RESEARCH- - -

ADAPTED PHYSICAL ACTIVITY QUARTERLY, 1992,9,249-260

Training Practices of Athletes Who Participated in the National Wheelchair

Athletic Association Training Camps

Kimberly T. Watanabe, Rory A. Cooper, Annette J. Vosse, Fred D. Baldini, and Rick N. Robertson California State University, Sacramento

A survey designed to record training practices of athletes with disabilities was administered to participants in the 1990 and 1991 National Wheelchair Athletic Association Elite and Developmental Athlete Training Camp. Infor- mation on age, weight, nature and level of disability, the sport and experience in it, sources of training information, dietary practices, and alcohol and cigarette consumption was requested. The athletes were also asked to report their weekly training practices by quarters for the previous year concerning average number of workouts per week, number of hours per workout, number of miles per week, percent of time spent on speed work and/or interval training per week, number of weight training sessions per week, and the number of competitions entered per quarter. Results indicate that most of the athletes derived much of their training information from personal contact with coaches, other athletes, and sport scientists. Many do not set goals in developing training routines, training diets, or competition schedules.

The Development of Wheelchair Sports Training

During the past 40 years more persons with disabilities have begun to participate in sports (Cooper, 1990). Though there are no exact numbers, recently a dramatic increase has been noted. This is evidenced by the number of participants in major events and the creation of numerous sports associations. Racing wheelchair manufacturers estimate that over the last 5 years alone more than 10,000 racing wheelchairs have been manufactured worldwide. The National Wheelchair Ath- letic Association (NWAA) has grown to approximately 1,500 members; there are

The authors are with the Human Engineering Laboratory, Depts. of Biomedical Engineering and Health & Physical Education, California State University, Sacramento. Request reprints from Dr. Rory A. Cooper, Biomedical Engineering Program, California State University, Sacramento, 6000 J St., Sacramento, CA 95819-6019.

250 Watanabe, Cooper, Vosse, Baldini, and Robertson

35 other sport associations in the U.S. whose members include athletes with disabilities.

With this dramatic increase in sport participation and competition of athletes with disabilities comes a pressing need to know what are and what are not effective training techniques. As with any sport, training technique can improve performance as well as help prevent injuries. Unfortunately, proper training techniques for various wheelchair sports have not been clearly defined. A recent paper by Hedrick, Morse, and Figoni (1988) reported training practices of elite wheelchair roadracers. The authors concluded that there was considerable incon- sistency in the training behaviors of the participating roadracers. They also noted that many athletes use asystematic empirical methods based on personal experience and/or observation in designing their training program.

The current study attempts to extend and build upon the work of Hedrick et al. (1988) by collecting additional information about training practices of athletes from other sports as well as elite racers. Adding this information to existing data will give coaches and athletes with disabilities a better grasp of training effectiveness.

For the past 2 years California State University, Sacramento, has been the site for athlete training camps sponsored by the U.S. Olympic Committee and the NWAA. Athletes from across the United States were selected to participate. They came from track and field, weight lifting, table tennis, archery, shooting, and swimming. The principal purpose of these camps has been to improve the perfor- mance of members of the U.S. Disabled Sports Team in international competition, particularly the Paralympics in Barcelona this summer. A second purpose has been to develop a scientific basis for training programs and fitness evaluation of athletes with disabilities. The camps have included sport-specific training, testing, and education. An integral part of these camps has been the assessment of training practices used by the athletes.

Methodology Subjects Participants in the 1990 and 1991 NWAA Developmental and Elite Athlete Training Camp served as subjects. Prior to attending a training camp, each athlete was asked to respond to a survey. Later when athletes anived at the camp, any unanswered questions or incomplete answers were discussed in order to complete the surveys.

Thirty-nine athletes participated in this survey, 9 females and 30 males. Of these 39 athletes, 24 were classified as paraplegic, 11 as quadriplegic, 2 as blind, and 2 as mentally impaired. With regard to disability etiology, 25 had spinal cord injuries, 4 were postpolio, 2 had spina bifida, 2 had multiple sclerosis, 1 had arteriovenal malformation, I had spinal tuberculosis, 2 were blind, and 2 were mentally impaired. The athletes competed in a variety of sports: 14 in wheelchair track, 6 in field events (two of these were pentathletes), 1 in weight lifting, 5 in swimming, 5 in table tennis, 3 in archery, 3 in shooting, and 2 in Special Olympics track.

Survey Categories A survey1 developed and modeled after one used by Hedrick et al. (1988) asked athletes to provide information on age, weight, disability etiology and degree of

Training Practices of NWAA Athletes 25 1

impairment, number of years with disability, the sport they compete in, and number of years experience in their sport. They were asked to rank sources of training and technical information according to their perceived usefulness. The source list included the following 1 1 choices for ranking: coaches/trainers, training camps/sports scientists, conferences and workshops, therapist, other athletes, coaching manuals, scientific joumals/medical journals and publications, personal trial and error/personal experience, competition videos, Sports 'n' Spokes, and other magazines/newsletters.

Data were obtained on weekly training practices for each quarter of the year preceding the training camp (April-June, July-September, October- December, and January-March). The survey was adapted as needed to the particu- lar type of sport or disability etiology. Most athletes reported on their average number of workouts per week, average number of hours per workout session, average number of miles per week, average percent of time spent on speed work and/or interval training per week, average number of weight training sessions per week, and number of competitions entered per quarter. Athletes were also asked to rate their perceived exertion during interval and nonintewal steady-state train- ing using two scales: Percent of Maximal Effort and Borg's Perceived Exertion Rating (Borg, 1970).

Data were gathered to assess the role of mental preparation in their training programs. Athletes were asked whether they used mental preparation and, if so, was it used as part of daily training only, on competition days only, or both? Athletes were asked for information on when they performed stretching and flexibility exercises: before training sessions, after training sessions, before com- petitions, after competitions, and/or daily (outside of training sessions). They were also asked to report which body parts they stretched: shoulders, back, arms, neck, chest, and/or legs.

The athletes were asked which dietary practices they employed to maintain optimal performance weight and strength and whether they used protein and carbohydrate supplements, stimulants, vitamins, diuretics, caloric manipulation, or special diets including high carbohydrate, low fat, high protein, no red meat, or high fiber diets. They were also asked to estimate the percent of carbohydrates, protein, and fat in their diets and, finally, whether and to what degree they smoked and/or consumed alcohol.

Data Collection and Analysis

Data collected were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with Lotus and Excel software programs. The established level of significance was p<.05. Characteristics of athletes were analyzed as a single group and for various subgroups. The analyses included separation by gender, by disability etiology (paraplegia, quadriplegia, or other such as blind and mentally challenged), by sport, and according to whether the sport is primarily aerobic or anaerobic. Aerobic sports included wheelchair track, swimming, and Special Olympics track

' A copy of the survey is available upon written request from Dr. Rory Cooper, Department of Biomedical Engineering, California State University, Sacramento, Sacra- mento, CA 95819-6019.

252 Watanabe, Cooper, Vosse, Baldini, and Roberfson

(all of the track and swimming athletes competed at long distance, even sprinters). Anaerobic sports included table tennis, weight lifting, field events, archery, and shooting. The two pentathletes, since they participated in track events, were categorized in the aerobic group.

Results and Discussion

Athletes' Statistics

The athletes ranged from 17 to 51 years of age. Averages and standard deviations for age, number of years disabled, number of years experience in their sport, and body weight are given in Table 1. There was no significant difference between men and women for age. Neither were there statistically significant differences among ages and body weights by disability etiology. Analysis of age by sport groups revealed that the archerylshooting group was the oldest, followed by the weight liftingfield group, table tennis, track, and swimming. The Special Olym- pics track group was the youngest. There were no significant differences among group means, however.

A significant difference, F(1,37)=6.46, was found between the average age of athletes participating in anaerobic sports and those participating in aerobic sports, the former being the older. This may indicate that athletes from aerobic sports switch to anaerobic sports as they grow older and/or that older athletes in anaerobic sports are more competitive at the elite level. The body weight of the athletes ranged from 70 to 291 Ibs. No significant difference was observed when athletes were grouped by degree of impairment or by sport. However, there was

Table 1

Means and Standard Deviations of Athletes' Age, Years Disabled, Years Experience, and Body Weight

Subjects Age Yrs. disabled Yrs. exper. Weight (Ibs)

M SD M SD M SD M SD

All (n = 39) 31.1 7.8 16.6 11.9 7.4 5.9 Men (n = 30) 33.5 8.0 12.8 10.5 6.0 4.2 Women (n = 9) 36.3 7.1 24.9 12.1 12.0 8.1

Paraplegic (n = 24) 35.7 8.4 15.1 11.9 6.9 5.3 Quadriplegic (n = 11) 32.7 5.7 14.06 11.3 7.2 5.5 Other (n = 4) 29.8 8.8 23.3 13.8 10.8 10.0 Track (n = 14) 32.3 6.9 12.7 10.2 5.0 3.5 Swimming (n = 5) 30.6 6.2 5.2 2.8 10.0 7.9 Archerylshooting (n = 6) 41.5 7.5 20.5 14.6 3.6 2.4 Weight liftinglfield (n = 7) 36.4 6.0 14.4 8.8 8.1 5.7 Table tennis (n = 5) 33.6 6.0 25.3 13.3 1.6 3.4 Special Olympics track (n = 2) 27.0 14.1 27.0 14.1 15.1 14.1 Aerobic sports (n = 21) 31.4 7.2 12.3 10.2 7.1 6.5 Anaerobic sports (n = 18) 37.3 7.4 19.4 12.4 7.8 5.2

Training Practices of NWAA Athletes 253

a significant difference between the average weight of male athletes and female athletes.

Analysis of variance revealed that average years with disability was signifi- cantly lower, F(1,37)=8.61, for male athletes than for female athletes, but there was no significant difference among groups by level of disability. However, a significant difference emerged between the average number of years with a disability for different sport groups, F(5,33)=2.61. The Special Olympics track athletes, the youngest group, were impaired since birth and thus had the highest mean number of years disabled. The table tennis and archerylshooting athletes also averaged over 20 years with a disability. The other groups, weight lifting and field, the track athletes, and the swimmers, averaged less than 15 years with a disability. Analysis of variance revealed no significant difference between athletes participating in aerobic sports and those participating in anaerobic sports.

The women averaged twice as many years experience as the men. This may be due in part to the fact that the women averaged approximately twice as many years with a disability as compared to the men. No significant difference was found in experience with regard to level of disability. Analysis by sport revealed a statistically significant difference in the number of years experience, F(5,32)= 2.89. The Special Olympics track group averaged the most experience, followed by the table tennis group, the swimmers, the weight lifters and field event athletes, the track athletes, and the archery/shooting group. It is interesting to note that the youngest group averaged the greatest number of years experience while the oldest group averaged the least.

Further Breakdowns Distribution by Medical Classification. There were seven Class 11, nine

Class 111, two Class IV, and five Class V athletes with paraplegia using the NWAA medical classification system. With regard to the quadriplegic athletes, there was one Class IA athlete, seven Class IB athletes, and four Class IC athletes, again using the NWAA medical classification system. One of the two blind athletes was classified as B1, the other as B2, using the U.S. Blind Athlete Association classification system.

Diet, Alcohol, and Cigarette Consumption. Table 2, which lists the proportion of athletes reporting each of the various dietary practices, also includes dietary composition as estimated by the athletes. Thirty-eight of the 39 athletes responded to inquiries about alcohol and cigarette consumption. Of the respondents, 30 (79%) classified themselves as nonsmokers, 3 (8%) as occasional smokers, 4 (10%) as frequent smokers, and 1 (3%) as a heavy smoker. With regard to alcohol consumption, 23 (60%) reported no alcohol consumption, 13 (34%) averaged 1 to 2 drinks a week, 1 averaged 3 to 4 drinks a week, and 1 averaged more than 6 drinks a week. Overall, the average amount of alcohol consumed per week was less than one drink per person (M=0.76, SD=1.22). Such results are not unusual and indicate that the athletes participating in this study take their training and competition seriously, as reflected in their lifestyles (Hedrick et al., 1988).

Ranking Sources of Training Information. The order in which the 11 choices were ranked by the athletes is given in Table 3. The overall results showed that the top four sources of training information, in terms of usefulness to the athletes, were (a) coaches/trainers, (b) other athletes, (c) personal trial and error1

Wafanabe, Cooper, Vosse, Baldini, and Robertson

Table 2

Dietary Practices and Estimated Diet Composition for All Athletes

Dietary practices Dietary practice %who incorporate

Protein supplements Carbohydrate supplements Stimulants Vitamins Diuretics Caloric manipulation Special diets High carbohydrate diets Low fat diets High protein diets No red meat High fiber diets

Estimated diet composition = 50.5% carbohydrates, 19.0% fat, and 30.5% protein.

Table 3

Usefulness of Information Sources as Ranked by All Athletes Surveyed

Sources Rank Mean

Coachesltrainers Other athletes Personal trial & errorlexperience Training campslsport scientists/conf. & workshops Coaching manuals Competition videos Therapists Sports 'n Spokes Other magazineslnewsletters Scientific journals

personal experience, and (d) training campslsport scientists/conferences and workshops, respectively. Scientificlmedical journals were ranked as the least useful source of information, mainly because they were seldom read by most of the athletes. Analysis by sport revealed that the same four sources were ranked among the top four by all groups. Analysis by malelfemale groups and by paraplegiclquadriplegic/other (Special Olympics and blind athletes) groups also repeated the ranking of the top four found in the overall analysis. Although

Training Practices of NWAA Athletes

Table 4

Incorporation of Mental Preparation

Subjects % who incorporate

All Men Women

Paraplegic Quadriplegic Other Track Swimming Archerylshooting Weight liftinglfield Table tennis Special Olympics track

*Of the 82%, 9.7% indicated using mental preparation as part of daily training only, 12.9% reported using mental preparation on competition days only, and 77.4% reported incorporating mental preparation techniques in both daily training and on competition days.

scientific journals were not ranked highly, several of the choices that were ranked depend upon such journals for information. The results indicate that athletes are benefiting, albeit indirectly, from scientific research and training methods.

Incorporation of Mental Preparation. The percentage of athletes who reported using mental preparation is listed in Table 4. Of the entire group, 82% reported incorporating mental preparation techniques. All of the women used mental preparation techniques. Sport subgroups reporting 100% incorporation were archery, shooting, weight lifting, field, and Special Olympics track. These are primarily motor skill sports in which control is a critical factor in achieving optimal performance. Strength, speed, and stamina sport athletes can also benefit from mental preparation, although the role of mental preparation is not so distinct in these sports.

Use of Stretching and Flexibility Exercises. The reports on stretching and flexibility exercises revealed that although most of the athletes stretched at one time or another, few had structured stretching routines. And two athletes, one wheelchair track athlete and one archer, reported that they never stretched. Several athletes who stretched before training did not stretch before competition. Of all athletes surveyed, only three wheelchair track athletes reported stretching all body parts listed as choices. Table 5 presents overall results as to when stretching and flexibility exercises were performed and what body parts were stretched. Despite the fact that stretching is critical to flexibility as well as to reduction of injury due to sports participation, few of these athletes have regular stretching programs. Given that coachesltrainers are their primary source of training information, this should not be so. Apparently the importance of stretching is not being communicated effectively.

Watanabe, Cooper, Vosse, Baldini, and Robertson

Table 5

Use of Stretching and Flexibility Exercises

When stretching is performed: % athletes who reported

Before training sessions After training sessions Before competitions After competitions Daily (outside of training sessions)

Body parts stretched:

Shoulders Back Arms Neck Chest Legs

Weekly Training Practices Across Quarters. Information on the weekly training practices across yearly quarters is shown in Tables 6 and 7. Table 6 lists combined results for all athletes surveyed, whereas Table 7 presents subgroup results averaged over the year. Overall, the athletes reported performing 4.1 workouts per week, with a workout session averaging 2.1 hours. Weekly training also included approximately 2 weight training sessions per week. The athletes reported entering an average of 2.7 competitions per quarter.

As for average number of workouts per week, the male athletes averaged approximately one more workout than their female counterparts. Analysis of variance revealed no significant difference among athletes by level of impairment. Except for swimmers, analysis across seasons for men, women, paraplegics, quadriplegics, Special Olympics and blind athletes, and by sport revealed no significant difference. Swimmers averaged only half as many workouts per week during the fall and winter months compared to the spring and summer months. However, part of this difference can be attributed to athletes' reduced training while attending school or due to injuries. Analysis by sport also revealed that athletes who participated in aerobic sports averaged almost twice as many workouts per week as athletes participating in anaerobic sports.

Although no significant difference was found between male and female athletes with regard to average number of hours per workout session, a significant difference was found among levels of impairment, F(2,9)=58.61. The nonwheelchair athletes (mentally impaired and blind) averaged only 1.3 hours

athletes and 2.3 hours for ed a significant difference

Training Practices of NWAA Athletes

Table 6

Weekly Training Practices Across Yearly Quarters as Reported by All Athletes

Quarter Mean SD

Workouts per week April J u n e July-September October-December January-March

Hours per workout April J u n e July-September October-December January-March

Miles per week April J u n e July-September October-December January-March

% interval training per week April J u n e July-September October-December January-March

Weight training sessions per week April J u n e July-September October-December January-March

Competitions entered per quarter April J u n e July-September October-December January-March

among aerobic and anaerobic sports, with the anaerobic sport athletes averaging longer workouts, F(1,6)=47.22.

An average of 46 miles per week was reported for all athletes who could characterize their training in terms of miles trained per week. At 63 miles a week, the wheelchair track athletes had the highest average of all sports. Interestingly, the wheelchair track athletes pushed twice as many miles as the Special Olympics track runners ran (mean = 30 miles/week). However, there were only two Special Olympics athletes. The weight training and field athletes had a surprisingly high average number of miles per week (mean = 38 mileslweek). A further look at the questionnaires revealed that several field event competitors also trained and competed in track racing events. The swimmers reported an average of 22 miles

Watanabe, Cooper, Vosse, Baldini, and Robertson

Table 7

Weekly Training Practices Averaged Over the Year

Subjects Workouts Hours Weight training sessions Competitions

per wk per workout per week per quarter

All athletes surveyed Men Women

Paraplegic Quadriplegic Other Track Swimming Archerylshooting Weight liftinglfield Table tennis Special Olympics track Aerobic Anaerobic

a week. However, we are not sure whether these were miles swum or pushed since the survey failed to distinguish between pushing miles and swimming miles. Athletes competing in table tennis, archery, and shooting indicated that this question did not apply to their training practices.

As for average number of weight lifting sessions per week, 78% of the athletes reported incorporating weight training during at least two of the yearly quarters. Included in this was the 54% of all athletes who reported weight training sessions during each quarter. The remaining 22% reported no weight training sessions throughout the year. Analysis showed no significant difference between men and women with respect to weight training.

The average number of competitions entered per quarter was 2.7. Usually more competitions were entered during the first two quarters (April-June and JulySept.) than during the last two quarters (0ct.-Dec. and Jan.-March). On the average, male athletes entered more than twice as many competitions as female athletes. Of the various sports, wheelchair track athletes averaged the greatest number (over 5 per quarter) of competitions per quarter, with some racers entering 10 or more per quarter. The table tennis athletes averaged the smallest number, only one competition per quarter.

Percentage of Perceived Maximal Effort

Athletes participating in aerobic sports perceived themselves as training at 82% of maximal effort during interval training and at 67% of maximal effort during noninterval, steady-state training. Using Borg's Perceived Exertion Rating (a

Training Practices of NWAA Athletes 259

and very hard during interval training, and between somewhat hard and hard during noninterval, steady-state training. The Pearson product-moment correla- tion analysis of perceived effort during interval training revealed a significant correlation between the percentage scale and Borg's scale (r=0.57, pc.005). However, the correlation analysis of perceived effort during noninterval training was not significant (-0.34, p>.05).

Athletes reported it was easier to rank perceived effort with the Borg Scale than with a percentage scale. This was especially true for those competing in anaerobic sports who wrote that the percentage scale ranking was not applicable to their modes of training. Typical workout intensity as perceived by athletes participating in anaerobic sports was between somewhat hard and hard (14) on the Borg Scale.

Summary and Conclusions

The athletes who responded to this survey varied widely in age. Generally they had begun participating in their sport as adults (average age 26). Since several of the swimmers had swum competitively before being injured, it may be useful to gather information on athletes' competitive participation in sports prior to injury/ impairment to identify a possible relationship (e.g., injured track runners now competing in wheelchair track). The dietary section of the survey suggests that some athletes might benefit from nutritional evaluation and guidance. When asked to estimate their diet composition, many athletes admitted that their answers were only guesses, and some, believing that performance in their sport was not related to their weight, were not concerned with watching their diet.

The ranking of training and technical information sources indicate that athletes are obtaining their most useful information from people/experts with whom they are in contact rather than from published materials. The widespread incorporation of mental preparation techniques reported by the athletes suggests that this area might be investigated in greater detail. Information on specific methods employed and whether any methods are sport-specific may be beneficial to athletes who are new to the sport or to those seeking improvement. Weekly training practices, classified by quarters, varied considerably. Investigation of perceived maximal effort revealed little difference between effort during interval and noninterval training. This suggests that some of the athletes may not be training properly (e.g., overtraining on recovery days) and might benefit from learning techniques for perceiving effort levels and perhaps how to use the Borg Scale.

This was the second year in which the survey was conducted at the training camp. Improved survey techniques such as premailing the survey, investigator review of the survey with the athlete during the camp, and the use of multiple- choice questions instead of open-ended questions proved effective at eliciting greater response (less skipped questions). However, it is still a challenge to construct a survey/questionnaire that can be applied to athletes who represent a broad spectrum of sports, classifications, training types, and so forth. It should be recognized that the conclusions drawn in this study are limited by the small sample size, particularly where analysis was applied to subgroups. Nevertheless, it is hoped that this will serve to create a data base on the training practices of these athletes and encourage further research.

260 Watanabe, Cooper, Vosse, Baldini, and Robertson

Most of the athletes surveyed began competing in sports for persons with disabilities after they reached adulthood. Because of this, they may not have had the benefit of organized training. This may explain why they seemed to have some knowledge of the various facets of preparation and training required of elite athletes but their programs lacked structure and planning. Some of the athletes were coached through correspondence. However, there may have been issues of compliance and comprehension of training programs. Many did not seem to have specific training goals. Athletes need to be taught to understand training principles.

References

Borg, G. (1970). Perceived exertion as an indicator of somatic stress. Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 2, 92-98.

Cooper, R. (1990). Wheelchair racing sports science: A review. Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, 27, 295-3 12.

Hedrick, B.H., Morse, M.I., & Figoni, S.F. (1988). Training practices of elite wheelchair roadracers. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 5, 140-153.

Upcoming Congresses in Israel-

The Wingate Institute for Physical Education and Sport will host three international congresses beginning in November:

November 4-6, 1992 The Process of Training and Competition in View of the Performances at the '92 Barcelona Games

March 28-April 2, 1993 The 1993 FIEP World Congress, Courses and General Assembly "Physical Activity and the Life Cycle"

June 30-July 4, 1993 2nd Maccabiah-Wingate International Congress on Sport Sciences and Coaching

For further information, contact Hony Tenenbaum, Intemational Congress, Wingate Institute for Physical Education & Sport, Wingate Post Office, Netanya, 42902 Israel.

Tel: +972-53-639 548 Fax: +972-53-653 070