoftherebeingonlyonerightanswerandawell-definedwaytoapproach

findingthatanswer(likealgebraproblems). Incontrast,crowdsdoverywellatestimating

because lowandhighguessestendtoaverageout.Theyalsodowelloncomplexproblems

wherethereislikelytobearangeofpossiblesolutionseachwithadvantagesanddisadvantages.

Incaseswhereskillsfromseveraldisciplinesareneeded,adiverseproblem-solvinggroupismore

likelytogenerateawiderrangeofpossiblesolutionsandmorelikelytofindarobustsolution.

Themost importantsocialandeconomicproblemsofthe21stcenturyaresometimescalled

“GrandChallenge”problems(Whitehouse,2012)becausetheydonotfallneatlywithindiscipline

boundariesbut insteadrequiretrans-disciplinarycollaborations.TheHorizon2020research

frameworkoftheEuropeanCommission,whichwasadoptedin2013,explicitlyrecognizesthis

throughafundingprogramforresearchandinnovation.Knownas“ResponsibleResearchand

Innovation(RRI)”(Horizon,2017),theprogramchallengesscientiststopaymoreattentionto

whatsocietywantsandhastotellthem,bytakingamoreinclusive,reflective,andanticipatory

approachtotheirresearch.Thegoalistobetteralignboththeprocessandoutcomesofresearch

andinnovationwiththeneeds,values,andexpectationsofEuropeansociety.

Thesecollaborationsneedtobringtogetherpractitionersnotjustfromdifferentfields,butalso

fromdifferentcareerpaths,andinvolvegovernments, industries,universities,non-profits,and

philanthropistsinfindinganddeployingsolutions.Forexample,asthepopulationages,healthcare

needswillchange(Rechel,Doyle,Grundy,andMcKee,2009).It ispossiblethatdepressionand

otherchronicdiseasescouldoverwhelmthehealthcaresystemsofmanycountrieswithout

advancesinroboticsandartificialintelligencestokeepanagingpopulationactiveandengaged.

Theseproblemsarenot ladder-like.Socialscientists,engineers,healthcarepractitioners,and

policymakerswillallneedtoplayarolenotjustinproducingtheneededtechnologies,butin

7

makingthemaccessibleandacceptable.

Theautomobileindustryisanexcellentcasestudyrelatedtotheimportanceofincludingwomen

inthedesignprocess. 2Theconsequencesofmale-onlydesignteamsgobeyondseatsthatdonot

adjustfarenoughordifficult-to-reachcontrols.Womenare47%morelikelytobeseriouslyinjured

inacrashthanmen(Bose,Sequi-Gomez,andCrandall,2011)baseduponananalysisofaccidents

occurringfrom1998to2008.Thestudy’sauthorsarguedthatthisoccurredbecausethevehicles’

safetyfeaturesweretailoredwithmeninmindandnotwomen.Theinvestigatorsfoundthat

femaledriverswearingseatbeltsweremore likely tobe injuredthanmaledriverswearing

seatbelts,andthatbeltedfemaledriverssufferedmorechestandspineinjuriesthanbeltedmale

driversincomparablecrashes.Inaddition,intheU.S.,womeninfluenceover80%ofallnewcar

purchases.Womenaregainingground in theautomobile industryand theirnumbersare

increasing.IntheU.S.in2015,womenmadeupjustalittleoverone-quarteroftheautomotive

industry’sworkforce(2015BureauofLaborStatistics)andasaresult,womenarebecomingmore

central tothedesignprocess.Forexample in2015,NoraArellano,aToyotaPrincipalDesign

Engineer,wasawardedapatentforsidecurtainairbagdesignusedintheToyotaTundra.

Wecanmakeasimilarcaseinthebiomedicalsciencesfortheimportanceofconsideringthe

needsofwomen.Drugdosagesnotonlyneedtotakeintoaccountweightdifferencesbutalso

hormonaldifferences. Inaddition,sincewomenareoftentheprimarycaregivers inasociety,

prioritizing theirvaccinationcanbettersloworprevent thespreadofadisease.While, in

principle,malescientistscouldhaveledadrivetostudythedifferentialimpactsoftreatmentson

women,inpracticeitwaswomenpractitionerswhobroughttheseconcernstothefore(thelater

sectionon“KeepingWomenInterested”willdiscusshowpublicizingthecontributionsofwomen

alsohelpstoencouragewomentofollowcareersintheSTEMfields).

Researchonteamsandthecharacteristicsofsuccessfulteamsstronglysuggeststhattheskills

thattendtobeassociatedmorewithwomen(suchascollaboration,bettercommunication,and

focusonthewhole)thanwithmenarethemost importantskills inensuringteamsfunction

effectively(Wolley,Malone,andBerinato,2011).Itisgenerallyagreedthatwomenimprovethe

qualityofdebates,focusmoreonpossiblehumanfactorsthatcouldbeinfluential,andtendto

addaccountability.

Historically,universityprofessorshaveworkedaloneor ledteamsofmorejuniorresearchers.

However,withtherecognitionthatreal-lifeproblemsarebecomingmoreandmorecomplexand

cannolongerbeaddressedbysimplelaboratoryexperiments,researchfundingagenciesare

nowshowingapreferenceforsupportingmultidisciplinaryteamsacrossinstitutions.Teamwork

amongfacultypeersisbecomingincreasinglynecessaryandexpected(whichwilldrivechanges

intherewardsystemforfacultyscholarship).Incontrast,teamshavebeenactiveinSTEM-related

industriesforsometime.

Page’s (2007)work isbasedontheoreticalskillsets thatrepresent intellectualdiversity.His

frameworkisoftenusedtosupporttheinclusionofmembersofunder-representedgroupsand

broadeningparticipationbecausepeoplewithdifferentbackgroundsandexperiencescanbring

differentperspectives.However,whatistheevidencethattheydo?

Oneinterestingstudyofcorporateboardsandthe impactofwomenonthoseboardsfound

someapparentlyencouragingresults.Fortune500companieswiththehighestrepresentationof

womenontheirboardsgenerallyoutperformedthosewiththelowestrepresentationofwomen

ontheirboardsonsomekeyfinancialindicators(Catalyst,2011).Thereturnonequitywas53%

2 PatriciaRankinthanksDr.ElizabethPollitzerofPortiaLtd.forthediscussiononthistopic.

8

better;thereturnonsaleswas42%betteronaverage;andthereturnoninvestedcapitalwas66%

better.ThestudywasdonebyrankingtheFortune500companiesbythepercentageofwomen

ontheirboardsandcomparingthetopandbottomquartiles.AsimilarstudybasedonEuropean

firmsbyMcKinsey(Desvaux,Devillard-Hoellinger,andBaumgerten,2007)foundsimilarbenefits.

What thesestudiesshowis that incertainspecificcases there isacorrelationbetweenthe

percentageofwomenonaboardandthefirm’sperformance.Thisisnotthesameassayingthat

thereisacausalrelationship.Moredetailedanalysesshowthecomplexityofthesituation(Eagly,

2016),anditisimportanttounderstandthesecomplexitiestomakeeffectiverecommendations.

First,analyzingtheboardroomdatatolookforcausalityshowsthattherearelittletonodirect

effects,andsecondly, increasingthepercentageofwomendoesnotalwayshaveapositive

impact.Thesefindingsareperhapsnottoosurprising.Therearemanyreasonswhyafirmmaybe

performingwell,includinganabilitytoadapttochangingmarketsandproduceinnovativegoods.

Theculturethatmakesafirmopentoinnovationmayalsomakeitmoreopentonontraditional

hires.Thepresenceofwomenontheboardmayreflectacultureofprofessionaldevelopment

ofaspiringleaderswhoempowerpeopleatall levelsofthecompany.Furthermore,companies

thataredoingwellfinanciallycouldbemorewillingtotakerisksonhiringdecisions;conversely,

thereissomeevidencethatfirmsdoingverypoorlyarealsowillingtotakerisks.Forexample,

YahoohiredMarissaMayerandHPhiredCarlyFiorinaaftertheseorganizationsencountered

difficulties(knownastheGlassCliffeffect;thisisdiscussedmoreinthesectionon“Womenin

LeadershipRoles”).Finally,andperhapsmostimportantly,ifthewomencomeintoasituationas

outsiders,theymaynothavetheinfluenceneededtoimpactdecisions.Moreover,ifthewomen

donothavetherespectoftherestofthegroup,thentheycouldbemoreofadistractionthanan

advantagetotheteam.Hiringwomen,inandofitself,isnotenoughtomakeadifference.

Webelievethattheuseofquotasneedstobecarefullyconsidered.Quotasaremostlikelytobe

effectiveinsituationswheretheevidencesuggeststhatthereisapoolofwomenwhoarebeing

overlookedandwhereeffortsaremadetosupportthefullintegrationofthewomenhiredinto

theorganization.NagoyaUniversityinJapan,forexample,hasmadeeffectiveuseofquotasto

recruitwomenfaculty.NagoyaUniversityisa“HeForShe”ImpactChampion(UNWomen2016)

andhasastrongoverallorganizationalcommitmenttogenderequity.

Tocompletetheoverviewofsomeofthekeyassumptionsandconceptsbehindthispaper,the

nextsectionwillprovideaquickreviewofhowhumanthoughtprocessescanbeinfluencedin

waysthatcomplicateattaininggenderequityinorganizations.

9

Cognitive Errors and Stereotype Threat

Decadesofresearchshowthatdespitepeoples’bestintentionstomakeunbiaseddecisions,that

thiscanbedifficulttoachieve.Valian(1997)inher influentialbook,“WhysoSlow”laysouta

compellingcase.PsychologistspresentedwithaCVfromreal-lifescientistsaremorelikelytohire

thecandidatewithamalename(Steinpres,AndersandRitzke,1999).Successismorelikelytobe

attributedto“luck”forwomenand“skill”formen(DeauxandEmswiller,1974).Evaluatorsunder

stress(suchasneedingtocompletemanyratings inashort-timeperiod)givewomenlower

ratingsthantheydomenwiththesamewrittenevaluationsofperformance(Martell,1991).

Studyafterstudyshowsthattherearedifferencesbetweenhowmenandwomenarejudged,and

howmuchweightisgiventotheircredentials.

The“SwedishPostdoctoral Study” (WennerasandWold,1997)describesa reviewof114

postdoctoralapplications in1995where therewere62maleapplicantsand52women.

Sixteenmenreceivedawardsbutonlyfourwomendid.Thereviewprocessseemedveryfair —

applicationswerereadbyoneof11committees;eachapplicationwasreviewedbyfivepeople,

andscoredfrom0to4onscientificcompetence,relevanceofproposal,qualityofproposal,and

methodology.Scoreswerethenmultipliedtogether(0-64)andaveragedoverthereviewers

toproducea rankingbasedon impact factorandoneto threenamesweresubmitted toa

finalcommittee.Aregressionanalysisshowedthatamajorfactoringettinganawardwasthe

competenceratingandmenconsistentlyreceivedhighercompetenceratings.Wennerasand

Woldfoundamodelthatdidagoodjobofpredictingthecompetenceratingforthemenby

lookingatthenumberoftheirpublicationsweightedbythequalityofthejournalstheyhad

publishedinandthenumberoftheircitationstodetermineanimpactpointsrating.However,

themodeldidnotfitthewomenapplicantswhoneededatleast100impactpointstoberated

thesameasamanwith40impactpoints.

A salary studyby twoeconomists, Egan andBendick (1994)demonstrates again that

qualificationscanbeweighteddifferentlyformenandwomen.Thesurveyexamined17factors

thatcouldinfluencesalary,suchasthekindofdegreetheyhad,howmanyhourstheyworked

aweek,theiryearsofexperience,andsoon.Ofthe17factors,14helpedmenmorethanthey

helpedwomen.Forexample,havinglivedoutsidetheUSadded$9,200tomen’ssalariesbut

subtracted$7,700fromwomen’ssalaries.

Whatcouldbegoingon?

Valian(1997)arguesthatthereexistasetofimplicithypothesesaboutthedifferencesbetween

thesexesthatshapetheconceptionsofmenandwomen,whichshecallsgenderschema(to

helpdifferentiatethemfromstereotypes).Itisimportanttonotethatbothmenandwomenhold

tothesamehypotheses.Whenwearelookingatapopulation,weunderstandthatanythingwe

usetocharacterizeindividualshasanassociateddistribution.However,whenweareconsidering

an individual,we tend toassume that theyaredescribed in termsof themeansof these

distributions.Onceweclassifypeopleasmenorwomen,wefindthatthisaffectsourperceptions,

eveninthecaseofobjectivecharacteristicslikeheight.Inoneexample,astudybyBiernat,Maris

andNelson(1991),collegestudentsweregivenasampleofphotographsofmenandwomen

andaskedtoguesstheheightsofthepeopleinthephotographs.Thepicturesalwayscontained

areferenceitem(forexample,adeskorchair)tohelpintheheightestimate.Thesamplewasset

up(unknowntostudents)tomatcheverymaninthesamplewithawomanofthesameheight.

Maleandfemalestudentsestimatedtheaverageheightofthesampleofwomentobelessthan

10

thatofthesampleofmen,presumablybecausemenareexpectedtobetaller.

Thishelpsus tounderstandthedataonthe lowervalueofwomenscredentials.Employers

interpretthemdifferentlyformenthantheydoforwomen.Inthecaseofmen,employerswill

seespendingtimeabroadasanaffirmativechoicetoaidcareerpreparation.However,since

womenareassumedtomakechoicesbasedontheir intrinsicvalue, itmightbethoughtthat

awomantravelledforpleasureandthustimespentabroadcouldbewrongly interpretedas

signalingindifferencetotheircareer.

Weliveinacomplexworldandweareofteninformationoverloaded.Asaresult,wefilterout

muchoftheinformationcominginviaoursensestojustwhatweneedforthecurrenttask.

Thus,weoftenmakedecisionsbasedonasmallamountof informationandweoftenmake

thesedecisionsautomatically;thus,weareinfluencedbyassumptionswemaynotrealizeare

influencingourdecision-making;thisistheunderlyingcauseof“UnconsciousBias”.

Theresearchandliteratureondecision-making,inparticularstudiesrelatedtocognition,helps

ustounderstandwhatisgoingon.ThinkBetter(Hurson,2008)andThinkAgain(Finkelstein,

Whitehead,andCampbell,2008)arebothgoodresourcesforanyonewhowouldliketolearn

moreaboutimprovingdecision-making.Inthepast,oursurvivalrequiredarapidassessmentof

thethreatlevelofasituationandwedevelopedalargelyautomaticfightorflightresponsethat

tendedtoassessdifferentlevelsofdanger.Youenhancesurvivalbyensuringsafetyratherthanby

takingapossiblerisk.Therefore,theneedforaquickresponsetoarealthreatfavorsfalsealarms.

Whatthistranslatestointoday’senvironmentisthatwetendtoreactfirsttonewideaswith

instinctivecaution.Overtime,theneuralcortextakesoverwithamoreanalyticalresponse(think

aboutdrivingacar;inanemergency,youwillslamonthebrakesbeforebecomingfullyawareof

whatishappening).

Ourbrainshaveevolvedtoimposeorderandlookforpatternsinordertoautomateatleastsome

ofourdecision-makingforefficiencyandspeed.Thislevelofprocessingistypicallyunconscious.

Whenitcomestojudgingindividuals,thecognitiveerrorscomingfromunconsciousdecision-

makingcanintroducebias.However,wewanttostressthatwhilethiscanhavediscriminatory

impact,thepersonjudgingmaybetryinghardnottobebiased.

A relatedbias isknownasAffinityBias,which is the tendencywhenselectingsomeone

tounconsciously select thepersonwhoseemsmost likeyou.We tend to look forpoints

ofconnection to individualswemeet, suchas ifweattended thesameschool,or shared

experiences,or ifwelikethesamemusic/films/sportstheyareinterestedin. Ifwefindthese

pointsofconnection,thenboththepersonwearetalkingtoandustendtorelaxandbecome

moreateasewitheachother. Inan interviewsituation,an intervieweebeingateasecan

helpthemrespondbettertotheinterviewer’squestions.This inturnleadstotheinterviewer

respondingevenmorefavorablytotheinterviewee.

Wealsotendtoresistchangingdecisionsoncemade —aneffectknownasRe-enforcement

Bias.Oncewehavedecidedonsomething,wetendto lookforevidencethatwemadethe

rightchoice.Forexample,youmaybemakingachoicebetweenaredandawhitecarbut

finding ithardtodecide.Beforeyoudecide,however,youmightmakea listofadvantages

anddisadvantagesforeachcolor;butafteryoudecide,youarelikelytostarttofocusonthe

advantagesofthecoloryouchoseandthedisadvantagesofthecoloryoudidnotchoose.Aftera

decisionismade,individualsusuallybecomemoreconfidentthattheyareright(wedonotenjoy

thinkingwemadeamistake).

TheconceptofCognitiveDissonancedatesback to the1950sand isassociatedwithLeon

Festinger.Hediscussedhowitishardtomaintaintwoconceptsiftheyseemtobeinconflict(this

is importantinunderstandinghowinterventionsthatworktochangesomeoftheunderlying

11

assumptionswemakethatarewrongcanbemadeeffective).Wehaveatendencyto justify

ouractionsandtheactionsofthosearoundus—forexample,SallyandSamworkforthesame

company,withthesamecredentials,doingthesamejob,butSallydiscoversthatSamismaking

moremoneyforthesamework. ThissetsupthecognitivedissonanceinSally’smindthaton

theonehand,sheandSamareequalwithrespecttothejobtheydo,butontheotherhand,the

companyvaluesSam’sworkmore.Torelievethestresscausedbythesetwoincompatibleideas,

Sallycaneitherleavethejob,orcomeupwithareasoninhermindthatjustifiesSam’shigherpay.

Itdoesnotmatterwhetherthelatterrationalizationistrue;aslongasSallybelievesit,itwillhelp

torelievehercognitivedissonance.

Cognitivedissonancewants internalconsistency inwhatwearethinking.Arelatedconcept

ConfirmationBiaswantsexternalconsistencybecausethisbenefitsusbyreducingourneedto

thinkaboutsomethingandourneedtochangeouractions.Inthisframing,schemasaremental

constructs.Wewanttoavoidcallingthemstereotypesbecausethistermtendstomakepeople

defensiveabouttheirviews,whichmakesithardertochangetheirperceptions.Manyofour

schemasarebasedonaperson’soragroup’smaincharacteristicsandtherelationshipbetween

features;thusfollowingschemasactasaformofhypothesisthat:

• Allowsustoperceiveandclassifynewindividuals;

• Providesexplanationsofpeople’sactions;and

• Providesuswithabasistopredictfuturebehaviors.

Theytendtobepersistentandconflictinginformationrarelychangesschemabecausewere-

interpretconflictingdata toexplain itaway.Thisoftenallowsus toassumewearedealing

withanexception.Aswewilldiscussmoreinthesectionon“WomeninLeadershipRoles”,the

traditionalviewisthatleadersneedtobecharismatic,strong,decisive,andassertiveandwetend

toassociatetheseabilitieswithmen.Thisiswhythemorefeminineawomanisviewedasbeing;

thelesslikelyshewillbeseenasaleader.Worse,themoreawomanisregardedasaleader;the

morelikelyshewillalsobeseenasdeviant.Thus,womencanbepenalizedforactingtoolike

men(theyareexpectedtobepoliterand,spendmoretimeon“niceties”suchashelpingcleanup

afterevents).Thegoodnewsisthatraisingawarenessofunconsciousbiaseshelpscountertheir

effects.

AnotherhelpfulconcepttounderstandisthevalueofTacitKnowledge,atermusuallyapplied

toinformationthat isdifficulttowritedownorotherwisetransfer.Oftenit is justassumedto

beknown.“Boulderis inColorado”isafact —explicitknowledgethatcanbewrittendown,

transmitted,andunderstoodbytherecipient.YoucandescribesolvingaSudokuproblemandit

ispossibletowritedowntherulestofollow—butnoteveryonefindsitequallyeasytosolvea

puzzle.Finally,whenitcomestoridingabicycle—youreallyhavetoexperiencedoingittolearn

howtodoit.

Evidenceismountingthattacit/hiddenknowledgeplaysanimportantroleinhelpingpeople

tobesuccessful.Everyfieldhasitsownjargon,unchallengedassumptions(forexample,must

work24/7),andcommonculture.Considertheprocessofreplicatinganexperiment.Sometimes

whenitseemslikeapatentorajournalarticlecontainsalloftherelevantinformation,replication

maystillprovetobedifficult,aswasthecasewhenpeoplefirsttriedtoreplicatetheprocess

tomakeBessemersteel.Bessemercouldmaketheprocesswork,butotherscouldnot.Nonaka

andTakeuchi(1995)hypothesizethathiddenknowledgeisapropertyofsocialnetworks—held

andcommunicatedtoitsmembersbyinformalmeans.Thus,ifwomenandmenhavedifferent

networks,theygaindifferentknowledge,andinthecaseofwomen,theyarejustnotprivytothe

importantaspectsofcorporatecultureandpoliticsthatarepartofthe“goodoleboys’”network

(Rankin,Nielsen,andStanley,2007).

Tobecomplete,weshouldalsomentiontheconceptofStereotypeThreatandespeciallythe

12

impactthiscanhaveontestperformance.Especiallyatearlystagesofacareer,howwellpeople

scoreontestscanbeanimportantselectioncriterionforentrytoprestigiousschools.Wehave

longknownthatperformancegapsexist intheSTEMfields(thoughthesevarywidelyfrom

countrytocountry).Explanationsofwhytheyexist rangefromgenetics(nature)tosocietal

causes(nurture)andthevariationfromcountrytocountryarguesfor the latter. Steeleand

Aronson(1995)showedthatperformanceis influencedbyexpectations.Supposeyoutakea

groupofwhitemaleengineeringstudentsintheUSandgivethemamathematicstest, ifthe

personsupervisingthetesttellsthestudentsinadvancethatAsianstudentsgenerallyperform

better, thentheaveragegradeforthewhitestudentstakingthetestdrops.Thefactthatthis

effectcanbedemonstratedusingaprivilegedgroupintheU.S.suggeststhatitismorecomplex

inoriginthananinternalizedresponsetostereotyping.Laterresearchhasshownthatthereare

physiologicaleffectsonthetesttakers—theirbloodpressureincreaseswhenthetesttakersare

toldtheyarenotexpectedtodowell.Studiesshowthatwomen’sperformanceinmathematics

andscience isconsistentlydisadvantagedbythisphenomenon(Spencer,SteeleandQuinn,

1999).

Stereotypethreatcanhavea larger impactonpeople if theyare invested indoingwell, for

example, thepioneeringmembersofunder-representedgroupswhoare the first tomove

intonewareas.Acomparisonofwomenstudentswhodidnotcareabouthowtheydid in

mathematicstowomeninamathematicshonorsclasswhowantedtopursuecareersinscience

showedthatthehonorsstudentsweremoreimpactedbybeingtoldtheywerenotexpectedto

dowell.Stereotypethreatcanbeinvokedjustbyaskingtesttakerstonotetheirgender(thus,if

thisquestionisimportantintrackingachievementasafunctionofgender,itshouldbeaskedat

theendofthetesttakingwhenitwillnotaffectperformance).Thisresearchalsohasimportant

implicationsforthedeliveryoffeedbackonperformance;hence,lettingstudentsknowthat“We

havehighstandardsandweexpectyoutobeabletomeetthem….”producesbetterresultsthan

tellingstudentsthat“Youwillfindthisdifficultbuttryyourbest”.

Nowthatwehavethisbackground,thenextsectionsurveysthecurrentsituation, lookingat

theavailabledataontherepresentationofwomenintheworkplaceandtheresearchintowhat

womenexperience.

13

Patterns of Women’s Representation

TheAssociationofPacificRimUniversities’gendergap report (APRU,2013)examined45

universities;amongthem,eightuniversitieswereinAsiancountries,includingJapan.Examining

thepercentageofwomenprofessorsinSTEMwithrolesasseniormanagementand/orDeans,the

Japaneseuniversitieswereatthebottomofthescale,withahighoftwopercentrepresentation

andhalfoftheuniversitiesscoringzero;overall,thehighestscoringcountryhaduniversitieswith

50%womenintheseleadershiproles.ThepercentagesofwomenservingasDepartmentChairs

inJapanwereonlyslightlybetter.Thispointstowomenfacingbarriersinachievingasuccessful

arcfortheircareermilestonesovertheirlifetime,withleadershippointedlywithheld.Theratio

ofwomenscientists in Japanhasbeenreportedannuallysince1992bytheGenderEquality

Bureau,GovernmentofJapan,whichindicatesin2016womenmakeup15.3%ofresearchers,

upfrom11.9%in2005.This includestheevenlowerrepresentationofwomenresearchersin

companiesat8.7%in2016(GenderEqualityBureau,2017).OtherdemographicdataonJapan

arehighlightedonthewebsiteof theJapanInter-SocietyLiaisonAssociationCommitteefor

PromotingEqualParticipationofMenandWomeninScienceandEngineering(EPMEWSE,2017).

ArecentEPMEWSEsurveyshowedthattheratioofwomenscientistsinscientificsocietiesinJapan

variesdependingontheirfields,from2%(MechanicalEngineers)to24%(MolecularBiology).

Only10outof82societieshavefemalePresidents/VicePresidents(Ohtsubo,Ogawa,Sato,and

Hirata-Kohno,2017).ThisisaworldwideproblemaswellasanimportantissuetotackleinJapan

ifwehopetoeffectivelyutilizehalfoftheintellectualtalentavailable.Despitethewidely-held

beliefthattheSTEMfieldsoperateasameritocracyand,therefore,thereisapurelylogicaland

justsystemthatdetermineshiringandpromotiondecisions,wewilldiscussbelowwhythisisnot

thecase(seeespeciallythesectionsonthe“ImpactofLeadershipStyles”and“BiasesEspecially

ImpactingtheEmploymentofWomen”).Wewanttoemphasizethatthepatternofpromotionis

notduetothewomenbeinglessable(seethe“BetterWaystoRecruitandAssessIndividuals”).

InJapan,surveysindicatethatfamilyresponsibilitiesplayanimportantroleinthisoutcomeand

driveupwardsof70%ofeducatedfemaleworkerstoleavetheworkforceentirelyormoveto

part-timework—thelatterbeinganundervaluedemploymentstatus.Ingeneral,universityand

juniorcollegeeducatedwomenwholeavetheworkforceinJapanaremuchless likelytore-

entertheworkforceaftermarriageandchildrearingcomparedto lesseducatedcounterparts

(RaymoandSo-Jung,2011).ForJapanesewomensurgeons,54%workfull-time,whereas80%

ofwomensurgeonsintheUSandHongKongworkfull-timeduringchildrearingyears.Studies

ofthecareertrajectoriesofwomensurgeonsinJapan,justoneexampleofpossibleSTEM-based

careerchoices,findthatwomenarestillsignificantlyunder-representedinthefield,despitethe

EqualEmploymentOpportunityLaw(EEOL)enactedseveralyearsago. Inaddition,only35%

ofJapanesewomensurgeonsbelievetheywillachievehigherprofessionalstatusin10years,

comparedto55%intheUSand87%inHongKong.OnedistinguishingfactoristhatHongKong

surgeonshaveaccesstonewlyenactedprogramsthatprovideaclearpathtoenhancingtheir

careersandtheresourcesnecessarytoachievethis.AconfoundingfactoristhattheHongKong

cohortwaslesslikelytobemarried(orhaddelayedmarriage)andoverall,thesurveyoutcomes

aredependentontheindividuals’circumstanceswhochosetorespond(Kawaseetal.,2012).

Abe(2011) lookedat the impactof Japan’sEEOLonwomen’semploymentfor theperiodof

1987-2007.Exploringtheincreasebymaritalstatus/age/educationrevealedthattheincreasein

regular(full-time)employmentforuniversitygraduatewomenatyoungages(under40)wasthe

resultofadelayordeclineinmarriage.However,regularemploymentdidnotgoupforeither

marriedorsinglewomenpost-EEOL.Foreducationalgroupsotherthanuniversitygraduates,

theregularemploymentrateforpost-EEOLsinglewomenfell.Thedataindicatedthatmiddle-

agedwomenaremorelikelytoparticipateinpart-timeemployment(reflectingare-entryinto

thejobforce,althoughit is importanttonotethatbenefitsandpaywerenotthesame,and

14

thattheywerelowerthantheywereatthetimeoftheiroriginalemployment).Abefoundthat

universitygraduatewomenaremuchlesslikelytoworkaspart-timerscomparedtoseniorhigh

schoolgraduates. Inaddition,universitygraduatewomenhadtwodistinctpatternsof labor

forceparticipation;eitherapersistentparticipationinpaidemploymentoracompleteexitfrom

thelabormarketaftermarriageorchildbirth.Further,womendothebulkofpart-timework.

Overall,thesefindingsindicatethattheEEOLmaynotbehavingtheintendedimpactonJapan’s

workforcedemographics.

It isworth commentinghereon the idea that theobserveddatapatternsmight reflect

demographicinertia.Thisconceptarguesthatittakestimeforimprovementsinthepercentage

representationofwomenintheearlystagesofacareertopropagateonupthroughallthestages

ofacareer.Thus,evenifthepercentageofwomenassistantprofessorscanbeincreasedto50%,

youwillneedtowaitfivetotenyearsforthosewomentobepromotedtoseethepercentageof

newassociateprofessorstoalsoreach50%.Wearecurrentlystillfarawayfrom50%entrylevels

inmostprofessionsMostcomputermodellingofhowtherepresentationofwomenwillchange

overtimebasedoncurrent improvementtrendsdoesnot leadtoparity(Marschke,Laursen,

Nielsen,andRankin,2007).

15

Cultural Impacts on Employment of Women

InJapan,as it istovaryingdegreesworldwide,womenareheldresponsiblefor lookingafter

childrenandtheelderly,aswellastakingonotherdomesticduties,disproportionatelymore

thanmen.YamamotoandBrinton(2010)pointtothebeliefinJapan(andlikelyelsewhere)that

itisadvantageous,evenstatusenhancing,tohaveastay-at-homemotherwhoiseducated.They

furtherreportthatsomescholars inJapansuggestthateducationispursuedmoretoachieve

anadvantageousmarriagematchmorethanoccupationalstatus.Theseculturallymediated

pressuresrepresentonlyaportionofthepressuresthatcausewomentoleavechallengingand

rewardingcareers,suchasthoseinSTEM.Thereareotherfactorsintheworkplacethatalsoexert,

oftensubconscious,butrelentlesspressureandstressthatalsocontributetowomenleavingthe

careerstheytrainedfor.Thesewillbeexploredinmoredetaillaterinthispaper,includinginthe

sectiononthe“ImpactofLeadershipStyles”.

Culturaldifferencesbetweenmenandwomenwithregardtochildrearingandotherdomestic

responsibilities isnotanewidea,andsomeinstitutionshavepoliciesdesignedtohelpwith

this imbalance.However,theproblemcontinuestobeanissueand,therefore, it is important

tounderstandtheseeminglackofimpactofthesepoliciestobeabletomovetosolutionsthat

aremoreeffective.Inaddition,therearemanyothercausesofstressintheworkplaceaffecting

womenandtheirsuccessandwillingnesstoremainintheworkforce.Thesestressors include

unconsciousbiases, suchas thebeautypremiumtrap,haloeffects, confirmationbias, the

differentialvalueplacedonapart-timeversusafull-timecommitmenttowork,inherentbeliefs

thatwomenaresomehow“lesserthan”men,andmanifestlowself-esteeminwomen.Integrated

withtheseissuesarethereporteddifferences incareerdevelopmentopportunitiesbetween

menandwomensuchthatsystemically,womenaresubjecttoapatternoffailure.Someofthe

issuesincludereducedpreparation(educationaltrackandopportunities),reducedacademicand

careeropportunitiesthatprovideprofessionalgrowthandmentorship,worknotequallyvalued

orpromoted,andlackofopportunitiesforleadership—allnecessaryingredientsforafullcareer

arc.InJapan,biasescanbeginasearlyasmiddleschoolandthehighschoolapplicationprocess,

when teachersmakedecisionsaboutastudent’s“fit”basedonsocio-economicand family

background.Theunderlyingassumptionisthatstudentswillbehappiest iftheirplacementis

basedonfamilyexpectationsandaspirations.Whileacademicperformanceisalsoanimportant

factor in Japanas inelsewhere,parentalbackgroundalso influences thedecisionprocess

(YamamotoandBrinton,2010;Yamamoto,2015).Allthishasanimmenseeffectonanystudent’s

futureopportunitiesandprospects.

Themanyfactorsthathaveanegative impactonwomen’scareers leadthemtoaccumulate

disadvantage,whichputs them furtherand furtherbehindmenateachcareer stage.As

Valian(2007)says,“Evenverysmallamountsofdisadvantageaccumulate.Thisisthelessonof

compoundinterestandthelessonofevolution.Verysmallimbalances,ifencounteredrepeatedly,

addupovertimetomajordifferences”.Evenasmallbias(onepercent)inpromotionateachstage

ofthecareerladdercanleadtoasignificantimbalanceatthehighestleadershiplevels.Martell,

LaneandEmrich(1996)consideredaneight-levelhierarchical institutionwithapyramidal

structure.Theystaffedthishypothetical institutionwithequalnumbersofmenandwomen.

Theythensetupacomputersimulationandexaminedwhathappenswhenthepromotions

betweenlevelsintheorganizationwerebiasedveryslightlyinfavorofmen.Thisbiaswassetat

onepercent;alevelmostofuswouldassumewouldnotbesignificant.However,overtime,the

balanceofmenandwomenatthetoplevelshifted,endingupat65%infavorofmenattheend

ofthesimulation.

Finally,itisworthconsideringsomestudiesaboutthecultureofSTEMworkplaces.Issuesinthese

culturesoftenactincombinationwiththeotherculturalissuesthatwomenface.

16

Models for Workplace Cultures in STEM

Aninterestingapproachtakentounderstandvariationintherepresentationofwomenwasone

thatfocusedonthefieldofphysicsinEuropeancountries.PhysicstendstobeoneoftheSTEM

fieldswiththelowestrepresentationofwomeninallcountriesandisconsideredtoepitomizethe

abstract,mathematicalsciences.Understandingwhywomenleavephysicsandfiguringouthow

tokeeptheminterestedandretainthemmightbeawaytocomeupwithrobustsolutionsthat

willapplytoallotherSTEMfields.Mostscienceandengineeringdisciplinesrequiresometraining

inphysicsandthepercentageofwomenphysicistsisbelowparityinmostEuropeancountries.

However,theexactpercentageofwomenphysicistswhostartacareerinphysicsbutthenleave

thefieldvarieswidelyacrosstheEuropeanmemberstates.Generally, therepresentationof

womenintheNorthernEuropeancountries ismuchlowerthanthat inEasternandSouthern

Europeancountries.Thedetailsofthecareerpathsofmenandwomenalsodifferfromcountry

tocountry.StudyingmenandwomenphysicistsinEuropeprovidesawaytoprobeintocultural

influencesaswellastheroleofgendertraits.

Thesereasonsandthe factEurope isalso facingdemographicshiftshasmotivatedwhat is

knownasthe“UnderstandingPuzzlesintheGenderedEuropeanMap(UPGEM)”project(Hasse

andTrentemÖller,2008).TheUPGEMprojectsoughttoexplaintherepresentationofwomen

inphysicsintermsofinteractionsbetweentheculturalnormsofdifferentEuropeancountries

andthedifferentstylesofdoingphysics.Theresearchersanalyzethedata(interviewswithmen

andwomenphysicists)intermsofgender(male/female),persistence(stay/leavethefield),and

culture(boththecultureofphysicsandtheroleofphysicsinthenationalculture).

TheUPGEMresearchersidentifiedthreedifferentphysicsworkplacecultures:theHerculesculture,

theCaretakerculture,andtheWorkerBeeculture.Thesethreeculturesdifferintheimportance

placedonworkversusoutsideinterests,oncompetition,onpowerrelationships,andfinally,on

theroleofgender.TheHerculescultureischaracterizedasanenvironmentinwhichphysicsis

theonlythingthatmatterstoanindividualandthereisafocusonindividualsuccess.Thereisan

emphasisoncompetitionandthiscompetitioncanuseanyweapontowin,includingexploiting

gender identitynegatively, forexamplebyassertingthatwomenmaybemoreinterestedin

havingafamilyand,thus,itmaynotmakesensetoinvestintheircareers.IntheCaretakerculture,

thegroupisimportantandmembershipinagroupislikenedtobeingpartofafamily.Physicsis

stillimportantbutnottheonlythingthatmatters.Competitionisbetweengroupsandthereisan

acceptanceofgenderrolesinrelationtothegroups.IncountrieslikeItaly,forexample,bringing

childrentoworkisok.Finally, intheWorkerBeeculture,physicsisnotseenasbeingcentrally

importanttoparticipants’ livesandmembersofthisculturearenotinterestedincompetition.

Littleattentionispaidtogender,butbeingaphysicistmaynotcarrythestatusthatitconfersin

theothercultures.

Thesituationiscomplicatedbythefactthatinpractice,individualsandcountriesdisplayamixof

idealcharacteristics.However,thebalancebetweentheseculturesdiffersfromcountrytocountry,

andthecareerpathsinthesecountriesoftenreflectwhichculturedominates.InScandinavian

countries, forexample,theHerculesculture ismoreimportant,whiletheWorkerBeeculture

is foundmostfrequently inEasternEuropeancountries.The inclinationforoneortheother

culturestobedominantineachcountryhasamajorimpactnotjustonthelikelylevelofgender

representationinphysicsbutalsoontheprestigeattachedtothecareer.

17

Women in Leadership Roles

AgeneralandtellingstatisticisthatinJapan,only0.8%ofCEOsarewomen,comparedto10%in

theUK.InJapan,10%ofmanagersarewomencomparedto43%intheU.S.(DavidsonandBurke,

2011). Thesestatisticshighlightthe importanceofexploringeffectivewaystodevelopand

promotequalifiedwomenintoleadershiproles.Understandingthepatternsofrepresentation

(orlackthereof)mayalsorevealsomecluesastohowtobestachieveahigherparticipationof

womenacrosscountriesandeconomies,asdidtheUPGEMstudy.

Theabilitytomoveinto leadershiproles isanaturalprogressioninanycareerfieldandone

womeninSTEMfieldshavebeensystematicallydenied.Thefactorsthatcontributetothisare

complex.Aswedefinetheissuesandprocessesofsuccessfulleadershipbelow,theunconscious

biasesdefinedaboveinteractwiththisprocesstoreinforcebarrierstowomenaspiringtoand

succeedinginleadershiproles.

Womenareparticularlyabsentfromseniorpositionslaterinthecareerarcthattypicallyinvolve

leadershiprolesofsomesort,fromteamleadertounithead,toDeanorChancellororcompany

CEO.Thisalsocreatesadearthofpossiblerolemodelsandmentors,consistentlyidentifiedas

akeyingredienttohelpingwomenachievesuccessinSTEMcareers.Whatthenaretheissues

thatseeminglyblockwomen’sriseto leadershiproles?First,welookatacceptednormsand

definitionsof leadership,astheseunderlyingdefinitionsandrelatedassumptionsguidethe

recognitionandhiringoflikelycandidates.Thesenormsalsoinfluenceperceivedsuccessinthe

leadershipposition,bothinacademiaandcompanies.

Schoolsofthoughtaboutleadershipfocusontraits,biologicallyand/orculturallydictatedversus

malleableskillsthatcanbelearnedandtailoredtothenatureofthework.Societalnorms/life

experiencesandmalleableskillsaremorewidelysupportedintheresearchliterature.Becauseof

theevidenceforsocietalinfluences,andthemalleabilityofleadershipskills,femaleleadership

traitsmaybecomemoredominantornotbasedonculturalpressuresandultimatelyonwhat

works(DelaRey,2005).Whilethereareindividualdifferencesinone’sinnatetendenciestoward

leadershipthatcrossesgender lines, leadershipprogramsthataddressculturalexperiences,

beliefs,aswellassuccessfulleadershippractices,standtomakeadifference.

Atraditionalviewofleadershipisknownasthetransactionalformandisvirtuallysynonymous

withacceptedandentrenchedstereotypesofmasculinetraits.Itishierarchical,andemphasizes

assertiveindividualism,aggressiveandcompetitivebehaviors,authoritarianism,andtechnical

competence. In contrast, the transformational formof leadership encouragesgreater

collaboration,moreconsultativedecision-making,andissuitedtomorecollegialworkplaces

(DeLaRey,2005).Transformational traitsareusuallyassociatedwithawoman’s leadership

styleandareconsistentwithstereotypicnormsoffemaletraits ingeneral.Thecharacteristics

associatedwith this femininestyle includebeingparticipatory,democratic,moresensitive,

nurturing,tolerantandempathetic. Inaddition,theseleadershaveexcellentlisteningskills, in

additiontohavinggoodconflictmanagementandinterpersonalskills.Infurthersupportofthis

genderstratificationof leadershipstyles,ameta-analysisstudybyEaglyandJohnson(1990)

concludedthatwomenadoptedamoredemocraticorparticipativestylewhilemenadopteda

moreautocraticordirectivestyle.Thistrendinfavorofgenderdifferencesinleadershiphasbeen

supportedinmorerecentresearch.AnAustralianstudyonseniorwomenexecutives(Chesterman,

Ross-SmithandPeters,2004)reportedthatwomenencouragedgreatercollaboration,more

consultativedecision-making,andmorecollegialworkplaces.

Interestingly, in theClark,Chandler,andBarry(1999)study, theyfoundthatbothmenand

womenpreferredthetransformationalstyleofleadership.Organizationshavestartedtoadopta

18

flatterstructure(versusthetraditionalverticalhierarchy)inwhichinterpersonalandparticipatory

skillsaremorecritical.WomenleadersaredescribedintheChesterman,Ross-Smith,andPeters

(2004)articleaspossessingtheentrepreneurialvisionandeffectivecommunicationskillsthat

better fitsmodernteam-basedworkenvironments.Womenaremore likely toacknowledge

andrewardthecollectiveteam,whichresults inaworkatmospherewhereall individualsare

motivatedandworktogethertoachievetheorganization’smission.

Twenty-firstcenturyenterprisesincreasinglyrelyonteam-basedknowledgework.Withtoday’s

complexproblems,hierarchicalleadership,rewardsforindividualinnovation,andperformance

aregivingway tocross functionalandself-managedwork teams,creatingnewchallenges

foreffective leadership(Bligh,Pearce,andKohles,2006).Managingthecomplexprocesses

andneedsofteammemberstoachieveanintegratedefficientandeffectiveoutcomeseems

bettersuitedtotheleadershipskillstypicallyattributedtowomen,wheretheyarecapableof

sharingleadership,leadfrombehind,employcompassionateandempatheticskills,anddisplay

nurturingbehaviors.Thiscontrastswiththetraditionalmodelofleadershipthatvaluestraditional

masculinetraitssuchasshowinghighlyambitious,highlycompetitive,andaggressivebehaviors.

Inperhapsanodtoquotastogetwomenintoleadershiproles,wefindthattheyareappointed

underverydifferentcircumstancesthanmen.Womenaresignificantlymore likelythanmen

tofindthemselvesonthe“glasscliff”,asmentionedearlier.Givenequal leadershipabilities,a

studyofFTSE100companiesfoundthatwomenweremorelikelytobetappedforleadership

roleswhenthecompanyperformancepriortotheirleadershipappointmentwasinturmoiland

experiencedconsistentpoorperformanceinthemonthsleadinguptotheirappointment.These

circumstancessettheappointees(thatis,thewomen)uptofail,ascontinuedpoorperformance

ofthecompanyoverallistypicallylinkedwiththenewfemaleleadershipregardlessofwhatwas

alreadyunderwayandestablishedbeforetheirarrival.Menaregivenfarmoreopportunities;

thus, it isunusualtofindmenonthe“glasscliff”(HaslamandRyan,2008)sincetheyfeel less

obligatedtotakethechanceonriskyleadershippositionoffers.

Amuchbetterknownandrelatedphenomenonisthe“glassceiling”andearlierreportedstatistics

seemtospeaktothiswhenweseethatwomendonotholdsenior/executivelevelleadership

positions.EaglyandCarli(2007)usetheanalogythatwomenhavetonavigatealabyrinthover

theircareers.Ateachcareerdecisionstage,thetimewomenneedtotaketodeterminetheirbest

optionslowsdowntheirprogresscomparedtothatoftheirmalepeerswhotypicallyhavemore

careerinformationeasilyattheirdisposal.Ifwomenmakethewrongchoice,theycanendtheir

careers.Valian(1997)andEagly(2016)areeacharguingthatitistheaccumulationofmanysmall

biasesratherthantheexistenceofonemajorhurdle(theglassceiling)thatexplainsthepatterns

ofwomen’semployment.However, it isalsopossibletoconsidertheglassceilingasthefinal

barrierthatwomenwhonegotiatethelabyrinthneedtomakeitthroughtoreachtheirdesired

finaldestinationintheexecutivesuite.Thus,it isnosurprisethatrecentresearchdemonstrates

thatwomenin leadershiprolesmaybemorevulnerableandless likelytoachievesustained

leadershipsuccessthanmenwithcomparableprofessionalexperience.Withoutmorewomenin

leadershiproles,wefailtoobtainacriticalmassnecessarytoaffectrealchange(Morahan,Rosen,

RichmanandGleason,2011).

19

Impact of Leadership Styles

Uptonow,wehavebeendiscussing leadershipskills inwomencomparedtomen.Another

importantaspectof leadershipwhenitcomestothegendergapconcernstheleadersunder

whichwomenbuildtheircareerandeventuallyrisetotheirownleadershipposition.Thereare

ahostofbehaviorsbywomen,theirmalepeers,andtheirleadersthatareimportantattributes

tounderstandastheyaffectthedegreeofgenderbiasandinformthemethodsofassessment

oforganizationalclimates(inbothacademiaandindustry)andwellasinformpossibleclimate/

genderbiasinterventions.

McClellandandHolland(2015)examined leaders’perceptionsof responsibilityas itaffects

genderbiasanddiversityinSTEMacademicdepartments.Theirstudyemployedsemi-structured

interviewsof31STEMdepartmentChairsandDeansata largepublicuniversity intheU.S. In

interpretingtheirresults,theyusedamodifiedversionoftheBrickmanetal.(1982)modelof

helpingandcopingtounderstandattributionofresponsibilityforaproblemversusattributionof

responsibilityforasolution.Usingthismodel,theywereabletocharacterizeanddistinguishtheir

studyrespondentsaccordingtotwogroups:highversuslowresponsibility.Theexamplethey

putforthtodescribehowhighversuslowresponsibilityinleadersworksinvolvesnurses.Nurses

workinginahospitalcanbeconsideredlowinresponsibilityforcausingapatient’sproblemsbut

highinresponsibilityforprovidingsolutionstotheproblems.Atthesametime,anursewould

ascribehighresponsibilitytothemselveswhentheyhelptosolveeachpatient’sproblems,but

lowresponsibilitytothepatienttosolvehisownproblems.Thisfour-dimensionalmodelisthe

frameworkMcClellandandHolland(2015)usetounderstandhowindividualsseetheirownlevel

ofparticipationinchangingthemselvesand/orthestatusquo.“Peoplemaynotevenbeaware

of theassumptionstheyhavemadeaboutresponsibility forproblemsandresponsibility for

solutions.Buttheycannot,associalactors,avoidmakingsuchassumptions,andtheassumptions

theymakeinturnhaveconsequencesbothfortheirownbehaviorandforthebehaviorofothers

theyinfluence”(Brickmanetal.,1982,p.370).

Theoutcomeof theMcClellandandHolland (2015) study indicated the following.High

Responsibility(HR)leadersdescribedthemselvesas“activelyinvolved”intermsofhiringwomen

ontotheirfaculty.Theypositionedthemselvesasleadersoftheirteamsandsawthemselvesas

responsibleforbeingarolemodeltoothersintheirunitforhowwomenwereperceivedintheir

organization.For instance,onedepartmentheadquantifiedwhoandhowmanywerebeing

askedtoserveoncommittees,howoften,andsoforth.Studiesshowthatwomenarefrequently

askedtodomore“service”worksuchasbeingonmorecommitteesthantheirmalecolleagues(for

example,Adams,2002,Blackburnetal.,1999).Bytakingtheactivestepofsimplyquantifyingthe

numberofcommitteeshisfacultywereon,theChairwasabletodeterminewhoappearedover

orundertaxed.TheHRleadersalsoproactivelytalkedaboutbecomingsensitizedtotheissue

ofgenderbiasastheysawthemselvesasneedingtoeducatethemselvesandtheirpeersabout

whatinequitylookedlikeandthatchangedidnotoccursimplywithtimeorthroughretirements

of“dinosaurs”.

Lowresponsibility(LR)leaderstendedtodescribechangewithregardtosolvinggenderbiasas

notbeingneeded.Theysaidthingssuchas“thingsaregoodenough”,“betterthanothers”,“better

thanbefore”,“simplynotaproblem”because“20%ofourfacultyarefemale,whichisgreat!”“more

timewilltakecareoftheissue,”andsimilarrationalizations.IftheseLRleadersadmittedchange

wasneeded,theyattributedresponsibilitytosomeoneorsomethingelse,suchasnotenough

studentsinthepipeline,notenoughinstitutionalsupport,andsoon(McClellandandHolland,

2015).

McClellandandHolland(2015)alsonotedthat theconstructof“pipeline” isan ineffective

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metaphoras“itdoesnotlocateresponsibilityinanyone’shands.Thepipelineconstructcreates

apassiverelationshipbetweenthosewhoareabletochangethingsandstructuresthatneed

tobechanged”(McClellandandHolland,2015,p.217).Furthermore,Morahanetal., (2011)

describesthepipelinemodelasafailurebecauseofseveralinteractingfactorsincludingoutdated

institutionalpolicies,a lackof family-friendlypolicies,a lackofsuccessfulwomenmentors

androlemodelswhoholdleadershippositions,andthecontinueddisproportionatedomestic

responsibilityexpectedofwomenascomparedtomen.Hewlett(2007)hasproposedthata

bettermetaphoristothinkofcareerpathsintermsofahighwaywithonandofframpswhich

impliesagency.Thisisanimprovementoverthepipelinemetaphorsinceitencouragespeopleto

thinkofwaystogetbackontothepaththroughinterventionsthatcanhelppeoplerestarttheir

careersorenterinnon-traditionalways.

Howunitand institution leaders talkaboutwomenfacultyalso impactshowothers in the

organizationviewthesewomen,theirskills,abilities,andachievements.LRleadersessentially

viewedwomenfacultyasbeingresponsiblefor theirowngender inequity,aswellasbeing

responsibleforthesolution!Forinstance,LRleaderssawchoicesmadebywomenfacultysuch

ashavingchildren, lackofaggressivenesswithinthedepartment,andnothavingthe“right”

attitude,asnegativechoicesandthecauseofanyperceived inequityontheirpart. TheLR

leadersevenimpliedthatthesewomendidnothavea“naturalinclination”towardscience.The

takeawayisthatLRleadersprojecttotheirfollowersthatitisallthewomen’sfaultthatwomen

areunderrepresented inSTEMandthusLR leadersdonotspendanytimeconsideringtheir

leadershiproleorpossibleactionsthey(theLRleaders)mighttaketosolvethisproblem.Even

worse,someHRleaderswhorespondedalsoallowedthatwomen’schoicetohavechildrenwill

negativelyimpactontheirabilitytomovefromassistanttoassociate,orassociatetofullprofessor

(McClellandandHolland,2015).It isimportanttonotethatthesesamechoiceswereneveran

issueformalefaculty.

Theideathatthedecisiontohavechildrennegativelyimpactswomen’spersistenceandupward

successintheirSTEMcareersisubiquitousintheliterature,supportedbyexamplesfromacross

theworld,and ispervasiveamong leaders,peers,andthewomenthemselves.Thisoccurs

unabatedinspiteoftheavailabilityofmaternityleaveasaninstitutionalbenefit.Althoughthere

maybeaprogram,suchasmaternityleave,designedtoprovidesomeassistance,therealityis

thatutilizingitmaynotbeagoodideaespeciallyifthewomenemployeewantsto“stayontrack.”

Onewaytohelpaddresswomen’sretentionistomakepolicies“optout”ratherthan“optin”,which

reinforcestheideathatthetakingofleavefromworkisanorganizationalnorm.

Womenfacultyattitudeswerealsooftenmentioned. Whiletheconstructof“attitude”seemsa

bitmurky,itappearstoboildowntotheideathatwomenareexpectedtochangethemselvesto

bemorelikemento“fitin”.Evenwhenlackofsupportwasofferedasbeingpartoftheproblem,

itwasfollowedupwiththeexpectationthatwomenshouldmoreaggressivelyprocuresupport

andthatitwasnotthedepartmenthead’sjobtooffersuchsupport.

HRleadersmorefrequentlynamedtheirmalecolleaguesasresponsibleforpromotinggender

equityalongwiththemselves,withfewmentionsofwomenfaculty.Conversely,LR leaders

pointedtowomenasbeingthecauseandthesolutiontogenderinequity.SometimesLRleaders

couldappear tobesupportiveandeven invitechange,butwhen itcametoactuallydoing

somethingtomakeadifference, theytypicallydeflectedthechangeeffort fromthemselves

orothermenandredirected it to thewomen.Thesesleightofhandactions,asMcClelland

andHolland(2015)calledthem,areimportanttoobserveandunderstandtohaveanyequity

initiativebesuccessful.

Intheend,basedonbiasesandmyths,women’sunderrepresentationinSTEMforLRleaders

wasalltheirownfault,beggingthequestionofwhoandwhatwillfixthis.Placingtheblameon

womenthemselvesdoesnothingtodisruptorganizationalsystemsthatdevaluewomen,their

21

scholarship,andtheircapabilities.Thus,successofdiversityinitiativestoachievegenderequity

requirestheparticipationofwomen,theimplementationofinstitutionalpolicies,malecolleagues

taking responsibility for theirbehaviors,and the rolesand responsibilitiesofdepartment

leadershipactivelyaligningwithequitablepractices.Thesebehaviorsarefundamentaltoany

leadership roleandwhile thisstudy tookplace inacademia,webelieve that lowandhigh

responsibilityleaderscanexistinanyenterprise.

WewanttonotethatonepromisingprogramtorecognizeandencourageHRleaders is the

HeforShecampaignsetupbyUNWomen(UNWomen,2014),whichencouragesmentotake

actionstoadvancegenderequality.

Anotherimportantaspectofleadershipasitinteractswithgenderconcernsissuesaroundtoxic

leaders —analltoofrequentoccurrenceinworkenvironments.AccordingtoChuaandMurray

(2015),menandwomenrespondtotoxicleadersdifferentially,withmenoverallhavingbetter

“survival”skills.Wecouldapproachthisintwoways:(1)helpwomenlearnhowtonavigatetoxic

leadersinSTEMworkenvironments,and/or(2)instituteinitiativesthatneutralizetoxicleaders.

Letus firstunderstandthephenomenaof toxic leadershipaswellasexaminetheresponse

differencesbetweenmaleandfemaleemployees.ChuaandMurray(2015)describesixtypesof

toxicleadership:abusive,tyrannical,destructive,bullying,laissez-faire,andtoxic.Manifestations

oftheseformsofbadleadershippracticesincludeattacksonone’spersonality,character,abilities

andemotionalstability.Examplesofthissortofbehaviortheauthorsgiveincludecriticismof

theemployee’sperformance,usingemployee’sideasastheirown,andhumiliatingemployeesin

frontoftheircolleagues,whichopenthedoorforpossibleobjectivequantificationtogettothe

realworkplaceclimateasopposedtoaperceivedone.Findingnewwaystoobjectivelyidentify

andthenquantifyinequitablebehaviorsmaydoabetterjobofsheddinglightonwhatneedsto

change.

Withregardtotoxicleadersandthetoxicclimatetheyfoster,acaveatintheliteratureisthatitis

thefollower’sperceptionsthatindicateswhetherornotthesituationistoxic(Lipman-Blumen,

2005),andthisiswhereChuaandMurray(2015)describesomenoteworthydifferencesbetween

thegenders. Infact,Padilla,HoganandKaiser(2007)talkaboutthisphenomenonasa“Toxic

Triangle”madeupofleaders,followers,andtheenvironment.AccordingtoPadillaetal.,atoxic

leaderwilllikelyfitaprofilecharacterizedbyanideologyofhate,highlevelsofnarcissismand

charisma,apersonalneedforpower,andnegativelifethemes.Toxicenvironmentsaredescribed

asbeingunstable,whichcould includesomeperceived levelof threat to theemployeeor

organization,disregardforculturalandethicalvalues,andanabsenceofchecksandbalancesas

partoftheorganization’spolicies.Theseareorganizationalfactorstoconsiderwhenlookingfor

effectiveinterventionsandprogramstoachieveequitywithinanorganization.

Padilla,HoganandKaiser(2007)characterizefollowersasbeingoftwotypes—conformersand

colluders.Anemployeewhoisaconformerisdescribedasgenerallygoingalongwithwhatever

thetoxicleaderwants,butnotforpersonalgainandevenifitconflictswiththefollower’sown

personalvaluesorpositions.Conformingfollowersarecharacterizedasthosewithlowmaturity,

unmetneeds,andlowself-esteem,believingthattheydeservetobetreatedwithdisrespect.

Colluders,on theotherhand, seepotential forpersonalgainby followinga toxic leader.

AccordingtoOfferman(2004,p.56),“Althoughdestructiveleadershipcreatesnegativeoutcomes

fororganizations,somemembersmightprosper”.Enronisanexampleofthiswhenemployees

assistedtheircharismatic leaderstocommit illegalandimmoralbusinessdealingsbasedon

personalambitionandpotentialforpersonalgain.Overall,menareviewedasmorelikelyto

becolludersandwomenconformersseeminglyreflectingtraditionalgenderroles.Qualities

typicalofcolludersarestereotypicallymoremasculine,whileconformercharacteristicsalignwith

traditionalstereotypesoffemaleroles.

Addingmorenuancetotheseconstructs,ChuaandMurray(2015)alsoexaminedinformation

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processing,communicationstylesanddifferencesbetweenmalesandfemalesthattheyclaim

canmediatewhetheranemployeeseesleadershipbehaviorsastoxic,andhowtheyrespondto

thesecircumstances.Theyreportthattheresultstheyfoundconformwithbroadgeneralizations

ofgender inaccordancetosocietalstereotypes.Theycharacterizewomenasplacinggreater

emphasisonnegativeinformationfromleadersbecauseforthemithasgreatersalience.This

greatersalience,accordingtotheauthors,isbecausestudiesshowthatwomenaremoreattuned

tosubtle,false,andorinconsistentcues.Males,ontheotherhand,tendtobemoreheuristic,big

picturethinkersandplacemoreemphasisonpositiveinformation.Ingeneral,womenseetoxic

leaderssignificantlymorenegativelycomparedtomen,regardlessofthegenderoftheleader.

However,bothgendersaremoreattunedtotoxiccommunicationsandsubtletieswhenthey

comefromasame-sexleader.Otherfactorsthatmaybeimportantbutnotfullynaileddownin

theliteraturemayinteractwiththeseissues.Forinstance,perceptionsoftoxicleadershipmaybe

mediatedbyage,andthereisevidencethat“attractiveness”mayalsomediatethecommunication

outcomes(Braun,PeusandFrey,2015). Inaddition,the“distance”fromtoxic leadershipmay

mitigatesomeofthetoxicity. However,withflatterorganizationsbecomingthenorminthe

modernworkplace,toxicbehaviorsmaybehardertoavoidandincreaseperceived(andreal)

problemsintheworkplaceculture.

Whileoverall, thepatternsof informationprocessingandcommunicationinemployees,tend

toindicategender-basedbehaviordifferencesinemployees, it isstill thecasethat individual

differences cancausecounterexamplesbasedongender. Furthermore, thesecomplex,

interactingfactorsofleadershipstyle,employeepersonalitytraits,andcognitivestylewilllikely

interplayinamalleablemannergivenwell-designedandimplementedorganizationalpolicies

designedtomitigatetheseinequitablepracticesandbeliefs. Importantaspectsofsuccessful

implementationwill involve thorough, relevant,andeffectivedefinitions foracceptable

behaviors,aswellasassessmenttechniquesalignedwiththedefinitionsforacceptablebehaviors

toyieldmeaningfulperformanceassessment.

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Biases Especially Impacting the Employment of Women

Bohnet(2016)studiesbiasandtheuseofstructuralapproachestoreducebias.Bohnetargues

that languageisnaturallygendered.Withoutactivelyassessingthis,webegintheprocessof

sortingandnotincludingwomen(ormen)invariousjobsectors.Notsurprisingly,thelanguage

inSTEMenterprisestendtobesolidlygenderedtowardmen.Bohnetconsiderstheroleofthejob

advertisementasanearlyandclearsortingtool.Forinstance,doestheadvertisementsaytheyare

lookingforcommunaloragenticcharacteristics?Youwillrecognizethatthisdistinctioncameup

whenwewerediscussinggenderedleadershipstyles.Iftheadvertisementsaystheyarelooking

forcandidateswithgoodinterpersonalskills,anduseswordslikeunderstanding,compassionate,

andsupportive,theadvertisementismuchmorelikelytoleadtoapplicationsfromwomen.In

addition,ifthegenderbalanceintheworkplaceismeasuredforhiringorganizationsthatuse

thistypeofadvertisement,oneis likelytofindmorewomeninexistingpositions. Incontrast,

advertisementsthatsaytheyarelookingforambitious,competitive,assertiveindividuals,are

morelikelytoreceiveapplicationsfrommen,andonewill findmenpredominate inexisting

positions.Genderedadvertisementstellapplicantssomethingaboutwhetherthey“belong”in

thatorganization,andwomenareparticularlyattunedtowhetherthey“belong”.Economistscall

itsorting;andpeoplesortthemselvesallthetimeintojobs,wheretheylive,clubstheybelong

to,schools,andsoforth,basedonlinguisticcues.Thesecuestellapersonwhethertheyfitinor

ifthe“cost”wouldbetoohigh.WhenitcomestowomeninSTEMcareers,thiskindofgendered

languagesorts50%oftheworld’spopulationawayfromthischoice,regardlessofwhetherthey

wouldactuallybegoodatthejob.

It is alsoknown thatwomenaremore riskaversiveandmore likely tooptoutofwork

environmentsthataredescribedascompetitiveandusevariablepaystructures.Thenetresult

isthatunder-confidentqualifiedwomenarelesslikelytoapplyforjobstheywouldbegoodat,

whileover-confidentbutperhapsunder-qualifiedmalesroutinelyapplyforandgetthesesame

jobs.Findingagenderneutralevaluationmethod/measurementwouldbehelpful inproperly

sortingandassigningbothmenandwomentojobsthatfitthembest.Interestingly,thisopting

outpatterninwomenreversesif theyarecompetinginteams.Teamstendtoattractwomen

candidates,whilepushingawaymales(consistentwiththemalemeritocracy, individualistic

worldview).

Withanodto removingstereotypethreats,anorganizationcanmovetogenderequityby

removinggenderedlanguageandcreatingenvironmentsthatareinclusiveofdifferentrisk-taking

typesandpromotesuniversaljobflexibility(seebelowformoreonflexibilityinsectionon“Work/

LifeBalance”).Theseareparametersforpossibleinclusionincomputationalmodelsassessing

organizationalclimate.OthernotablefactorsdiscussedbyBohnet(2016)thatare important

whenconsideringgenderequity interventionsincludethemethodsoforganizationalclimate

assessment.Forexample,it isadvisablenottoshareself-evaluationswithsupervisorsbecause

womenconsistentlyunder-ratethemselvesandthisfactorsinnegativelywhensupervisorstry

tobalancewomen’sself-evaluationswiththoseoftheirmalepeers.Companiesneedtoconsider

givingearlyobjectiveperformancefeedbacktoallemployeesandcompensatethemaccordingly.

Organizationalclimatecanbemeasured,rated,andrankedacrosscompanies.

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Addressing the Causes of Under-Representation

Thehistoryofpreviousefforts to increasetherepresentationofwomeninSTEMfields,and

worktoincreasetheirleadershiproles,offerssomeinsightsintowhatisneededforsustainable

changeandtorealizethebenefitsofbroadeningparticipation.Uptonow,workondiversifying

thedemographicsofSTEMseems tohavegone inwaves.First, therewasa focuson role

modelsandthenonactiverecruitmentmethodsandprogramsaimedathelpingmembersof

under-representedpopulationsdevelopskillstoworkinwhateverdominantculturetheyfind

themselves in.Neitherapproachhadatrulytransformational impact.Rolemodelsbynature

oftenseemtobeexceptionalpeoplethatmanypotentialstudentsstruggletoseethemselves

emulating.Teachingwomentonegotiate, forexample,seemstodirectlyaddressaproblem

womenfacebutlaterresearchshowedwomenwhonegotiatedthewaymendidfailedtogetthe

samebenefitsandfacedpushbacks(Catalyst,2007). Initial improvementsinnumberswithout

afocusonretentionandonchangingtheconditionswhichmakewomenunder-representedin

thefirstplaceusuallyleadstotemporarygains.Furthercomplicatingthesituation,oncesome

womenhavebeenhired,theexistenceofthisgroupcancausetheactiverecruitmenteffortsto

stalloutbecausethereisnolongerseentobeaneedforanyaction.

Iforganizationscontinuetopursuetheproblemofgender inequity intheirworkplace,after

initialattemptssuchasthosedescribedaboveprovelessthanadequatetosolvetheproblem

inasustainableway,thenextstepisusuallyamorestructuredapproach.TheNationalScience

FoundationADVANCEInstitutionalTransformationprogram(ADVANCE,2017)isagoodexample

asitsystematically looksattheresearchintowhywomenareunder-representedandusesthis

to informprogramsdesigned to introducesustainableorganizationalchangewithbuilt in

assessmentsofthischange.Theseprogramsofteninvolveapolicyreview/updatecomponent.

Someofthesepolicychangesorrecommendationscanbeveryeffective.Forexample,while

an institutionmightallowafacultymembertoasktostopthetenureclock inthecaseofa

pregnancy;theuseofthispolicywasoftendependentonthewomanfacultymemberhaving

adepartmentChairwhounderstoodtheimportanceofthepolicy.Switchingtoautomatically

stoppingthetenureclockwhenafacultymembertookmedicalleavetookawaytheperception

thatthereneededtobeanegotiationovertheuseofthispolicyandthischangemadeitmuch

easieronthefacultymember.Whilethesepolicieshelp,startingandstoppingasciencecareer

isnoteasy.Thisiswhyprogramsthathelpwomenstayinvolvedintheirresearch,perhapsby

providingtemporaryfundstohireadditionallaboratorystaff,assomeprogramsinJapanhave,

alsoneedtobeconsidered.

However,whatworks inoneorganizationorcountrymaynotwork inanotherbecausethe

reasonsforfollowingacertaincareerpathorleavingonearecomplex.Asdiscussed,underlying

muchofwhatisgoingonistheinfluenceofunconsciousbiasesorpersistentmythsaboutthe

natureofbeingascientistorengineer.Whilethemythscanberootedinreality,forexample,it

ishardtobalanceaSTEMcareerandfamilylife,theseareoftenseenmoreasabsolutes—thatis,

youcannothaveafamilyandacareer.U.S.datathatlooksathowparticipationbyspecificgroups

decreasesatdifferentcareerstagesshowsthatthepatternsofdecreasevarywidelyfromfieldto

field(DiversityinScienceAssociation,2007).Thismeansthatthebestinterventionstoincrease

participationinchemistry,forexample,maynotbeaseffectiveinmolecularbiology.Overlaying

thesepatternsaredatashowingthatinanyfield,thereissignificantvariationfromcountryto

countrythatmustalsobeconsideredwhendevelopingleadershipmodelsandconsideringwhat

policiestoputinplace.

Nevertheless,understandingthesepatternsof loss,andwhyapparentlysimilarprogramscan

25

haveverydifferentoutcomes,mayprovideusefulframeworksforthinkingaboutfutureprograms.

Aswehavediscussed,badteaching,stereotypethreat,unconsciousbias,micro-aggressions,

toomanyofframps(waysto leaveafieldwithoutaneasyroutetoreturn, forexampleafter

childbirth),poorbalanceinintegratingworkandlife,andlackofopportunity,allcontributetothe

loss.WeknowthatthepeoplewholeaveSTEM(academiaandindustry)aresmartandthatlosing

theirskillsetshurtsacountry’sabilitytomakeprogress.Weknowthatdemographicinertiadoes

notexplainthedataandthatwithoutinterventions,thedemographicsofSTEMwillnotchange

assignificantlyasneeded.Weneedtofindinnovative,disruptive,andscalableapproachesto

addressingandreversingthelossesofourverycapablewomenintheworkplace.

Lawsandpoliciesarenotenough.Forexample, inJapan,womenSTEMworkerdemographics

havenotsignificantlychanged,evenafterthepassageoftheEEOL.Thisraisesthequestion:how

doesonecreateaclimateofinclusion,whetheritisinacademia,orsomeSTEM-basedenterprise?

Avery(2011)distinguishesthedifferencebetweendiversityendorsementandactualactivism

tomakechangehappen.Hediscussestwogeneralreasonswhyanemployeemightendorseor

opposeinitiativesaimedatpromotingdiversityandinclusion.Oneisself-interest—humanstend

tobemotivatedbywhatevermaximizestheirpersonaloutcomes;anotherisideology—thereare

manyfactorsinthiscategory.Forinstance,howdoestheindividualfeelaboutintergroupequity?

Somefolksseeinequityasjustifiable,perhapsbecauseofworkethic,butalsobecauseofforms

ofprejudice,suchasrace,gender,andsoforth(thatis,mygroupissuperiortoyours).Peoplecan

differintheiropennesstoothernessandtodiversitybeliefs.Somemayseediversityaslowering

standards,creatingconflict,anddiminishingperformance,whileothersmayviewdiversityas

enhancingcreativity,anddecision-making,therebyimprovingperformance.Butthesebeliefsare

verymuchsubjecttobeinginfluencedbythoseinapositionofauthority,orevenco-workers.

Employeeswhofeeltheircorebeliefsarecountertoauthorityorotherworkers’beliefsystems

mayfeelpressurenottoshowtheirtrueselfforfearofrepercussions,ifthereisnotanaccepted

constructiveprocessfordissention.Thiscreatescognitivedissonanceinaworkeroutofsyncwith

others,andistypicallyquitetaxingpsychologically(ElliotandDevine,1994),whichcouldresultin

emotionalexhaustionanddiminishedperformance.Ontheotherhand,ifthebeliefsystemheld

byoneinauthorityisrifewithprejudiceandbiasedbehaviors,thisgiveslicensetoemployees

whosharethosebeliefstogivefullreintothatkindofinappropriatebehavior.Typically,diversity

advocacyseemstobeassociatedwithminoritygroupswhereasdiversityoppositiontendstobe

associatedwiththeprivilegedmajority(Avery,2011).

Adiversityclimate isasharedsenseofhowemployeesaretreatedwithrespectto inclusion

andfairness(McKay,Avery,andMorris,2008).Theseclimatesarebelievedtobeaffectedby

malleablefactorsthatcanimpactemployees’personalstanceandbehaviors.Thereareexamples

ofobtainingapositiveinfluenceonbuildinganinclusiveworkclimateviaawarenesstraining

sessions(seebelow).Butmoreimportantly,theorganizationalleadershipmust,bytheiractions,

sendastrongsignalfortheirexpectationsforinclusionandrespectfulinteractions.Thisincludes

punishingbadbehavior,suchasharassment,bullying,discrimination,andrewardinggood

behavior,suchasinstancesofemployeeshelpingdissimilarcoworkersandcustomers —allof

whichmakesadifference. Notpunishingbadbehaviorsendsasignalthatthisunacceptable

behavior isacceptablenotonlytotheperpetrator,butalsotoeveryotheremployeeinthat

organization.Butonceagain,thisintersectswithassessment.Wemustgetsmarteraboutthetell-

tailsignsofbiasthatcanbeobservedandquantified(intheabsenceofagoodleaderoverseeing

everythingthatgoesoninhisorherunit—thatisnotascalablesolution!).

VandenBrinkandStobbe(2014,p.187)pointouttheelephantintheroom.Whilegovernments,

businesses,anduniversitieshaveshownconsiderableinterest inimplementinggenderequity

programs,theyarestillmet“withopenresistanceandtheyareconsideredhighlycontroversial”.

Theirargumentgoesback tostudiesdiscussedaboveaboutwhat typicallyunderlieswork

cultureswithgendergaps,whichistheperceptionthattheseequityprogramsareforcingmen

toputupwithwomenwho“couldn’tmake it”ontheirown.Further, thesupports thatmen

26

routinelyreceivearetakenforgranted,whilewomenareexpectedtofixthemselvesandany

externalproblemscausingtheirperceivedinequitableworkenvironment.Notsurprisinglyand

exacerbatingtheproblem,equity initiativesaretypicallyframedasbeingaboutdiversityand

equalopportunityandare,thus,perceivedasstandinginthewayoftraditionalnotionsofawork

culturebasedonmeritocracyandindividualadvancement(Lamont,2009).

VandenBrinkandStobbe (2014)goon todescribe threebroad typesofgenderequity

interventionsimplementedtodate,butitisnoteworthythatalloftheminvolvevariousaspects

oftraditionalviewsaroundskills thatwomenneedtodeveloptofixtheproblem.There isa

perceptionthat theseprogramsalso lower thestandards for femalehiringandpromotion.

Morahanetal.(2011)listcomponentsofatraditionalinterventionmodelthatcorroboratesthis

traditionalapproach.Theirmodelreliesondeficitskillstrainingincludingmentoringinitiatives,

strategiccareerplanning,financecourses,andstrategiestoincreasewomen’sself-efficacyand

self-confidence.Anothertypicalapproachthatispartoftheirstrategydealswithpoliciesandis

oftencoupledwithdeficittraining;theseincludeequalopportunityviapoliciesandprocedures

designedtoaddressbarrierstoadvancementthatdisproportionatelyaffectwomen,butmay

beviewedbyat leastsomemenasaddedsupports forunder-qualifiedwomen.Are these

approachesofanyrealvalue?ThepersistenttrendofwomenleavingSTEMfieldsandoverall

significantunderrepresentationintheworkforceatall levelssuggestthatthesepoliciesand

proceduresarenotenough.AccordingtoVandenBrinkandStobbe(2014),meninacademia

(andlikelyotherworksectors)failtorecognizetheinformalsupportsystemstheyhave.When

interviewed,theywilltellyoutheysucceededintheircareerbasedonthemeritoftheirwork/

performance.Theyconsistentlyfailtorecognizetheirprivilegedpositionanddonotseetheir

considerableinformalsupportstructurewheremendoothermenfavorsallthetimeasaform

ofhelporsupport.Evenwithmentoring, Ibarra,Snook,andRamo(2010)foundthatmentors

aremuchmorelikelytogobeyondgivingadvicetomen(butnotwomen)inthattheywould

additionallyandactivelysponsormenbyadvocatingforthemforpositionsandpromotionswith

otherseniormenintheorganization.Womenseeandknowtheydonothavethesamesupport.

Perhapsre-framingtheseequityinitiativesinamannerthatappearstoequallybenefitallteam

members,menandwomenalike,wouldbeakeydistinctionthathasnotbeentriedwithmost

existinginterventionsandmaywork.

Workingfromtheperspectiveofsuccessfulorganizationalchangeinitiatives,ThomasandEly

(1996)offeraninterestingframeworkforthinkingabouteffortstoincreaserepresentation.They

discussthreeparadigms:

• TheDiscriminationandFairnessParadigm.Thisstartsfromthepositionthateveryoneshould

haveequalopportunitiestosucceedandissometimestermedtheassimilationparadigmsince

thefocusisontreatingeveryonethesameratherthanontheendresults.Sincethisfocuseson

equalityofinitialtreatmentratherthanonoutcomes,thetendencyistoexpectpeopletoadopt

theexistingnormstobesuccessful.

• TheAccessandLegitimacyParadigm.Thisrecognizesthattheworldisincreasinglymulticultural

andthatremainingcompetitiverequiresamorediverseworkforcethatisculturallycompetent.

Thisparadigmfocusesonwhatmakespeopledifferentfromeachotherwitharesultthat it

tendstoassignpeopletoparticularnichesbutdiscouragespeoplefromworkingoutsideof

areastheyareassumedtobecompetentinbecauseoftheirexperiences.

• TheLearningandEffectivenessParadigm.Thisparadigmisabalancebetweenthefirsttwo —

it looksforwaystoincorporatedifferentperspectivesandintegrateapproachesintoamore

effectivewhole.

Institutionsand industries thatdevelopmanagerialand leadershippractices thatsupport

attainingthethirdparadigmarethosewhobenefitmostfromdiversity.

ThomasandEly (1996) list theeightcharacteristics thatare reflected in theoperationsof

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successfulthirdparadigmgroups:

• The leadershipunderstandsthatadiverseworkforceembodiesdifferentperspectivesand

approachestowork,anddemonstratesthattheytrulyvalueavarietyofopinionsandinsight;

• The leadership recognizesboth the learningopportunitiesand thechallenges that the

expressionofdifferentperspectivespresentforanorganization;

• Theorganizationalculturecreatesanexpectationofhighstandardsofperformancefrom

everyone;

• Theorganizationalculturestimulatespersonaldevelopment;

• Theorganizationalcultureencouragesopenness;

• Theorganizationalculturemustmakeworkersfeelvalued;

• Theorganizationhasawell-articulatedandwidelyunderstoodmission;and

• Theorganizationhasastructurethatisrelativelyegalitarianandnotbureaucratic.

Thekeytotheeffectivenessofathirdparadigmapproachisthatthereisashiftfromfocusing

effortsonhelpingwomensurvive(firstparadigm)ortreatingwomenasdifferentfromthenorm

(secondparadigm)towardsmakingtheworkingenvironmentonethatbenefitseveryoneand

recognizesthevalueofanyonewhoispartofit.

Studies indicate thatwhatattractsmen3 toSTEMareaspectsof thework thatareseenas

consistentwithmasculinetraitssuchas logic,objectivity,abstractthought,andindependent

effort.Liketraditionalmasculineleadership,STEMfieldsarehistoricallypracticedashierarchical,

highlystructured,context-free,andvalueneutralarenas.WhatattractswomentoSTEMalso

resonateswiththeirperceivedtraditionalapproachtoleadership.Overwhelminglywomenare

attractedtoSTEMfor itssocialusefulnessandabilitytohelppeople.Forwomenthere isan

emphasison flexibility, inclusion,collaborationovercompetition, interactive/integrative

methods,communicationandsituatingscienceinitssocialcontext.Theseareallthingscalledfor

inbothfollowersandleadersof21stcenturyproblem-solvingwithincross-functionalworkteams

(Kezar,2009).TheseareimportantconstructstoconsiderwhencreatingSTEMeducationthat

attractsandretainswomen,aswellaswhenassessingcurrentandconstructingnewprogressive

organizationalworkplacepoliciesandclimatesinthehopeofattractingandretainingwomen.

Whathas tochange ifwomenare tohave theopportunity tohavecomplex,demanding

careers?WhilethefocusbelowandfortherestofthispaperisonwomenintheSTEMfields,

thesearereallyconditionsthatifmetwouldbenefitallemployees(maleandfemale)acrossthe

professions.

I. Needtokeepwomenengaged.Thisisespeciallyimportantduringthesecondaryeducation

stagewherethereisthemosttogainintermsofnumbersinSTEMfields,bothinacademiaand

industry,includingbusinessfieldssuchaseconomics.Theneedistomitigatetheprecipitous

decreaseinwomeninSTEMdisciplineswhichisobservedwhencomparingthenumberof

womenstudyingscienceathighschoolwiththesignificantreductionofwomenmajoringin

STEMoncetheyareinuniversity.However,womenexitSTEMcareersatallcareerstages.

II.Needtoprovidesolutionsthatallowforflexiblecareerssothatit ispossibletobalancelife

eventsandworkmoreeasily.Manywomenseetheneedtochoosebetweenacareerand

afamilyortoaccepta lessdemandingcareer inordertoaccommodatefamilyneeds.This

meansthatthereisaneedforprogramsthatallowwomentocontinuetheircareers,perhaps

atareducedlevel,whilepregnantandwhenthechildrenareyoung.Italsomeanslooking

foreffectivewaystohelpwomenreturntotheSTEMworkforceaschildrenbecomeolder.

3 Thisisprobablyagoodplacetoremindthereaderthatwearegeneralizinghere.Anindividualmaydeviatequite

stronglyfromthesenorms.

28

Ultimately, findingwaysto includewomenintheworkforceregardlessoftheir lifestages,

suchaschildrearing,wouldenablethemtoretainandsteadilyenhancetheirskillsandbuild

necessaryconfidenceintheircareer.Increasingly,worklifebalanceisofinteresttomenaswell

aswomenanditcouldhelpinrecruitment.

III.Needtoensurethatwomenhavethesameopportunitiesasmentobesuccessful,especially

inleadershiproles.Thefactthatsomewomencansucceeddoesnotmeanthatthereareno

biasesagainstwomeninthesystem.

Therestofthispaper looksatcurrenteffortsunderwaytohelpdevelopanenvironmentthat

meetstheseconditions,andimportantlyhowtousewhathasbeenlearnedthroughresearch

studiesandmovetowardsevidence-drivensolutions.

29

Keeping Women Interested

Womenstart todropoutofSTEMcareers in their teenageyears.Thereare lotsof reasons

proposedtoexplainthistrendincludinga lackofencouragementfromteachersandparents

tocontinueonaswellasperceptionsaboutwhatacareer inscienceentails,anda lackof

confidencethattheycanbesuccessful.Tocounterthis,manyoutreachprogramsworktoprovide

opportunitiesforgirlstolearnmoreaboutwhatSTEMcareersreallyentail,emphasizingpractical

problems likely toappeal to them.Theseprogramsoftenalsowork topublicizesuccessful

womenscientistsandengineerswhocanactasrolemodels.

Thevalueofprovidingrolemodelshascomeupconsistentlyacrosstheliterature.Bohnet(2016)

describesstudiesattheHarvardKennedySchool.Womenperformbetteronataskwhenthey

arefirstshownpicturesof,orevenjusttoldaboutsuccessful,famouswomendoingtheirwork

(famousrolemodelsdidnotaffectmaleperformance).Bohnetnotesthatwhenyouentera

boardroom,picturesofpreviousandcurrentcompanyleadersmatter —forexample,arethey

allmale?Thiscreatesanimplicitstereotypethreattowomenlowerontheorganization’sladder,

whereasamorebalancedboardsendsthemessagethatindeed,womenareservingand,thus,

seenasrolemodelsascompanyleaders. Infact,McGinnandMilkman(2010)didastudyat

a lawfirmanddiscoveredwhentherewerea limitednumberofwomenpartners,thissenta

messagetowomenlawyersjuststartingoutintheircareersthattherewaslimitedopportunity

foradvancement.Thiswasexacerbatedifmorejuniorwomenwerehired,asthewomensaw

greatercompetitionfor limitedadvancementopportunities,whichlikelycontributedtomost

oftheyoungerlawyersleavingthefirmwithinfiveyears.Relatedtothisfindinginacademia,

awomanassociateprofessoronafacultypromotioncommitteeissignificantlylesslikely(38%

less)topromoteawomanassistantprofessorthanisamaleassociateprofessor.Thissamesex

genderbiasdisappearsatthefullprofessorlevel,presumablybecauseofadesiretohaveand

embracesomeonesimilarattheirrank.Buildingtheworkforcesothatthereareconstructive,

effectivefemalerolemodelsateverylevelisimportanttodemonstrateapositive,collaborative

trajectoryamongwomeninsteadofcompetition —thatwetoooftenseethecompetitiveside

speakstothehallmarkbehaviorofanygroupwhereopportunitiesandresourcesarescarce.In

STEMcompanies,thehierarchical, individualisticcultureisgivingwaytoteamenvironments

asinterdisciplinaryproblem-solvingbecomesthenorm,while individualismstillcharacterizes

academia.

Inadditiontooutreachandpromotingwomenrolemodels,someinterdisciplinaryprograms

seemtobeeffectiveatrecruitingandretainingwomen —forexample, theundergraduate

coursesatSingaporeUniversityofTechnologyandDesign(SUTD)andthegraduatecoursesat

OkinawaInstituteofScienceandTechnology(OIST).SUTDhasagoalofproducingengineers

whowillservesocietalneedsandaims(successfully)ata40%femaleclass.Theyrananeffective

recruitmentprogramfocusingonthecontributionsofwomenengineersandscientists.SUTD’s

educationalofferingsarearrangedaround“pillars”suchas“EngineeringProductDevelopment”,

whichmaybemoreappealingtowomenthanthemoretraditionalengineeringcurriculum.

OISTisanexplicitly interdisciplinarygraduateschoolthatrequiresincomingstudentstorotate

betweenareasofstudy.OISTalsohasademonstratedorganizationalcommitmenttowork/

lifebalanceandprovidesonsitechildcare—factorsthatalsohelpitrecruitwomenstudentsand

faculty.

30

Work/Life Balance

ThecompetitivecultureofSTEMaswellasthefocusona24/7commitmenttosucceedisakey

reasonwomenchooseotheroptions.Work/liferelatedissuessuchasconflictsbetweenfamily

andcareercanaffect the likelihoodofdepressionandother illnesses,andgenderplaysan

importantroleintheseconflicts(Fujimoto,Kawamira-Shinohara,andOohira,2012),(Fujimoto,

Azmat,andHärtel,2013).Anecdotally, interviewswithsuccessfulwomenscientistshighlight

theimportanceofthisissue—eitherascommentsontheimportanceofmarryingasupportive

spouseorascommentsaboutfeelingthatachoicehadtobemadebetweenhavingacareerora

family.

Traditionally,womenoptforlowerstatus,part-timepositionstogaintheflexibilitytheyneedto

managetheirwork/lifebalance.Uptonow,thishasbeenakeyfactoringenderseparationin

thelabormarket(seestatisticssuppliedearlierinthispaper).TypicallyinSTEMcareers,tosecure

higherpayandbetterpositions,oneisexpectedtoworkallthetime,continuously,withlittle

regardtofamily.

Recentinitiativesarerevolutionizingthenotionofaflexibleworkplace.Asanexampleofthis

changeattheAustraliancompanyTelstra,workplaceflexibility isthedefault —allrolesflex,

andthisremainsthedefault,unlessprovennottoworkforaparticularrole.Thisallowsawork/

lifebalanceforeveryone —bothmalesandfemales —withoutapologies.Thisorganization-

widecultureshiftremovesinherentdiscriminationagainstanyoneseekingflexibility(heretofore

mostlywomen)sinceeveryoneintheorganizationisdoingit.

Givendecliningbirthratesandlongerlifespans,aswellasthetechnologicaladvancesthatmake

workingremotelyincreasinglypossible,itseemslikethetimeisrighttorethinktheroleofwork

inaperson’s life.Ratherthantakingakaizenor incrementalapproach,this isaproblemthat

Hurson(2008)wouldarguedeservestenkaizen4thinkingbecauseitrequiresbeingwillingtobe

disruptiveofthecurrentnorms.Whilethismayseemdifficult,the24/7lifestyleisacomparatively

recentphenomenonandonethatcomeswithmanynegativeimpactsonthehealthandcapacity

forcreativethoughtbyindividuals.

4 Tenkaizenreferstorevolutionarychange(forexample,disruptivetoexistingpractices), incontrast toanother

popularformofthinkingaboutproblemsandsolutionsinbusinesscalledkaizen,whichisaboutincrementalchange

andcontinuousimprovement.

31

Work Teams Thrive with the Right Norms

Increatingeffectiveworkteams, therecommendation(andtheeffectivenessof thiscanbe

assessed) is tocombineaverageabilitywithcomplementarydiversityofperspectivesand

expertise.Thereshouldbeacriticalmassofeachsubgroup5topreventtokenism.Theseteams

shouldhavenorms for theirprocesses thatembrace inclusiveness toallow fordiverse

perspectivestobecontributedandheard.Thewillingnesstospeakupcanbedifferentforthose

outsideoftheprivilegedmajorityand,thus,processrulessuchasunanimityorsensitivityto

opposingperspectivesshouldbebuilt into the teamnormstomitigate threats to fulland

inclusiveperformanceamongteammembers.Studiessuggestthatyoucanturndescriptive

normsintoactionablenormssimplybytellingpeopleaboutthem.

Anareathathasnotbeenreallywellstudiedconcernsdeterminingbestpractices forwork

teamsandstrategies tocommunicationthesenorms.Ausefulprojectandadeliverable for

organizationstousewouldbetosurveyandelaboratewhichsetofrulesandcodesofconduct

characterizehighlyeffectiveteams ingivencontexts.Onerecommendation is tostudyand

measurecommunicationaroundnormssuchthattheyareframedintermsofpositiveresults(for

example,discussingsuccessfulcompaniesthathavegenderdiverseboardsand/oremployees,

ratherthanfocusingontheperformanceofcompanieswithtoofewwomen)sincethismay

bemoreeffective.Developmentofacompanyrankingindexcouldthenbeusedtomotivate

companiesandpeopletocompeteongenderequity.

5 Subgroup in thiscontext refers towhatever rangeofpersonnel thatmakesupawork teamsuchaswomen,

minorities,privilegedmales,experts,productusers,etc.Theideaisthatthereshouldbeabalancesuchthatnoone

istreatedasa“token”member.

32

Better Ways to Recruit and Assess Individuals

Thereareseveralpromisingareasofresearchthatarelookingintowaystoreducetheimpacts

ofunconsciousbiasonhiringandonindividual’sperceptionsofthemselves.Evenstepsasbasic

asusingaqualificationschecklist intheassessmentofcandidatesforapositioncandecrease

unconsciousbias.This ismosteffectivewhenadiscussionof theneededqualifications is

undertakenbeforeanycandidatefilesarereviewed.Takingthisastepfurther,TheBehavioural

InsightsTeam(2017)isworkingtoapplyresearchfindingsfromthebehavioralsciencestopublic

servicesincludingrecruitment.Theirworkisgroundedinanempirical,research-basedapproach.

Recently,anoffshootcalledBIVenturesputoutatoolcalled“Applied”(TheBehavioralInsights

Team,2017)aimedatreducingbiasinhiring.

Thereisalsoasignificantamountofworkgoingintowaysto improvestudentachievement,

especiallyways tocloseachievementgapssuchasbetweenmenandwomenand,more

generally,betweenmembersofmajoritygroupsandmembersofunder-representedgroups.

YeagerandWalton(2011)havedoneanextensivereviewofhowshortexercisessuchasasking

studentstowriteabouttheirpersonalvaluesordiscussionsofhowmathematicsabilitycanbe

developedthrougheffortcanchangestudentoutcomes.Theyalsolookatthechallengesthatcan

beinvolvedinscalingtheseinterventionsandhowtoovercomethem.Theencouragingresults

arethattherearesomestraightforwardwaystoimprovethecurrentsituation.

33

Developing Leadership Potential — Existing Programs

Aswearguedabove,accessto leadershipopportunities iscritical towomenachievingafull

andsuccessfulcareerarc.Datademonstratethatwomendonottendtomoveintoleadership

positionsatanywherenearthedegreetowhichmendobecauseof issuessuchasthe“glass

ceiling”effect.Furthermore,whenwomenareofferedleadershipopportunities,theytoooften

representafalseandprecariouspathto leadership(forexample,theglasscliff).Withoutthe

sameopportunitiesasmen(leadershipbeinganimportantexample),ithasbeendocumented

thatwomeneventually leavetheworkforce,acceptasignificantlyreducedrole,oroptoutof

mainstreamenterprisefortheriskierentrepreneurialpathwheretheycancalltheirownshots.

Since leadership ispivotal toasuccessfulworkcareer,what thenare theopportunities for

leadershipdevelopment?

Kezarandcolleagues(2009)takeadeepdiveintoacademicleadershipprogramsprovidedto

menandwomenwiththerecognitionoftoday’scomplex,multiculturalandglobalenvironment.

Theseprogramsattempt toexamine foundational leadershipskillsas theypertain to the

academicworkplace.Theyfoundthatwhilethereareacoupleofprogramsthathavelastedfor

decades(othershavecomeandgoneinthemeantime)andaretrustedandwellbranded,they

appeartosufferfromsystemicissuesthatdonotaddresstoday’sleadershipneeds.Thatis,these

programsremainviableinthemarketplacebecauseoftheirrobustbranding,longevity,andtrust,

ratherthananypretenseatmeetingactualneedsformodern-dayleadershipdevelopment.They

categorizedtheseprogramsasbeingofferedinternally,byexternalgroups,andbyassociations

foragivenfield.Internalprogramsaredescribedasinformalandadhoc;manyarecharacterized

bybeingorganizedbyvolunteerswhohave“dayjobs”and,thus,notprovidingmuchconsistent

commitmenttothemissionofthetraining.Theoverallorganizationoftheseprogramsislacking

andisbestcharacterizedbyacollectionofexpertsdeliveringmodulesintheirareaofexpertise,

withonlytheprogramdirectorhavingsomedegreeofoverallvisionofofferingabroadand

engagingsetofmoduleswithinthe“program.”Mostacademicprogramstarget leadershipat

theexecutive level(forexample,HigherEducationResourceServices(HERS,2017))andtend

toneglectthemiddleandjunioremployees.Thoseaddressingthelattertendtobeofferedby

disciplinaryassociationsandaretoofewtomeettheneedanddemand.Moreover,theexecutive

levelisgearedmoreatthenationallevel,whereasanyleadershipdevelopmentofferedtomore

junior,risingemployeestendstobefocusedonissueswithintheinstitution.Itisarguedthatboth

levelsoffocusneedtobeapartofafullleadershipdevelopmentcurricula.

Arecognizedworldexpert inthisfield,McDade(2009)arguesthatthereseemstobeinertia

amongthewell-regardedprogramsthatarewell-brandedandtrusted,yetoutoftouchwith

currentthinkingandtheneedforupdatedleadershipdevelopmentinitiatives.Theseprograms

seemtochoosetomaintaintheircurriculaasopposedtoevolvingthemtomeetcurrentneeds,

apparentlybecauseofhavingachievedtrustintheirbrand.Itisamarketplaceissueinthatthey

canrelyontheirstrongbrandingasaresultofambiguityandlackofknowledgebyconsumers

ofthefundamentalconstructsforsuccessfulleadership.Thatis,anorganizationmayrelyona

well-branded, trustedprograminthemarketplacebasedonthosemarketingfeaturesrather

thanathoroughunderstandingofwhattheirorganizationneedsforaneffective leadership

developmentprogramtailoredto theirneedsandcontext.Recognizingthe issuesof these

programs’shortcomingscanprovidethebasisforbetterprogramsandinterventionsinthefuture.

Currently,virtuallyallprogramsaredesigned(typicallyinthe60sand70s)tomaintainthestatus

quonotionofleadershipasahierarchical, individualistic,top-down,authority-basedapproach,

meetingtheneedsofcurrentorganizational leadershipthattypicallyrepresentsthis typeof

34

leadership!(KezarandBeesemyer,2008).Moreimportantly, theseprogramstypicallydonot

fostercollaborationandteamleadership—identifiedasimportantto21stcenturyenterprise.

McDade(2009)pointsoutthatthereisactuallyverylittleempiricalresearchaboutleadership

developmentprograms,andaverysmallcadreofscholarstalkingandwritingabouttheissues

relatedtotheeffectivenessoftheseprograms.Fromoursurveyoftheextantresearchliterature,a

reviewofbothprogramsandevaluationsbyscholarsseemstobedirectedtowardtheacademic

context.Leadershipdevelopmentneedsandprogramsinindustryappeartobeevenlessstudied,

perhapsbecausethedirectionofbusinessplanningfollowsmarketoutcomesandisagnostic

whenitcomestoequityanddiversityissues,regulationsnotwithstanding.

ThereareafewprogramsthatMcDade(2009)arguesshowpromiseandcouldbemodelstobuild

on.TheAmericanCouncilonEducation(ACE)offersnationalworkshops, includingleadership

programsdirectedatwomenandminorities inacademia.TheirCampusInternationalization

program,whileofferedoff-campus(costfactorsarehighertosendgroupsoff-campus)does

offercampusteamparticipationandteam-buildingopportunitiesintheirforumsandlaboratory

offerings.TheoverallfocusofthisprogramisattheUniversityPresidentiallevel.

Moreover,theExecutiveLeadershipinAcademicMedicine(ELAM)atDrexelUniversitysupports

collaborationandcooperationintheirprogramactivities.McDade(2009)pointsoutthatviaa

RobertWoodJohnsongrant, therearestudiesbeingdoneonthisprogramdocumentingthe

contributionofthisprogramonparticipants’leadershipandcareeropportunitiesandsuccessin

thelongterm,withwomenwhoparticipated,showinganadvantageoverwomenwhodidnot

participateintheprogram.

35

Developing Future Leaders with the Right Professional Skills

BuildingLeadershipdevelopmentprogramsthatmeet thecurrent revolution in leadership

strategies(forexample,team-based,collaborative,egalitarian,democratic,andsoforth)requires

revolutionarychanges inmission, format,curriculumandparticipants.Sowhopaysforthis?

Traditionally,institutionsandindividualshopingtoimprovetheircareertrackpaytoparticipatein

theseprograms,withsomefundingcomingfromendowmentsandfoundations.Budgetary

limitationsinallsectorsarenotatrivial factor.Thecostofthisrevolutionwillnotbesimple;

exploringafundingmodelisanimportantgoalinandofitself.Nevertheless,oneimportantway

toimprovetheretentionofwomenisthroughthespreadofeffectivebestpracticesthatimprove

the cl imate they experience by reducing unconscious bias and the incidence of

microaggressions 6 .

Theresearchliteraturepointstotheexistenceofbiasinhiring,graduateadmissions,mentoring,

andbuildinglearningenvironments(includingscientificlaboratoryenvironments).Aswehave

discussed,thescientificcultureisrootedinthebeliefthatthebestindividualssucceedinrisingto

thetop,andthatawardsandrecognitiongotothosemostdeservingandthattheSTEMfieldsare

ameritocracy(thatis,withlittleconsiderationofothercontextualandculturalfactorsthatinhibitor

facilitatesuccess).Again,aswehaveshown,theliteratureonunconsciousbiasinhiringsuggests

otherwise(BertrandandMullainathan,2003),asdostudiesofscientificselectionprocesses

(WennerasandWold,1997).Ourunderstandingofcognitivedissonancetheorysuggeststhat

thebestwaytodisruptthecurrentstatusquoistoworkinwaysthatdonotdirectlychallenge

thestatusquo,butinsteademphasizethevalueofprofessionalpracticeinhiring,selecting,and

buildinglearningenvironments,aswellas insupportingandmentoringnewcomersintothe

scientificcommunity(Bohnet,2016).

Justasauditioningorchestraplayersbehindascreenincreasedthenumberofwomenorchestra

playersanddemonstratedthatthepriorselectionprocesshadindeedbeengenderbiased(Goldin

andRouse,2000),evidencealsoshowsthatadoptingamorestructuredreviewprocessalso

helps increasethelikelihoodofhiringmembersofunderrepresentedgroups(Wilson,Dalton,

ScheerandGrammich,2010).Aprofessionalpracticescurriculumwillspreadprocessesthatcan

act likethe“screen”andcandisruptthemindsetthatameritocracycurrentlyexists, leadingto

betterdecision-makingandmoreequitableenvironments.

Onewaytodothisistofocusonthedevelopmentofprofessionalskillsthatlookateffective,

research-drivenwaystorecruitandretainstaff.Wearguethatthistrainingisnotcommonfor

STEMpractitioners,whichisonereasonwhywomenarecurrentlysounder-representedinthis

group.

Complexadaptivesystemshavefourbroadcharacteristics:(1)thesolutiontothechallengesthis

groupfacesareinitiallyunknown;(2)challengesareongoing,emergent,andunpredictable;(3)

thevariedanddiverseexperiencesofeachmemberisrequiredinordertoaddressthecomplex

problemsthegroupfaces;and(4) thesystemis interdependent(Dooley,1997).Thesefour

characteristicsdescribethetypicalscientificresearchsettingwell —acomplexadaptivesystem

6 Microaggressionsare theeverydayverbal,nonverbal,andenvironmentalslights, snubs,or insults,whether

intentionalorunintentional,whichcommunicatehostile,derogatory,ornegativemessagestotargetpersonsbased

solelyupontheirmarginalizedgroupmembership(SueandRivera2010).

36

mustlearntosolvenovelproblemsthatcouldnothavebeenpredictedasopposedtoapplying

prescribedsolutionstoknownproblems(Daft,2008).Thenotionofcomplexadaptivesystems

hasrecentlybeenusedinconjunctionwithrelationalleadershiptheoriestodevelopamodelof

institutionalchange(BorregoandHenderson,2014).Relational leadershipiscontrastedwith

managementleadership,asshowninFigure1.

Figure 1. Relational models bring sociocultural considerations into the theory of leadership

Leadershipwithinadaptivesystemsisdefinedasarelationalprocessthatengagesallparticipants

andenableseachpersontocontributetoachievinganevolvingvision(Uhl-Bien,2006).Thistype

ofenvironmentismoreequitablethanonethatdependsonleadersandfollowers.Becausethe

focusisonprofessionalpracticesratherthanontheculturalcompetenciesthatitmightbring

about,itmaybemoreaccessibleandimmediatelyuseablebymajorityandminorityresearchers

andotherSTEMworkgroups.Ourexpectationisthatafocusonprofessionalpracticeswill lead

totheoveralldevelopmentofprocessesthataidtherecruitmentandretentionofmembers

ofunder-representedgroups(URGs),aswellashelpingresearchersestablishmore inclusive

mentoringandadvocacypracticesandbuildmoreequitableworkenvironments.

Onepromisingapproach is theT-shapedprofessionalmovement.TheconceptofT-shaped

professionals 7isoftenusedtodescribeindividualswhoaretrainedforinterdisciplinarywork.

Theybalancethedeepskillsneededinasinglediscipline(theverticalpartoftheT)withthe

broadskillsneeded tosucceed inworking in teamsandacrossdisciplineboundaries (the

horizontalbaroftheT).Thegoalistoworktodevelopthesebroadskillsinalargefractionofthe

population.T-shapedtrainingprogramsaresuitableforeveryonetotake,andemphasizebuilding

effectiveskills that teamscanapply toabroadrangeofproblems.SinceT-shapedtraining

programsdonotfocusspecificallyonincreasinginclusion,usingthisapproachcouldincreasethe

likelihoodofbroadacceptanceandadoption.Thisisageneralapproachthatunifiesratherthan

separatesbyhavingbothmajorityandminoritypractitionerslearntogether.

7 Abriefintroductiontothismovementcanbefoundat:

37

Assessment of the Climate and Effectiveness of Interventions

Theabilityto interveneintheseissuesseemstohingeonassessment.Therearetwogeneral

categoriesofassessmentthatwewillconsiderhere.First,thereistheenterpriseofassessingan

organization’scultureandworkclimate.Thereisaseparate issueofassessmentas itpertains

toobjectiveand fairperformanceassessmentof individuals.Nielsen,Marschke,Sheffand

Rankin(2005)proposethatbasicquantitativedatadoesnotnecessarilyprovidetheinformation

neededtomonitortheclimateandprogresstowardsequitygoals.Traditionally,wehaverelied

onsurveysthatinvolveself-reportingtotellusabouttheculture,climate,andbeliefsystemsof

individualsthatcomprisesomeworkinggroup,fromteamstowholeorganizations.Self-report

strategies inanycontextareinherentlybiased,andperhapsmoresowhenthesubjectofthe

surveyisexploringgenderorracialbiases.Tobeofvalue,oneneedstoexploremethodically

andunderstandhowaself-reportcanbefaultywithineachcontext it isused,andtakesteps

tomitigate thisbias.Alternatively,wecan look tomoreobjectiveassessmentapproaches.

Fortunately,recentcomputationalapproachesareprovidingtoolsthatmayprovidetheobjectivity

thatcanoverlookwhatarespondentsaysabouttheirbiasesandtakeanobjectivelookatwhat

theyactuallydothatimpactspotentialinequitableoutcomes(thatis,provideawaytoquantify

whetherarespondent“walksthetalk”).

Aswehaveseenwithstudiesofleadership,whatpeoplesayabouttheirbeliefs,andwhatthey

doonadailybasis,canbequitedifferent.Whoastudent,professororemployeeinteractswithon

adailybasisorwhotheyactuallygotoforadvicecanprovideimportantinsightsintotheiractual

accesstothepeoplewithpowerwhomightaidtheircareertrajectory.Anemergingstrategyto

understandthesecommunitynetworkscomesfromrecentadvancesincomputationalstrategies

ofassessment.Thisisametadataapproachthatshowspromise,butthecautionisthattreating

metadataas“groundtruth”canintroducetheoreticalandpracticalproblemsininterpretingthe

results intermsofreal-worldnetworkstructures. Infact,assignedmetadata labelscanmask

importantcontributionsofsubgroups.Thesesubgroupscanbeoverlookedbecausethemetadata

labelscorrespondtoanattractivelysimplenetworkandexplanation.Peel,Larremore,andClauset

(2016)addressthisissuebyintroducingstatisticalmethodsthatshowpromiseinquantifyingthe

relationshipbetweenmetadataandcommunitystructureandthusinyieldinginsightsofgenuine

worth.Communitynetworkshavebeenexplored to identifymanyconnections, including

allegiancesorpersonalinterestsinsocial(orworking)networks.Clauset(2017)presentedwork

conductedinhislaboratorywhere,byutilizingthisstatisticalnetworkmodelingtechnique,he

couldreliablysortworkingcolleaguesofanorganizationbasedonaskinginsightfulquestions

aboutwhotheyspoketoatwork.Whatisnoteworthyisthatthetypeofquestionsaskedelicited

straightforwardreportsofwhopeoplehadspokentointheworkenvironment,andwhenthey

didso.Thequestionswereaskedinamannerthatwasunlikelytoinvokeposturingassociated

withpowerandbiases —issuesthatcanbeimplicit inself-reportsurveysofculturalclimate

withintheorganization.Clustersemerged,andintheexamplestudied,racialandgenderbiases

werequitepronounced.Attheendoftheday,carefully-designedquestionsarecritical.Equally

criticalistheinterpretationofthemodel/clusterresults,andthesecanbemeaningfulwithcareful

considerationofrelevantfactorsthatco-occurinthedata.

Clauset,Arbesman,andLarremore(2015)reportafullyrealizedapplicationofthistechniqueas

itappliestothefacultyjobmarketinthreequitedifferentdisciplines:computerscience,aSTEM

URL:<http://agileleanlife.com/t-shaped-skills-every-area-life/>(accessedApril30,2017).

38

fieldwithlowfemaleparticipation;business;andhistory.Facultyhiringisanexpensiveandde-

centralizedprocess.Clauset,Arbesman,andLarremore(2015)examined19,000facultyhiring

inNorthAmerica.Theyfoundthat25%of institutionsaccountedfor71%to86%ofalltenure-

trackfacultyplacements.Lookingat institutionprestige,scholarlyproductivity,andplacement

outcomesrevealedprestigehierarchiesinfacultyhiringnetworksthatmakeapuremeritocracy

implausible,suggestinginfluencesofnon-meritocraticfactorssuchassocialstatus.Themore

prestigioustheinstitutiongrantingone’sdoctorate,themoreprestigioustheplacement.Eventhe

likelihoodofreceivinganyplacementatallincreases.Anobjectiveviewofthecomplexinterplay

offactors impactingfemaleacademicandcareersuccessemerge,aswecombinethisfinding

withotherworkthatdemonstratesthat importantaspectsofscholarlysuccessshowgender

inequity.Forinstance,studieshavereportedthatgrantproposalandpeerreviewsuccessrates

canbehigherformenthanwomen(forexample,Kaatz,Gutierrez,andCarnes,2014;vanderLee

andEllemers,2015)implyingimplicitbiasesintheevaluationprocess(Clauset,et.al.,2015).

39

Recommendations

Effectiveorganizationalchangeneedstoworkacrossmultipleconstituencies. InFigure2,we

outlineatheoryofactionforongoingwork inthis field.Weproposesomespecificstepsto

advance theseconceptsandencouragetheiradoption intopractice inbothacademiaand

industry.Thegoal is tohaveasignificant impactonSTEMworkersandtheSTEMworkforce

culture.

Broader Issues for Gender Equity Programs:

• Recommendation:aproject toexploremodelsanddevelopevidence-basedperformance

evaluations.Thisiscomplex,giventheliteraturecitedabovethatdemonstratedsuchthingsas

womenaregivenfeweropportunities,havetheirworkundervalued,andarelesslikelytoget

publishedthanmen.However,anobjectiveassessmentofawoman’scapabilitytothriveiskey

todevelopingagenderfairenvironment.

• Recommendation:undertakeadetailedsurveyofgenderequityinitiativesworldwide.First,

buildarubricthatcharacterizesatraditionalfocusthatsetsupwomenagainstmenversus

initiatives thatbuildT-shapedskills forwomenandmenalike,giving themtheskills to

productivelyworktogether.Qualifyandquantifytheorganizationalpoliciesthatallowflexible

workhoursforbothmenandwomentoaccommodatetheirprivatelives.Buildamodelthat

comparesthesequalitieswithquantifiablesuccess,suchaslong-termgainsinwomeninSTEM

careersandtheirretentionbeyondathreshold(fiveyearswasusedinalawstudy(McGinnand

Milkman2010)). Also,quantifychangesinnumbersofwomenmovingintoleadershiproles,

andrecordhowlongtheyremainintheleadershipposition.

Design considerations for gender equity:

• Recommendation:buildademographicallyblindalgorithmtomatch-makeandcomparea

STEMjobwiththeobjectiveskillsandabilitiesofcandidates.Buildingthiscomputationalmodel

requiresunderstandingandquantifyingtheseattributes.Thismeasurementcanbeappliedto

lettersofrecommendation(knowntobeshorter,withagreateruseofhedgesandnegative

languageforwomenthanforcomparablemalecandidates),aswellasresumes,curriculum

vitae,andjobadvertisements.

Assessment:

• Recommendation:Organizationsneedanobjective ratingmethodandanormed index

thatratesandranksthemaccordingtohowwelltheyhaveattainedagender-neutralwork

environment.Aworthwhileprojectwouldbetodeepenourunderstandingofthescopeand

dynamicsofworkplaceculturesthatimpactgenderequitybydevelopingandimplementing

adetailedsurveyofthesemanyissuesandinitiativesworldwide,usingevaluationstrategies

withparticularattentiontotheemergingcomputationalnetworkapproachesthatdonotrely

ondirectself-reportsaboutone’sbiases.Rather,ifproperlycrafted,thesesurveyswiththeright

evaluationstrategiescanprovideobjectiveevidenceofbehaviorsthatareknowntounderlie

genderbiasorgenderneutrality.Thesesurveysshouldundergopilottestingandnorming

inrealworkplaceenvironments.EPMEWSEhasalreadydevelopedsignificant infrastructure

tosurveyandtrackthegendergapinSTEMinJapan —anorganizationsuchasthismaybea

naturalhomeforthisalgorithmicdevelopment.

Professional Development:

• Recommendation:Survey theexisting leadershipprograms in industryandacademeto

40

determinewhatexistsaswellasthelongitudinaloutcomeswheretheyhavebeenapplied(for

example,numbersofwomeninSTEMandinleadershiproles)andtodeterminecomponents

oftheircurriculumandcostsforanoverallassessmentofcostversuseffectiveness. It isalso

importanttoaddresswhatseemstobeworkingversuswhatappearsnottobeworking,andto

proposerecommendationsforchange,includingacostmodelandfundingstrategy.Thiscould

befollowedupwithapilotimplementationofthebestpracticesthatemergefromthedatain

representativeworkplaces(thatis,businessandacademia)todetermineefficacy.

Recommendations Regarding Gender-Gap Related Programs in Japan:

• WenotethatthereareseveralinitiativesbasedinJapanthatshowpromisefordecreasingthe

gendergap.Longitudinalresearchshouldbedone(orcontinued,ifalreadyinplace)onthese

andother initiativestodemonstratethat theyactually impactpersistence inSTEMcareers

amongwomen.AmongthesearetheKASOKUprogram—aprogramtoacceleratepromotion

amongwomenresearchersatKyushuUniversity 8 .Thisprogramcouldhavethepositiveimpact

ofestablishingwomenleaders intheirdepartmentsandprovideexperiencedmentorsfor

juniorresearchers.Anotherprogramthattargetsakeyproblemwithpersistenceandrestarting

one’scareerafterchildcare leave, theRestartPostdoctoralFellowship(RPD)9 ,alsoshows

promise.From2006whenitstarteduntil2016,theprogramhasgonefrom30awardeesper

yeartoapproximately70awardeesperyear,althoughapplicationshaveremainedconsistentin

the200to250range.Ofthosethatparticipate, thedatademonstratethatafterfiveyears,

participantsmovefrom63%full-timeemploymentto90%.Overacareer(longitudinaldata)is

thereincreasedpersistenceinSTEMemployment(bothacademicandindustry)forwomen?If

thishasbeenthecase,howcanthisprogrambeexpandedtohelpmorewomenwhohadbeen

educatedandhadworkedintheSTEMfieldstore-entertheworkforceafterchildbirth?We

recommendcontinuingtodevelopandexplorefurthertheseinitiatives.

8 DirectedbyErikoJotaki,OfficeforthePromotionoftheEqualOpportunityintheWorkplace.KyushuUniversity

9 AJapanSocietyforthePromotionofScience(JSPS)Fellowship–moredetailscanbefoundat:URL:<http://www.

jsps.go.jp/english/e-quart/17/02.html>(accessedApril30,2017).

41

Figure 2. Project Theory of Action/Logic Model for Gender Equity in STEM careers

Problem Activity Outcomes

1.Womenmake up a very small

percentageoftheSTEMworkforce,

bothinacademiaandindustry.

2.Notenoughwomen in college

careerprepforSTEM;notenough

womenintheSTEMfaculty.

3.With an aging population,we

needallthecapabletalent,having

equalaccessibilitytoSTEMcareers.

4.Womendonotpersist in STEM

careers.

5.Womendonotcompleteacareer

arcbymovinginto leadershipas

comparedtomen.

6.Manyprogramsandinterventions

have been around for many

years,yetthenumbersofwomen

succeedingandpersistinginSTEM

careershavenotchangedmuch.

Develop anobjective index that

scoresand ranksorganizationson

genderequitypracticesrelatedto1,

3and4.

Explorepipeline issuesandmake

recommendationsforbestpractices

tobuild interestand foundational

skills includingamongthoseinpre-

collegeandcollegetoaddress2.

Document successful leadership

traits fortypesofworkbydifferent

organizations; create criteria for

expected performance to use in

recruitingand training leaders to

meet5.

Exploreretentionissues;document

evidenced-basedfactorsthatimpact

retention;cross-cuttheseissueswith

interventioncurriculumforwhich

therearemeasuresofimpact;make

recommendationsforbestpractices

in evidence-based interventions,

withadditional recommendations

for added curriculum to address

all key organizational practices

documentedtoimpactpersistence;

andpilotprogramstomeet4,5and

6.

An index provides transparency

aboutwhereequityproblemsexist

andwhere intervention needs to

be focused,andcreatesameasure

that, in turn,createsopportunity for

competitionforthebesttalent.

Prov ides eas i l y communica ted

descriptionoforganizationalpractices

thatfosteremployeeequityandcareer

success.

Createsguidelines/ interventionsfor

betterorganizational leadershipand

equitableopportunities forunder-

represented groups, particularly

women.

Providesguidelinesforeffectiveequity

practicesandinterventions

Demonstratesover time that these

practicesand interventions increase

women’s sustainedparticipation in

STEMcareers.

42

Conclusions

Manyoftheissuesfacingustodayoriginateinthefactthattheleadershipstylethatdominatesis

competitive,withawinatallcosts,“mefirst”thinking,focusedonachievingshorttermbenefits.

Thereseemstobelittleinterestorabilitytodevelopstrategiesthatconsiderlong-termimpacts.

Thus,weareseeinganerosionofpublictrustinthepoliticalleadership,andethicalbreakdowns

inresearchandbusiness.

The long-termhealthof societyasawhole, suchasabetterqualityof lifeandaccess to

fundamentalrightsincludingtherighttofoodandeducationforall,demandsachangeinthe

workingculture.Weneedcollaborative leaderswhoarewillingtotakeonglobalproblems

andworkforthelong-termbenefitofsociety.This istheleadershipstyleembodiedbyHigh

Responsibility leadersandwhich ismoreeffective forcomplexproblem-solving.This isa

leadershipstylethatweknowtendstobemorethenormforwomen,andgiventherelatively

lowrepresentationofwomeninleadership,weknowthereisalargepotentialpoolofleadersin

thisgroup.Hence,workingtoincreasethepresenceofwomeninleadershiparguablyprovides

thequickestwaytoshifttoabetterleadershipstyle.Inaddition,changingdemographictrends

makeit imperativetoincreasetheparticipationofwomenintheworkforce(andalsomakeit

importantthatthisisachievedinawaythatdoesnotdiscouragewomenfromhavingandraising

afamily).

ThispaperfocusesonwomenintheSTEMfieldsbecausetherepresentationofwomeninSTEM

isparticularlylowinJapanandmanyothercountriesintheworld,notbecausetheSTEMfields

haveuniqueproblems,butbecausemostoftheproblemsfacedbywomenintheworkforce

arefoundintheirmostextremeformsintheSTEMfields.TheimportanceofSTEMworkersto

theknowledge-basedeconomymeansthat there isan immediatereturnon investments in

increasingthenumberofwomen.Asaresult,notonlyhastherealreadybeenmuchworkinthis

area,butalsothereisageneralongoingwillingnessandinterestinimprovingtherepresentation

ofwomeninSTEM.Theextremelackofrepresentation inSTEMmakes iteasier tohighlight

theissuesaroundraisingwomen’snumbersinthissectorandhardertoresistthecasechange

isneeded.ProgramsinSTEM,especiallysuccessfulones,receiveattention.ProgramsinSTEM

produceabeneficialfeedbackloop;raisingthenumbersofwomenandrecognizingtheskillset

thesewomenbringtotheSTEMenterprisereinforcesthenecessitytoworkonglobalissuesto

attractmorewomen.Inotherwords,whatworksinSTEM-relatedcareerscanbeadaptedforuse

inotherfields.Webelievethatthisistherighttimetoadvocateforgenderequity—thereisan

understandingofthesalientissues,increasingabilitytoassessprogramsandinvesteffectivelyin

themand,mostimportantly,atrueneed.Wechallengeeveryonetomakeattaininggenderequity

theirgoalandresponsibility.Wecanallmakeadifference!

43

Acknowledgements

Theauthorswouldliketothankthemanyindividualswhohelpedshapethispaperfortheir

willingnesstomeetanddiscusstheirwork.AmongthecampusesthatwevisitedinJapanand

Singaporeduring thecourseof thisworkare:TohokuUniversity,NagoyaUniversity,Kyoto

University,DoshishaUniversity,OkinawaInstituteofScienceandTechnology(OIST),National

UniversityofSingapore(NUS),Yale-NUS,NanyangTechnologicalUniversity(NTU),Singapore

UniversityofTechnologyandDesign(SUTD),andtheNUSMedicalSchool.Wewouldliketothank

theadministratorsandresearchersattheseinstitutionsfortheirworkongenderequityandfor

theirtimeandhospitality.WewouldalsoliketothanktheSingaporeCommitteeforUNWomen,

MasterCard,andTheBehavioural InsightsTeaminSingaporeforthevaluablediscussions.We

especiallywanttothankDr.MiyokoWatanabeofJST,Mr.HiroyukiKarasawaofMEXT,Dr.Machi

DilworthofOIST,Dr.HisakoOhtsuboofNihonUniversity,Dr.ElizabethPollitzerofPortiaLtd.,

Ms.GeorgetteTanofMasterCard,andDr.ElizabethLyonsoftheUSNationalScienceFoundation

forfindingtimetotalkwithus.Finally,weareespeciallygratefultoDirectorMariKogisoandDr.

LilyYuoftheSasakawaPeaceFoundationforthemanyvaluableexchangesofideasandforthe

supportoftheSasakawaPeaceFoundation.

44

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