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Who are they? Communication of brand personality by business schools in
an online environment
Author(s): One-year Master Student
Arber Tahiri, 881105
One-year Master Student
Samira Youkhanna, 890328
Tutor:
Dr. Rana Mostaghel
Examiner:
Dr. Sarah Philipson
Subject:
Brand; Brand Personality;
MBA; European Business
Schools: Content Analysis
Level and semester: 4FE02E,
Master Programme Degree,
15 ECTS. 20120528
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Acknowledgements
The authors would like to take this opportunity to give a special thanks to the individuals who
helped and contributed with their valuable insights and ideas in the writing of this study. With
humble gratitude, the authors of this study would like to extend their thanks to Dr. Rana
Mostaghel, whom was kind enough to inspire us from the start of the thesis with her passion for
marketing and considerate guidance. The thesis has been an instructive and inspiring
process from idea to the completion.
The authors would also like to give a special thanks to Dr. Sarah Philipson, whom not only was
kind enough to manage to spare time to assist us during the stressful period of writing but also
contributed with her professional knowledge about researching which has given us the chance to
better understand the research world and the art of writing a thesis. In addition, we want to send
our kindest regards to our opponents and Magnus Hultman for being a source of information.
Their comments and commitment to us are highly appreciated.
Växjö, 20120528
____________________ ____________________
Samira Youkhanna Arber Tahiri
One-year Master Student One-year Master Student
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Abstract
Title: Who are they: a study about Communication of brand personality by business schools in
an online environment
Course: 4FE02E, Master Programme Degree Thesis, 15 ECTS
Authors: Arber Tahiri
Samira Youkhanna
Tutor: Dr. Rana Mostaghel
Examiner: Dr. Sarah Philipson
Introduction: MBA programs have increased from having 3200 awarded degrees during the
50‟s to 1695 business schools offering different types of MBA. Researchers claim that the
growth of MBA programs may have changed human perception of the offered program, that
MBAs have gone from being a first class ticket to a successful career to a more accommodated
service. Brand and brand personality is another discussed aspect. Researchers suggest that
organizations should implement more strategic communication based on brand personality, on
their websites to attract a large audience and clearly communicate what and who they are as an
organization.
Purpose: The purpose of this study is to examine the brand personality communication of
European business schools MBA Programs in an online environment.
Methodology: The study includes a comparative study were a correspondence analysis was
conducted. Aakers (1997) model of brand personality dimension was used as an inspirational
tool and randomly selected two samples; Cluster one, consisting of five Top European business
schools according to Financial Times, and Cluster two, five general European schools.
Conclusion: According to findings, there are some areas such as the usage of Aaker‟s brand
personality dimensions and their synonyms that are different between top ranked European
business schools and other business schools in Europe. Also, top European business schools
appear not to be closely associated to Aaker‟s brand personality traits whilst other European
schools are closely knitted and communicated clear brand personality dimensions.
Keywords: Brand; Brand Personality; MBA; European Business Schools.
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Table of content
1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 9
1.1 BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................................................. 9
1.2 PROBLEM DISCUSSION .......................................................................................................................... 11
1.3 PURPOSE .................................................................................................................................................... 13
1.4 DELIMITATIONS ...................................................................................................................................... 13
2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK .............................................................................................................. 14
2.1 ONLINE MARKETING AND COMMUNICATION ............................................................................... 14
2.2 BRAND ......................................................................................................................................................... 15
2.3 BRAND PERSONALITY ........................................................................................................................... 16
2.4 SOCIETAL AND SELF-CONSTRUCTION REALITY OF BRAND PERSONALITY ....................... 18
2.4.1 BRAND PERSONALITY FOR CUSTOMERS .................................................................................. 19
2.5 THE “FIVE DIMENSIONS” ...................................................................................................................... 20
2.6 CRITICISM AGAINST AAKERS BRAND PERSONALITY DIMENSION ........................................ 21
2.7 STATE OF THE ART ................................................................................................................................. 23
2.8 SCIENTIFIC QUESTION ........................................................................................................................... 25
3. METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................................................... 26
3.1 SCIENTIFIC APPROACH ......................................................................................................................... 26
3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN.................................................................................................................................. 27
3.2.1 QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ..................................................................... 27
3.3 POPULATION AND SAMPLING ............................................................................................................ 27
3.3.1 POPULATION ...................................................................................................................................... 27
3.3.2 SAMPLING ............................................................................................................................................ 28
3.4 RESEARCH DATA COLLECTION .......................................................................................................... 29
3.4.1 DATA COLLECTION IN PRECISE STEPS ...................................................................................... 30
3.5 DATA ANALYSIS METHOD .................................................................................................................... 30
3.5.1 CONTENT ANALYSIS ......................................................................................................................... 30
3.5.2 CORRESPONDENCE ANALYSIS ...................................................................................................... 31
3.6 OPERATIONALIZATION ........................................................................................................................ 32
3.6.1 STEP ONE AND TWO: AAKER’S (1997) FIVE BRAND PERSONALITY DIMENSION AND BRITANNICA ENCYCLOPEDIA ...................................................................................................................... 33
3.6.2 STEP THREE: DESIGNING THE DICTIONARY ........................................................................... 34
3.6.3 STEP FOUR: WORKING WITH WORDSTAT ............................................................................... 34
3.7 VALIDITY & RELIABILITY ..................................................................................................................... 35
3.7.1 VALIDITY .............................................................................................................................................. 35
3.7.2 RELIABILITY ....................................................................................................................................... 37
4. EMPIRICAL FRAMEWORK ........................................................................................................................ 39
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4.1 DISTRIBUTION OF FREQUENCY AND BRAND DIMENSIONS ...................................................... 39
4.1.1 DISTRIBUTION OF FREQUENCY OF BRAND PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS FOR CLUSTER ONE AND TWO ............................................................................................................................... 42
4.2 TWO DIMENSIONAL CORRESPONDENCE MAP ............................................................................... 44
4.3 COMMUNICATING AND DELIVERING INFORMATION .................................................................. 46
5. ANALYSIS ....................................................................................................................................................... 48
5.1 DISTRIBUTION OF KEYWORDS AND FREQUENCY ANALYSIS ................................................... 48
5.2 TWO DIMENSIONAL CORRESPONDENCE MAP ANALYSIS .......................................................... 49
5.3 COMMUNICATING AND DELIVERING INFORMATION .................................................................. 52
5.4 SUMMARY OF ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN THE CASES AND THE BRAND PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS ...................................................................................................................................................... 55
6. CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................................................... 57
6.1 THEORETICAL AND MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS....................................................................... 58
6.2 LIMITATIONS ............................................................................................................................................. 59
6.3 FURTHER RECOMMENDATION ............................................................................................................ 59
7. REFERENCE LIST ......................................................................................................................................... 61
7.1 SCIENTIFIC ARTICLES ............................................................................................................................ 61
7.2 ELECTRONIC SOURCES .......................................................................................................................... 73
8. APPENDIX ...................................................................................................................................................... 75
APPENDIX 1 ....................................................................................................................................................... 75 MBA Programs ................................................................................................................................................................... 75 Europe and MBA programs ......................................................................................................................................... 77 Fulltime vs. Part-time MBA programs .................................................................................................................... 78 One vs. two year MBA ..................................................................................................................................................... 78 Business schools and their MBA programs as brands ..................................................................................... 79
APPENDIX 2 ....................................................................................................................................................... 81
APPENDIX 3 ....................................................................................................................................................... 82
APPENDIX 4 ....................................................................................................................................................... 84
APPENDIX 5 ....................................................................................................................................................... 91
APPENDIX 6 ....................................................................................................................................................... 98 London Business School ................................................................................................................................................. 98 IMD Business School ..................................................................................................................................................... 102 IE business School .......................................................................................................................................................... 104 University of Oxford: Said .......................................................................................................................................... 106 HEC Paris ........................................................................................................................................................................... 111 Kingston Business School ........................................................................................................................................... 115 Trinity College Dublin .................................................................................................................................................. 119 University of Geneva ..................................................................................................................................................... 123 Paris School of Business .............................................................................................................................................. 127 Sabanci University......................................................................................................................................................... 131
APPENDIX 7 ..................................................................................................................................................... 133
APPENDIX 8 ..................................................................................................................................................... 135
APPENDIX 9 ..................................................................................................................................................... 137
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APPENDIX 10 ............................................................................................................................................... 139
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Outline
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION The chapter introduces the thesis and its background, giving the reader a pre-understanding
about the subject and problem area and finalizing with a purpose for the study.
CHAPTER TWO: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This chapter gives an exploratory theory background for the thesis. It includes definitions and
further in depth information about subjects such as „branding‟, Aaker‟s brand personality
dimensions‟ and the different aspects constructed reality.
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
The methodology chapter presents the progression of the deductive study and how information
for the empirical framework has been collected and used. Content analysis have been the
preferred method to gather necessary information about the business schools and their MBA
programs by randomly selected European business schools from two Clusters; one presenting
top European business schools according to FT and another one presenting most European
business schools in Europe.
CHAPTER FOUR: EMPERICAL DATA
This chapter presents gathered empirical information form the software program WordStat. It
describes the total frequency of distribution of keywords and how the personality dimensions
are connected to each European Business School. The empirical study also provides a chi-
square test to prove if there is any significant relation between the schools and brand
personality traits according to Aaker (1997).
CHAPTER FIVE: ANALYSIS
The analysis chapter is based on a correspondence analysis that shows the correlation between
schools and brand personality traits as well as the relation between the personality dimensions.
The chapter will provide plots/maps to explain the relation of the two different aspects.
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CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION
The chapter concludes the results, which are highlighted in the analysis and answer the
research questions in the study.
CHAPTER SEVEN: FUTURE RECCOMENDATIONS
In this chapter, the authors‟ aims to outline some areas in the study that can be explored by
future interested academics.
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1. Introduction
The thesis starts by providing the reader with a background including the origin and
development of MBA programs around the world. The introduction will then funnel down to a
problem discussion, which will include in-depth discussions about different gaps in research of
brand identity and business schools in an online environment. The discussion will eventually
end with a purpose.
1.1 Background
Masters of Business Administration (MBA) programs (See Appendix I) give profits for most of
the parent institutions, and provides well-trained business executives for organizations, and
these are perceived to be the corporate elite in the area of management education (Pfeffer and
Fong, 2002). Pfeffer and Fong (2002) claim there is no doubt that business education and
MBAs enable great profits and are considered big business. Business schools spend a large
amount of money on the advertisement and promotion of their MBA programs to strengthen
the brand and attract a new target group of students.
In general, business education has grown worldwide. Only in Britain the number has risen
from 20 in the early 1980s, to over 150 in 2005. In the US, MBA programs were nearly non-
existent between 1955-1956, only 3200 MBA degrees was awarded. However, 1998-1999
nearly 102 000 MBAs was credited and by the fall of 2000 there was 341 accredited programs
in the US. Business education has spread around the world, in places such as Asia and
continental Europe (Hultman et al., 2007; Pfeffer & Fong, 2002). Businessschools.com claims
to have 1,695 MBA Business Schools and Colleges in its database (Browse MBA programs,
2012). Hultman et al. (2007) claim in their study that there is a growth of 1500% in Internet
trafficking in websites in 2005, and it is still generating 30,000 plus referrals per month since
the time of year 2006.
It has been argued that the large increase in MBAs has moved the MBA from its elite status to
a more commoditized product (Opoku et al, 2007; Bickerstaffe, 2005; Friga et al. 2003). MBA
programs have now become the focus of numerous rating systems, as they have attracted a
significant societal interest over the last couple of decades. The ratings and measures are of
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high importance as numerous students use them. Also, the ratings provide a snapshot of the
graded schools‟ reputation and are suggested not be ignored, but used to gain advantage over
competitors (Opoku et al, 2007; Bickerstaffe, 2005; Friga et al. 2003).
Keller (2008) suggests the very important changes, namely the increased amount and the
diversity of the communication options available to marketers. Reaching consumers has
become a challenge, as there are emerging non-traditional media, promotion and other
communication alternatives (Keller, 2008). Furthermore, one of many important challenges in
marketing MBA programs is the importance of brand personality and how they are constantly
communicated over the Internet the same way as in real life (Hogg et al., 2000; Aaker, 1997).
Brand personality defines a set of individual personality attributes that can be applicable and
relevant for brands, (Azoulay and Kapferer, 2003; Brown, 1991). Keller (2008) mentions that
academics usually conceptualize brand identity and brand image as multi-dimensional
constructs of which brand personality is an important component. Rowley (2002) concluded
that online branding communication conveys a sufficient range of challenges and opportunities,
one of them concerning exploration of some of the potential impacts of online channels (such
as websites) on branding strategy. According to Pitt et al. (2007), visitors to websites tend to be
highly involved and active in acquiring information from organizational websites, as the
number of visitors that turn to organizational websites to gather information about a program
tend to increase. Hence, it is therefore important for businesses schools to clearly and distinctly
communicate brand personality on their own website to make them stand apart from
competitors, Pitt et al. (2007).
Opoku et al. (2007) suggest that when marketing a higher education, a brand can be very
helpful for a business school to enable promotional efforts and clearly communicate the
message to its target groups to charge premium prices, improve and maintain customer loyalty
and advance the evolvement of new offerings. Also, the authors conclude that it is highly
important to remember that a business school‟s brand is no different from any other brand. The
classic functions that brands usually perform apply to this situation as well (Opoku et al. 2007).
Azoulay and Kapferer (2003) agree, and argue that marketing theories are to be applied to
education as much as to any other service area.
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1.2 Problem Discussion
Onlinemba.com (2012) claim that MBA degrees are considered as the world‟s most popular
postgraduate degree and are considered as a first class ticket to a successful management
career. On a business point of view, there is an increasing interest by marketing schools to
understand and measure the symbolic meaning that consumers attribute to the represented
brand personality of the MBA degree (Pitt et al., 2007). Hence, researchers conclude that there
is a challenge in how consistent the communication of MBAs and business schools is in the
online environment, and if it is done in the same manner as in the real world (Hogg et al.,
2000; Aaker, 1997). Accordingly, it is not only problematic to choose the „right‟ personality
elements for the brand, but also difficult to enable a consumer to develop a visible and unique
representation of him or herself that matches with it.
From a scholarly perspective, one of the biggest challenges is the communication of the brand
personality of an organization (Van Gelder, 2005; Ligas, 2000). Yet another challenge, studied
by Perry and Bodkin (2002; 2000), is if the company does not have adequate resources, which
leads to a limited engagement on the website. Further, many organizations are not convinced
that they need to establish and maintain a sustainable website. In some cases they just do not
know how to utilize it (Van Gelder, 2005). On the contrary, business schools, which have
shown an interest in brand management, have also shown to have different conceptualizations
of brands, including symbolic components (Keller, 1993, 2008; Van Gelder, 2005; Ligas,
2000). However, according to Austin et al. (2003), a few valid measurements have been
successfully developed, the online environment being one of the biggest challenges, according
to studies by Keller (1993; 2001; 2008). Many organizations do not implement the full range of
marketing communication on their websites, because they do not have the financial (money)
and human resources (employees) to build and maintain effective corporate websites (Hultman
et al., 2007; Van Gelder, 2005).
Studies show that electronic commerce (e-commerce) has a more far-reaching impact on its
audience than traditional marketing (Keller, 2008). It is not fully used by organizations to
differentiate them strategically and gain advantage over competitors (Pitt et al., 2007; Van
Gelder, 2005).
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However, academic researchers are deserting brand personality as relevant and vital for
business schools in their communication (Mullin, 2000). Further, academic literature are
largely neglected the growing importance of online communications, as part of corporate
identity management. This has had a negative impact on the communication of the brand
personality in the online environment (Hultman et al., 2007), as it limits rather than fostering
marketing communication. In agreement with Pitt et al. (2007), Keller (2008), claims that
academics ignore the fact that a business school‟s website is a very important element of its
corporate identity, since it explains what the school is about and „who they are‟. Pitt et al.
(2007) suggests in their study that brand personality has often been put in relation and
reference to products, corporate brands or countries, and not to brand communication online,
which has shown to have a negative impact on communicating business schools‟ brand
personality, as they will face future difficulties in differentiation and creation of strategic
advantage (Hultman et al., 2007; Van Gelder, 2005).
In this paper the authors will focus on the brand personality concept of Aaker (1997),
particularly on how a brand personality is communicated by business schools, through their
websites. There is an interest in exploring whether Top European business schools offering
MBA programs according to the latest ranking from Financial Times communicate clear and
distinctive brand personalities in cyberspace, through their websites in comparison to other
European business school that are not included in the ranking. The authors will perform a
comparative study were we will analyze if there are any specific factors in the communication
that has made the top European business schools successful. It is expected that this study
provides a basis for deeper understanding of brand personalities in the era of digital and e-
commerce, and examines these personalities online. However, we will not study the output
perspective; how the audience perceives brand personality. Instead the authors study whether
business schools use and communicate clear and distinctive brand personalities through their
websites. It should be acknowledged that most of the presented schools are part of larger
universities (Ashton, 1995). Hence, one must therefore bear in mind that most of the issues
concerning the subject may be affected by the relationships between the business schools; as an
institution in a university, and the university it is connected to.
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1.3 Purpose
The purpose of this study is to examine the brand personality communication of European
business schools MBA Programs in an online environment.
1.4 Delimitations
The authors have chosen to limit the study of MBA programs to the business schools in
Europe, excluding executive MBA programs. Instead full-time, part-time and online MBAs are
included in the study. Hence, masters and other business school programs are also not included
in study due to the fact that they are not similar to MBA programs. Also, websites are the
primarily and only information that will be studies, other social platforms are excluded in the
thesis as they are not presentable for organizations as websites are. Hence, pictures, video clips,
statistics, symbols and other figures will not be analyzed as this study mainly focus how
business schools portrait their MBA programs in terms of words.
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2 Theoretical framework
This chapter identifies theories such as online marketing communication and branding.
Further, previous research of concepts such as Aaker’s (1997) brand personality dimensions
will be presented, as well as information about MBA programs in Europe. The line of
argument is; what are the different types of brand personalities and how are they conveyed in
brands of business schools’ that offer MBA programs? The theories will eventually funnel
down to a research question.
2.1 Online marketing and communication
Keller (2001) defines the term marketing communication as the way a firm informs, persuades,
insight and remind consumers (directly or indirectly) about its brands and products. Marketing
communications has faced changes and challenges over the years, including design, evaluation
and implementation of marketing communication programs (Keller, 2001; Gallagher et al.,
2001). Another change is the increase of the number of diversity of communication options
that are available for marketers in a way that was impossible in earlier days (Keller, 2001).
Analogue communication is decreasing in a fast pace as digital media is taking over alongside
with the development of the World Wide Web (Bickerstraffe, 2005; Rowerly, 2004). According
to Gallagher et al. (2001), the new changes give the audience much more control over exposure
to material on the web and they can chose which website they want to enter and explore.
Websites has become a tool to use when representing status symbols of organizations (White
and Raman, 1999). Also, websites tend to be brand carriers and explain the extension of the
organization‟s operations (Palmer and Griffith, 1998). Most organizations use a variety of
Internet marketing communication tools (such as websites) to communicate with target
customers, and to build customer relationships (Perry and Bodkin, 2000, 2002; Gallagher et al.,
2001).
Authors state that web-based context has a far-reaching impact on marketing, distribution,
revenues and delivery (Pollack, 1995). Firms continuously design and redesign their websites
for ease and convenience of their consumers. Organizations upgrade web-technology to make
their websites more personalized for customers. Corporations initiate web campaigns, develop
brands and integrate branding strategy on the web, gather customer information, improve
15
customer service, and streamline online reservations to please target costumers and recruit new
ones (Baloglu & Pekcan, 2006; Gallagher et al., 2001). According to Austin et al. (2003)
organizations emerge their brands by presenting it, as well as presenting the organization to the
public e.g. via television advertisements, media coverage and press releases, the Internet,
personal familiarity with organization location and/or information obtained from friends,
family and acquaintances.
2.2 Brand
Kapferer (2008) suggest that brand identity is a brand that is specified and presented to an
audience by a firm for its target group. According to Kapferer (2008), the definition of brand is
hard to define as authors define the term in their own way. He also state that defining a brand
gets more complicated when it comes to measuring the strength of brands, however, he
believes that the focus should instead be put on what is commonly called brand equity.
According to Kapfrerer (2008) there are different views of branding and brand equity. One is
customer based and focuses on the relationship between the customer and the brand (e.g.
loyalty, attachment and willingness to buy and rebuy based on customer beliefs of superiority
and evoked emotions). The second aims towards the productions of measures in terms of
money (Kapfrerer, 2008).
De Charnatony and Riley (1998) conceptualize brand as something that has been diversely
defined, because of its complexity. Brand as a logo, consists of a name, sign, symbol, design,
or a combination of these. The purpose is to identify the goods or services from a seller or
group of sellers, and to differentiate them from competitors (De Charnatony and Riley 1998).
Branding is important for organization to say something about themselves in a way that „every-
day language‟ cannot express and communicate. According to Arinaitwe (2006), the purpose of
branding is to facilitate repeated purchases and enhance financial performance for the survival
of the firm. Several authors suggest that brands establish the basis of organizational positioning
in a competitive surrounding and serve as a differentiation tool. Therefore, brands that are
strong and differentiated significantly enhance firm performance (Colucci, Montaguti, & Lago,
2008; Warlop, Ratneshwar, & van Osselaer, 2005; Madden, Fehle, & Fournier, 2006; Brown,
1991). De Charnatony and Riley (1998) claim that companies invest in brands to get the legal
ownership of the title, and to protect it from imitators. Therefore, the company is safe to use the
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brand in their own way without the fear of being copied by others, De Charnatony and Riley
(1998).
Stakeholders as suppliers, government and shareholders and have their own view of the
company's brand. However, companies have two most important stakeholders, the clients and
the employees. A simplified representation of the process is found in the model below. The
model consists of an explanation where the brand is the interface between business and how
the consumer interprets it De Charnatony and Riley (1998).
Figure 2.2.1: Defining a Brand, De Chernatony, L. and Riley, D. (1998) pp. 428
De Charnatony and Riley (1998) claim that companies may obtain information by monitoring
customers‟ perception of a brand to reduce the gap between the company and the customer's
attitude towards the brand. The company also has the opportunity to reinforce the brand and
make it more identifiable and more relevant for the consumer.
2.3 Brand personality
According to Ryckman (1997) personality is about the dynamic and organized set of
characteristics of a person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations and
behaviors from those of other individuals. Aaker (1997) continues by stating that brands, like
individuals, are able to develop personalities that are similar in matter of characteristics.
Researchers suggest that a strong brand personality is irreplaceable and valuable to build a
brand and brand equity and cannot be easily copied. (Plummer, 1984, 2000; Van Rekom,
Jacobs, & Verlegh, 2006). Further, Plummer (1984, 2000) claim that brand personality might
be necessary to understanding brand choice.
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Ryckman (1997) divides personality in five categories:
i. The Psychoanalytic perspective which is about the biological in nature of personality is
also served as an underlying bases for certain kind of personality
ii. Trait perspective is about dispositional factors that regularly and persistently determine
conduct in a variety of everyday situations;
iii. Cognitive perspective assumes that people‟s personality is never completely
determined; people are always changing and always free [a bounded freedom] to
reinterpret their experiences in idiosyncratic ways;
iv. Existential perspective postulates the existence of an innate growth that moves
individuals toward realization of their potentialities if environmental conditions are
ideal and
v. The social behaviourist perspective assumes that most of our behaviour is learned and
purposive; we are guided by our motives to attain certain goals.
Aaker (1997) state that brands, like individuals, are able to develop personalities that are
similar in matter of characteristics. Plummer (1984, 2000), suggest that a strong brand
personality is irreplaceable and valuable to build a brand and brand equity, and cannot be easily
copied.
Aaker (1997) define brand personality as "the set of human characteristics associated with a
brand." (Aaker, 1997:347). Further, an individual can be seen as brand, for instance famous
artists are used in promotional aspects by representing companies and organizations, according
to Solomon et al. (2010). In addition, Keller (1993) state that brand personality is something
that serves as a symbolic or self-expressive function. Ghodeswar (2008) conclude that
companies may use brand personalities to make it easier for them to reach a preferable
audience. As a result, companies faces no difficulties differentiating themselves from
competitors. Also, companies using brand personality enables a better image and contributes to
enhanced products by implementing brand personality in brand communication (Ghodeswar
2008).
According to Aaker (1997) the perception of a brand can be affected directly or indirectly.
Indirect brand personality includes attributes of a brand, whereas direct personality explains the
connection between individuals and brands (Aaker, 1997). Azoulay & Kapferer (2003) state
that individuals are able to conceptualize the characteristics of a brand and specify what type of
personality a brand encounters. According to Louis & Lombart (2010), it is important for
18
customers to see a connection between brand and their human characteristics in order to
interact and understand the brand they are involved with. However, McCrachen (1989) claim
that companies can affect brand personality by using famous people in different ad campaigns.
He suggests that some companies‟ may use celebrities to represent a product or service to give
the brand a direct personality (McCrachen, 1989). It enables a chance for the audience to
identify and relate to the celebrity that is connected to the corporate brand communication.
2.4 Societal and self-construction reality
of brand personality
Bhattacharya and Sen (2003) mention in their study that brand identity can be both socially and
self-constructed. Social identity ”theory posits that in articulating their sense of self, people
typically go beyond their personal identity to develop a social identity. They do so by
identifying with or categorizing themselves in a con-textual manner as members of various
social categories (e.g., gender, ethnicity, occupation, sports teams as well as other, more
short-lived and transient groups)” (Bhattacharya & Sen, 2003:77). Further, Arinaitwe (2006)
suggest that actors such as firms, suppliers, supplementary organizations, the public, and
customers can make the social construction. In addition, Bhattacharya and Sen (2003) mention
that the bases of social constructed brand identification are for consumers to identify, or feel a
sense of belonging to an organization.
Self- construction is defined as social constructs that are usually interpreted to be by-products
of numerous human choices rather than laws or other enforcements resulting from divine will
or nature (Burr, 1995). According to Burr (1995), self-constructions are conscious and
independent determinations of reality. Keller (1993) suggests that customers who express
themselves and show that they belong to special group is the underlying basis for self-
construction. Brands are important for customers, since they do not always know what they
want and they make decisions based on an image that they aspire to live up to, Solomon et al.
(2010). Further mentioned, self-constructed reality of brand personality conceptualize ones
perception of belongingness with an organization, Bhattacharya & Sen (2003). Drawing on
social identity construction, the authors mention that self-construction occurs when an
individual‟s beliefs about a brand becomes self-referential or self-defining, Bhattacharya & Sen
(2003).
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2.4.1 Brand personality for
customers
Brand can be associated with the personality traits, means that it can provide self-expressive or
symbolic benefits for the customer (Aaker 1999). Consumers identify themselves with a certain
brand that reflects and reinforce their self-identity. If the product or service fit with the image a
decision would be made (Solomon et al 2010). E.g. the customer buys a Harley- Davidson
motorcycle, because it has an image of masculinity and strength, Aaker (1997).
If a company is interested in building a preference for a product they can do it in six different
ways:
i. Need association; a particular need of the product, which the customer can associate
with;
ii. Mood association; letting the customer know the process of the product production.
What link it has with different aspects, example special moods;
iii. Subconscious motivation; manipulating the customers mind through suggestive
symbols, without the customers knowledge;
iv. Behavior modification; manipulating the customer through different rewards and
signals;
v. Cognitive processing; is about creating cognitive and perceptual barriers through
positive attitudes and
vi. Model emulation that imitates the introduced idealized social lifestyle models. (Alreck
& Settle, 1999).
According to Aaker (1997), there are two ways of finding the relationship between brand and
human personality, which can have an impact on consumers‟ preferences. The two ways are:
i. Ad hoc scales: are normally composed of a set of traits ranging from 20 to 300.
The scales are not theoretical in nature; instead they have often been developed for the
purpose of specific research. As a result, key traits may be missing from such scales.
The traits that are selected are often chosen arbitrarily, which casts doubt upon the
scales‟ reliability and validity (Aaker 1997).
20
ii. Aaker (1997) state that the ones that are more theoretical in nature are the second types
of brand personality scales. However, they are based on human personality scales that
have not been validated in the context of brands. Therefore, some factors of human
personalities can be reflected, but not all. The validity of brand personality scales has
become a matter of question, Aaker (1997) state, “if unequivocal results are to emerge,
consumer behavior researchers must develop their own definitions and design their
own instruments to measure the personality variables that go into the purchase
decision” (Aaker, 1997:348).
Aaker (1997) discusses how distinct dimensions can isolate brand personality by considering
brand personality as a uni-dimensional (value being measured wholly in terms of its truth)
construct, and by showing how diverse types of brand personalities can be distinguished. As a
result, there are numerous ways in which a brand personality construct can affect individual‟s
preference and how this can be better understood.
2.5 The “Five dimensions”
Aaker´s scale of brand personality measures human brand personality and the relation between
customers and corporate brand, Aaker (1997).
Further, Caprara et al. (2001) state, “The tradition in personality psychology maintains that
over time, languages develop a list of adjectives that describe the most important personality
differences between people. Factors analyses among thousands of personality attributes have
revealed that, in many different languages, most adjectives describing individuals can be
grouped into one of the so- called big five” (Caprara et al., 2001:378).
Further, Goldberg (1993) claim that the five dimensions, commonly known as the “Big Five”
dimensions are a result of analyses of natural language terms in people use to describe themselves and
others. According to Caprara et al. (2001), the big five factors are; Extroversion, Agreeableness,
Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, and Openness. They all together do provide a
consensual context for classifying and organizing descriptors of human personality (Caprara et
al., 2001). The dimension was to begin with not theory driven (Sanz, Gil, Garcia-Vera, &
Barrasa, 2008). However, Goldberg (1992) states that the personality characteristics were
21
found to be easily evoked by, limited facts of adjectives that do illustrate a high loading in the
desired aspect and low loadings in the remaining factors.
Figure 2.5.1: A Brand Personality Framework
Figure 2.5.1: A Brand Personality Framework (Aaker, 1997, pp.352)
According to McCrae & Costa, (1997) Big Five researchers deliberately exclude gender and
social class, however, Aaker (1997) provide another perspective of brand personality, sincerity
stated as the first of five factors. This is a dimension that encapsulates concepts like acceptance
and warmth. The second one is excitement, which can be connected with energy, sociability
and activity. Competence is the third factor and this is associated with security, responsibility
and dependability. Further we have sophisticated, this gets associated with concepts like
sexiness, glamour and aspiration. The last one is ruggedness and it‟s associated with
masculinity, strength and glamorized ideals. Figure 2.5.1 show different concepts that are
recognized with each of the five factors (Aaker, 1997).
2.6 Criticism against Aakers brand
personality dimension
Aaker´s scale, have not only been used by other studies but also been criticized on several
grounds. Geuens et al (2007) state tree types of them:
22
i. Loose brand personality traits: The first criticism aims for the loose definition of brand
personality. Further, it is something that embraces different characteristics beside
personality, for instance sex, age etc. (Azoulay & Kapferer, 2003; Bosnjak, Bochmann,
& Hufschmidt, 2007). According to Geuens et al (2007) this is something that induces a
construct validity problem and leaves investigators and practitioners uncertain of what
they have truly measure; the perceived brand personality or perceived user
characteristics?
ii. Brand personality as a non-generalizability factor: The second criticism involves the
non-generalizability of the personality trait factor structures for analyses at the
respondent level e.g. for a specific brand or product category (Austin, Siguaw, &
Mattila, 2003). Cited by Geuens et al. (2007) “Aaker (1997) conducted all analyses on
data aggregated across respondents (for between-brand comparisons), she actually
removed all within-brand variance, which led to factor analysis results that are
exclusively based on between-brand variance” (Geuens et al., 2007:97). As a backdrop,
the framework does not cover generalizations in which analyses are required at the
individual brand level and/or situations where consumers are an element of
differentiation, Geuens et al. (2007).
iii. Brand personality as a non-replicable tool: The third criticism explains how the five
factors (personality traits) within brand personality are non-replicable across cultures
(Azoulay & Kapferer, 2003). For example, Aaker et al (2001) gave some examples of
different country‟s that was studied and it was known that in a study that she made in
Spain, only three of five factors (personality traits) were used in terms of studies.
Further, in Japan she made same study and in that case four of the five factors were
used (Geuens et al (2007).
Further, the personality characteristics scale has served as a brand personality measure in many
studies, however characteristics are proved to be robust in several studies (Aaker, 1997, 1999;
Aaker, Benet-Martinez, & Garolera, 2001; Kim, Han, & Park, 2001).
The substance of personality is defined as a systematic description of traits according to
McCrae and Cost (1987; 1997). John and Srivastava (1999) have conducted five other human
personality dimensions that provide a complete description of personality. Those are (i)
Extraversion or Surgency (talkative, assertive, energetic), (ii) Agreeableness (good- natured,
cooperative, trustful), (iii) Conscientiousness (orderly, responsible, dependable), (iv) Emotional
Stability vs. Neuroticism (calm, not neurotic, easily upset), and (v) Openness or Intellect
23
(intellectual, imaginative, independent-minded). Further, a number of researchers found other
different sets of hundreds of personality characteristics that are related to the recurrent five
personality factors (Costa & McCrae, 1992; Goldberg, 1992; Norman, 1967). Hence, the
characteristic factors are not always identically labeled. Neuroticism/Emotional stability has
emerged as Emotionality and Affect whereas Openness/Intellect has appeared as Imagination,
Culture, Rebelliousness, and Unconventionality. Further, researchers have suggested
Conscientiousness as Responsibility (John & Srivastava, 1999). Conferring to what is stated
above, the general outline of the Big Five seem to appear in most studies, more often in the
cross-national ones, and the evidence is at least convincing for the Openness factor, John &
Srivastava (1999).
2.7 State of the art
This study presents different theories to give the reader various views on the chosen subject.
Theories from Aaker (1997), Ryckman (1997), John and Srivastava (1999), Keller (2001),
Bhattacharya and Sen (2003), and Geuens et al (2007) have been the base for this thesis.
The online marketing chapter is mainly based on Gallagher et al. (2001). The article has many
citations by researchers whom support and use the theory to establish their own empirical
investigation of various subjects within online marketing communication. Gallagher et al.
(2001) is therefore considered as well cited and validated source by other researchers. The
authors are also the main choice of the online marketing chapter. Other researchers such as Jo
and Kim (2003) have been cited a few times (over 50 times) and there are no identifications of
any strong validation as researchers have not performed any empirical studies of their own and
therefore the theory is considered as cited but not validated. Also, the theory has been used to
strengthen arguments of other researchers such as Gallagher et al. (2001). Ghose and Dou
(1998) is another theory that has been somewhat cited and is not strongly validated in the
research world. However, Berthon et al. (1998), is a well-cited theory with strong validated
sources from the research world by researchers whom has performed strongly validated and
cited (between 150-2700 citations) empirical studies. Berthon et al. (1998) is therefore
considered to be an emergent theory to use in this chapter to strengthen the arguments
motioned and validation of the chapter. Palmer and Griffith (1998) and Perry and Bodkin
(2000, 2002) are other sources that are emergent sources due to its documented citations and
validation by other researchers in the research world. The sources have been cited over
24
hundreds of times by researchers whom has been cited many times and made well accepted
empirical studied strongly validated by other researchers. Therefore the sources have a strong
validation.
The concept of brand personality was based on Aaker (1997) and Ryckman (1997). Geuens et
al (2007) claim that Aakers (1997) brand personality dimensions have loose ends in many
aspects, such as personality traits, generalization, and replicability and it is therefore a non-
validated source (Azoulay & Kapferer, 2003; Geuens et al., 2007; Bosnjak, Bochmann, &
Hufschmidt, 2007). Geuens et al. (2007) has limited citations, however their study is validated
due to the amount of empirical studies connected to the cited study and can therefore be seen as
an accepted theory with a limited but validated acceptance. Aaker (1997) is an accepted theory
in the area of brand personality, but not dominating. Hence, her article has many quotes from
researchers, such as Fournier (1998), Pitt et al. (2007), Opoku et al. (2007) and Van Gelder
(2005), have all been well-cited and well accepted due to its validated reference, based on
empirical studies made by other researchers whom has used the cited authors in their empirical
investigation. Ryckman (1997) has presented a book and not an article however it is accepted
in the research world by other authors who has cited the source. The source as such is not
validated because the majority of the cited sources are books and based on other sources.
Keller (1993) and Bhattacharya and Sen (2003) add new perspectives to brand personality; so-
called self and social constructive reality (Keller, 1993; Burr, 1995; Bhattacharya and Sen,
2003). Burr (1995) have gathered different sources and cited other authors in his book however
it is accepted in the research world by other authors who have cited the source great amount of
times. The source as such is not validated because the majority of the cited sources are books
based on other sources however it will be used for information and clarification purposes in the
theory chapter. Further, the study will approach a self-constructed reality, according to Keller
(1993), which is a dominated source, cited by many researchers who have validated it by
presenting various of empirical research in other areas as well as branding.
Aaker (1997) and Caprara et al. (2001) are the two main theorists who present two different
aspects of brand personality traits. Caprara et al. (2001) have not founded their research on
empirical investigations, but their article is well cited and well-accepted in the research world
by various researchers whom has used the theory as an aspect of standing point in their own
empirical studies in various of subjects connected to branding and personality dimensions. It
can therefore be seen as an accepted and emergent theory. The article will be used to add
25
another aspect to the big five dimensions (extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness,
emotional stability, and openness). However, Aaker‟s (1997) presented personality dimensions
(sincerity, competence, sophistication, excitement and ruggedness) will instead be used as a
basis for the study, as her work has inspired the majority of the research on brand personality
to date as well as it is well-cited and well-accepted in the research world. Researchers has
performed empirical investigations and studies in areas such as branding, CMR, customer
loyalty aimed to both conceptualize and validate the brand personality theory of Aaker (1997).
To construct a brand personality scale, Aaker (1997) started from Big Five items, but
completed them with, amongst other things, socio-demographic characteristics. Consequently,
whereas Big Five researchers deliberately exclude gender and social class (McCrae & Costa,
1997), Aaker includes feminine, upper class, young, etc. Also, the structured personality traits
are validated in various studies/researchers that are well-cited and accepted in the research
world (Aaker, 1997, 1999; Aaker, Benet-Martinez, & Garolera, 2001; Kim, Han, & Park,
2001). With these arguments Aaker (1997) is an accepted source and is validated by other
researchers. Aaker (1997) has been used as a base for theory, and the authors suggest her
sources to be the base for the empirical framework in the study.
2.8 Scientific question
Websites may be similar to each other, both in appearance and function. Therefore, brand
personality can be a strategic tool to use when wanting to differentiate from other competing
sites, Kim et al., 2001. Perry and Bodkin (2002) claim that it is necessary for organizations to
use clear and integrated marketing communications website strategy to differentiate due to the
incensement in using websites to foster relationships with customers. One can believe that
business schools may use the advantages of websites to differentiate themselves from
competitors when communicating their brand personalities. This is due to websites and the
ways that differ from one organization to another (Berthon et al., 1998; Kiani, 1998). The
authors would like to investigate what the exact reasons are behind the
similarities/dissimilarities, in what way the two Clusters differ from each other and „what the
similarities/dissimilarities mean‟. Therefore, the following question will be:
RQ: In what ways does the top ranked European business schools differ from other European
business schools in their use of website information to communicate MBA programs and brand
personalities online?
26
3. Methodology
This chapter will discuss the methodology of this study. First, scientific approach then the type
of research strategy, research design as well as research method will be described. Second, the
population and sampling used for the data collection is presented. We will end this chapter by
presenting the operationalization, testing quality criteria and content analysis.
3.1 Scientific approach
To find theories that are relevant to this paper the authors used a deductive method, which
refers to drawing general conclusions that are founded on the basis of the theory (Bryman and
Bell 2005). Bryman and Bell (2005) state that the deductive approach is based on theory,
where the theory represents the most ordinary sense of how the relationship between theory
and practice is, in the societies point of view and do not describe if something is wrong or right
(Bryman & Bell, 2005). Deductive approach differs from an inductive, which is based on the
empirical data and were conclusions are drawn from, instead of the theoretical relationship and
foundation (Bryman and Bell, 2005; Holmes & Solvang, 1997)
Accordingly, the nature of the paper will present itself and the inductive research theory is the
research outcome of the study, were the goal of the paper was to get a deeper understanding
and knowledge of brand personality (Bryman and Bell 2010). The authors of this paper
believed that the deductive method was the best fit for the study as existing theories were
implemented, tested and analyzed. Also, research problem and purpose were constructed and
then tested with the empirical information gathered for the study. Bryman and Bell (2005)
argue that deduction involves pulling a logical conclusion that can be considered true, as long
as it is consistent, which is what can be seen in the conclusion chapter.
27
3.2 Research design
3.2.1 Quantitative and Qualitative
research
Qualitative research is used to gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the
reasons that leads to such behavior. Qualitative research process involves questions that are
more open than the quantitative method, and investigates the how and why questions of
decision-making. Further, it´s more focused on the respond from the respondents and smaller
but more focused samples are more often needed than large samples. Qualitative research
focuses on meaning, process and understanding resulting in a descriptive study (Bryman and
Bell, 2010).
This study was conducted by using a qualitative data collection. The data was analyzed by
words from different, existing MBA business schools websites in Europe, which means that
secondary data was used. The qualitative data was rich in the content and provided us with a
detailed understanding. The authors feel that this was a vital first step, as investigators and
marketers try to form this promising and interesting zone. The theory that was used led the
research to a research problem and this problem got the best response by different websites.
Later on the questions got processed in charts and tables and became the underlying basis of
the empirical data. This study is based on quantitative analysis of qualitative data presented by
European business schools.
3.3 Population and Sampling
The main purpose of our sampling was to gather enough cases help us to study the
phenomenon of brand personality communication in our target population.
3.3.1 Population
Bryman and Bell (2005) stated that a population is about all the units that the researchers are
going to investigate. In order to make the study, we implemented various forms of MBA
28
programs, such as part-time, full-time and online MBAs to generalize rather than limiting the
study. As stated in the background, there has been a large increase in the amount of MBA
programs in the world, hence this study did not have the opportunity to investigate all schools
that that offer MBA programs, instead the focus was on European business schools as state din
the delimitations chapter. The authors wanted to find out if there were any differences or
similarities between schools MBA online communication.
3.3.2 Sampling
There are two types of sampling, random and non- random selection, a random sample was
selected for this study, which means that the gathered business schools providing MBAs had
the same chance to participate in the study (Bryman and Bell, 2010). Therefore, the possibility
of generalization in this study became quite high (Bryman and Bell, 2010). Using convenience
sampling will often generate missing data in relation to the population, Christensen et al.
(2008), which indicated the choice of European business schools that were included in the
Financial Times top 100 ranking system in the world, 2012. We also decided to use MBA
programs that are in the list of topmba.com. The authors started by listing all 100 MBA
programs from FT list and then piled them in to a separate table, see Appendix 3. The second
stage included the collection of all the MBA programs in Europe, provided by topmba.com,
listing them to provide a second table, see Appendix 4.
To randomly select five MBA programs from FT list, we used “Monte Carlo Simulation”.
Cluster one was based on the five MBA programs from the Financial Times list whereas
Cluster two originates from www.topmba.com list. The five schools that were selected in
Cluster one were: London Business School, UK; IMD, Switzerland; IE Business School, Spain;
University of Oxford: Said, UK; HEC Paris France. Cluster two included: Kingston Business
School, UK; Trinity College Dublin, Ireland; University of Geneva , Switzerland; Paris School
of Business, France; Sabanci University, Turkey. For interpretation purposes, two tables were
made.
Table 3.3.2.1: The Initial and Reconsidered Rankings for Cluster one in this Study
Initial Ranking Our Ranking Name
4 1 London Business School
8 2 IE Business School
13 3 IMD
18 4 HEC Paris
20 5 University of Oxford: Said
29
Table 3.3.2.2: The Initial and Reconsidered Rankings for Cluster two in this Study
Initial ranking Our Ranking Name
24 1 Kingston Business School
123 2 Paris School of Business
178 3 Trinity College
230 4 Sabanci University
238 5 Executive program (HEC)
Cluster one was implemented in the sampling program for random selection of five MBA
schools from a total of 26 schools. The Cluster presents five top European schools according to
Financial Times. The presented schools have been ranked by the Financial Times since 2009
and are considered to be among the major players of the “elite” MBA Business Schools. Same
method was used to select the schools in Cluster two, which had 243 in total. Cluster two
schools have been listed by the www.topmba.com and are considered to be among the average
MBA Business Schools in Europe. Note that the authors have given each scholar a new
ranking number to make the empirical data collection and presentation easier to follow for the
reader. Also, the two Clusters have been used to make it easier for the authors to separate the
top ranked schools from the general, which was very useful during the time of writing.
The authors of this study believed that this was a decent method of basing the study on. It was
believed that using the MBA programs that are included in the Financial Time and topmba.com
list is a noble and necessary way for the study to present comparisons between elite and general
schools.
3.4 Research data collection
There are two types of information, primary and secondary. In this paper secondary
information was used, and is also used by other researcher in this field, for instance Aaker
(1997), (Bryman and Bell 2007). There are many pros and cons to secondary data. Primary
data is more relevant due to specific problem researched. However, it requires a lot of time and
money, making it too demanding to use in the study. Secondary data differs from primary data
in being easier to get hold of, and often less time consuming and even free. However, the
problem with secondary data is that the information is not made for the specific problem
researched, which can cause issues (Andersen, 1994).
30
3.4.1 Data collection in precise steps
The authors started in the gathering process 2012-05-03 by finding all the relevant webpages.
The data of this study was based on official websites form each of the 10 MBA programs. To
find the right website address, the Financial Time list of top MBA programs and the list of
topmba.com was used. These two scores provided us with the right URLs. We primarily took
all the information from the main pages and then copied all information that was available and
needed for the study. Hwang et al (2003), state that homepages has good information but all
information is not in the form of words and could also be communicated through different
pictures, symbols etc. and may not be processed in the study. Consequently, we carefully
removed information and links that was connected with ads, symbols, graphics, videos etc. To
increase the reliability of the research, we tried to collect similar data from all the ten different
MBA programs websites. However, it was not possible to find identical data for each website
since every MBA program had different constructions on their webpages. Another possible
choice to conduct the gathering of information could have been to include the same amount of
information from each school. However, this would have created a risk for the loss of
important information. Due to the fact that websites may change during different time aspects,
the authors collected all data during four days, with the start on a Thursday and ending on a
Sunday, because we wanted to accomplish a point- in- time assessment of existing MBA
websites.
3.5 Data analysis method
3.5.1 Content analysis
Krippendorf (2004) claim that word counts has been a preferred measure when ascertain the
importance of a topic in one or more texts. Berelson (1952) describe content analysis as a
research technique for objective, systematic and quantitative description of manifest content of
communication which was in alignment with the chosen angel of the study. Also, content
analysis has been used for a long time to study and analyze firms‟, based on words in texts on
their environmental disclosure practices (Deegan and Rankin 1996; Deegan and Gordon 1996).
Corporate financial status and scholarly accounting are other factors that are included in
content analysis studies (Previts et al., 1994; Buckmaster and Jones, 1986). The authors of this
31
study did also choose to rely on words in terms of content analysis with help of computer
supported-content analysis WordStat software program, which according to Stone (1997) and
Péladeau (2003) has been „on the word‟ as unit of analysis rather than on sentences (Roberts,
1997a).
Word unit analysis is of interest for the authors, not to say that other methods are irrelevant,
motivated by the massive amount of words and text to manage. The authors believed that 1) the
language organizations use mirrors what and/or who they are, concerned with, attending to or
focus on; 2) that the frequency of certain usage of words on a website indicates of how the
sender of a message focuses on a particular brand personality dimension. The authors also
assumed that the used words in the chosen websites would reflect what the business schools
consider important attributes or characteristics of the organizations and program.
The correspondence analysis was based on the software program called WordStat, which was
the relevant program used in the study. According to provalisresearch.com WordStat can
perform:
i. Analysis on text arenas in several formats, and also in long documents;
ii. Process texts reducing words to canonical form;
iii. Univariate frequency analysis and presents results in matrix form;
iv. Bivariate comparison between any textual field and any nominal and ordinal variables,
for instance, age or sex of the respondents.
The four performance areas above were also included and performed in the study and the
outcome (tables and figures) were included and used as basis for the empirical framework (see
Chapter 4). As a result, the gathered textual information from the ten selected MBA programs
websites was transformed into an analyzable format and imported into WordStat. However the
authors performed a content analysis of the ten selected business school websites in Europe, by
analyzing the collected data from WordStat to identify relations between the schools and the
brand personality dimensions.
3.5.2 Correspondence analysis
Correspondence analysis has primarily been used to transform a table of numerical information
into a graphical display to simplify the interpretation of information (Greenacre and Blasius,
32
1994; Greenacre, 2000). However, correspondence maps may be used to evaluate the
positioning and distinction between websites and brands, Berthon et al., (1997b; 2001a). This
study has aimed to include a correspondence analysis in terms of plots/maps in order to help
position the various websites and brand personalities in relation to another. According to
Shanka et al., (2005), correspondence analysis is a mapping technique and thanks to WordStat
one can visually display unique characteristics of groups and sub-groups in a high resolution
line and bar charts and through two- Dimensional correspondence analysis maps (which can
also be spotted in chapter four and five). Bendixen (1995), explains a correspondent as analysis
cross-tabulates data method that is used for conversion to a joint space map by using the chi-
square value for each cell. Accordingly, this kind of method is not new in the area of
perceptual map construction, Greenacre, (1989); Lebart et al., (1984); Hoffman and Franke,
(1986); Hair et al., (1998), in the area of Clustering of brands (Bendixen, 1995; Hair et al.,
1998) and choice evaluations (Shanka et al., 2005).
Using a correspondence analysis was a sharp choice for this thesis as it is exploratory in its
nature and the analysis method would be useful since it uncovers structural relationships
between different variables (Inman et al., 2004). Also, the correspondence analysis enables
simple interpretation of data that otherwise would be difficult to comprehend thanks to its
graphic nature (O‟Brien, 1993). Therefore, the authors believe that a correspondence analysis
would be appropriate to use for exploratory data analysis (Hair et al., 1998). The outcome of
the correspondence analysis includes graphics presented in Appendix 7 and Appendix 8 as well
as in the empirical chapter to make it easier for the reader to follow.
3.6 Operationalization
Potter (1996) state that operationalization is the process that connects the theoretical
information with the empirical. This is where theories are combined with society, which may
not be easy to establish, as there are many things that can be overlooked and forgotten (Potter,
1996). Often, communicative issues may arise. Researchers make the operationalization based
on their theoretical chapter, constructed with relevant and interesting theories. The process
begins with theories, or with the relations between these that one would like to research. These
have to be correct and understandable by having a specific meaning, thereby making it possible
to get more correct answers. The process of operationalization must show that the research will
be fruitful to the researcher and other stakeholder in the research. (Holmes & Solvang, 1997)
33
3.6.1 Step one and two: Aaker’s (1997)
five brand personality dimension
and Britannica Encyclopedia
First, the authors collected and complied synonyms with Aaker‟s (1997) five personality traits.
Aaker (1997:354) introduced a table with a set of 42 personality traits (also seen in Table
below), which were suggested for usage as an aid for comparing brand personalities throughout
different categories. Second, the authors assembled synonyms to the five personality traits with
the online version of Encyclopedia Britannica‟s dictionary thesaurus function (Thesaurus,
2012), which according to Hamilton (2003) gives the best search results, because of its variety
of information sources. However, the authors did not completely rely on the thesaurus. Some
synonyms, provided by thesaurus, such as „hairy‟ and „amateur‟ could not be used, because
they were not useful for our purpose and may misrepresent the findings. In addition, the
thesaurus suggested words related to the brand personality dimension synonyms. These were
used to enrich the dictionary known as “The dictionary of brand personality dimensions and
brand personality synonyms” (See Appendix 5). The intention was mainly to find original
synonyms for traits presented in the table below and for the five basic dimensions (sincerity,
excitement, competence, sophistication and ruggedness), to enrich and enhance our data
collection instrument/dictionary tool, to enhance content validity (Carmines et al, 1979)
Table 3.6.1 Brand personlaity traits adapted from Aaker (1997)
34
3.6.2 Step Three: Designing the
dictionary
Two independent reviewers contributed by collecting synonyms to the dictionary (Kolbe et al,
1991). A male masters student, who is fluent in nine languages (English, Swedish,
Macedonian, Bosnian, Bulgarian, Croatian, Spanish, Russian and German), and a female
masters student, who is fluent in five languages (English, Swedish, German, Albanian and
French). The authors assumed that the language background of the reviewers would contribute
to the study, due to how people with different linguistic backgrounds give meaning to words.
The authors enhanced the intercoder reliability, by bringing the two reviewers together to argue
and justify their choice of words. Accordingly, there is a biasing effect of coder knowledge of
variables extraneous to the content analysis, Banerjee et al., (1999). Consequently, to avoid
that the referees tried to give what they thought the authors wanted they were not made aware
of the research questions of the study. Lastly, the synonyms were included and implemented in
the dictionary. To enhance the dictionary, a third reviewer -a lecturer from the department
school of engineering- was included. The coder reviewed the dictionary independently and
provided comments and suggested synonyms, which were also included in the dictionary.
3.6.3 Step Four: Working with WordStat
Robert (1987), claim that dictionaries are practical to apply to texts when performing a
computer-aided content analysis. As a result to previous statement, the authors designed a
dictionary of terms and words, inspired by Aaker‟s (1997) five brand personality dimensions.
This is showed earlier in the chapter. WordStat text-analysis program will be used to compare
each word- based on information collected from the websites- with the dictionary consisting of
Aaker‟s (1997) brand personality traits and collected synonyms. The program recognizes the
words, tags and counts them to a category/personality dimension. Later, when all words from
the websites have been gathered, one can analyze and profile the organizations based on the
frequent count of words in their websites that are linked to the words/synonyms across the
dictionary categories.
35
WordStat was optimal software to use as it scanned for duplication of words to make sure that
words did not overlap and was placed in two categories. Hence, the authors are confident the
potential problem was prevented due to our selected software. In argumentative circumstances,
the software has its own dictionary and „helped‟ the authors by asking the authors for
permission to place potentially ambiguous words in other categories. Hence, there were only a
few words that required investigation interference to decide and place words. In addition, some
words such as “business-related”, “education”, “corporate”, “organization”, “business”,
“company”, “learning”, “multinational” and “technology”, “just”, “open”, “nice”, “usual”,
“very”, “well” were frequently used on all business schools‟ websites. Consequently, the words
were eliminated because they were found to be „too ambiguous‟, „too common‟ or „frequently
used‟
Along with stemming words, WordStat also excludes some words. The words excluded were:
A, about, all, almost, also, always, an, any, are, as, at, be, because, been, being, both, but, by,
can, could, do, every, feel, for, get, gets, got, has, he, her, him, his, how, if ,in, into, is, it, kind,
like, lot, made, makes, me, more, most, much, my, myself, of, on, one, or, other, our, really,
she, so than, that, the, there, these, they, this, to, too, type, us, very, was, were, what, when,
where, which, who, will ,with, within, you. Consequently, the authors decided to permanently
eliminate them from the gathered dictionary in order to develop a final list of 1241 words.
3.7 Validity & Reliability
3.7.1 Validity
Two criteria when conducting research are validity and reliability. These are used to be able to
give the research credibility and are widely used. Reliability concerns the potential of the
research could be done at another time by other with the similar prerequisites. This gives
credibility and shows that, for example, the sample represents the group intended to study.
Furthermore, if the research is too different from the first occasion, reliability cannot be met
(Bryman et al, 2010).
Validity focuses on being able to see the way that the results were acquired from the research
that was performed. (Bryman et al, 2005) It also shows that what was measured was actually
the information that was intended to measure from the beginning. (Lekvall et al, 2001) In
36
quantitative research, validity is much difficult to get than in the qualitative research. This is
mainly due to the channel between the researcher and respondent being longer and parts of the
communication is lost along the way (Holmes & Solvang, 1997). There are different types of
validity.
According to Yin (2008) internal validity is used when researchers are trying to determine if an
event leads to another event, it is therefore in explanatory studies or causal studies. Yin (2008)
mentions that the conclusion in a case-study drawn as a state cannot be observed directly. This
means that problems can arise in case-study research as internal validity may lead to the
researchers want to draw sound conclusion.
External validity is about concerns how well the results of a study can be generalized to other
situations beyond the current case study, for example, if a result of a survey of changes in
residential area is likely to apply in a different area (Yin 2008). Yins (2008) argue that the
results can be generalized to a lagers population by comparing the case study with survey
study.
Yin (2008) state that, when it comes to constructed validity it is important that researchers
know in advance which specific factors that are going to be studied and then be able to see
changes in them (Yin 2008). Yin (2008) discuss about two steps that must be ensured that the
requirements have to be met as construct. The first requirement is that the changes that are
measured must be selected and connected to the study´s original objectives. Second
requirement is to show that the selected measure of the change reflects the specific kinds of
changes that have been selected. There are numbers of avenues that can be used by scientists to
increase construct validity of case study. Construct validity may increase by researchers using
multiple empirical sources, and formulate an evidence trail for data collection. Another study
for increasing this is by key informants review drafts from case study reports
The goal of the method was to assure and ensure that the comprehensiveness of our instrument
for analysis is correct, reliable and valid. The authors wanted to increase the validity of the
instrument (dictionary) by using different sources as a starting point for the study; Aaker
(1997), Britannica.com and three individual (two master students individuals and one lecture of
Linneaus University. Subsequently, a familiarization of the usage and operations of the
software WordStat was done before working on the empirical part of the study. Experts who
previously had used or came across the usage and application of this software consider the used
37
articles‟ results favorable. We further tried to achieve validity by having a connection
throughout the paper, with the focus on connecting the research to fit the purpose (Bryman et
al, 2010). Miles and Huberman (1994) state that validity has for a long period, been a key issue
of debate over the relevance of qualitative research. This study is conducted by using a
qualitative, random data collection. The data is analyzed from words in different, existing
MBA business schools websites in Europe, which means that secondary data was used.
Further, the data was collected within five days, this because we wanted to minimize the
chance for the websites to change. By collecting similar data from different websites the paper
is considered as valid, in our opinion. The generalization of this paper can be seen as decent,
this because Appendix nine shows that this study is generalizable with over 80 percent.
Further, it is important to notice that the study is based on 10 business schools and that can be
seen as to small group of sampling to generalize the paper for all the European school.
However, the schools are similar and a representation of many others, which may enhance the
degree of generalization of the results. Aakers (1997) brand personality model has been well
accepted by others and that‟s one of the big reasons why we decided to implement it. The data
information that has been used comes from reliable sources.
3.7.2 Reliability
The writers wanted to achieve reliability by being as consistent as needed in the research. To
show reliability it is of importance to show how the data have been collected. Reliability is a
measure of the extent to which study results are the same if it were to take place again. The
goal of this is that if a similar case study was to be made again and using the same approach as
previous researchers and thus reaches the same result as this. In this way, researchers on the
results of a paper are stable and reliable. The Reliability is to reduce the error in a data. This is
done by previous researchers‟ approach is used as carefully as possible (Yin 2008), (Bryman
and Bell 2005).
The reality is so complex and constantly changing, it can be hard to come up with identical
results on repeated measurements. Christensen et al (2001), state that it could have a problem
regarding the data that is collected and the results. To what extent the result of measurement is
influenced by coincidence is what is investigated when measuring the reliability, how safely
and accurately we measure what is actually the goal of the study no matter what the field of
measurement holds (Andersen 1994). We believe that the reliability of this work is high. If the
38
study was made in another time we believe that the result will be the same as this time. We
have explained the steps in a good way and by following our methodology a same study can
with the same result will be made by others.
In order to obtain reliability, the study was operated through a linear process that began with a
large collection of theory in the form of books, articles and Internet sources. The theory led the
research to a problem, and this problem got the best response by different websites. We used
four steps of operationalization. By using this method, which is explained in a detailed manner,
it is easy replicate the nature of the study. Tough, the third step in the operationalization can
present difficulties, if replicated, because we used individuals to extend our dictionary. Further
on, the methodological framework gives deep insight in the study and if the study was to be
conducted in a similar manner with similar information, we believe that the researcher would
generate similar result. To collect the same information from the websites during different time
beings can be difficult, because the websites are constantly changing. By following the same
method, as this study there is a good possibility to get the similar result. Everything depends on
the data collection.
39
4. Empirical framework
The empirical chapter focuses on the presentation of data collected from the ten sampled
European Business schools and their MBA programs’ websites, they will be compared within
their Clusters before being combined later in the chapter. The first section will present the
distribution of brand personality dimensions over the various web sites in tabular forms, with
short explanations in words. Second, to make it easier for the reader to understand the
gathered data, the authors will present a two dimensional correspondence map. Finally, there
will be a precise presentation of how brand dimensions are connected to the ten schools
websites. Note that most of the gathered data figure and tables are presented in the Appendix
chapter.
4.1 Distribution of frequency and brand
dimensions
Roberts (1987) suggest that applying statistical techniques to the coded data is one of the stages
in content analysis. Most common is the cross-tabulation of categorical data when
encountering and is a simple form of analysis in the research world, Hoffman and Franke
(1986). With respect to Aaker‟s five brand personality dimensions, Tables 4.1 and 4.2
distributes Brand Personality Dimensions over Websites, which presents the frequency of
personality traits. The tables were obtained by aggregating the number of words- with help
from the dictionary tool- identified by WordStat software program. The presentation of the
brand personalities over particularly chosen websites is presented as they appear in the two
Clusters below.
40
Table 4.1.1 Cross-Tabulation of the Categorical Data and Aggregation of the Number of
Words Identified by the Analysis Software, Cluster one
BPS Dimension/
Name of School Competence Sincerity Excitement Sophistication Ruggedness
Column
Total
HEC Paris 109 83 87 57 30 366
IE Business School 102 102 100 77 18 399
IMD Business
school 106 80 78 32 32 328
London Business
School 142 105 130 85 35 497
Oxford: Said 149 140 103 99 42 533
Row Total 608 510 498 350 157 2123
χ2 103.021
df 16
p< 0.001
Announcement For demonstration purposes the authors have rearranged rows and columns shown in the table. What
appears here as rows were earlier columns, and vice versa, when analyzed in WordStat.
Table 4.1.1 portrays the amount of number of times particular brand personality dimensions
has been identified to be associated with a particular business school and its MBA program.
The table also provides information about the row and column marginal subtotals, which
designate the number of mentions received by respective dimension and website. In Table
4.1.1, it is apparent that the 5th placed school‟s (Oxford Business School: Said) MBA
programs website contained the most words associated with brand personality dimensions with
533 terms whereas the 1st placed school (HEC Paris) was the least associated. However, the
personality traits shows that competence (28,6%) was the brand personality trait that was most
portrayed in all the schools‟ program websites under Cluster one, with 608/2123 of the total
words whereas ruggedness (7,4%) was least portrayed and represented 157/2123 of the total
words.
41
The chi-square test (x2:103,021; df:16;p:0.001) shows that the row (i.e., the brand personality
dimensions) and the column (i.e., websites) variables are related. The dimension-reporting
results from Table 4.1.1 identify a statistically significant association between Aaker‟s five
dimensions of brand personality and the MBA programs. In accordance to the P-value, one can
clarify that there is a 99.9 percent assurance (relevance) that the relation between the
personality traits and the schools are statistically ensured and not aleatoric.
Table 4.1.2: Cross-Tabulation of the Categorical Data and Aggregation of the Number of
Words Identified by the Analysis Software, Cluster two
BPS
Dimension/
Name of School
Competence Sincerity Excitement Sophistication Ruggedness Column
Total
HEC Genève 40 31 36 16 16 139
Kingston
University 167 107 122 72 55 523
Paris School of
Business 69 51 52 50 13 235
Sabanci
Univeristy 199 149 98 47 46 539
Trinity College
Dublin 188 215 123 72 58 656
Row Total 663 553 431 257 188 2092
χ2 527,7
df 16
p< 0.000
Announcement For demonstration purposes the authors have rearranged rows and columns shown in the table.
What appears here as rows were earlier columns, and vice versa, when analyzed in WordStat.
Table 4.1.2 represents the number of times a specific brand personality dimension was found to
be associated with a specific business schools‟ MBA program website. The columns and rows
describe the number of times mentions have been received by particular dimensions and
websites, respectively. This table illustrates that the Trinity College Dublin contained the most
words associated with brand personality dimensions with 656 terms. Meanwhile, HEC Genève
was the school with the least associated terms, 139. When looking at individual dimensions,
42
the brand personality dimension portrayed most in all programs in Cluster two, apart from
Trinity College Dublin, was “competence”. “Sincerity” is the second most portrayed
personality trait in almost all programs, while “ruggedness” represented the least portrayed
brand personality, with 188 terms, which is consistent with the data in Table 4.1.2.
A chi-square test (χ2=527,7) in Table 4.1.3 shows that the brand personality dimensions- and
web sites variables are related and significant among Cluster two schools. The chi-square test
is a standardized measure comparing actual cell frequencies to expected cell ones and is used
by correspondence analysts to standardize the frequency values and form the basis of
association (Hair et al., 1998). The degree of freedom (df=16) measures the difference between
the number of covariance and the actual number of coefficients in the proposed model, were
higher values indicates a better fit (Cooper and Schindler, 2003). However, no threshold level
of acceptance is established but values ranging between two and five often indicate that the
model needs improvement (Hair et al., 1998), which is not the case for the model above.
Table 4.1.3: The Chi-squared Analysis for the individual Clusters
Table 4.1.3 presents the chi square test, degree of freedom and the probability of each Cluster.
The results in Table 4.1.3 show in all circumstances, in accordance to Cluster one and Cluster
two, that the brand personality dimensions (i.e., the rows) and the websites (i.e. columns) are
related, verifying to evidence of strong dependency in each Cluster.
4.1.1 Distribution of frequency of brand
personality dimensions for Cluster
one and two
Cluster one
Figure 8.5, also demonstrated in figures in Appendix seven, presents total percentage for all
43
five-brand personality traits. The figure also illustrates the average distribution of the key
words in the five schools and how it is obtained by aggregating the number of words identified
by the analysis software WordStat. It appears that „competence‟ (31,7%) is the primarily trait
that is frequently used among the top European business schools ( Cluster one) followed by
„sincerity‟ (26,4%); „excitement‟ (20,6%); „sophistication‟ (12,3%) and least frequent appeared
is „ruggedness‟ (9%). For more detailed information of each scholar in Cluster two, see
Appendix seven.
In addition, the five brand personalities traits are further identified in depth for each school,
separately, in Appendix eight, were the words representing the personality are distinguished by
colors. It appears that „competence‟ is the personality trait that is most frequently used among
the schools in Cluster one (HEC Paris: 109; IE Business School: 102; IMD Business School:
106; London Business School 142; Oxford: 149) followed by „sincerity‟ (HEC Paris: 83; IE
Business School: 102; IMD Business School: 80; London Business School: 105; Oxford: 140)
and „excitement‟ (HEC Paris: 87; IE Business School: 100; IMD Business School: 78; London
Business School 130; Oxford: 103). „Sophistication‟ is the third most frequently used
personality dimension (HEC Paris: 57; IE Business School: 77; IMD Business School: 32;
London Business School 85; Oxford: 99 whilst „ruggedness‟ (HEC Paris: 30; IE Business
School: 18; IMD Business School: 32; London Business School 33; Oxford: 42) was the least
frequent used dimension in the schools in Cluster one.
Cluster two
Figure 8.6, also demonstrated in figures in Appendix seven, represents Aaker‟s(1997) brand
personality traits among the five randomly chosen schools from the top.mba.com, which
characterizes the „average school in Europe‟ ( Cluster two). The figure illustrates the average
distribution of the key words in these five schools and is obtained by aggregating the number
of words identified by the analysis software. As demonstrated in Figure 8.6 in Appendix seven,
„competence‟ is the brand personality trait most common, in average, among the schools in
Cluster two, with close to 32 percent hits on the word. It can also be seen that „sincerity‟ is a
common personality trait among the schools in top.mba.com, with 24 percent hits on the word
of average, followed by „excitement‟ that has 23,5 percent of the total distribution of the
keyword frequency. Further, „sophistication‟ shows 16,5 percent whilst „ruggedness‟ is the
brand personality trait least common with 7,4 percent, on average. For more detailed
information of each scholar in Cluster two, see Appendix seven.
44
Moreover, the five brand personalities traits are further identified in depth for each school,
separately, in Appendix eight, were the words representing the personality are distinguished by
colors. It appears that „competence‟ (HEC Genève: 40; Kingston University: 167; Paris School
of Business: 69; Sabanci University: 199; Trinity College: 188) is the personality trait that is
most frequently used among the schools in Cluster two, followed by „sincerity‟ (HEC Genève:
31; Kingston University: 107; Paris School of Business: 51; Sabanci University: 149; Trinity
College: 215). „Excitement‟ (HEC Genève: 36; Kingston University: 122; Paris School of
Business: 52; Sabanci University: 98; Trinity College: 123) is frequently used among the
schools and „sophistication‟ (HEC Genève: 16; Kingston University: 72; Paris School of
Business: 50; Sabanci University: 47; Trinity College: 72) is less frequently used.
„Ruggedness‟ (HEC Genève: 16; Kingston University: 55; Paris School of Business: 13;
Sabanci University: 46; Trinity College: 58) is the least frequently used brand personality trait
in Cluster two.
4.2 Two dimensional correspondence map
Figure 4.2.1: Correspondence analysis map of five European Business Schools‟ websites in
relation to Aakers‟ five brand personality dimensions, Cluster one.
45
For verification purposes Figure 4.2.1 is conducted to crosscheck the findings and re-examine
earlier presented arguments from previous discussion. The figure lists the top five ranked
Business schools ranked by Financial Times in Cluster one. The figure also presents the five
brand personality dimensions. The two-way dimensional correspondence map accounts for
more than 92 percent of the variance, with eigenvalues of 64,928 and 27,804. In terms of
reliability, the total variance of greater than 70% is significant because of the exploratory
nature of the study (Hair et al., 1998). The correspondence is significant up to at least 92
percent and should provide an „accurate‟ description of the data. For more detailed information
about variables and variables coordinates of Cluster one, see Appendix nine
Figure 4.2.2: Correspondence analysis map of five European Business Schools‟ websites in
relation to Aakers‟ five brand personality dimensions, Cluster two.
46
Figure 4.2.2 lists the five Business school listed in Cluster two. The figure also presents the
five brand personality dimensions. The two-way dimensional correspondence map accounts for
more than 81 percent of the variance, with eigenvalues of 61,337 and 20,467. The
correspondence map is identified as significant and reliable as the total variance of greater than
70% is significant because of the exploratory nature of the study (Hair et al., 1998). The
correspondence is significant up to at least 81 percent and should also provide an „accurate‟
description of the data. For more detailed information about variables and variables coordinates
of Cluster two, see Appendix nine.
4.3 Communicating and delivering
information
Table 4.3.1: Some Curriculum and other Instructional Delivery Methods employed by some
Business Schools
The table gives few examples of how the five different brand personality dimensions operate in
separate schools‟ websites. The authors have, with the help of WordStat, linked the synonyms
47
of the personality traits (also seen in the dictionary in Appendix five) to the websites of the
different schools in Appendix six. However, only a few schools (from both Cluster one and
Cluster two) are included in the table above, set as an example of where in their websites‟ they
have implemented the different personality traits. For example, stated in the table above, HEC
Genève has used synonyms of competence in their website in their homepage, whilst HEC
Paris have used synonyms such as „sophistication‟ and „ruggedness‟ in its website. Table 8.9
(see Appendix 10) goes more in depth and gives several examples of where in a schools
website certain personality dimension synonyms are presented. The scholar uses sentences that
are linked to synonyms of the five different personality dimensions, for example, HEC Paris
uses the following sentence “Challenge your thinking”, were challenge is a synonym to the
brand dimension „ruggedness‟. For more information, see different presented examples in
Appendix 10.
48
5. Analysis
The following chapter is presented in three different sections, inspired from the empirical
framework. The analysis includes 1) the distribution of keywords and frequencies, 2) the
outcomes of the various computer-aided (WordStat) correspondence analysis maps/plots and
3) the outcomes of communication of website information over the ten schools websites’. In
addition, the authors will analyze the results of the two Clusters to detect and examine 1) how
European business schools use a particular dimension or dimensions and 2) whether
differences and/or similarities exist.
5.1 Distribution of keywords and frequency
analysis
As established in both Clusters, all brand dimension personalities are included. Also, all ten
business schools do use the brand personality dimensions in a common hierarchical order
where „competence‟ are the primarily choice for all business schools, as seen in Figure 8.5 in
Appendix seven, whilst „ruggedness‟ is the least frequently used personality trait for both
Clusters. Hence, the amount of usage of personality traits is different between the two Clusters,
for example „sophistication‟ is used 12, 3 percent in Cluster one and 16,5 percent in Cluster
two.
Further (as identified in Appendix 8) both Clusters identifies „competence‟ to be the most
frequent brand personality to appear for every school. However, IE business school has the
same share amount of frequent identified traits, „competence‟ (102 times) and „sincerity‟ (102
times). Also, Trinity College is identified to have „sincerity‟ as the most frequently used
dimension, which is the only scholar using another dimension than „competence‟ more
frequently. As identified, in Cluster one only three out of five schools (IE Business School;
IMD Business School; Oxford) uses „sincerity‟ whilst Cluster two only has one school
(Sabanci University) out of five that uses „sincerity‟ as the second most frequently used brand
personality trait. The other schools (HEC Paris and London Business School in Cluster one and
HEC Genève, Kingston University and Paris School of Business in Cluster two) use
„excitement‟ as the second most frequently used dimension. „Sophistication‟ are the less
49
frequently used by both Clusters as four out of five schools (Cluster one: HEC Paris, IE
Business School, London Business School and Oxford, Cluster two: Kingston University,
Paris School of Business; Sabanci University and Trinity College). In Cluster one IMD
Business School has the same share amount of frequently used personality dimension between
„sophistication‟ and ruggedness‟. Surprisingly, HEC Geneva in Cluster two shares the same
pattern as IMD Business School. It also has the same share amount of frequently used
personality dimension between „sophistication‟ and ruggedness‟.
5.2 Two dimensional correspondence map
analysis
In Cluster one, the authors could identify four groupings. The first group (in color red) consists
of websites that namely belongs to London Business School, HEC Paris and IMD Business
School. The websites in this group mainly associate themselves with „competence‟. In Cluster
one, HEC Paris appears to be closest to „competence‟, followed by IMD Business School and
London Business School that both shares almost the same distance to the brand personality
dimension. One can identify a business school that falls in between or among dimensions to
have a primarily split message (in this case, between „excitement‟ and „competence‟) or that it
is not clear what the scholar is communicating. In Cluster two, four groupings could also be
identified. The first group (in color red) consists of websites that namely belongs to Sabanci
University, HEC Genève and Kingston University, which websites also are connected to
„competence‟ whilst Kingston University is placed slightly further away from the brand
personality. Thus, the two Clusters share the same amount of schools in group one, the distance
between the schools in Cluster two and „competence‟ dimension is identified to be different.
Hence, the brand dimension is also place differently in the two correspondence maps. In
Cluster two; “competence” is relatively close related to “ruggedness” and “excitement”, whilst
in Cluster one „competence‟ can be interpreted to either have a far and even connection to each
dimension or no connection at all, hence, it may be an independence dimension.
Group number two consists of London Business School, from Cluster one (in color green)
which associates itself with both „excitement‟ as well as „competence‟ (as earlier mentioned).
Group number two, from Cluster two (in color green) consist of Kingston University and HEC
Genève, where Kingston University (in the center of the plot) is connected closer than HEC
Genève (also in the center of the plot). One can establish that the first identifies and
50
communicates „excitement‟ stronger than the latter. Hence, London business school falls
(upper center in the plot) between the competence and excitement dimensions, which can be
identified to be different from what appears on the correspondence map in Cluster two.
Further, the „excitement‟ dimension is placed in two different places between the two Clusters.
One can identify that „excitement‟ is in the top center in Cluster one‟s correspondence analysis
plot whilst it is placed on the lower right side in Cluster two.
The third group (in color yellow) consists only of Oxford‟s website in Cluster one, whereas
Cluster two also consist only of one scholar, namely Trinity College. The two business schools
associate themselves with „sincerity‟; however, one can identify a big difference between the
two Clusters. First, Oxford (Cluster one) is almost covering the dimension on the map whilst
Trinity College is located further away from the dimension, almost having a far connection to
other dimensions such as „competence‟ and „excitement‟. From this, Oxford can be identified
as having the closest relation to its connective dimension, out of all schools in both Clusters.
However it does not mean that the scholar does not portray any other dimension. It is shown
earlier in the analysis that all the schools are portraying the entire five dimensions but not in
the same amount. Also, the „sincerity‟ dimension does not have close co-relation to other
dimensions on the same plot, in both Clusters. However, when comparing the two Clusters,
„sincerity‟ in Cluster two (in the bottom center of the plot) may be able to have some kind of
far related connection to the „sophistication‟ (on the left side of sincerity) and „competence‟
(on the right side of sincerity) whilst „sincerity‟ in Cluster two (upper left side quartile in the
corner) appears to be standing independently alone.
The fourth group (in color blue) in Cluster one, comprised only of one school namely, IE
Business School, which website is identified to be Clustered close to „sophistication‟ (on the
left side corner); whilst the fourth group in Cluster two, also comprised only to one school
namely, Paris School of Business is Clustered closer to „sophistication‟ (on the upper right
quartile side corner). Surprisingly, the „ruggedness‟ dimension does not have any strong
connection to the schools in Cluster one (on the right quartile in the bottom of the plot),
however, one can identify a small relation between the dimension and schools such as HEC
Genève followed by Kingston University in Cluster two (down in the center of the plot), the
former closer than the latter. Also, „ruggedness‟ are connected to „competence‟ in Cluster two
and a further connection to „excitement‟ in Cluster two whilst „ruggedness‟ in Cluster one is
standing independently in the downright side quartile.
51
Figure 5.2.1 Two dimensional correspondence analysis map, Cluster one
52
Figure 5.2.2 Two dimensional correspondence analysis map, Cluster two
5.3 Communicating and delivering
information
Table 4.3.1 and 8.9 (in Appendix 10) provides an overview of how the five different brand
personality dimensions operate in separate schools‟ websites. The analysis will include a short
discussion of each brand personality dimension, connected to randomly chosen schools from
WordStat. First, one can identify that there is a link between schools that discuss areas such as
mission and vision (IMD Business School) and collaborations with other countries and
students (HEC Genève) and „competence‟ brand dimension (i.e. what the school is about and
where it stands) in Table 4.3.1. For example in Table 8.9, HEC Genève can be identified to
have parallel connection between „competence‟ dimensions to the term collaboration, Oxford
53
have the same connection to the term responsible and IMD Business School to the term
complete. What is interesting is that there is a connection here between the brand personality
dimension „competence‟ and the schools websites‟ in terms of description of what they are,
what they offer and in which way they offer (IMD Business School and Oxford) for example,
in this case MBA projects.
One can identify in Table 4.31, that there is a link between the „sophistication‟ dimension and
schools‟ websites‟ that discuss areas such as news/highlights about the school and programs
(HEC Paris), students and educational experiences (IE Business School) and who (and how
one can become) is eligible to apply to a MBA program (Kingston University). In Table 8.9,
one can distinguish links between „sophistication‟ dimension and prosperity and welfare in all
three of the schools‟ website communication. For example, London Business School uses
synonyms/terms such as extraordinary and excellence, in terms of faculty, research and
teaching; Oxford uses vocabulary such as prominent, in terms of networks of the business
school and the schools opportunities for networking. Trinity College also indicates a
connection to welfare when using „sophistication‟, when using vocabulary such as „senior‟,
when communicating MBA programs, strategy and management.
„Excitement‟ in Table 4.3.1 is identified to have a link to schools‟ websites‟ that discuss and
write about areas such as Deans welcome speech (Sabanci Univerity and Paris School of
Business), the various major projects that the business school has enabled (Trinity College) and
communication about MBA programs and projects (Paris School of Business and trinity
College) to „excitement‟ synonyms. For example, Paris school of Business, in table 8.9, uses
warmly in their communication about their MBA programs, which can be highly involved and
identified with „excitement‟. Further, they uses the term when communicating branding and
strategies for the increased demand for the school and its MBA programs. Trinity College, in
Table 8.9, uses the dimensions in terms such as exciting when discussing MBAs and
cooperation with other countries whereas IMD Business School, in Table 8.9, uses the
synonym innovative (synonym to excitement) when discussing innovation, management and
education, and how the scholar identifies with the three factors. One can see a connection
between „excitement‟ and schools (Sabanci University and Paris School of Business) that are in
the general ranking, which uses the dimension for speech purposes (e.g. welcoming alumni‟s
and giving a short introduction about the scholar) by people that are highly involved in the
scholar such as the Dean and lecturers. This is different from the top ranked schools, which
54
appears to be using the dimension for explanation purposes. For example, IMD Business
School uses the dimension to explain what they will do and provide for the student in terms of
education.
„Sincerity‟, in Table 4.3.1, appears to be linked to schools‟ websites‟ that discuss areas such as
the audience of the scholar (HEC Genève), when discussing international students who studies
in a MBA program (Paris Business School). Another scholar (Sabanci University) links the
dimension to their MBA program to corporations and international students. From Table 8.9
there is link between two out of three schools (Paris Business School and Sabanci University)
that link „sincerity‟ to communication about them being an international scholar in terms of
cooperating with international student and organizations/companies (both national and
international). HEC Genève uses „sincerity‟, by using practical as a synonym, when
communicating about the academic life and student becoming practitioners; Paris School of
Business uses the synonym „open‟ in terms of student embracing their creativity; and Sabanci
University, who uses the term „actual‟ when communicating how student are supposed
(expected) to take on practical and real projects. All of the three schools use „sincerity‟ in their
communication to encourage the student to take action, responsibility and contribute with
practical and creative solutions. Hence, the schools use the dimension for encouragement
purposes.
One can identify in Table 4.3.1 that there is a link between the „ruggedness‟ dimension and
schools‟ websites‟ that discuss areas such as fostering leadership skills (HEC Paris), teamwork
and teamwork techniques used in the scholar (IE Business School). The two schools use the
dimension to connect and explain their scholar education to be (and provide) a strong,
characterized intensive and challenging environment as shown in Table 8.9. However, one out
of the three schools uses „ruggedness‟ for communicating MBAs and partnership (IMD
Business School), which cannot be connected to the former schools purpose. Hence, all three
schools use the dimension for encouragement purposes. However, IE Business School and
HEC Paris has a „more forward‟ communication, almost being „straight on‟ and using direct
encouragement, by including synonyms such as „challenge‟ and „face‟ in their communication
to explain „how things are done‟. In Table 8.9 IMD Business School, uses the synonym
„outdoor‟ in their communication, however they use it in a „rugged‟ context, such as
connecting the synonym to other words with strong characteristics to create strong
communication. For example, the scholar says „highly intensive outdoor leadership group
55
work‟, which may also be connected to the other schools‟ wince it is also an encouragement
and as well as the other two explains „how things are done‟.
5.4 Summary of Associations between the
cases and the Brand Personality Dimensions
In total summary, one can say that Cluster two, the general European schools, are having more
related groupings between schools and dimension than in Cluster one, the top ranked business
schools, where one can establish that most schools are far related to respective dimension.
Hence, Oxford and HEC Paris are the only schools in among the top ranked business schools
that associates clearly to a specific brand dimension. Also, London Business School stands
between „excitement‟ and „competence‟, which may be interpreted as a branding strategy in
order to milk or take advantage of the two most frequently used personality traits, putting the
keen competition amongst the schools in consideration, which explains why the schools is
between two dimensions in the two dimensional plot. The brand dimensions are closely knitted
in some parts in Cluster two (among the general business schools), whereas in Cluster one, one
can conclude that all brand dimensions stand separately apart from each other, i.e. not having
any significant relation to each other. One can wonder if it is better to be taking advantage of
each brand dimension, i.e. not be using clear messages but instead, as in Cluster one, be in
between and take advantage of all brand personality dimensions.
When it comes to communication, Oxford and IMD Business School, which are part of the top
ranked European schools, uses the „competence‟ dimension to explain what the scholar is
about, what is has to offer and how it will be a strategically tool for a bright future career.
Hence, the business schools do place themselves in positive and superior aspects in comparison
to „other business schools‟ that offers MBA programs. The general schools in Cluster two uses
instead the „excitement‟ dimension to portray who they are and what they offer/will offer as a
strategic tool for future albumin‟s, e.g. that they offer international affairs and involve the
students in various projects that will be beneficial to the future graduate. The top European
schools mainly linked to „sophistication‟ usually mentioned areas such as the Financial Times
rankings and their extraordinary services (in terms of MBA programs). Cluster two, the general
business schools, used the same strategy and used the dimension to talk about their „prominent‟
school and leaders. From this we can conclude that both Clusters use „sophistication‟ for
similar methods and that the brand dimension is commonly used to explain luxury. It is
56
important to state that none of the business school mainly focuses on communicating
sophistication. We can therefore conclude, from both Clusters, that none of the business school
mainly focuses on communicating sophistication.
„Sincerity‟ is identified to be commonly used among the general schools in Cluster two, where
they in an encouraging way communicate (using terms such as open, practical, actual) the basis
of their MBA education and what the students are supposed to expect. The top ranked schools,
however, uses „ruggedness‟ for the same type of (method) communication but instead they
portrait how the student is supposed to adapt to their education, what they expect from the
students in terms of level of knowledge and how „things are done‟ in their education. The top
ranked schools used terms such as „challenge‟ and „face, which in a context portraits a harsh
and strong picture when encouraging alumni‟s to apply to the scholar whereas the general
ranked schools uses inspirational and open communication when encouraging alumni‟s to
apply. The purpose of the generally ranked schools is to help people grow whereas the top
ranked aims to shape people.
57
6. Conclusions
This chapter is supposed to explain in what ways FT top ranked European business school
differ from other European business school (not included in the top rankings) in their use
website information to communicate brand personalities online
RQ: In what ways does the top ranked European business schools differ from other European
business schools in their use of website information to communicate MBA programs and brand
personalities online?
There is a difference in the total usage of synonyms of the five brand personality
dimension
Based on the distribution of keywords, we can claim that all European Business schools uses
Aaker‟s five dimensions (competence, excitement, sincerity, sophistication and ruggedness) in
their website communication, but not to the same degree. The top European schools use all
brand dimension a total amount of 2123 times, whilst the general European schools uses the
dimensions up to 2092 times, e.g. the former is using the dimensions 0,07 percent more than
the latter, (the stated difference is to small and cannot be generalized). From this we can
conclude that the first main difference is that the top European schools‟ uses the synonyms of
Aaker‟s five personality traits more than the general European business schools and based on
our findings all results are up to 99, 9 percent significant, which means that there is a
significant relation between Aaker‟s five brand personality dimensions and the different
schools websites. Possible explanations for this could be the method of explanation and
information of the schools and its MBA programs, the results may be different if schools use
more graphics, videos and pictures than text. This needs more research.
There is a difference in how consistent the online communication is
One can conclude from the two-dimensional map analysis that business schools are clustered
near to the brand personality dimension that they mostly communicate on their websites and
are associated with. Therefore, the second difference is based on how close/far the schools are
from respective brand dimensions. The general business schools are strongly associated to
most of the brand dimensions, whereas the majority of the top ranked business schools are not.
From this, we can conclude that the general schools are clearly communicating Aaker‟s brand
personality in their online communication. The majority of the top European schools are not in
association to any brand personality, resulting in communicating brand personality unclear,
58
according to Aaker‟s theory, i.e. not using Aaker‟s brand personality dimensions. They are
considered to be among the top business schools in Europe. A possible explanation can be that
there are other factors in communication that leads to success, namely a schools reputation, its
resources, status and many more, (one of many possible explanations). This needs further
investigation.
There are difference purposes, when using Aaker’s brand personality traits
Based on the delivery of the brand personality traits, we can conclude that the schools‟ uses
personality dimensions for different purposes in different contexts. The third conclusion is
based on in what terms the schools‟ uses for the brand personality dimensions. The majority of
the top European business schools‟ uses the brand personality traits to inform the audience
what are expected of them as potential students, such as requiring specific qualifications and
strategic thinking before entering MBA programs. From this, we can conclude that the top
European schools uses personality trait synonyms to encourage their students, by stating how
the school will have a great impact in their future career. Second, the majority of the general
business schools use the brand dimensions to inform their students about how they will
integrate with the schools environment and spirit of the school, its vision and how the program
will help the student to develop strategic career skills and reflections. (Note that this will be the
outcome of their MBA program, which in cluster one is a requirement for students to have
when applying to the top European schools) From this we can conclude that the general
business schools use the personality traits to inspire the students by stating how the program
will help the students‟ future career to grow. It is possible that the placement (in FT list),
reputation and status of the top European schools have an effect of what they can or may
require from future students, which needs further. The conclusion above is based on Aaker´s
(1997) brand personality dimension. It is important to consider that the presented results can be
concluded in other ways.
6.1 Theoretical and Managerial Implications
The conducted study provides a full perspective on how business schools communicate brand
personality dimensions online in a clear and distinct manner. Further, our study has revealed
and provided empirical findings as to whether schools intentionally or subconsciously
communicate brand personalities in their attempt to manage strategic branding online. This
may be interesting to use in a managerial perspective, e.g. for other business schools in Sweden
59
that has or are considering to implement MBA education. The study may provide opportunities
for other actors such as researchers, brand managers, marketers, advertisers etc. and serve as
benchmark for organizations that want or tries to communicate respective brand personality
dimensions more efficiently.
6.2 Limitations
During the empirical information collection, one could find it difficult to gather information
from certain websites, since they did not include much textual information. Instead they used
other formats for information, such as graphics, video, pictures and so on. Therefore, to fully
understand the communication dynamics, additional research it is necessary in the examination
of how video, symbols, colors and pictures, which people also, are influenced by in website
communication, affect brand communication.
6.3 Further recommendation
This study offers a description of the phenomenon of brand communication in particular
settings (over websites) and is presumed to serve as a basis for further research, as past
research has provided us with theories upon which we formulated our research purpose and
questions. It would be of great advantage for a study as such to find a solution (program or
software) that converts e.g. graphics and videos to textual formats to gather more data to
include all necessary information.
Further, the brand personality concept in the online environment can be studied in several
directions by replicating our measure of Aaker‟s brand personality online in other contexts for
further validation. Also, by adding more samples (business schools), one may improve the
generalization of the results contained in this study.
In addition, at a more advanced level, it would be worthwhile to compare the communicated
brand personality dimensions against customer-based perceptions of the schools, i.e. the output
of communicating Aaker‟s brand personality dimensions. It would be interesting to examine if
the audience‟s perception (of the brand personality dimensions) is aligned with what its
marketers intend it to be.
Lastly, one can wonder if it is the brand communication in general that has had an impact in the
60
success of the top ranked business schools, according to our findings, as most of them are not
communicating any specific brand personality. Their success may be dependent on other
factors, such as resources, status, reputation etc. We suggest that future researchers may
investigate this aspect, hence, the focus would then be to compare the top general schools to
each other.
61
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74
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75
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8. Appendix
Appendix 1
MBA Programs
Dartmouth College‟s Tuck School of Business was first out with a MBA program during the
1900, which was encouraged by practicing or retired business professors who were practicing
or retired corporate managers. The focused was primarily on the sharing lessons learned in the
workplace with students (History, 2012). Later, in the 1960s MBA programs were introduced
into Europe by IESE in Spain. The London Business School followed shortly after (History of
ISIE, 2012; MBA, 2012; MBA accreditation in central and Eastern Europe).
MBA programs are often beneficial degrees, chosen by working professionals who want or
need to obtain further education to climb the corporate ladder and reach career goals. Hence,
MBA programs are nothing like masters programs (What is an MBA, 2012). Masters degree is
an academic degree that is granted for graduates who have studied a specific field or study of
area of professional practice. Masters program is qualified for graduates without or with little
professional experience that may perceive their bachelor degree to not be sufficient for their
career plans. Masters graduates do in many cases start their first job after graduating their
masters program (MBA vs. Master Degree (MIM): Masters in Management Alternatives or
Substitutes, 2012). For example, a master‟s in accounting usually spends 90% of the time on
accounting, whereas the remaining 10% is spent on glancing at other aspects of business.
instead they are meant to deepen the understandings of students‟. Ideally, on a MBA program,
graduates are supposed to spend as much time as possible on all-important aspects of
economics (What is an MBA, 2012).
76
MBA programs are considered to provide a wide aspect of practices within the range of
disciplines, almost certifying that alumni‟s are experienced and prepared for any outcome.
Further, the program is also meant to develop students‟ critical thinking, problem-solving and
analytical skills. Accordingly, MBAs are often designed for students whose professional
interests address traditional business functions where the focus is on finance, marketing,
accounting, human resources, business administration and economics. However, MBA
programs have much more to offer. Potential alumni‟s can also specialize within a certain areas
such as health information with focus on health care administration, health services, health care
administration, health care management and nursing. In addition, MBAs can also be studied
within the field of technology, which is another big area for MBA programs. Many Schools
offers MBAs within computer systems, information technology, network administration and
security, and technology management (What is an MBA, 2012).
Executive MBA (EMBA) is another form of MBA, and it is designed to expand and strengthen
the working professional‟s career. The EMBA program consists of courses on functional
business areas with focus developing of leadership qualities, networking abilities and problem-
solving skills. The program typically aims for professionals whom have accomplished several
years of work experience (What is an MBA, 2012).
MBA is famous for its career and salary enhancing benefits for graduates. For example,
employers are ascertained that any job applicant whom has an MBA is well competent and
experienced in many aspects of business management. Ideally, on a MBA program, graduates
are supposed to spend as much time as possible on all-important aspects of economics. MBA
programs are considered to provide a wide aspect of practices within the range of disciplines,
almost certifying that alumni‟s are experienced and prepared for any outcome. MBA programs
emphasize job-related education, often traveling straight from the boardrooms of corporations
to the MBA classroom. (MBA programs to master sustainability, 2012)
Definition features of MBA programs:
i. MBA programs come with directions and regulations: It is supposed to ensure that
alumni‟s are able to get a rounded and complete approach to business management,
rather than to focus on one career or path.
77
ii. Having a prior work experience is requirement on any MBA program: In order to enroll
in an MBA program they must first have work experience of the business world to
ascertain that all students have value to bring to the classroom.
iii. MBAs results in good salaries: MBA salaries vary; it depends on both graduate and
chosen industry to enter. However, the average increase in annual payment of newly
one-year MBA graduates is 80%. In comparison, average graduates from master‟s
program see an average salary increase of just 31%. (What is an MBA, 2012; What is a
MBA, 2012).
Europe and MBA programs
For a half-century, European business schools were under represented. It was not until
INSEAD close to Paris launched its first MBA program in 1957s, as Europe became a starting
point for MBA graduates. During 1964, IESE in Spain was one of the first business schools to
offer a two-year MBA program. Further, University College Dublin Smurfit Business School
launched the same year MBA programs for graduates, followed by Manchester and London
Business School during 1965, and HEC Paris at the end of 1960 (Studying MBA in Western
Europe, 2012; MBA accreditation in central and eastern Europe, 2012). European business
schools are increasingly starting to become known as the place to be for both local and
international MBA candidates. There are around 200 business schools operate only in the
Central and Eastern Europe. Accordingly, European business schools have over the last two
decades established themselves as one of the fastest growing economies in the world,
Bickerstaffe (2005). Countries such as Poland and Romania have grown between seven and
eight percent in the years prior to the economic meltdown. Further, The Central and East
European Management Development Association (CEEMAN), which operate on a regional
level, have given accreditation to 11 schools in the Central and Eastern Europe (MBA
accreditation in central and eastern Europe; Pfeffer & Fong, 2002).
European MBA degree generally differs from US MBA degrees in a few major ways. First,
European MBAs are in most cases one year in length, compared with the US whom normally
offers two-year MBA degrees (Studying MBA in Western Europe, 2012, Bickerstaffe, 2005,
Pfeffer & Fong, 2002). Hence, Western European and North American MBA schools have an
established history and well-developed programs, Friga et al (2003). However, the education is
78
often based on case studies applicable to the country (Studying MBA in Western Europe, 2012;
Friga et al,. 2003).
Since the start of MBA programs in Europe, some of the best business schools have emerged in
Western Europe. There are business schools offering MBAs along with targeted master‟s
degree within costumed subjects such as accounting, finance, marketing or international
business (Studying MBA in Western Europe, 2012; Bickerstraffe, 2005; Friga et al., 2003;
Pfeffer & Fong, 2002). Financial Times presented during 2011 an MBA ranking were the
concluded that six of the world‟s top twenty business schools are in Europe, with London
Business School having one of the top spots (Bickerstraffe, 2005; Topmba.com, 2012).
Fulltime vs. Part-time MBA programs
Due to globalization and new lifestyles, universities and colleges offer more flexible ways of
learning. Distance/online learning and part-time study are two different opportunities for MBA
students (The full-time MBA degree, 2012; What is a part-time MBA, 2012). Also, business
schools that offer full-time MBAs have become very popular over the past 50 years as
thousands of universities and colleges worldwide offer MBA programs today (The full-time
MBA degree, 2012)
Full-time MBA is the most popular of all MBA degrees in top business schools and is
preferred by 80% of MBA candidates worldwide (The full-time MBA degree, 2012). Part-time
MBA programs are often offered to graduates whom e.g., are unwilling or unable to make the
graduate payment. There are plenty of business schools that offer well-organized part-time
MBA courses in the same qualification as a fulltime MBA (What is a part-time MBA, 2012;
The full-time MBA degree, 2012). Accordingly, part-time MBAs are increasing in interest due
to enhanced career options. Part-time MBA programs offer students time to work and the
chance to balance work and academic work, however maintaining a very demanding MBA
degree on top is a major challenge (What is a part-time MBA, 2012).
One vs. two year MBA
According to online research, European graduates prefer one-year MBA programs while North
American business schools tend to offer two-year MBA programs since it is highly demanded
by alumni‟s. The best option depends on the opinion of the MBA graduate. The one-year MBA
does not offer the same options as a two year MBA, which has an assisted internship in a
company of choice among a few opportunities within the two-year program. Also, the two-year
79
program allows more time for self-reflection and networking with other MBA students, which
are two valuable points. One-year MBA program, however, does not cost as much as the two-
year program. It also means that one-year graduate student are out of the workplace, and not
earning the salary for two years MBA program (One-or two-year MBA degrees, 2012).
Degree.nett (2012) state that MBA degree is one of the most popular and sought-after degrees
available today. The growth of MBA degrees is large, in 1961 5,000 was degreed, this number
changed in 2000 were the number was over 100,000 (Linden, 1992; Mason, 2000; AACSB
International, 2012). For managers in US and other countries the MBA has become a stamp of
approval. MBA programs are big business for all the university's (AACSB International, 2012).
For the student an MBA program is very expensive, it can cost between $40 000 to $80 000.
Customer are not just paying for what they getting but they are also spending their money on
the brand (mbaworld.com, 2012).
When it comes to the competition the MBA programs are different from other organizations.
Usually when a market has high competitors the organizations does focus on aggressive brand
marketing. In this case, it is different for most MBA programs where competitors are many but
competition generally is gently and subtly pursued. Also, in traditional markets there usually
are few if any major consequences if and when a brand product fails a customer. The larger
consequences happens when a university fails to meet the customers expectation, this because
decision to attend a particular business school for a MBA degree are important in terms of
direct cost and indirect customer effect of professional life (mbaworld.com, 2012).
Business schools and their MBA programs as brands
Business schools are one of the biggest sensations of the late twentieth-century education.
There is an extensive increase of undergraduate and graduate business administration
registrations in degree-granting universities and colleges, Pfeffer & Fong (2002). The term
„business school‟ depends on different aspects that are somewhat identical and combined to
offer a useful definition to the expression, Kotler (1991). There are three categories of business
schools:
i. Management schools: emphasize on creating and teaching managers of
organizations;
ii. Entrepreneurship schools: emphasize on training entrepreneurs and
iii. Leadership schools: emphasize on training people to become leaders of
organizations.
80
This classification is helpful, when clarifying areas of activity and different target groups.
However, Prince (1999) stresses that one should not classify business schools to discrete
classifications. Following Kotler‟s (1999) classification, Prince (1999) suggest that most
business schools consider themselves as management schools. According to Berthon et al.
(1996), business schools should be defined as „a graduate school offering any study leading to
a degree of Master of Business Administration‟.
According to Onlinemba.com (2012), MBA degrees are considered to be the world‟s most
popular postgraduate degree and a first class ticket to a successful career. Considerable amount
of money are spent by business schools spend on advertisement and promotion of MBA
programs. The promotion and advertisement has appeared many times in magazines such as
The Economist and newspapers such as the Financial Times with the purpose to attract
prospective students and strengthen the brand (Bickerstaffe, 2005; Friga et al, 2003; Byrne,
1997).
Hence, business schools and business education have had commercial success, however, major
challenges are still remaining, as a result of business educational growth and an increase of
MBA programs in Europe. Some of the biggest struggles concern consulting and training
business schools in electronic commerce, Pfeffer and Fong (2002). Friga et al (2003) suggest
that increased globalization, technological changes and new workplace reinforcements will
effect business education. For example, new emerging online platforms may change online
communication for business schools and their MBA programs, leaving them no option but to
adjust to the „new way‟ communicating online (Bickerstaffe, 2005; Friga et al, 2003). Also,
continuous changes will most definitely also change the dynamics between institutions and its
target customers in the online environment. The change itself may have an impact on the usage
of brands, including the brand used by business schools (Bickerstaffe, 2005). Today,
communicating MBAs and branding in particular is an important tool in building customer
relations and confidence between institutions and target groups due to new economy
characterized by digitalization and globalization, Rowley (2004). Hence, brands, patents,
designs and trademarks have become the basis of every institutional communication, De
Karek-Silver (2000).
81
According to early research, business schools tend to be reactive rather that proactive when
communicating their brand and meet the need of the market, Prince (1999). Not much has
changed since, Bickerstaffe (2005), claim that business schools are to involved in the „output‟
(teaching and research) and forget the importance brand communication and communication of
MBAs to target groups. However, the emergence of new technologies and the developments
within the World Wide Web has lead to great opportunities in brand communication and
competition advantages. Embracing the new changes will give institutions the opportunities to
reposition themselves and take advantage of the changing educational market (Bickerstaffe,
2005; Rowerly, 2004).
Researchers suggest schools in a competitive environment to examine their brand personality
profiles in order to remain in the competitive environment and higher educational context
(Freling el at, 2005; Bickerstaffe, 2005; Aaker, 1997). Rowley (2004) suggest that branding
online and e-commerce poses exploration of potential strategic advantages for business
schools, therefore institutions should explore and implement brand strategies in online
channels, websites being a distinctive suggestion.
Appendix 2
Figure 8.1: “A brand personality scale”, Aaker (1997, p. 354)
82
Appendix 3
Table 8.2: ”Global MBA Rankings 2012” (Busniesseducation, 2012)
Ranking School name Country
1 Stanford Graduate School of Business US
2 Harvard Business School US
3 University of Pennsylvania: Wharton US
4 London Business School UK
5 Columbia Business School US
6 INSEAD France/Singapore
7 MIT: Sloan US
8 IE Business School Spain
9 IESE Business School Spain
10 Hong Kong UST Business School China
11 Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad India
83
12 University of Chicago: Booth US
13 IMD Switzerland
14 University of California at Berkley: Haas US
15 Duke University: Fuaqua US
16 Nortwestern University: Kellogg US
17 Ney York University: Stern US
18 HEC Paris France
19 Dartmouth College: Tuck US
20 Indian School of Business India
20 Yale School of Management US
20 University of Oxford: Said UK
23 National University of Singapore School of
Business
Singapore
24 Ceibs China
24 Cornell University: Johnson US
26 University of Cambridge: Judge UK
27 Warwick Business School UK
28 Chinese University of Hong Kong China
29 University of Michigan: Ross US
30 Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus
University
Netherlands
31 Manchester Business School UK
32 UCLA: Anderson US
33 Easde Business school Spain
34 Nanyang Business School Singapore
35 Carnegie Mellon: Tepper US
36 Cranfield School of Management UK
37 University of Hong Kong China
38 University of Vrigina: Darden US
38 City University: Cass UK
40 Emory University: Goizueta US
41 Australian School of Business (AGSMA) Australia
42 SDA Bocconi Italy
43 Georgetown University: McDonugh US
44 University of Toronto: Rotman Canada
45 Rice University: Jones US
46 Imperial College Business School UK
46 Melbourne Business School Australia
46 Indiana University: Keller US
49 Pennsylvania State University: Smeal US
49 University of Rochester: Simon US
51 Coppead Brazil
51 Texas A & M University: Mays US
51 University of Texas at Austin: McCombs US
54 Peking University: Guanghua China
54 University of Cape Town GSB South Africa
56 University of North Carolina: Kenan Flagler US
57 University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign US
58 University of Maryland: Smith US
84
59 York University: Schulich Canada
59 Purdue University: Krannert US
61 Washington University: Olin US
61 Vanderbilt University: Owen US
61 University of Southern California: Marshall US
61 McGill University: Desautels Canada
65 Hult International Business School US / UK /UAE / China
66 Sungkyunkwan University SKK GSB South Korea
66 Ohio State University: Fisher US
68 University of Western Ontario: Ivey Canada
69 Boston College: Caroll US
70 Vlerick Leuven gent Management School Belgium
71 Lancaster University Management School UK
72 University of Minnesota: Carlson US
73 University of Washington: Foster US
74 Georgia Institute of Technology US
74 Wisconsin School of Business US
76 Incae Business School Costa Rica
77 Michigan State University: Broad US
77 Boston University School of Management US
79 George Washington University US
80 Wake Forest University: Babock US
81 University of California at Irvine: Merage US
82 University of British Columbia: Sauder Canada
83 University of Pittsburg: Katz US
83 University o Edinburg Business School UK
85 University of Notre Dame: Mendoza US
86 Northeastern University US
86 Birmingham Business School UK
86 University College Dublin: Smurfit Ireland
89 Thunderbird School of Global Management US
90 University of Iowa: Tippie US
91 Aston Business School UK
91 S P Jain School of Global Management Dubai / Singapore
93 University of St. Gallen Switzerland
94 Durham Business School UK
95 University of South Carolina: Moore US
95 Ipade Mexico
95 Bradford University School of Management UK
98 Birgham Young University US
100 Babson College: Olin US
Appendix 4
Table 8.3: MBA programs in Europe 2012
List School name Country
85
1 Aberdeen Business School, Robert Gordon
University
UK
2 Aberystwyth University, School of
Management and Business
UK
3 Ashridge Business School UK
4 Aston Business School, Aston University UK
5 Bangor University UK
6 Birmingham Business School
7 BPP University College - Business School UK
8 Bradford University School of Management UK
9 Brunel Business School, Brunel University UK
10 Cass Business School UK
11 Coventry University Business School UK
12 Cranfield School of Management UK
13 Durham Business School, Durham University UK
14 Edinburgh Business School - Heriot Watt
University - Dubai Campus
UK
15 European Business School, London UK
16 European School of Economics UK
17 Greenwich School of Management UK
18 Henley Business School UK
19 Hertfordshire MBA, University of
Hertfordshire
UK
20 Hull University Business School
Imperial College Business School, Imperial
College London
UK
21 Judge Business School, University of
Cambridge
UK
22 Keele University School of Management UK
23 Kent Business School, University of Kent UK
24 Kingston Business School, Kingston
University
UK
25 Lancaster University Management School UK
26 Leeds Business School UK
27 Leeds University Business School UK
28 Leicester Business School, De Montfort
University
UK
29 London Business School UK
30 London Metropolitan University UK
31 London School of Business and Finance UK
32 Loughborough University UK
33 Management School, The University of
Sheffield
UK
34 Manchester Business School Worldwide UK
35 Manchester Business School, The University
of Manchester
UK
36 Manchester Metropolitan University Business
School
UK
37 Middlesex University Business School UK
86
38 Newcastle University Business School UK
39 Northampton Business School, The
University of Northampton
UK
40 Norwich Business School - University of East
Anglia
UK
41 Nottingham Business School UK
42 Nottingham University Business School UK
43 OU Business School UK
44 Oxford Brookes University Business School UK
45 Oxford University, Said Business School UK
46 RDI UK
47 Regents College/ Webster Graduate School
and European Business School
UK
48 Roehampton University UK
49 Royal Holloway School of Management UK
50 Salford Business School UK
51 School of Business Administration, American
International College
UK
52 School of Business and Economics, Swansea
University
UK
53 School of Management, University of Bath UK
54 Stirling Management School UK
55 The University Liverpool - Online Higher
Education
UK
56 University of Brighton Business School UK
57 University of Chicago Booth School of
Business, London - Executive MBA
UK
58 University of Edinburgh Business School UK
59 University of East London UK
60 University of Plymouth UK
61 University of Exeter, The Business School UK
62 University of Glasgow Business School UK
63 University of Portsmouth Business School UK
64 University of Strathclyde Business School UK
65 University of Southampton School of
Management
UK
66 University of Strathclyde Business School UK
67 University of Surrey Business School UK
68 University of the West of England, Bristol
Business School
UK
69 Warwick Business School, University of
Warwick
UK
70 Webster Graduate School London UK
71 Westminster Business School, University of
Westminster
UK
72 ADM BUSINESS SCHOOL, S.L. Spain
73 EADA Spain
74 EADA - HHL - Global Executive MBA Spain
87
75 EAE Business School Spain
76 ENAE- Business School Spain
77 EOI Escuela de Negocios / Business School Spain
78 ESADE Business School Spain
79 ESCUELA EUROPEA DE NEGOCIOS Spain
80 ESEUNE, Escuela de Negocios Spain
81 ESIC Business & Marketing School Spain
82 EUDE-Escuela Europea de Dirección y
Empresa
Spain
82 European University (Barcelona, Geneva,
Munich)
Spain
84 European University - Munich Spain
85 Fundacion Unoversitaria San Pablo-CEU Spain
86 IDEC-Universitat Pompeu Fabra Spain
87 IE Business School Spain
88 IEB Spain
89 IEDE Business School Spain
90 IESE Business School, University of Navarra, Spain
91 Real Madrid Spain
92 Spain as an MBA destination Spain
93 Universidad Carlos III de Madrid Spain
94 University of Deusto, Deusto Business
School
Spain
95 Zaragoza Logistic Center Spain
96 American Graduate School in Paris France
97 AUDENCIA Nantes School of Management France
98 BEM- Bordeaux Management School, Wine
MBA
France
99 Business Management Institute (IAE) of the
University of Nice Sophia Antipolis and the
College of Bu
France
100 CERAM Sophia Antipolis, European School
of Business
France
101 Cnam - International Insitute of Management France
102 EDHEC Business School France
103 EMLYON Business School France
104 ENPC School of International Management France
105 ESC Rennes School of Business - France France
106 ESCE - Ecole Superieure du Commerce
Exterieur
France
107 ESCEM (Ecole Superieure de Commerce et
de Management)
France
108 ESLSCA Graduate School of Business - Paris France
109 ESSEC Business School France
110 Euromed Management France
111 European Institute of Purchasing
Management
France
112 Grenoble Graduate School of Business,
Grenoble Ecole de Management
France
88
113 HEC Paris MBA France
114 IAE Aix Graduate School of Management France
115 ICN Business School - EM Strasbourg France
116 ICN Business School, Nancy France
117 IFAM Business School France
118 INSEAD France
119 MBA ESG France
120 MBA Sciences Po - Paris France
121 MIP Management School, Paris France
123 Paris School of Business France
124 Polytechnicum de Normandie France
125 Reims Management School (RMS) France
126 Rouen Business School France
127 Schiller International University France
128 SKEMA Business School (formerly Groupe
ESC Lille and CERAM Business School)
France
129 SORBONNE - CELSA France
130 Sorbonne Graduate Business School - IAE de
Paris
France
131 Toulouse Business School France
132 Toulouse Business School France
133 Universite de Nice Sophia Antipolis France
134 University Jean Moulin - IAE of Lyon
Business School
France
135 AFUM Akademie fur
Unternehmensmanagement GmbH
Germany
136 Augsburg University Germany
137 Berlin School of Economics and Law /IMB Germany
138 EBS Business School Germany
139 ESMT European School of Management and
Technology
Germany
140 Euro-FH Europaeische Fernhochschule
Hamburg
Germany
141 Europa-Institut, Saarland University,
Germany
Germany
142 FOM Hochschule für Oekonomie &
Management
Germany
143 Frankfurt School of Finance and Management Germany
144 Georg Simon Ohm University of Applied
Sciences
Germany
147 GISMA Business School Germany
146 Goethe Business School Germany
147 HHL - Leipzig Graduate School of
Management
Germany
147 Hochschule Darmstadt - University of
Applied Science
Germany
148 Hochschule Furtwangen University Germany
149 Hochschule Offenburg - University of
Applied Sciences
Germany
89
150 Hochschule Pforzheim - Pforzheim
University
Germany
151 International School of Management (ISM) Germany
152 Julius-Maximilians-University of Wuerzburg
- Executive MBA Business Integration
Germany
153 Kassel International Management School Germany
154 Kuehne School of Logistics and Management Germany
156 Mannheim Business School Germany
157 RWTH Aachen University Germany
158 School of Management and Innovation //
Steinbeis Hochschule Berlin
Germany
159 Stuttgart Institute of Management and
Technology (SIMT)
Germany
160 Technische Hochschule Mittelhessen - THM
Business School
Germany
161 Troy University, Heidelberg Site Germany
162 WHU - Otto Beisheim School of
Management, Germany
Germany
163 AGSB Switzerland
164 BSL - Business School Lausanne Switzerland
165 Ecole hoteliere de Lausanne (EHL),
Switzerland
Switzerland
166 ETH Zurich Switzerland
167 Glion Institute of Higher Education Switzerland
168 Haute Ecole de Gestion de Geneva (HEG) Switzerland
169 IMD Switzerland
170 International Organisations MBA, University
of Geneva (HEC)
Switzerland
171 International University in Geneva Switzerland
172 Les Roches International School of Hotel
Management
Switzerland
173 SBS Swiss Business School Switzerland
174 LRG University of Applied Science Switzerland
175 Robert Kennedy College Switzerland
176 United International Business Schools (UIBS) Switzerland
177 University of Geneva (HEC) Switzerland
178 University of Geneva - Executive program
(HEC)
Switzerland
179 University of St.Gallen, The St.Gallen MBA Switzerland
180 Webster University - Geneva Switzerland
181 Amsterdam Business School - University of
Amsterdam
Netherlands
182 Business School Netherlands Netherlands
183 Duisenberg school of finance Netherlands
184 Erasmus University Rotterdam & Hotel
school The Hague
Netherlands
185 Euro MBA Consortium Netherlands
186 Maastricht School of Management Netherlands
90
187 Nyenrode Business Universiteit Netherlands
189 Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus
University (RSM)
Netherlands
190 The Hague University Netherlands
191 Tias Business School Netherlands
192 TiasNimbas Business School Netherlands
193 Universiteit Maastricht Business School Netherlands
194 ALBA Graduate Business School Greece
195 American College of Thessaloniki Greece
196 Athens University of Economics and
Business (AUEB)
Greece
197 BCA Greece
198 DEREE - The American College of Greece Greece
199 International Hellenic University Greece
200 IST Studies Greece
201 The University of Sheffield, CITY College Greece
202 Donau-Universität KREMS - Danube
Business School
Austria
203 IMADEC UNIVERSITY Austria
204 LIMAK - Austrian Business School Austria
205 Modul University Vienna Austria
206 PEF Privatuniversität für Management Austria
207 Vienna University of Technology Austria
208 Webster University - Vienna Austria
209 WU Executive Academy of the Vienna
University of Economics and Business
Austria
210 Business School del Sole 24 ORE Italy
211 Cimba, Consortium of Universities Italy
212 LUISS Business School Italy
213 MIB School of Management Italy
214 MIP Politecnico di Milano Italy
215 Rome - University of Malta Italy
216 SDA Bocconi School of Management Italy
217 St. Johns University, Rome Campus Italy
218 University of Pisa Italy
219 Moscow International Higher Business
School- MIRBIS (Institute)
Russia
220 Moscow School of Management
SKOLKOVO
Russia
221 Moscow University - Touro Russia
222 Antwerp Management School Belgium
223 OU Business School Belgium
224 Solvay Brussels School of Economics and
Management (ULB, Bruxelles)
Belgium
91
225 Vlerick Leuven Gent Management School Belgium
226 Bilkent University Turkey
227 Istanbul Bilgi University Turkey
228 Koc University Turkey
229 Ozyegin University Graduate School of
Business
Turkey
230 Sabanci University Turkey
231 Warsaw University of Technology, Business
School
Poland
232 Faculdade de Economia, Universidade Nova
de Lisboa
Portugal
233 INDEG / ISCTE Business School Portugal
234 The Lisbon MBA - Catolica, Nova, MIT Portugal
235 University of Porto Business School Portugal
236 International Institute of Business (IIB) Ukraine
237 International Management Institute MIM -
Kyiv
Ukraine
238 The University of Dublin, Trinity College
Dublin
Ireland
239 University College Dublin, Smurfit School of
Business
Ireland
240 CMC Graduate School of Business Czech Republic
241 Masaryk Institute of Advanced Studies,
Czech Technical University in Prague
Czech Republic
242 U.S. Business School Praha Czech Republic
Appendix 5
Figure 8.4: Dictionary of Words
SINCERITY EXCITEMENT COMPETENCE • ABOVE-BOARD • ACTIVE • ABLE
• ACCOMMODATING • ADVENTUROUS • ABLE-BODIED • ACCURATE • AGGRAVATION • ADEPT
• ACTUAL • AGGRESSIVE • ADROIT
• AFFABLE • ANNOYANCE • ALERT • AFFECTIONATE • ARTISTIC • ASSIDUOUS
• AFFILIATED • ARTY • ASSURED • AFFILIATION • AUDACIOUS • ASSURANCE
• APPROACHABLE • AUDACITY • ASTUTE
• APPROACHING • AUTONOMOUS • AWARD-WINNING • ARTLESS • AVANT-GARDE • BENEFICIAL
• AUTHENTIC • AWE-INSPIRING • BLOOMING • BENEFICIAL • AWESOME • BOOMING
• BENEVOLENT • BOLD • BRAINY
• BENIGN • BOLDNESS • BRIGHT • BLITHE • BOOST • BRILLIANT
• BLITHESOME • BOTHER • CAPABLE • BLUNT • BRACING • CELEBRATION
• BONAFIDE • BRAND-NEW • CELEBRATORY
• BRIGHT • BRAND-NEW • CERTIFIED • BUOYANT • BRASH • CLEVER
92
• CANDID • BRAVE • COMING
• CAREFREE • BRAVERY • COMPETENCE • CARELESS • BREATHTAKING • COMPETENT
• CARING • BRISK • COMPLETE • CHARITABLE • BUBBLY • COMPREHENSIVE
• CHEERFUL • CHALLENGE • CONCERN
• CHILDLIKE • CHANCY • CONCLUSIVE • CHIPPER • COLORFUL • CONFINED
• CIVIL • COLOURFUL • CONGLOMERATE • CIVILISED • CONTEMPORARY • CONQUERING
• CIVILITY • COOL • CONSCIENTIOUS
• CIVILIZED • COURAGE • CONSISTENT • CLEAN-CUT • COURAGEOUS • CONSTANT
• CLOSE • COURAGOUSNESS • CONTINOUS • COMMON • COURANT • COST-EFFECTIVE
• COMMONPLACE • CRAZY • CRAFTINESS
• COMPANIONABLE • CREATIVE • CRAFTY • COMPASSIONATE • CREATIVITY • CREATIVE
• COMPLETE • CRISP • CEREBRAL
• CONCSIENTIOUS • CURRENT • CUNNING • CONGENIAL • DAREDEVIL • DEDICATED
• CONTENT • DARING • DEPENDABLE • CONVENTIONAL • DAUNTINESS • DEPENDENT
• CONVIVIAL • DAZZLING • DEVOTED
• COOPERATIVE • DELIGHTFUL • DEXTEROUS • CORDIAL • DESIGNER • DILIGENCE
• CORRECT • DETERMINED • DILIGENT • COURTEOUS • EAGERNESS • DISCERNING
• CREATIVE • EARLY • DOINGWELL
• CREDITABLE • ELECTRIFYING • DOMINANT • CUSTOMARY • ELEVATE • DURABLE
• DECENT • EMANCIPATE • EDUCATED • DEFENSIBLE • EMANCIPATED • ENDORSED
• DEVOTED • ENCOURAGEMENT • ENDURING
• DIRECT • ENCOURAGING • ENTERPRISE • DISTINCTIVE • ENERGETIC • ENTERPRISINGNESS
• DOWN-TO-EARTH • ENERGISE • EQUIPOTENT • EARNEST • ENERGISING • ERUDITE
• EARTHY • ENERGIZE • ESTABLISHMENT
• EASYGOING • ENERGIZING • ETERNAL • EBULLIENT • ENLIVEN • EVERLASTING
• EMOTIONAL • ENLIVENING • EXHAUSTIVE • ESSENTIAL • ENTERPRISING • EXPERIENCED
• EVERYDAY • EXALT • EXPERT
• EXISTING • EXALTING • EXULTANT • FACT-BASED • EXASPERATION • FAIL-SAFE
• FACTUAL • EXCITATION • FAST • FAITHFUL • EXCITE • FIRM
• FAMILIAR • EXCITED • FIRST-PLACE
• FAVORABLE • EXCITEMENT • FIT • FIRST • EXCITING • FLOURISHING
• FORTHCOMING • EXHILARATE • FOOLPROOF • FORTHRIGHT • EXHILARATING • FOR CERTAIN
• FRANK • EXUBERANT • FOREFRONT
• FREE • FEARLESSNESS • FORWARD • FRIENDLY • FEISTY • FOR_CERTAIN
• FUNDAMENTAL • FIERY • GAINFUL • GENEROUS • FORCEFUL • GENIUS
• GENIAL • FRESH • GET AHEAD
• GENUINE • FRESHNESS • GET-UP-AND-GO • GLAD • FRUSTRATION • GIFTED
• GLADSOME • GOAD • GLORIOUS • GOOD • GREATHARTEDNESS • GOING
• GOOD-HEARTED • GUTSY • GOOD
• GOOD-HUMOURED • HALF-WITTED • GOVERNANCE • GRACIOUS • HAPPENING • GROWING
• GREGARIOUS • HARDY • GUARANTEE • GUILELESS • HAREBRAINED • GUARANTEED
• HALE AND HEARTY • HASSLE • HARD-WORKING
• HAPPY • HASTY • HARDWORKING • HAPPY-GO-LUCKY • HEADACHE • HI-TECH
• HEALTHFUL • HEADLONG • ILLUSTRIOUS • HEALTHY • HEART • IMPERISHABLE
• HEARTFELT • HEEDLESS • IN-CHARGE
• HEARTY • HEROIC • IN-FRONT • HEARTY • HEROISM • IN-CHARGE
93
• HELPFUL • HEROISM • IN-NO-DOUBT
• HONEST • HIGH-SPIRITED • INDUSTRIAL • HONESTNESS • HIP • INDUSTRIALISE
• HONESTY • HOT • INDUSTRIALISED • HONORABLE • HOTHEADED • INDUSTRIALIZED
• HONORABLENESS • HOTTEST • INDUSTRIOUS
• HONOURABLE • IDIOTIC • INDUSTRIOUSNESS • HONOURABLENESS • IMAGINATIVE • INDUSTRY
• HOPEFUL • IMPETUOUS • INFORMED • HUMANE • IMPRUDENT • INDUSTRIAL
• HUMBLE • IMPULSIVE • INGENIOUS
• IMPRESSIONABLE • IN-VOGUE • INNITIATIVE • INDISPUTABLE • INCAUTIOUS • INSIGHTFUL
• INEXPERIENCED • INCENTIVE • INTELLECT • INGENUOUS • INCITEMENT • INTELLECTUAL
• INIMITABLE • INDEPENDENT • INTELLIGENT
• INNOCENT • INDIVIDUAL • INVENTIVE • INSOUCIANT • INDUCEMENT • INTENTIVENESS
• INSPIRED • INDUCTION • JUBILANT
• IRREPLACEABLE • INGENIOUS • JUDICIOUS • JAUNTY • INNOVATIVE • KNOWING
• JOLLY • INSANE • KNOWLEDGEABLE • JOVIAL • INSPIRATION • KNOWLEDGEABLE ABOUT
• KIN • INSPIRATIONAL • LASTING
• KIN • INSPIRING • LEADER • KIND • INSTIGATION • LEARNED
• KINDLY • INTERESTED • LICENSE • KINSHIP • INTREPID • LITERATE
• LEGITIMATE • INVENTIVE • LEGEND
• LEGITIMATISE • INVIGORATING • LOGICAL • LEGITIMATIZE • IRRATINAL • LONG-LASTING
• LEGITIMISE • IRRITANT • LONG-LIVED • LEGITIMIZE • JOG • LONG-SUFFERING
• LIGHTHEARTED • JUVENILE • LOYAL
• LIGHTSOME • LATEST • LUCRATIVE • LIVELY • LIBERATED • MANUFACTURE
• LOVING • LIFTING • MARKETABLE • LUCKY • LIVELY • MECHANICAL
• MALLEABLE • LIVEN UP • MERCANTILE
• MATCHLESS • LIVEN_UP • METHODOLOGICAL • MAUDLIN • LONE • METICULOUS
• MERCIFUL • LONE • MISSION • MERRY • LOUD • MONEY-MAKING
• MIRTHFUL • METTLESOME • ONGOING
• MODEST • MODERN • ORGANISATION • NAIVE • MODERN-DAY • OUTSTANDING
• NATURAL • MODERNIST • OUTCOME • NEAT • MODERNISTIC • PAINSTAKING
• NEIGHBOURLY • MODERNNESS • PARTNERSHIP
• NEW • MODISH • PERCEPTIVE • NOURISHING • MOTIVATE • PERMANENT
• NOURTURISING • MOTIVATING • PALMY • NOVEL • MOTIVATION • PERPETUAL
• OBLIGING • MOVING • PERSEVERING
• OLD-FASHIONED • NERVE • PERSISTENT • OPENHEARTED • NERVED • PERSPICACIOUS
• OPTIMISTIC • NERVOUS • PERSERVING • ORDINARY • NERVY • POISED
• ORGINAL • NEW • POTENT
• ORIGINALITY • NEWLY ARISEN • PRIZE-WINNING • OUTGOING • NEWLY_ARISEN • PROCEDURAL
• PERKY • NIFTY • PRODUCTION • PERSUADABLE • NUISANCE • PRODUCTIVE
• PLAIN • PEEVE • PRODUCTIVENESS
• PLAINSPOKEN • PEPPERY • PROFICIENT • PLEASANT • PEST • PROFIT
• PLEASED • PLUCKY • PROFIT-MAKING • PLENTIFUL • PREDOMINANT • PROFITABLE
• POLITE • PRESENT • PROMISING
• POLITENESS • PRESENT-DAY • PROSPER • POSITIVE • PREVAILING • PROSPERING
• PRACTICAL • PRISTINE • PROSPEROUS • PRAGMATIC • PROD • PROTECTED
• PRAISEWORTHY • PROVOKE • PROUD
• PROPER • RECENT • PRUDENT • PROPERNESS • REFRESHED • PUNCTILOUS
94
• PROTOTYPE • REFRESHEN • QUICK-WITTED
• PURE • REFRESHFUL • QUALIFIED • REAL • REFRESHING • RATIONAL
• REAL-VALUED • REPRESENT • REASONABLE • REALISTIC • RESOLUTE • RELIABLE
• REALTIONS • RESOURCEFUL • REMAIN
• RELATION • RESOURCEFULNESS • REMAINING • RELATIONS • RISKY • RESOLVED
• RELATIONSHIP • ROUSING • RESPONSIBLE • RELIABLE • RROVOKATION • RESULT
• REMARKABLE • SHAKE UP • ROARING
• REPUTABLE • SHARP • ROBUST • RESPECTABLE • SMASHING • SAFE
• RESPONSIVE • SOLE • SAGACIOUS • RESPONSIVENE • SOLITARY • SAGE
• RESPONSIVENESS • SOLO • SALABLE
• RIGHT • SOVEREIGN • SALEABLE • SCRUPULOUS • SPECIFIC • SAPIENT
• SELF-EFFACING • SPINE TINGELING • SANE
• SELF-EFFICIENT • SPIRITED • SAVVY • SENTIMENTAL • SPUNKY • SCIENTIFIC
• SHY • SPUR • SCHOOLED • SIMPLE • STATE-OF-THE-ART • SECURE
• SIMPLE-MINDED • STIMULANT • SELF-ASSURED
• SINCERE • STIMULATE • SELF-CONFIDENT • SINCERENESS • STIMULATING • SELF-POSSESSED
• SINGLE • STIMULATION • SELLABLE • SINGLE-MINDED • STIMULUS • SENSIBLE
• SMALL-TOWN • STIRRING • SHARP
• SMILING • STOUT • SHARP-WIPPED • SOCIABLE • STRONG-WILLED • SHELTERED
• SOCIAL • THRILLING • SHREWED • SOUND • TONIC • SKILLED
• SPRIGHTLINESS • TRENDY • SKILLFUL
• SPRIGHTLY • TURN ON • SMART • STAIGHTFORWARD • UNCONSTRAINED • SOLID
• STANDARD • UNDEVELOPED • SOUND • STRAIGHT • UNFETTERED • STAUNCH
• STRAIGHTFORWARD • UNIQUE • STEADFAST
• STRAIGHTNESS • UNMARKED • STEADY • SYMPATHETIC • UNMATCHED • STRONG
• THE RIGHT WAY • UNRESTRICTED • SUCCESSFUL • TRUE • UP TO DATE • SUPERIOR
• TRUE-LIFE • UP TO THE MINUTE • SYSTEMATIC
• TRUST • UPLIFTING • TALENTED • TRUSTFUL • VALIANT • TECHNICAL
• TRUSTWORTHY • VENTURESOME • THOROUGH • TRUSTY • VIBRANT • THOROUGHGOING
• TRUTHFUL • VIBRATE • THOROUGHNESS
• TYPICAL • VITAL • THRIVING • UNADULTERATED • VIVACIOUS • TIRELESS
• UNAFFECTED • VOGUISH • TOPPLACE • UNALLOYED • VOUGE • TRADE
• UNASSUMING • YOUNG • TRANSNATIONAL
• UNBLEMISHED • YOUTHFUL • TRAINED • UNCHANGING • TRIUMPHAL
• UNCONCERNED • TRIUMPHANT • UNDERSTANDING • TRUSTY
• UNDILUTED • UNATTACKABLE
• UNFEIGNED • UNBEATABLE • UNFORCED • UNBEATEN
• UNGLAMOROUS • UNBENDABLE • UNGLOMOUROUS • UNDEVIATING
• UNINTERESTED • UNFAILING
• UNOSTENTATIOUS • UNFALTERING • UNPRETENDING • UNFLAGGING
• UNPRETENTIOUS • UNFLUCTUATING • UNQUESTIONABLE • UNSHAKABLE
• UNSOPHISTICATED • UNSWERVING
• UNSPOILT • UNWAVERING • UNSTUDIED • UP-AND-COMING
• UNSULLIED • VENDABLE • UNTAINED • VENDIBLE
• UNTARNISHED • VENTURE
• UNWORDLY • VICTORIOUS • UP-FRONT • WILTY
95
• UPRIGHT • WINNING
• UTTER • WISE • VALID • WITTY
• VERITABLE • VERITY
• VIGOROUS
• VIRTUOUS • VIVACIOUS
• WARM • WARMHEARTED
• WEEK
• WELCOMING • WELL
• WELL-FOUNDED • WELL-MANNERED
• WHOLE
• WHOLESOME • WHOLEHEARTED
• WORTHY
SOPHISTICATION RUGGEDNESS • A LA MODE • ACTIVE
• ALLUREMENT • AL FRESCO
• ALLURING • ALFRESCO • AMIABLE • AL_FRESCO
• ANGELIC • ANIMAL • APPEAL • ANIMALS
• APPEALING • ARDUOUS
• ARISTOCRACY • BEEFY • ARISTOCRAT • BITING
• ARISTOCRATIC • BOISTEROUS • ARISTOCRATICAL • BRISTLY
• ATTRACT • BRUTAL
• ATTRACTION • BUMPY • ATTRACTIVE • CALLOUS
• A_LA_MODE • CHALLENGE • ALLURING • CHALLENGING
• BARONIAL • CHEWY
• BEAUTIFUL • COARSE • BLUE BLOOD • CONFRONTATION
• BLUE_BLOOD • COWBOY
• BLUE-BLOODED • CRAGGED
• BRUSH_UP • CRAGGY
• CAPRIVATE • CRIMSON • CAPTIVATING • CRUDENESS
• CELEBRATED • CRUDITY • CHARISMATIC • CRUEL
• CHARM • CRUSHING
• CHARMING • CUNCTATION • CHERUBIC • DANGEROUS
• CHIC • DARE • CHIVALROUS • DAUNTING
• CLASSY • DAYBREAK
• COMPEL • DAYSPRING • COMPELLING • DEMANDING
• COMPLICATEDNESS • DESERT • COSMOPOLITAN • DIFFICULT
• COTOURE • DURABLE
• COURTIER • EFFORTFUL • CULTIVATED • ENDEAVOR
• CULTURED • ENDEAVOUR
• CUTE • ENDURE
• DANDYISH • ENERGETIC
• DAZZLING • EXTERNAL • DE LUXE • EXTINCT
• DELICATE • EXTREME • DESIRABLE • EXTREMUM
• DESIRABLENESS • FACE
• DE_LUXE • FACING • DELICATE • FEROCIOUS
• DIGNIFIED • FERPCIOUS • DISTINCTION • FORCIBLE
• DISTINGUISHED • FORBIDDING
• DIVERSITY • FRESCO
96
• DOWNY • FRESHAIR
• DULCET • FRONTIER • EDIFICATION • FURROW
• ELABORATEDNESS • GLUTINOUS • ELEGANT • GODFORSAKEN
• ELEVATED • GRANITELIKE
• ELOQUENT • GRANITIC • ENCHANT • GRATING
• ENCHANTING • GRAVEL • ENDEARING • GRIM
• ENNOBLING • GRUELING
• ENRAPTURE • GRUELLING • ENTHRAL • HARD
• ENTHRALL • HARD-HITTING • ENTHRALLING • HARDENED
• ENTICE • HARDY
• ENTICING • HARD-BOILED • ENTRANCING • HARSH
• EPICUREAN • HAZARDOUS
• ESTEEMED • HEARTLESS • ESTHETIC • HEAVY
• EXCELLENT • HEAVY-DUTY • EXCESSIVE • HOSTILE
• EXCLUSIVE • HUNT
• EXCLUSIVITY • HUNTING • EXEPTIONAL • HUSKINESS
• EXPENSIVE • INHUMANE • EXQUISITE • INCONSIDERATE
• EXQUISITELY • INSENSITIVE
• EXTRAORDINARY • INSTINCTUAL • EXTRAVAGANT • INSUFFERABLE
• EYE CATCHING • INSUPPORTABLE • EYE-CATCHING • INTOREABLE
• FABULOUS • INTEMPERATE
• FANTABULOUS • IRREGULAR • FASCINATE • JAGGED
• FASCINATING • JERKING • FASHIONABLE • JERKY
• FEMALE • JOLTING
• FEMININE • JOLTY • FINE-LOOKING • JUNGLE
• FIRST-CLASS • LABOURIOUS • FIRST-RATE • LEATHERY
• FLOSSY • MACHO
• FLUENT • MANFULLY • FRAGILE • MANLY
• FRAGRANT • MANNISH • FULGID • MASCULINE
• GALLANT • MAVERICK
• GENTEEL • MOUNTAINOUS • GENTLE • MOUNTAINS
• GENTLEMANLIKE • NERVE-RACKING • GENTLEMANLY • NERVE-WRACKING
• GENTLEWOMAN • OPEN-AIR
• GILDED • OUT-OF-DOOR • GIRLISH • OUT-OF-DOORS
• GLAMOROUS • OUTDOOR • GLAMOUR • OUTDOORS
• GLAMOUROUS • OUTDOORSY
• GLIB • OUTER • GLIB-TONGUED • OUTSIDE
• GLITTERING • OVERWHELMING • GLOSSY • OVEREXCITED
• GOOD-LOOKING • PACHYDERMATOUS
• GOOD-NATURED • PERDURABLE • GORGEOUS • PERILOUS
• GRACEFUL • PHYSICAL • GRAND • PHYSICALLY
• GRASPING • POINTY
• GREAT • POTHOLED • GREATHEARTED • PRAIRIE
• HANDSOME • PRECARIOUS • HAUTE_COTOURE • PROHIBITED
• HETEROGENEOUSNESS • PUNISHING
• HIGH • RAMPAGEOUS • HIGH- QUALITY • RESILIENT
97
• HIGH-BORN • RIGOROUS
• HIGH-BROW • ROBUST • HIGH-CLASS • ROCKLIKE
• HIGH-PROFILE • ROCKY • HIGH-STATUS • ROUGH
• HIGHBROWED • ROUGH-TEXTURED
• HIGHBROWNED • ROUGHENED • IMPRENETABILITY • ROUGHISH
• IN STYLE • ROWDY • IN VOGUE • RUGGED
• INCOMPREHENSIBILITY • RUGGEDNESS
• INDULGENT • RUTHLESS • INEXPLICABILITY • RUTTED
• INTELLIGENT • SAFARI • INTERESTING • SALOON
• INTRICACY • SAVANNA
• INVOLUTION • SAVANNAH • IN_STYLE • SCRAGGT
• IN_VOGUE • SCRAGGY
• LADY • SCRATCHY • LIKABLE • SERRATED
• LIMITED • SEVERE • LOFTY • SPARTAN
• LUSTROUS • STIMULATING
• LUXURIOUS • STONY • MAGIC • STICKY
• MAGNANIMOUSNESS • STRAINING • MAGNETISM • STRAPPING
• MAGNIFICENT • STRENUOUS
• MARVELOUS • STRICT • MELLIFLUOUS • STRINGLY
• MELLISONANT • STRONG • MERIT • STRONG-ARM
• MESMERIZE • STRUGGLE
• NICE-LOOKING • STUBBORN • NOBILITY • STURDY
• NOBLE • SUNRISE • NOBLE-MINDED • SUNSET
• NOBLEMAN • SURVIVOR
• NOBLENESS • TASK • NOBLESSE • TEST
• NOBLEWOMAN • TESTING • OUTSTANDING • THICK-SKINNED
• PATRICIAN • TIMBERLAND
• PATRICIAN • TOOTHED • PHOTOGENIC • TOUCH-AND-GO
• PICTURESQUE • TOUGH • PLEASEANT • TOUGHENED
• PLEASING • TOUGHNESS
• POLISHED • TREACHEROUS • POSH • TREK
• PRECIOUS • TREKING • PREEMINENCE • TREKKING
• PRESTIGIOUS • TRIAL
• PRETTY • TIRING • PRINCELY • TRICKY
• PRINCY • UNCARING • PROFLIGATE • UNCHARITABLE
• PROMINENT • UNCIVILISED
• QUEENLIKE • UNCIVILIZED • QUEENLY • UNCOMFORTABLE
• REFINED • UNCOVERED • REMARKABLE • UNDOMESTICATED
• RENOWNED • UNEVEN
• RIGHTEOUS • UNFEELING • ROYAL • UNFORGIVING
• SATIN • UNKIND • SATINY • UNMERCIFUL
• SCINTILLANT • UNPADDED
• SCINTILLATING • UNPLEASANT • SEDUCTIVE • UNPOLISHED
• SEDUCTIVENESS • UNREFINED • SELECTIVE • UNRELENTING
• SENIOR • UNRESTRAINED
• SENSATIONAL • UNRULY • SERAPHIC • UNSMOOTH
98
• SHINY • UNSTEADY
• SILK • UNTAMED • SILKY • VENTUROUS
• SILVER-TONGUED • VIOLENT • SNOBBISH • VISCERAL
• SOPHISTICATE • WEATHER-BEATEN
• SOPHISTICATED • WEATHERED • SOPHISTICATION • WESTERLY
• SPECTACULAR • WESTERN • SPLENDID • WETHERWORN
• STRIKING • WESTERLY
• STUNNING • WILD • STYLISH • WILDLIFE
• SUAVE • WOODLAND • SUBTLE
• SUGARINESS
• SUPERFINE • SUPERIOR
• TASTEFUL
• TOP-NOTCH • UPMARKET
• UPPER-CLASS • UPPER-CLASSES
• UPPERCLASSES
• VAIN • VELVET
• VELVETY • VOGUISH
• VOLUPTUARY
• VOLUPTUOUS • WELL-BRED
• VELVET • WELL-DESIGNED
• WELL-DRESSES
• WELLBORN • WOMANLIKE
• WOMANLY • WOMEN
Appendix 6
Collected Website Information
London Business School
Home http://www.london.edu/index.html 2012-05-03 09:15
The School http://www.london.edu/theschool/index.html 2012-05-03 09:15
Why business education http://www.london.edu/theschool/whybusinesseducation.html 2012-
05-03 09:16
The school at a glance http://www.london.edu/theschool/whybusinesseducation.html 2012-05-
03 09:16
99
History of the school
http://www.london.edu/theschool/theschoolataglance/historyoftheschool.html 2012-05-03
09:16
Rankings and Awards
http://www.london.edu/theschool/theschoolataglance/rankingsandawards.html 2012-05-03
09:16
The dean http://www.london.edu/theschool/thedean.html 2012-05-03 09:16
Managing the school http://www.london.edu/theschool/managingtheschool.html 2012-05-03
09:16
Our facilities- http://www.london.edu/theschool/ourfacilities.html 2012-05-03 09:17
London experience http://www.london.edu/theschool/londonexperience.html 2012-05-03 09:17
Business experience
http://www.london.edu/theschool/londonexperience/businessexperience.html 2012-05-03
09:17
Educational experience
http://www.london.edu/theschool/londonexperience/educationalexperience.html 2012-05-03
09:18
Partner schools http://www.london.edu/theschool/partnerschools.html 2012-05-03 09:18
Career impact http://www.london.edu/theschool/careerimpact.html 2012-05-03 09:19
Recruit our talent- http://www.london.edu/theschool/recruitourtalent.html 2012-05-03 09:24
Recruit on campus
http://www.london.edu/theschool/recruitourtalent/recruitmentoncampus.html 2012-05-03
09:24
100
Working for us http://www.london.edu/theschool/workforus.html 2012-05-03 09:25
Diversity at London business school Core courses
http://www.london.edu/programmes/mba/programmedetails/corecourses.html 2012-05-03
09:19
Electives http://www.london.edu/programmes/mba/programmedetails/electives.html 2012-05-
03 09:19
Internship options and your summer break
http://www.london.edu/programmes/mba/programmedetails/internshipoptions.html 2012-05-
03 09:19
Experimental learning
http://www.london.edu/programmes/mba/programmedetails/majorprojects.html 20120503
09:19
Language learning
http://www.london.edu/programmes/mba/programmedetails/languagelearning.html 2012-05-03
09:19
Learning methods
http://www.london.edu/programmes/mba/programmedetails/learningmethods.html 2012-05-03
09:20
International exchange programme
http://www.london.edu/programmes/mba/programmedetails/internationalexchangeprogramme.
html 2012-05-03 09:20
Student and alumni profiles
http://www.london.edu/programmes/mba/studentandalumniprofiles.html 2012-05-03 09:20
Faculty and research http://www.london.edu/facultyandresearch/index.html 2012-05-03 09:21
101
Faculty http://www.london.edu/facultyandresearch/faculty.html 2012-05-03 09:21
Research http://www.london.edu/facultyandresearch/research/ 2012-05-03 09:21
Subject areas http://www.london.edu/facultyandresearch/subjectareas.html 2012-05-03 09:21
Our community http://www.london.edu/ourcommunity/index.html 2012-05-03 09:21
Students http://www.london.edu/ourcommunity/students.html 2012-05-03 09:31
Student clubs and activities
http://www.london.edu/ourcommunity/students/studentclubsandactivities.html 2012-05-03
09:31
http://www.london.edu/theschool/workforus/diversity.html 2012-05-03 09:26
Staff profiles http://www.london.edu/theschool/workforus/staffprofiles.html 2012-05-03 09:26
Policies and legislation http://www.london.edu/theschool/policiesandlegislation.html 2012-05-
03 09:26
About the school http://www.london.edu/theschool/index.html 2012-05-03 09:27
Programmes http://www.london.edu/programmes/index.html 2012-05-03 09:27
MBA http://www.london.edu/programmes/mba.html 2012-05-03 09:28
Who is the MBA designed for
http://www.london.edu/programmes/mba/whoisthembadesignedfor.html 2012-05-03 09:29
Benefits and career impact
http://www.london.edu/programmes/mba/benefitsandcareerimpact.html 2012-05-03 09:29
102
Progamme details http://www.london.edu/programmes/mba/programmedetails.html 2012-05-
03 09:30
Leadership Launch
http://www.london.edu/programmes/mba/programmedetails/leadershipdevelopment.html
2012-05-03 09:30
Programme flexibility
http://www.london.edu/programmes/mba/programmedetails/programmeflexibility.html 2012-
05-03 09:30
Staff http://www.london.edu/ourcommunity/staff.html 2012-05-03 09:32
Alumni http://www.london.edu/ourcommunity/alumni.html 2012-05-03 09:33
Corporate partners http://www.london.edu/ourcommunity/corporatepartners.html 2012-05-03
09:34
Governance http://www.london.edu/ourcommunity/governance.html 2012-05-03 09:34
Local community involvement
http://www.london.edu/ourcommunity/localcommunityinvolvement.html 2012-05-03 09:35
Support the school http://www.london.edu/ourcommunity/supporttheschool.html 2012-05-03
09:36
News and events http://www.london.edu/newsandevents/index.html 2012-05-03 09:37
IMD Business School
Home http://www.imd.org/ 2012-05-03 17:26
Governance http://www.imd.org/about/foundationboard/ 2012-05-03 17:30
Key facts http://www.imd.org/about/keyfacts/ 2012-05-03 17:32
103
Who we are http://www.imd.org/about/keyfacts/culture.cfm 2012-05-03 17:33
What makes us different http://www.imd.org/about/keyfacts/What-Makes-Us-Different.cfm
2012-05-03 17:37
Core activities http://www.imd.org/about/keyfacts/core_activities.cfm 2012-05-03 17:38
Learning environment http://www.imd.org/about/keyfacts/learning_environment.cfm 2012-05-
03 17:39
Rankings http://www.imd.org/about/keyfacts/rankings.cfm 2012-05-03 17:40
Origins and history http://www.imd.org/about/keyfacts/history.cfm 2012-05-03 17:40
Executives in residence http://www.imd.org/about/executivesinresidence/ 2012-05-03 17:44
Pressroom http://www.imd.org/about/pressroom/ 2012-05-03 17:44
MBA http://www.imd.org/programs/mba/ 2012-05-03 17:45
Benefits http://www.imd.org/programs/mba/whyimd/benefits.cfm 2012-05-03 17:46
Why IMD http://www.imd.org/programs/mba/whyimd/index.cfm 2012-05-03 17:46
Rankings http://www.imd.org/programs/mba/whyimd/rankings.cfm 2012-05-03 17:46
Class subjects http://www.imd.org/programs/mba/programstructure/Class-subjects.cfm 2012-
05-03 17:47
Projects http://www.imd.org/programs/mba/programstructure/Projects.cfm 2012-05-03 17:47
Electives http://www.imd.org/programs/mba/programstructure/Electives.cfm 2012-05-03
17:47
104
Learning methods http://www.imd.org/programs/mba/programstructure/learning_methods.cfm
2012-05-03 17:48
Content overview http://www.imd.org/programs/mba/programstructure/content/index.cfm
2012-05-03 17:48
Career services http://www.imd.org/programs/mba/careerservices/index.cfm 2012-05-03 17:48
MBA community http://www.imd.org/programs/mba/community/index.cfm 2012-05-03 17:49
Company opportunities http://www.imd.org/programs/mba/companies/index.cfm 2012-05-03
17:49
Recruit our MBAs http://www.imd.org/programs/mba/companies/recruit.cfm 2012-05-03
17:49
Start up projects http://www.imd.org/programs/mba/companies/startups.cfm 2012-05-03 17:49
ICP http://www.imd.org/programs/mba/companies/icp.cfm 2012-05-03 17:50
Alumni network http://www.imd.org/networks/alumni/ 2012-05-03 17:51
IMD global centers http://www.imd.org/research-knowledge/global-centers/ 2012-05-03 17:51
About WCC http://www.imd.org/research/centers/wcc/about_wcc.cfm 2012-05-03 17:51
Research methodology http://www.imd.org/research/centers/wcc/research_methodology.cfm
2012-05-03 17:51
Case studies http://www.imd.org/research/publications/Case-Studies.cfm 2012-05-03 17:51
IE business School
Home http://www.ie.edu/ 2012-05-03 18:50
105
IE business school http://www.ie.edu/business/index_en.php 2012-05-03 18:50
Degree programs http://www.ie.edu/home/DegreePrograms/home_masters_eng.php 2012-05-
03 18:50
International MBA http://www.imba-es.ie.edu/ 2012-05-03 18:52
MBA Part-time http://www.mbap.ie.edu/ 2012-05-03 18:53
IE Schools http://www.ie.edu/IE/site/php/en/escuelas.php 2012-05-03 18:57
On in company http://execed.ie.edu/incompany/?idioma=es 2012-05-03 18:57
Mission and values http://www.ie.edu/IE/php/en/nuestra_mision.php 2012-05-03 18:57
Innovation http://www.ie.edu/IE/php/en/innovacion.php 2012-05-03 18:59
Entrepreneurship http://www.ie.edu/IE/php/en/creacion_empresas.php 2012-05-03 19:00
Global School http://www.ie.edu/IE/php/en/proyeccion_internacional.php 2012-05-03 19:00
Business community http://www.ie.edu/IE/php/en/comunidad_empresarial.php 2012-05-03
19:00
High quality research http://www.ie.edu/IE/php/en/investigacion_aplicada.php 2012-05-03
19:04
Social responsibility http://www.ie.edu/IE/php/en/responsabilidad_social.php 2012-05-03
19:05
Diversity http://www.ie.edu/IE/php/en/diversidad.php 2012-05-03 19:05
Humanities http://www.ie.edu/IE/php/en/humanidades.php 2012-05-03 19:05
106
Recognition http://www.ie.edu/IE/php/en/reconocimiento.php 2012-05-03 19:06
Rankings http://www.ie.edu/IE/php/en/rankings.php 2012-05-03 19:07
Accreditations http://www.ie.edu/IE/php/en/acreditaciones.php 2012-05-03 19:08
Associations http://www.ie.edu/IE/php/en/asociaciones.php 2012-05-03 19:09
Awards http://www.ie.edu/IE/php/en/distinciones.php 2012-05-03 19:009
Campus http://www.ie.edu/IE/php/en/campus.php 2012-05-03 19:10
Student life http://www.ie.edu/IE/php/en/student_life.php 2012-05-03 19:10
What is going on http://www.ie.edu/IE/php/en/actividades.php 2012-05-03 19:13
Career education http://www.ie.edu/alumni/career-development/career-education 2012-05-03
19:15
Career advising http://www.ie.edu/alumni/career-development/career-advising 2012-05-03
19:15
Benefits http://www.ie.edu/alumni/alumni-association/benefits 2012-05-03 19:15
Number ones http://www.ie.edu/alumni/alumni-association/number-ones 2012-05-03 19:15
University of Oxford: Said
Home http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/Pages/default.aspx 2012-05-05 11:17
About Said Business school http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/about/Pages/overview.aspx 2012-05-05
11:17
Welcome from the dean http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/about/Pages/welcome.aspx 2012-05-05 11:19
107
Overview http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/about/Pages/deanoverview.aspx 2012-05-05 11:20
Our state of the art building http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/about/Pages/building.aspx 2012-05-05
11:21
Our benefactor‟s http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/about/Pages/benefactors.aspx 2012-05-05 11:21
Business advisory council http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/about/Pages/bac.aspx 2012-05-05 11:21
Oxford lifestyle http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/about/Pages/lifestyle.aspx 2012-05-05 11:24
Studying at Oxford http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/about/Pages/studyingatOxford.aspx 2012-05-05
11:26
Degree Programmes http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/oxford1plus1/Pages/default.aspx 2012-
05-05 11:28
At a glance
http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/oxford1plus1/Pages/OxfordMBA1+1ataglance.aspx 2012-05-
05 11:28
Oxford MBa at a glance http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/Pages/Ataglance.aspx 2012-05-
05 11:30
Oxford MBa in the rankings http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/Pages/rankings.aspx 2012-
05-05 11:32
Programme outline http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/Pages/outline.aspx 2012-05-05 11:33
Core courses http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/Pages/Corecourses.aspx 2012-05-05 11:35
Electives http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/electives/Pages/default.aspx 2012-05-05 11:35
108
Private equity elective
http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/electives/Pages/Privateequityelective.aspx 2012-05-05
11:35
Leading strategic change
http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/electives/Pages/Leadingstrategicchange.aspx 2012-05-05
11:39
Social entrepreneurship electives
http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/electives/Pages/Socialentrep.aspx 2012-05-05 11:40
Real estate elective
http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/electives/Pages/Realestateelective.aspx 2012-05-05
11:40
Retailing elective- http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/electives/Pages/Retailing.aspx 2012-
05-05 11:44
Entrepreunal finance
http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/electives/Pages/Entrepreneurialfinance.aspx 2012-05-05
11:44
Corporate valuation
http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/electives/Pages/Corporatevaluation.aspx 2012-05-05
11:44
Entrepreneurship project http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/Pages/Projects.aspx 2012-05-
05 11:45
Strategic consulting project http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/Pages/scp.aspx 2012-05-05
11:45
Career prospects http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/Pages/careerprospects.aspx 2012-05-05
11:45
109
Careers service http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/Pages/career.aspx 2012-05-05 11:46
Recruitment http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/Pages/Placement.aspx 2012-05-05 11:46
Expert career advice http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/Pages/Expertcareeradvice.aspx
2012-05-05 11:48
Career impact http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/Pages/impact.aspx 2012-05-05 11:59
Pre-MBA internship award http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/Pages/Pre-internship.aspx
2012-05-05 11:59
Internships http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/Pages/Internships.aspx 2012-05-05 12:03
Student treks http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/Pages/treks.aspx 2012-05-05 12:03
Introduction http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/mbacareers/introduction.htm 2012-05-05 12:03
View an MBA profile http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/mbacareers/colin-poage.htm 2012-05-05 12:03
View an MBA profile 2 http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/mbacareers/nick-tostenrude.htm 2012-05-05
12:03
Learn about a sector1 http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/mbacareers/finance-sector.htm 2012-05-05
12:04
Learn about a sector 2 http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/mbacareers/consulting-sector.htm 2012-05-05
12:04
Partners and families
http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/Pages/Partners.aspx 2012-05-05 12:06
110
Learn about a sector 3 http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/mbacareers/global-industry-sector.htm 2012-
05-05 12:06
Women in Oxford http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/Pages/women.aspx 2012-05-05 12:06
Networking at Oxford http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/Pages/networkingatoxford.aspx,
2012-05-05 12:07
Educating leaders http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/Pages/Educatingleaders.aspx 2012-05-
05 12:07
Opening doors http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/Pages/OpeningDoors.aspx 2012-05-05
12:08
Oxford lifestyle http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/Pages/Oxfordlifestyle.aspx 2012-05-05
12:09
Student profiles http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/profiles/Pages/default.aspx 2012-05-05
12:09
Oxford MBA alumni profiles http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/alumni/Pages/alumni.aspx,
2012-05-05 12:09
Meet us http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/Pages/meetus.aspx 2012-05-05 12:09
Meet us in Oxford http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/degrees/mba/Pages/Oxfordevents.aspx 2012-05-05
12:10
Competitions and awards http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/newsandevents/Pages/competitions.aspx
2012-05-05 12:10
Award- http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/newsandevents/WIBaward/Pages/Abouttheaward.aspx, 2012-
05-05 12:10
111
2011 selection criterias-
http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/newsandevents/WIBaward/Pages/eligibility.aspx, 2012-05-05 12:11
Winners- http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/newsandevents/WIBaward/Pages/2011winner.aspx, 2012-
05-05 12:12
Previous awards- About the women in bsuiness group-
http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/newsandevents/WIBaward/Pages/2010.aspx, 2012-05-05 12:12
Recruit our students- http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/corporate/recruiting/Pages/default.aspx, 2012-
05-05 12:12
Projects in the news-
http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/corporate/projects/Pages/Projectsinthenews.aspx, 2012-05-05 12:14
HEC Paris
Home- http://www.hec.edu/, 2012-05-05, 12:42
About HEC Paris- http://www.hec.edu/HEC-Paris/About-HEC-Paris, 2012-05-05, 12:42
Our Philosophy- http://www.hec.edu/HEC-Paris/About-HEC-Paris/Our-philosophy, 2012-05-
05, 12:42
Our Programs- http://www.hec.edu/HEC-Paris/About-HEC-Paris/Our-programs, 2012-05-05,
12:42
History- http://www.hec.edu/HEC-Paris/About-HEC-Paris/History, 2012-05-05, 12:45
International Relations- http://www.hec.edu/HEC-Paris/International-relations, 2012-05-05,
12:46
International Development- http://www.hec.edu/HEC-Paris/International-
relations/International-Development, 2012-05-05, 12:47
112
HEC Paris and Japan- http://www.hec.edu/HEC-Paris/International-relations/International-
Development/HEC-Paris-and-Japan, 2012-05-05, 12:47
HEC Paris and China- http://www.hec.edu/HEC-Paris/International-relations/International-
Development/HEC-Paris-and-China, 2012-05-05, 12:47
PIM- http://www.hec.edu/HEC-Paris/International-relations/Exchange-Programs/PIM, 2012-
05-05, 12:48
GEP- http://www.hec.edu/HEC-Paris/International-relations/Exchange-Programs/GEP, 2012-
05-05, 12:49
EUCAP- http://www.hec.edu/HEC-Paris/International-relations/Exchange-Programs/EUCAP,
2012-05-05, 12:49
Centers of Expertise- http://www.hec.edu/HEC-Paris/International-relations/Centers-of-
Expertise, 2012-05-05, 12:50
Recruitment- http://www.hec.edu/HEC-Paris/Recruitment, 2012-05-05, 12:50
MSC Programs- http://www.hec.edu/HEC-Paris/Recruitment/To-know-more-about-
internships-and-corporate-projects/MSc-programs, 2012-05-05, 12:52
HEC MBA- http://www.hec.edu/HEC-Paris/Recruitment/To-know-more-about-internships-
and-corporate-projects/HEC-MBA, 2012-05-05, 12:52
Discover HEC MBA- http://www.mba.hec.edu/Discover-HEC-MBA/A-word-from-the-
Associate-Dean, 2012-05-05, 12:52
Become a Corporate Partner- http://www.hec.edu/Corporate-relations/Become-a-Corporate-
Partner, 2012-05-05, 12:52
Campus- http://www.hec.edu/HEC-Paris/Campus, 2012-05-05, 12:52
113
Students Associations- http://www.hec.edu/HEC-Paris/Campus/Students-associations, 2012-
05-05, 12:53
Organizing a Seminar- http://www.hec.edu/HEC-Paris/Campus/Organizing-a-seminar, 2012-
05-05, 12:53
Faculty and Research- http://www.hec.edu/Faculty-and-Research, 2012-05-05, 12:55
Foundation and Chairs- http://www.hec.edu/Faculty-and-Research/Foundation-and-Chairs,
2012-05-05, 12:57
Develop a Long-term Relationship- http://www.hec.edu/Corporate-relations/Become-a-
Corporate-Partner/Develop-a-long-term-relationship, 2012-05-05, 13:03
Top Story- http://www.mba.hec.edu/MBAInFocus/index.php?content=top, 2012-05-05, 13:05
MBA Profiles 1- http://www.mba.hec.edu/MBAInFocus/index.php?content=profiles, 2012-05-
05, 13:07
MBA Profiles 2- http://www.mba.hec.edu/MBAInFocus/index.php?content=profiles2, 2012-
05-05, 13:08
Alumni 1- http://www.mba.hec.edu/MBAInFocus/index.php?content=alumni, 2012-05-05,
13:08
Alumni 2- http://www.mba.hec.edu/MBAInFocus/index.php?content=alumni2, 2012-05-05,
13:10
Program News 1- http://www.mba.hec.edu/MBAInFocus/index.php?content=today, 2012-05-
05, 13:10
Program News 2- http://www.mba.hec.edu/MBAInFocus/index.php?content=today2, 2012-05-
05, 13:11
114
Program News 3- http://www.mba.hec.edu/MBAInFocus/index.php?content=today, 2012-05-
05, 13:11
Campus View 1- http://www.mba.hec.edu/MBAInFocus/index.php?content=campus, 2012-05-
05, 13:12
Campus View 2- http://www.mba.hec.edu/MBAInFocus/index.php?content=campus2, 2012-
05-05, 13:12
Full- Time Option- http://www.mba.hec.edu/Understand-your-program/Full-time-option,
2012-05-05, 13:14
Part- Time Option- http://www.mba.hec.edu/Understand-your-program/Part-time-option,
2012-05-05, 13:14
Leadership at HEC- http://www.mba.hec.edu/Understand-your-program/Leadership-at-HEC ,
2012-05-05, 13:15
Programs Highlights- http://www.mba.hec.edu/Understand-your-program/Program-highlights,
2012-05-05, 13:15
Women at HEC- http://www.mba.hec.edu/Life-HEC/Women-HEC, 2012-05-05, 13:15
HEC MBA Insights- http://www.mba.hec.edu/Life-HEC/HEC-MBA-Insights, 2012-05-05,
13:15
CMC- http://www.mba.hec.edu/Build-your-career/CMC, 2012-05-05, 13:16
Outreach- http://www.mba.hec.edu/Build-your-career/Outreach, 2012-05-05, 13:16
Approach- http://www.mba.hec.edu/Build-your-career/Approach, 2012-05-05, 13:16
115
Recruit from HEC MBA- http://www.mba.hec.edu/Build-your-career/Recruiting-from-HEC-
MBA, 2012-05-05, 13:16
What You Need- http://www.mba.hec.edu/Apply-Now/What-you-need, 2012-05-05, 13:16
Recruiting from HEC MBA- http://www.mba.hec.edu/Build-your-career/Recruiting-from-
HEC-MBA, 2012-05-05, 13:16
Kingston Business School
Home: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/ 2012-05-03 09:30
The-dean: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/about-us/welcome-from-the-dean 2012-05-03 09:30
Our-history: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/about-us/our-history 2012-05-03 09:30
What-sets-us-apart: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/about-us/what-sets-us-apart 2012-05-03
09:31
Recognition-and-rankings: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/about-us/international-recognition-
and-rankings 2012-05-03 09:31
Accreditations: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/about-us/accreditations 2012-05-03 09:32
What-our-students-say: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/about-us/what-our-students-say 2012-
05-03 09:33
What-our-graduates-say: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/about-us/what-our-graduates-say 2012-
05-03 09:33
honorary-awards: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/about-us/honorary-awards 2012-05-03 09:34
116
Mba-graduate: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/news-events/news/201201/sky%E2%80%99s-
not-limit-top-tv-executive-and-mba-graduate 2012-05-03 09:34
Application: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/news-events/news/201111/mba-bursary-
applications-now-open-february-2012-entry 2012-05-03 09:35
Workplace: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/news-events/news/201011/innovative-workplaces-
event-engaged-workforce-productive-one 2012-05-03 09:35
Ranking in Russia: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/news-events/news/201011/kingston-mba-
ranked-number-1-russia 2012-05-03 09:39
Challenge: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/news-events/news/201003/mba-graduate-participate-
ski-challenge 2012-05-03 09:39
25th-birthday: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/news-events/news/200909/kingston-mba-
celebrates-its-25th-birthday 2012-05-03 09:40
Russian business school: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/news-events/news/200909/kingston-
mba-moscow-tops-list-best-russian-business-schools 2012-05-03 09:41
News: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/news-events/news/200909/success-new-mba-students-
website 2012-05-03 09:41
Idea/ Fees: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/news-events/news/200907/mba-student-uses-
innovative-web-idea-raise-fees 2012-05-03 09:42
Joins bt board: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/news-events/news/200907/mba-alumnus-joins-
bt-board 2012-05-03 09:45
Open days: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/news-events/events/open-days 2012-05-03 09:45
MBA: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/courses/kingston-mba 2012-05-03 09:47
117
Why MBA: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/courses/kingston-mba/why-choose-kingston-mba
2012-05-03 09:48
Who teaches MBA: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/courses/kingston-mba/why-choose-kington-
mba/who-teaches-mba 2012-05-03 10:06
Our students: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/courses/kingston-mba/why-choose-kington-
mba/our-students 2012-05-03 10:06
Nodes: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/node/23633 2012-05-03 10:07
Full-time MBA: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/courses/kingston-mba/full-time-mba-
programme 2012-05-03 10:07
Fees and Bursaries: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/courses/kingston-mba/fees-and-bursaries
2012-05-03 10:08
How to apply: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/courses/kingston-mba/how-apply 2012-05-03
10:09
Entry requirements: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/courses/kingston-mba/entry-requirements
2012-05-03 10:10
Undergraduate-courses: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/courses/undergraduate-courses 2012-05-
03 10:11
Accommodation: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/courses/accommodation 2012-05-03 10:11
Placements: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/placements 2012-05-03 10:12
Careers-and-employability: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/courses/careers-and-employability
2012-05-03 10:12
Study-abroad: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/courses/study-abroad 2012-05-03 10:12
118
Research-centers: http://business.kingston.ac.uk/research/research-centres 2012-05-03 10:14
Research-groups http://business.kingston.ac.uk/research/research-groups 2012-05-03 10:15
Business-administration: http://www.kingston.ac.uk/postgraduate-course/master-business-
administration-mba/ 2012-05-03 10:15
Course-programme: http://www.kingston.ac.uk/postgraduate-course/master-business-
administration-mba/course-programme.html 2012-05-03 10:16
Timetable: http://www.kingston.ac.uk/postgraduate-course/master-business-administration-
mba/attendance-and-timetables.html 2012-05-03 10:17
Entry-requirements: http://www.kingston.ac.uk/postgraduate-course/master-business-
administration-mba/entry-requirements.html 2012-05-03 10:20
Recognition/ Accreditation: http://www.kingston.ac.uk/postgraduate-course/master-business-
administration-mba/recognition-and-accreditation.html 2012-05-03 10:20
Research-areas.html: http://www.kingston.ac.uk/postgraduate-course/master-business-
administration-mba/research-areas.html 2012-05-03 10:21
Links: http://www.kingston.ac.uk/postgraduate-course/master-business-administration-
mba/links-with-business-and-industry.html 2012-05-03 10:22
Facilitieshttp://www.kingston.ac.uk/postgraduate-course/master-business-administration-
mba/facilities.html 2012-05-03 10:23
Learning-support: http://www.kingston.ac.uk/postgraduate-course/master-business-
administration-mba/learning-support.html 2012-05-03 10:23
What our students say: http://www.kingston.ac.uk/postgraduate-course/master-business-
administration-mba/what-our-students-say.html 2012-05-03 10: 24
119
After you graduate: http://www.kingston.ac.uk/postgraduate-course/master-business-
administration-mba/after-you-graduate.html 2012-05-03 10: 24
Events / Lectures: http://www.kingston.ac.uk/postgraduate-course/master-business-
administration-mba/events-and-lectures.html 2012-05-03 10: 25
Networking: http://www.kingston.ac.uk/postgraduate-course/master-business-administration-
mba/networking.html 2012-05-03 10: 25
Experience: http://www.kingston.ac.uk/postgraduate-course/master-business-administration-
mba/international-experience.html 2012-05-03 10: 26
Teaching: http://www.kingston.ac.uk/postgraduate-course/master-business-administration-
mba/who-teaches-this-course.html 2012-05-03 10: 26
Benefits: http://www.kingston.ac.uk/postgraduate-course/master-business-administration-
mba/benefits-to-your-organisation.html 2012-05-03 10: 28
Bursaries: http://www.kingston.ac.uk/postgraduate-course/master-business-administration-
mba/fees-and-bursaries.html 2012-05-03 10: 28
Trinity College Dublin
Home: http://www.tcd.ie/business/ 2012-05-03 11:01
About us: http://www.tcd.ie/business/about/ 2012-05-03 11:01
Careers: http://www.tcd.ie/business/undergraduate/careers/ 2012-05-03 11:01
Development: http://www.tcd.ie/business/undergraduate/skills-development/ 2012-05-03 11:01
Study abroad: http://www.tcd.ie/business/undergraduate/study-abroad/ 2012-05-03 11:03
120
Awards: http://www.tcd.ie/business/undergraduate/awards/ 2012-05-03 11:03
Societies: http://www.tcd.ie/business/undergraduate/societies/ 2012-05-03 11:03
student-testimonials: http://www.tcd.ie/business/undergraduate/student-testimonials/ 2012-05-
03 11:03
Home MBA http://www.tcd.ie/business/mba/ 2012-05-03 11:04
Why us: http://www.tcd.ie/business/mba/why/ 2012-05-03 11:04
Ranking: http://www.tcd.ie/business/mba/international-standing/ 2012-05-03 11:35
Facts about us: http://www.tcd.ie/business/mba/facts/ 2012-05-03 11:36
Our Structure: http://www.tcd.ie/business/mba/structure/ 2012-05-03 11:36
Fulltime program: http://www.tcd.ie/business/mba/structure/full-time/outline/index.php 2012-
05-03 11:37
Company project: http://www.tcd.ie/business/mba/structure/full-time/company-project/ 2012-
05-03 11:37
Faculty: http://www.tcd.ie/business/mba/structure/full-time/faculty/ 2012-05-03 11:38
Fulltime: http://www.tcd.ie/business/mba/structure/full-time/outline/module_4.php 2012-05-03
11:38
Fulltime: http://www.tcd.ie/business/mba/structure/full-time/outline/module_3.php 2012-05-03
11:39
Fulltime: http://www.tcd.ie/business/mba/structure/full-time/outline/module_2.php 2012-05-03
11:40
121
Fulltime: http://www.tcd.ie/business/mba/structure/full-time/outline/module_1.php 2012-05-03
11:40
Part-time: http://www.tcd.ie/business/mba/structure/part-time/outline/module_4.php 2012-05-
03 11:41
Part-time: http://www.tcd.ie/business/mba/structure/part-time/outline/module_3.php 2012-05-
03 11:41
Part-time: http://www.tcd.ie/business/mba/structure/part-time/outline/module_2.php 2012-05-
03 11:42
Part-time :http://www.tcd.ie/business/mba/structure/part-time/outline/module_1.php 2012-05-
03 11:43
Part-time: http://www.tcd.ie/business/mba/structure/part-time/outline/ 2012-05-03 11:44
Part-time: http://www.tcd.ie/business/mba/structure/part-time/faculty/ 2012-05-03 11:44
Schoolship: http://www.tcd.ie/business/mba/fees-schoolships/ 2012-05-03 11:44
Application: http://www.tcd.ie/business/mba/entry-application/ 2012-05-03 11:45
Open Events: http://www.tcd.ie/business/mba/open-evenings/ 2012-05-03 11:46
Testimonials: http://www.tcd.ie/business/mba/student-testimonials/ 2012-05-03 11:47
Careers: http://www.tcd.ie/business/mba/careers/ 2012-05-03 11:48
Recruiters: http://www.tcd.ie/business/mba/recruiters-info/ 2012-05-03 11:48
FAQ: http://www.tcd.ie/business/mba/faqs/ 2012-05-03 11:49
Contact info: http://www.tcd.ie/business/mba/contact-us/ 2012-05-03 11:50
122
Business Management: http://www.tcd.ie/business/masters/msc-business-management/ 2012-
05-03 11:50
Structure: http://www.tcd.ie/business/masters/msc-business-management/structure/ 2012-05-03
11:51
Apply: http://www.tcd.ie/business/masters/msc-business-management/apply/ 2012-05-03
11:52
Fees: http://www.tcd.ie/business/masters/msc-business-management/fees/ 2012-05-03 11:53
Schoolship: http://www.tcd.ie/business/masters/msc-business-management/schoolships/ 2012-
05-03 11:53
Faculty: http://www.tcd.ie/business/masters/msc-business-management/faculty/ 2012-05-03
11:54
Careers: http://www.tcd.ie/business/masters/msc-business-management/careers/ 2012-05-03
11:54
FAQ: http://www.tcd.ie/business/masters/msc-business-management/faqs/ 2012-05-03 11:55
Contact info: http://www.tcd.ie/business/masters/msc-business-management/contact-us/ 2012-
05-03 11:55
Accommodation: http://www.tcd.ie/business/mba/accommodation/ 2012-05-03 11:56
Links: http://www.tcd.ie/business/mba/downloads-links/ 2012-05-03 11:57
Press:http://www.tcd.ie/Secretary/Communications/Press_Releases/PRArchive/PR9900/pr21.h
tml 2012-05-03 11:58
123
Press: http://www.tcd.ie/Secretary/Communications/Press_Releases/PR0203/prftranking.htm
2012-05-03 11:58
Campus: http://www.tcd.ie/research_innovation/entrepreneurship/campus.php 2012-05-03
12:03
Priority: http://www.tcd.ie/funding-priorities/priority/business.php 2012-05-03 12:04
Centres: http://www.tcd.ie/business/research/centres/ 2012-05-03 12:04
Structure: http://www.tcd.ie/business/research-degree-programme/structure/ 2012-05-03 12:05
University of Geneva
Home- http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?lang=en 2012-05-04 11: 24
Director of the MBA Program:
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=50&Itemid=70&lang=e
n 2012-05-04 11: 24
University of Geveva:
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=51&Itemid=71&lang=e
n 2012-05-04 11: 25
Audience
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=53&Itemid=73&lang=e
n 2012-05-04 11: 26
Application / Admission criteria
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=54&Itemid=74&lang=e
n 2012-05-04 11: 26
124
Course Calendar / Schedule
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=55&Itemid=75&lang=e
n 2012-05-04 11: 27
Program costs
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=56&Itemid=76&lang=e
n 2012-05-04 11: 28
Encounter Seminars
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=71&Itemid=147&lang=
en 2012-05-04 11: 28
Life at MBA
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=128&Itemid=148&lang
=en 2012-05-04 11: 29
Press
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=129&Itemid=149&lang
=en 2012-05-04 11: 30
1st year: 12 Core Courses
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=61&Itemid=81&lang=e
n 2012-05-04 11: 31
Leadership, Teamwork & Communication
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=73&Itemid=91&lang=e
n 2012-05-04 11: 36
Self Leadership
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=135&Itemid=153&lang
=en 2012-05-04 11: 36
125
Financial Policy
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=85&Itemid=103&lang=
en 2012-05-04 11: 37
Business Economics
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=84&Itemid=102&lang=
en 2012-05-04 11: 37
Investment Decision Making
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=83&Itemid=101&lang=
en 2012-05-04 11: 38
Interactive Strategizing
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=82&Itemid=100&lang=
en 2012-05-04 11: 39
Management Accounting
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=81&Itemid=99&lang=e
n 2012-05-04 11: 40
Organization Design
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=79&Itemid=97&lang=e
n 2012-05-04 11: 50
Risk Management
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=78&Itemid=96&lang=e
n 2012-05-04 11: 50
Marketing
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=77&Itemid=95&lang=e
n 2012-05-04 11: 51
126
Financial Accounting
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=76&Itemid=94&lang=e
n 2012-05-04 11: 51
Business Strategy
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=75&Itemid=93&lang=e
n 2012-05-04 11: 52
Organization & Communication
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=74&Itemid=92&lang=e
n 2012-05-04 11: 54
Personal Development Program
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=165&Itemid=174&lang
=en 2012-05-04 11: 55
Specializations
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=63&Itemid=83&lang=e
n 2012-05-04 11: 55
Honorary Committee
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=65&Itemid=85&lang=e
n 2012-05-04 11: 59
HEC Faculty
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=66&Itemid=86&lang=e
n 2012-05-04 12:00
Alumnus and Itemed:
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=168%3Atemoignages&
catid=49%3Aalumnis&Itemid=175&lang=en 2012-05-04 12:00
Marketing and Methods
127
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=138%3Amarketing-
and-methods&catid=36%3Aprogramme&Itemid=156&lang=en 2012-05-04 12:02
International
Organizationshttp://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=101%3Ai
nternational-organizations&catid=36%3Aprogramme&Itemid=119&lang=en 2012-05-04
12:03
International Management
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=100%3Ainternational-
management&catid=36%3Aprogramme&Itemid=118&lang=en 2012-05-04 12:05
Commodity
Tradinghttp://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=98%3Acommo
dity-trading&catid=36%3Aprogramme&Itemid=116&lang=en 2012-05-04 12:10
MBA Awards
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=162%3Amba-
awards&catid=49%3Aalumnis&Itemid=167&lang=en 2012-05-04 12:10
MBA Community
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=158%3Amba-
community&catid=49%3Aalumnis&Itemid=171&lang=en 2012-05-04 12:10
Social Events
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=159%3Asocial-
events&catid=49%3Aalumnis&Itemid=172&lang=en 2012-05-04 12:12
Career Coaching
http://mba.unige.ch/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=157%3Acareer-
coaching&catid=49%3Aalumnis&Itemid=170&lang=en 2012-05-04 12:12
Paris School of Business
Home: http://www.psbedu.com/ 2012-05-05 13:07
128
study-abroad: http://www.psbedu.com/study-abroad-business-school.html 2012-05-05 13:07
The Dean: http://www.psbedu.com/study-abroad-business-school/dean.html 2012-05-05 13:08
Campus: http://www.psbedu.com/study-abroad-business-school/campus-france.html 2012-05-
05 13:09
Internationality: http://www.psbedu.com/study-abroad-business-school/internationality.html
2012-05-05 13:09
Why France: http://www.psbedu.com/study-abroad-business-school/why-france.html 2012-05-
05 13:10
Beyond-degree: http://www.psbedu.com/study-abroad-business-school/beyond-degree.html
2012-05-05 13:10
Key facts: http://www.psbedu.com/study-abroad-business-school/key-facts.html 2012-05-05
13:11
Teaching-tools: http://www.psbedu.com/study-abroad-business-school/teaching-tools.html
2012-05-05 13:11
Student-profiles http://www.psbedu.com/study-abroad-business-school/student-profiles.html
2012-05-05 13:11
Network: http://www.psbedu.com/study-abroad-business-school/studialis-network.html 2012-
05-05 13:12
MBA programs: http://www.psbedu.com/study-abroad-programs/mba.html 2012-05-05 13:12
MBA/curriculum: http://www.psbedu.com/study-abroad-programs/mba/international-
mba/curriculum.html 2012-05-05 13:13
129
International-MBA: http://www.psbedu.com/study-abroad-programs/mba/international-
mba.html 2012-05-05 13:14
Pedagogy :http://www.psbedu.com/study-abroad-programs/mba/international-
mba/pedagogy.html 2012-05-05 13:14
Admission: http://www.psbedu.com/study-abroad-programs/mba/international-
mba/admission.html 2012-05-05 13:15
International degreehttp://www.psbedu.com/study-abroad-programs/mba/international-
mba/degree-requirements.html 2012-05-05 13:15
Testimony: http://www.psbedu.com/study-abroad-programs/mba/international-
mba/testimony.html 2012-05-05 13:16
School-faculty: http://www.psbedu.com/business-school-faculty.html 2012-05-05 13:18
Partner-universities-middle-east: http://www.psbedu.com/student-exchange-
international/partner-universities-middle-east.html 2012-05-05 13:18
Study-abroad: http://www.psbedu.com/student-exchange-international/study-abroad.html
2012-05-05 13:26
Partner-universities-Asia: http://www.psbedu.com/student-exchange-international/partner-
universities-asia.html 2012-05-05 13:26
Partnership with North America: http://www.psbedu.com/student-exchange-
international/partner-universities-north-america.html 2012-05-05 13:27
Partnership with Latin America: http://www.psbedu.com/student-exchange-
international/partner-universities-latin-america.html 2012-05-05 13:28
Partnership with New Zealand: http://www.psbedu.com/student-exchange-
international/partner-universities-australia-and-new-zealand.html 2012-05-05 13:28
130
Application-procedure: http://www.psbedu.com/student-exchange-international/application-
procedure.html 2012-05-05 13:29
Student Experience: http://www.psbedu.com/student-exchange-international/student-
experiences.html 2012-05-05 13:30
Basel world: http://www.psbedu.com/business-school-news/paris-school-business-mba-
students-visit-baselworld-2012 2012-05-05 13:31
Guest: http://www.psbedu.com/business-school-news/iesa-26th-anniversary-celebration-april-
21st-2011-paris-school-business-guest-h 2012-05-05 13:31
Manager-trump-international: http://www.psbedu.com/business-school-news/international-
mba-alumni-now-business-development-manager-trump-international-h 2012-05-05 13:32
Dual degree: http://www.psbedu.com/business-school-news/paris-school-business-dual-
degree-esgci 2012-05-05 13:33
Research: http://www.psbedu.com/business-school-news/international-mba-alumni-awarded-
position-phd-researcher 2012-05-05 13:33
American chamber: http://www.psbedu.com/business-school-news/paris-school-business-now-
member-american-chamber-commerce-paris 2012-05-05 13:34
Returning student: http://www.psbedu.com/business-school-news/warm-welcome-both-our-
new-and-returning-students 2012-05-05 13:34
Renowned case: http://www.psbedu.com/business-school-news/paris-school-business-mba-
students-participate-internationally-renowned-case-co 2012-05-05 13:38
Conferences: http://www.psbedu.com/business-school-news/paris-school-business-conference-
latin-america-wednesday-april-6th-1715-1930 2012-05-05 13:46
131
Career: http://www.psbedu.com/business-school-news/paris-school-business-deans-career-
profile 2012-05-05 13:51
Sabanci University
Home: http://som.sabanciuniv.edu/ 2012-05-06 16:03
Application Requirements: http://som.sabanciuniv.edu/Application_Requirements_MBA 2012-
05-06 16:03
Open positions: http://som.sabanciuniv.edu/open_positions 2012-05-06 16:04
MBA: http://som.sabanciuniv.edu/mba 2012-05-06 16:05
Directo rmessage: http://som.sabanciuniv.edu/directormessage 2012-05-06 16:05
Why us: http://som.sabanciuniv.edu/Why21months 2012-05-06 16:06
Advisory board: http://som.sabanciuniv.edu/advisoryboard 2012-05-06 16:06
Curriculum MBA: http://som.sabanciuniv.edu/Curriculum_MBA 2012-05-06 16:07
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Graduates In The Business World:
http://som.sabanciuniv.edu/Graduates_In_The_BusinessWorld 2012-05-06 16:08
Career: http://som.sabanciuniv.edu/PlacementSuccess_Carreer 2012-05-06 16:10
MBA Club: http://som.sabanciuniv.edu/MBA_Club 2012-05-06 16:10
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132
Alumni: http://som.sabanciuniv.edu/MBA_Alumni 2012-05-06 16:12
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Application Requirements: http://som.sabanciuniv.edu/Application_Requirements_MBA 2012-
05-06 16:44
Information session: http://som.sabanciuniv.edu/information-session-mba-eng 2012-05-06
16:45
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News:http://som.sabanciuniv.edu/sites/som.sabanciuniv.edu/files/Newsletters/en/News/News2.
html 2012-05-06 16:50
133
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Marketing: http://som.sabanciuniv.edu/node/380 2012-05-06 17:06
Achievement of our MBA Alumnus:
http://som.sabanciuniv.edu/news_detail/38962 2012-05-06 17:06
International Memberships http://som.sabanciuniv.edu/International_Membership 2012-05-06
17:09
Appendix 7
Figure 8.5: Distribution of frequency by file Cluster one
Cluster one: HEC Paris, IE Business School, IMD, London Business School and Oxford: Said
134
The table below is included to demonstrate the figure above in terms on numbers for each
scholar in Cluster one
Figure 8.6: Distribution of frequency by file Cluster two
Cluster two: HEC Genève, Kingston University, Paris School of Business, Sabanci University
and Trinity College Dublin
FREQUENCY %
SHOWN
%
PROCESSED
%
TOTAL
NO.
CASES
%
CASES
TF
•
IDF
COMPETENCE 663 31,7% 1,8% 1,0% 5 100,0% 0,0
SINCERITY 553 26,4% 1,5% 0,8% 5 100,0% 0,0
EXCITEMENT 431 20,6% 1,1% 0,6% 5 100,0% 0,0
SOPHISTICATION 257 12,3% 0,7% 0,4% 5 100,0% 0,0
RUGGEDNESS 188 9,0% 0,5% 0,3% 5 100,0% 0,0
135
The table below is included to demonstrate the figure above in terms on numbers for each
scholar in Cluster two
Appendix 8
Figure 8.7: Distribution of frequency of brand personality dimensions for Cluster one
The table below is included to demonstrate the figure above in terms on numbers for each
scholar in Cluster one
FREQUENCY %
SHOWN
%
PROCESSED
%
TOTAL
NO.
CASES
%
CASES
TF
•
IDF
COMPETENCE 608 28,6% 1,9% 1,0% 5 100,0% 0,0
EXCITEMENT 498 23,5% 1,5% 0,8% 5 100,0% 0,0
RUGGEDNESS 157 7,4% 0,5% 0,3% 5 100,0% 0,0
SINCERITY 510 24,0% 1,6% 0,8% 5 100,0% 0,0
SOPHISTICATION 350 16,5% 1,1% 0,6% 5 100,0% 0,0
136
Figure 8.8: Distribution of frequency of brand personality dimensions for Cluster two
HEC Genève Kingston University Paris School of business Sabanci University Tirnity College Dublin
HEC
Paris
IE Business
School
IMD Business
school
London Business
School
Oxford
COMPETENCE 109 102 106 142 149
EXCITEMENT 87 100 78 130 103
RUGGEDNESS 30 18 32 35 42
SINCERITY 83 102 80 105 140
SOPHISTICATION 57 77 32 85 99
137
APPENDIX 9
Cluster one
EIGENVALUES
Eigenvalues Percentages Cumul. Percent
----------- ----------- --------------
0,010 64,928 64,928
0,004 27,804 92,731
0,001 7,261 99,992
VARIABLES COORDINATES
Item. Axis 1 Axis 2 Axis 3
---------------------------------- ------ ------ ------
HEC Paris 0,044 0,013 0,024
IE Business School -0,133 0,035 -0,050
IMD Business school 0,196 -0,002 -0,039
London Business School -0,012 0,075 0,034
Oxford -0,039 -0,104 0,013
WORDS/CATEGORIES COORDINATES
Item. Axis 1 Axis 2 Axis 3
---------------------------------- ------ ------ ------
RUGGEDNESS 1,971 -1,149 1,752
EXCITEMENT 0,023 1,655 -0,291
COMPETENCE 0,711 -0,014 0,251
SINCERITY -0,215 -0,996 -1,411
SOPHISTICATION -1,838 -0,363 1,248
HEC
Geneve
Kingston
University
Paris School
of business
Sabanci
University
TIRNITY
COLLEGE
DUBLIN
COMPETENCE 40 167 69 199 188
EXCITEMENT 36 122 52 98 123
RUGGEDNESS 16 55 13 46 58
SINCERITY 31 107 51 149 215
SOPHISTICATION 16 72 50 47 72
138
Cluster two
EIGENVALUES
Eigenvalues Percentages Cumul. Percent
----------- ----------- --------------
0,018 61,337 61,337
0,006 20,467 81,803
0,004 13,824 95,628
VARIABLES COORDINATES
Item. Axis 1 Axis 2 Axis 3
--------------------------- ------- ------ ------
HEC Geneve 0,067 -0,018 0,028
Kingston University 0,125 -0,016 0,083
Paris School of business 0,226 -0,031 -0,136
Sabanci University -0,154 -0,092 -0,012
TIRNITY COLLEGE -0,070 0,107 -0,013
WORDS/CATEGORIES COORDINATES
Item. Axis 1 Axis 2 Axis 3
---------------------------------- ------ ------ ------
SOPHISTICATION 1,884 0,405 -1,491
RUGGEDNESS 0,298 1,708 2,735
EXCITEMENT 0,737 0,031 0,759
COMPENTENCE -0,399 -1,273 0,088
SINCERITY -1,187 1,021 -0,684
139
Appendix 10
Table 8.9: Environmental situations capitalized by some business schools in creating their
brand personality dimension
140
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