when the bough breaks: mental illness in the pregnant and postpartum woman
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When the bough breaks: Mental Illness in the Pregnant and Postpartum Woman . Dr.Mariam Alawadhi MD,FRCPC Assistant professor-Department of Psychiatry,Kuwait University Head of consultation liaison unit-KCMH. Agenda. - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
When the bough breaks: Mental Illness in the
Pregnant and Postpartum Woman Dr.Mariam Alawadhi MD,FRCPC
Assistant professor-Department of Psychiatry,Kuwait University
Head of consultation liaison unit-KCMH
AgendaReview the epidemiology and clinical
presentation of perinatal mood and anxiety disorders in perinatal women.
Understand the psychiatric, obstetric and pediatric implications of a mother’s untreated illness.
Discuss a bio-psychosocial approach to the management of these disorders.
Depression is “the most common complication of childbearing.”
Wisner, 2002
1 in 5 mothers will experience a mental health disorder during their pregnancy or the year after they deliver.
Pregnancy and the transition to parenthood is considered to be one of life's major transitions.
Women are at an increased risk of developing mental health issues due to physiological and psychological risk factors.
Challenging the myths...
Media images of pregnancy and motherhoodPregnancy was planned, so why do I have the
“blues”?Work-life balanceRelationships (couple, extended family)
...and facing reality
Tired, home alone, lots of care for baby, no time for self, complete loss of control over time
Wide range of positive and negative emotions
Adjustment and adaptation to pregnancy and motherhood is dynamic
pregnancy alters a woman’s life irreversibly
Women need accurate information (e.g, pregnancy, labour, delivery) = power, control
Shame & stigma
Perinatal mental healthPregnancy related Antepartum Depression Antepartum anxiety
Postpartum related Baby Blues Postpartum Depression Postpartum Psychosis postpartum anxiety
Let’s define the terms first...Antepartum depression
Antepartum depression
Associated with: Poor prenatal care (e.g., nutrition; substance use) Changes in cortisol & HPA axis development Poor perinatal outcomes (e.g, abnormal fetal
neurobehavioral; pre-term labour (Steele et al., 1992)
Depression vs. pregnancy? affect cognition functional impairment
Antenatal Depression Risk factors:
low self-esteem
low social support, low income
antenatal anxiety, hx of depression, hx of abuse
negative cognitive style
hx of miscarriage/pregnancy termination
pregnancy complications
Confounds in diagnosing depression during pregnancy
Overlapping symptoms: Sleep disturbances Increased/decreased appetite Decreased energy Changes in concentration
Illnesses with similar symptoms: Anemia Thyroid dysfunction Gestational diabetes mellitus
Perinatal Anxiety
Generalized Anxiety Disorder = 4-8% Panic Attacks = 1-3% Obsessive Compulsive Disorder = 0.2-1.2% Posttraumatic stress Disorder = 6%; 40% in loss
Perinatal anxiety disorders
Effects of maternal stress & anxiety during pregnancy
– Altered fetal movement
– Lower gestational age
– Lower infant birth weight
– Lower APGAR scores
– Enduring changes in cortisol measures in offspring
Ross,2006
Postpartum blues
• Baby blues– Very common (50-80%)– Starts w/in 1 wk pp: peaks3-5 days post-delivery– Unrelated to environmental stressors– Unrelated to psychiatric history– Present in all cultures
Low-level symptoms:• Tearfulness• Irritability, reactivity• Insomnia• Anxiety• Poor appetite
Posited relationship between “Blues” and PPD
• During pregnancy:– Increase oestrogen, progesterone (placental production of
hormones); beta-endorphin & cortisol (cortisol peaks in late pregnancy - CRH), prolactin
– Oestrogen enhances neurotransmitter serotonin (increases synthesis & reduced breakdown)
• After delivery:– Drop in oestrogen/progesterone (removal of placenta at
delivery); drop in cortisol & b/e– Decrease estrogen decrease serotonin – Prolactin levels return to normal in non-lactating women w/in
weeks – Breastfeeding: prolactin levels remain high (induces release of
oxytocin)
Postpartum depression
Postpartum depression
Peaks at 3-6 mo pp Average PPD course is 7 mo
Related to psychiatric history and environmental stressors
DSM IV onset from within 4 wks. of delivery, “pp onset”Clinically, up to 1 y postpartum (DSM V to reflect this)
Postpartum depression
Added clinical features:
Obsessive traits (e.g., name of baby, harming baby)
Depressed, despondent, emotionally numb
Ambivalence toward baby (bonding)
Grief for loss of self
Feelings of inadequacy, guilt*
Feeling isolated/misunderstood
Suicidal ideation/Ego-dystonic thoughts of harming baby
Risk factors
(Kendler, 1993; Wisner, 2002)
Biological Psychological
Social Obstetric
•Family history of depression or affective disorders•Previous PPD or depression•Thyroid dysfunction•Hormones•Altered immune function•Sleep disturbances
•Low self-esteem•age•Perfectionist, neuroticism, high/unrealistic expectations of self/baby•Feelings of inadequacy•Role conflict•Attitude toward pregnancy (ambivalence, unwanted)•Trauma/abuse•Unresolved grief (death of child)
•Lack/poor social support•Relationship problems (couple, extended family)•Difficult baby (feeding, colic)•Separation from baby•Stressful live events (move, job change, illness)•Economic stress•Recent loss•Childcare stress (# of children at home)
•IVF (fertility drugs)•Difficult delivery•Medical complications of pregnancy•Health problems of infant•Lack of readiness for hospital discharge
Postpartum psychosis
Heterogeneous group of disorders
BAD (35% with bipolar diathesis)
MDD w/ psychotic features
SZ-spectrum disorders
Medical conditions (e.g., thyroid, low B12)
Drugs (e.g., amphetamines)
Bizarre symptoms: • Delusions (e.g., baby
possessed)• Hallucinations (e.g.,
seeing s/o else’s face)• Mood swings (more
than non/pp psychosis)
• Confusion & disorientation
• Erratic behaviour• insomnia• Waxing & waning
Risk for suicide and infanticide
Psychiatric emergency
Postpartum psychosis
Rare (1-2/1000 women) Most commonly 2-4 wks/pp
Risk Factors
Family hx of BAD Early onset depression History of PPD
Agenda
2.Understand the psychiatric, obstetric and pediatric implications of a mother’s untreated illness.
Economic & health care burden
• Yearly estimated costs of depression $14.4 – 44 billion dollars annually (Greenberg, 1993; Stephens, 2001)
• The rate of depression among Ontarians is about 4.8% (Statistics Canada, 2003), with women more than twice as likely as men to be depressed (Statistics Canada, 1996-97).
• 50% of OB/GYN patients have a significant emotional disturbance (Ballinger, 1977; Bryne, 1984; Worsley, 1977)
• Women with PPD access more community services, make more frequent non-routine visits to the pediatrician; costs are higher for women with an extended duration of illness(Petrou, 2002; Chee, 2008)
• Peak prevalence of ♀ psychiatric contact (in & outpatient) occurs in the first 3 months after childbirth(Kendall, 1987; Munk-Olsen, 2008)
Maternal Risks from A/PPD Coronary artery disease Cancer Hypertension Overactive bladder urinary incontinence Poorer maternal health practices Complications after childbirth
Fetal Risks from A/PPD Poorer maternal health practices Elevated cortisol levels Preterm delivery Small for gestational age Low birth weight
Schmeelk 1999, Lundy 1999, Hoffman 2000, Adewuya 2007, Hedgaard 1993
Adverse parenting outcomes
Depressed mothers: Perceive their infants as more bothersome and
make harsher judgments of them Are more irritable and spend less time looking,
touching, and talking to their infants Are more likely to neglect/abuse their children
Whiffen 1989, Cohn 1990, Chaffin 1996
Adverse parenting outcomes
These effects are moderated by: Timing of depressive episode Age of children SES of family
Lovejoy, 2000
Attachment Definition :
A strong emotional and social bond between infants and their caregivers
JOHN BOWLBY (1907-1990)
British Child Psychiatrist & Psychoanalyst. He was the first attachment theorist describing attachment as a "lasting
psychological connectedness between human beings".
Bowlby believed that the earliest bonds formed by children with their caregivers have a tremendous impact that continues throughout life.
John Bowlby (1969)
Argued babies are born equipped with behaviors (crying, cooing, babbling, smiling, clinging, sucking, following) that help ensure that adults will love them, stay with them and meet their needs.
Bowlby (cont’d)
Believed quality of early attachment influences future relationships (friends, romantic partners, own children).
HARLOW & ZIMMERMAN A famous experiment was conducted by Harlow and
Zimmerman in 1959, Which showed that developing a close bond does not depend on hunger satisfaction.
They conducted the experiment where rhesus monkey babies were separated from their natural mothers and reared by surrogates- terry cloth covered and other was wire mesh.
Babies cling to terry cloth mothers even though wire mesh had bottle.
This shows 'contact comfort' is more important
Attachment 'FEEDING IS NOT THE BASIS FOR
ATTACHMENT' The central theme of attachment theory is that
mothers who are available and responsive to their infant's needs establish a sense of security in their children.
The infant knows that the caregiver is dependable, which creates a secure base for the child to then explore the world.
Attachment When does it form? Usually within the first six months of the
infant’s life Shows up in second six months through
wariness of strangers, fear of separation from caregiver, etc.
Attachment Babies are born equipped with behavior like
crying, cooing, babbling and smiling to ensure adult attention & adults are biologically programmed to respond to infant signals.
Bowlby viewed the First 3 years are very sensitive period for attachment
Four Stages of Attachment
Pre-attachment Attachment-in-the- making Clear-cut attachment Formation Of Reciprocal Relationship
PREATTACHMENT PHASEBirth-6weeks
Baby’s innate signals attract caregiver (Grasping, crying, smiling and gazing into the adult’s eyes) Caregivers remain close by when the baby responds positively
The infants encourage the adults to remain close as the the closeness comforts them
Babies recognize the mother’s smell, voice and face. They are not yet attached to the mother, they don’t
mind being left with unfamiliar adults. They have No fear of strangers
ATTACHMENT IN MAKING 6 Weeks – 6 to 8 Months Infant responds differently to familiar caregiver than to strangers. The baby would babble and smile more to the mother and quiets
more quickly when the mother picks him. The infant learns that her actions affect the behavior of those
around begin to develop “Sense of Trust” where they expect that the
caregiver will respond when signaled The infant still does not protest when separated from the caregiver
“CLEAR CUT” ATTACHMENT PHASE
6-8 Months to 18 Months -2 Years
The attachment to familiar caregiver becomes evidentBabies display “Separation Anxiety”, where they become
upset when an adult whom they have come to rely leaves
Although Separation anxiety increases between 6 -15 months of age its occurrence depends on infant temperament, context and adult behavior
FORMATION OF RECIPROCAL RELATIONSHIP
18 Months / 2 Years and on
With rapid growth in representation and language by 2 years the toddler is able to understand some of the factors that influence parent’s coming and going and to predict their return.
separation protests decline. The child could negotiate with the caregiver,
using requests and persuasion to alter her goals
Attachment Just the mother? No Attachment to the mother is usually the
primary attachment, but can attach to fathers and other caretakers as well.
Mary AinsworthAinsworth came up with a special experimental
design to measure the attachment of an infant to the caretaker
The Strange Situation Test – procedure in which a caregiver leaves a child alone with a stranger for several minutes and then returns.
STRANGE SITUATION 1. Observer shows caregiver and infant into the experimental room and
then leaves. ( 30 Seconds)
2. Caregiver sits and watches child play. (3 mins)
3. Stranger enters, silent at first, then talks to caregiver, then interacts with infant. Caregiver leaves the room. (3 mins)
4. First separation. Stranger tries to interact with infant. (3 mins)
5. First reunion. Caregiver comforts child, stranger leaves. Caregiver then leaves. (3 mins)
6. Second separation. Child alone. (3 mins)
7. Stranger enters and tries to interact with child
8. Second reunion. Caregiver comforts child, stranger leaves. •
All episodes except 1 last for 3 mins unless the child becomes very upset
STRANGE SITUATION Videohttp://youtu.be/PnFKaaOSPmk
Four Key Observations Exploration : to what extent does the child
explore their environment Reaction to departure : what is the child’s
response when the caregiver leaves The stranger anxiety : how does the child
respond to the stranger alone Reunion : how does the child respond to the
caregiver upon returning
STRANGE SITUATION Findings Infants differ in quality or style of their
attachment to their caregivers. Most show one of four distinct patterns of
attachment:1. Secure attachment
2. Insecure/Avoidant attachment
3. Insecure/ambivalent attachment
4. Disorganized/Disorientated attachment
Secure Attachment
Most infants (65-70% of 1 yr olds) Freely explore new environments, touching base
with caregiver periodically for security. May or may not cry when separated, when
returned, crying ceases quickly.
Avoidant Attachment
15% Don’t cry when separated React to stranger similar to their caregiver When returned, avoids her or slow to greet her.
Ambivalent Attachment
10% Seeks contact with their caregiver before
separation After she leaves and returns, they first seek her,
then resist or reject offers of comfort
Disorganized Attachment
5-10% Elements of both avoidant and ambivalent
(confused)
Agenda
3. Discuss a biopsychosocial approach to the management of these disorders.
Detecting perinatal depression: why screen?
High prevalence rateRisks of untreated symptomsAvailability of effective treatmentAvailability of validated screening tools
Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS)10-item self-reportAdv: easy to score, designed for peripartum use,
validated ante- and pp, cross-culturally validatedDisadv: not linked to DSM-IV-TR criteria, validation
studies do not provide definitive answer about optimal cut-off scores
Guidelines: score 9-12 pp risk, 12> high risk (cut-off scores above 12 not sensitive in some studies)
(Cox & Holden, 2003)
Detecting Perinatal DepressionWhy Screen??
PKU A/PPDPrevalence 1 in 12 000
babies1 in 5 mothers
Outcome Mod-severe MR Serious and lasting effects on mother/child health and
family functioning
Predictive Screen
Cost to Screen $50/baby freeEffective Rx Cost-effective Rx
Gestational diabetes: 3-10% pregnanciesGestational hypertension: 2-3% pregnancies
Educate about self-care
NESTS Proper Nutrition Exercise Rest (Sleep protocol) Time for yourself Circles of Support
Educate about self-careSleepSLEEP PROTOCOL: 5h of uninterrupted sleep per nightBreaks from babyEnjoyable activitiesDecrease isolation
Spend time with friends, family, other mothersProtect yourself and your energy
Limit visitors, lighten chores
TreatmentScreening and invesigations
Check for other diseasesThyroid diseaseAnemiaDiabetesVitamin deficiencies
Treatment Therapy
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Interpersonal Psychotherapy Couple therapy Group therapy
Medications
Risks of medication
1) to mother 2) to fetus 3) to newborn
Risks of disease
1) to mother2) to fetus3) to child 4) to family
Suicide and homicide
l
Principles of perinatal psychopharmacology
-Is there an increase risk of spontaneous
abortion/miscarriage?
-Is there an increase in the risk of congenital
Malformation?
-Is there an increase in the risk of adverse
outcomes for the neonate?
-Is there an increase in the risk of adverse outcomes from breastfeeding?
Effects of pregnancy on pharmacokinetics
Delayed gastric emptying Decreased gastrointestinal motility Increased volume of distribution Decreased protein binding capacity Increased hepatic metabolism
SSRIsAbsolute risk of exposure in pregnancy is small. • Paxil Health Advisory• Poor Neonatal Adaptation Syndrome • Persistent Pulmonary Hypertension • Current U.S. LawsuitsLouik 2007, Einarson 2008, Alwan 2008, Greene 2007, Hallberg 2005, Wogelius 2006, Oberlander, Levinson-Castiel 2006, Chambers 2006, 2009, Kallen 2008, Andrade 2009
Mood stabilizers High risk for relapse into bipolar depression with discontinuation Lithium may be the safest alternative Valproic acid: teratogenicity neurobehavioral toxicity
• CBZ and LTG lower risk than VPA Folic acid supplementation Li non-responders: consider LTG +/- antipsychotic vs. atypical
across pregnancy
Wyszynski 2005, Morrow 2006, Cunnington 2007, Meador 2006, Holmes 2004, Cohen 2007
Breastfeeding“It is when the socioeconomic situation is the worst
that breastfeeding has the greatest benefit.” Dr. Jack Newman
Nutritional advantages Infection, allergy, Ca, diabetes protection Bonding, developmental benefits Postpartum recovery, Ca (breast, ovarian),
osteoporosis Free and easy!
Mother’s biasWomen receiving chronic therapy tend to initiate
breastfeeding much less often If they do initiate, they discontinue it much earlier • Continuation of breastfeeding correlates with cumulative amount of reassuring counseling advice women receive from health professionals
Moretti et al, 1995, 1998 From Koren 2007
BreastfeedingGenerally, excretion rates < 10% into breast
milk are considered safe by the American Academy of Pediatrics.
[milk]/[plasma]:Molecular size, protein-binding,
acidity,lipophilicity • Nursing infant: absorption from GI tract ability to detoxify, ability to excrete .
Nothing trumps maternal euthymia
Thank you!