What’s New in Understanding What’s New in Understanding of the Brain? A Synopsis.of the Brain? A Synopsis.

Presented by Charles T. Krebs, PhDPresented by Charles T. Krebs, PhD

The Lydian Center for Innovative MedicineThe Lydian Center for Innovative Medicine777 Concord Avenue, Cambridge, MA777 Concord Avenue, Cambridge, MAwww.lydiancenter.comwww.lydiancenter.com

What is Learning?What is Learning?

MemoryMemory can be defined as the capacity ofstoring, retrieving and acting upon knowledge, or the ability to recall thoughts, thus our learning is dependent upon our memory.

Learning Learning can be defined as the ability toacquire knowledge or a skill through instruction or experience, or simply modification of behaviourin response to experience.

Learning is both ConsciousLearning is both Consciousand Subsconciousand Subsconcious

What is 4 + 4 = ?What is 4 + 4 = ?

Answer = 8Answer = 8

How did you do this?

Where in your Brain did you do this?

80% of Brain Function is totally 80% of Brain Function is totally Subconscious Subconscious

Little of Thinking is Conscious!

with Consciousness only appearing at with Consciousness only appearing at the Highest Levels of Processing!the Highest Levels of Processing!

Conscious CorticalPerception

SensoryReceptor

Initial CNS Sensory Processing

Brainstem nuclei

Sensory ProcessingComponent 1

Sensory ProcessingComponent 2

Sensory ProcessingComponent 3

ThalamicRelay

AmygdalaCoarse-Grained

Sensory experience

RAS

Cerebellum

Cortical Level 1

Cortical Level 1

Cortical Level 1

Cortical Level 2

Cortical Level 2

Cortical Level 2

Cortical Level 2

Cortical Level 2

Cortical Level 2

Cortical Level 3

Cortical Level 3

Cortical Level 4

Sound Assoc. Area

Touch Assoc. Area

SmellAssoc. Area

Taste Assoc. Area

Sight Assoc. Area

Medial TemporalLobe

Hippocampus(Now Time

Short-term Memory)

Working Memory(Dorsolateral

Frontal Cortex)

Cortical Association Areas

Lim bicSubcon scious

BrainstemSubconscious

BrainstemSubconscious

Cortical ProcessingSubconscious

Thinking about SensoryExperience

Conscious Limbic Now Time Awareness

Limbic SubconsciousRetrieval from Memory

Schematic Neural Flow of Sensory Processing – Highly Simplified

Conscious CorticalPerception

SensoryReceptor

Initial CNS Sensory Processing

Brainstem nuclei

Sensory ProcessingComponent 1

Sensory ProcessingComponent 2

Sensory ProcessingComponent 3

ThalamicRelay

AmygdalaCoarse-Grained

Sensory experience

RAS

Cerebellum

Cortical Level 1

Cortical Level 1

Cortical Level 1

Cortical Level 2

Cortical Level 2

Cortical Level 2

Cortical Level 2

Cortical Level 2

Cortical Level 2

Cortical Level 3

Cortical Level 3

Cortical Level 4

Sound Assoc. Area

Touch Assoc. Area

SmellAssoc. Area

Taste Assoc. Area

Sight Assoc. Area

Medial TemporalLobe

Hippocampus(Now Time

Short-term Memory)

Working Memory(Dorsolateral

Frontal Cortex)

Long-term MemoriesCortical Association Areas

Lim bicSubcon scious

BrainstemSubconscious

BrainstemSubconscious

Cortical ProcessingSubconscious

Conscious Cortical

Experience

Conscious Limbic Now Time Awareness

Limbic SubconsciousRetrieval from Memory

Schematic Neural Flow of Sensory Processing – Highly Simplified

Conscious Perception only begins at Cortical Level 3:

YOUR BRAIN IS THEYOUR BRAIN IS THE MOST MOST

COMPLEXCOMPLEX CREATION IN THE CREATION IN THE

UNIVERSEUNIVERSE

It contains over 10 trillion living It contains over 10 trillion living

cells (10,000,000,000,000cells (10,000,000,000,000 ) )

Gestalt & Logic Models of Learning:Gestalt & Logic Models of Learning:

Right Hemisphere (Cortex) Brain – GestaltRight Hemisphere (Cortex) Brain – Gestalt Left Hemiphere (Cortex) Brain – LogicLeft Hemiphere (Cortex) Brain – Logic Processing largely done in the CortexProcessing largely done in the Cortex

Logic Lead Functions – Usually Left HemisphereLogic Lead Functions – Usually Left Hemisphere

Gestalt Lead Function – Usually Right HemisphereGestalt Lead Function – Usually Right Hemisphere

Cortical Lead Functions Cortical Lead Functions onlyonly Consciously Initiate Consciously Initiate a chain of processing that then includes other sub- a chain of processing that then includes other sub- conscious Cortical, Limbic & Brainstem areas conscious Cortical, Limbic & Brainstem areas

Initial Right Brain - Left Brain Model: Initial Right Brain - Left Brain Model:

Current Right Brain - Left Brain Model:Current Right Brain - Left Brain Model:

Cortical Lead Function = Cortical Column, Cortical Lead Function = Cortical Column, now understood to represent Default States now understood to represent Default States

widely distributed through many levels.widely distributed through many levels.

Pyramidal NeuronsInterneuron

Axons enteringWhite Matter

Six Layers of the CerebralCortex

CorticalColumn

Corpus Callosum

LOGIC TOWER GESTALT TOWER

Accountant Architect

Subconscious Processing Modules

GESTALT & LOGIC TOWER ANALOGY

Equations Pictures

Lobby

Telephone Exchange

Central Processing Unit in Basement

Lobby

E = mc2

RightHemisphere

CorpusCallosum

Brain Integration & the Corpus Callosum

LeftHemisphere

Occipital Lobes

Frontal Lobes

InterhemisphericCommissural Fibres

Loss of Corpus Callosum Flow = Loss of Brain Integration!Loss of Corpus Callosum Flow = Loss of Brain Integration!

Loss of Corpus Callosum Flow = Loss of Brain Integration!

Even Gifted Children (& Adults) can have Problems.

Learning is a Widely Distributed SystemLearning is a Widely Distributed System

InitialInitial sensory processing is sensory processing is Subconscious & SubcorticalSubconscious & Subcortical

LaterLater sensory processing is sensory processing is Subconscious & CorticalSubconscious & Cortical

Subconscious Cortical processing is distributed over each primary sensory cortex

Components of each sensation are processed in different parts of the each sensory cortex at different speeds

Integration of these different Subcortical & Cortical processes results in conscious sensory perception

Each conscious sensory perception must then be integrated with all other perceptions

Only then can you begin higher level thinking

Brain Integration is EssentialBrain Integration is Essential for Learningfor Learning

Maintaining Maintaining Precise SynchronyPrecise Synchrony and Timing of and Timing of all Brain Functions at all levelsall Brain Functions at all levels needed to needed to effectively process Information and make effectively process Information and make effective, timely decisionseffective, timely decisions

Brain isBrain is Time-Bound – Loss of synchrony or Time-Bound – Loss of synchrony or timing of Neural Flows timing of Neural Flows in any component in any component of a function can disrupt this function! of a function can disrupt this function!

Brain Integration is:Brain Integration is:

But what wouldBut what would cause cause this Loss of Timing this Loss of Timing leading to Loss of Brain Integration & therefore leading to Loss of Brain Integration & therefore

loss of Mental Functions?loss of Mental Functions?

Loss of Brain Integration:Loss of Brain Integration:As Thinking results from precise IntegrationAs Thinking results from precise Integrationof Neural Flows required for each Functionof Neural Flows required for each Function

Loss of Timing Loss of Timing == Loss of Brain Integration Loss of Brain Integration

Loss of Brain Integration Loss of Brain Integration == Loss of Specific Loss of Specific Mental FunctionMental Function

Stress Stress == Activation of Survival Emotions! Activation of Survival Emotions!

Brain Iintegration is a Continuum Brain Iintegration is a Continuum not You have it or You don‘tnot You have it or You don‘t

In theZone

Functional ProblemSolving

Mildly Stressed

SignificantlyStressed

AcutelyStressed

Dis-Stressed

0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

Personal Range: Where You Operate most of the Time!

Stressed Range:Survival Emotions

Strongly Activated!

In theZone

Functional ProblemSolving

Mildly Stressed

SignificantlyStressed

AcutelyStressed

Dis-Stressed

0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

Personal Range: Where You Operate most of the Time!

Stressed Range:Survival Emotions

Strongly Activated!

Environmental Factors (often other people) & your response to them determine where you are on this Continuum at any point in time. A Primary Factor determing where you are on this spectrum at A Primary Factor determing where you are on this spectrum at any point in time is the activation of strong Survival Emotions, any point in time is the activation of strong Survival Emotions, as these inhibit Frontal Lobe Function.as these inhibit Frontal Lobe Function.

How Do You Know Where You Are on the BI Continuum?

By using direct Muscle Biofeedback you can know if you have more than 50% or Less than 50% Access to Neural Flow acrossthe Corpus Callosum.

SolvingMildly

StressedSignificantly

StressedAcutely

StressedDis-

Stressed10% 30% 70% 95%

0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

FunctionalSolving- Problem

Mildly Stressed

SignificantlyStressed

AcutelyStressed

Dis-Stressed

10% 30% 70% 95%

0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

In theZoneSolvingSolving

Mildly Stressed

SignificantlyStressed

AcutelyStressed

Dis-Stressed

10% 30% 70% 95%

0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

10% 30% 70% 95%

0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

FunctionalSolvingProblem -

Mildly Stressed

SignificantlyStressed

AcutelyStressed

Dis-Stressed

10% 30% 70% 95%

0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

In theZone

The Corpus Callosum is the largest Integrative Pathway in the Brain consisting of between 200 to 800 million Interhemispheric fibers connecting the Right Hemisphere & the Left Hemisphere.

Loss of synchronized neural flows across the Corpus Callosum Loss of synchronized neural flows across the Corpus Callosum is the basis of Loss of Brain Integration.is the basis of Loss of Brain Integration.

Glial Cells or GliaGlial Cells or Glia Nervous System only has 2-Types of cells:Nervous System only has 2-Types of cells:

Neurons & Glial CellsNeurons & Glial Cells

Neurons were believed to be the ONLY Neurons were believed to be the ONLY mechanism of Neurotransmission! mechanism of Neurotransmission!

Glial Cell thought to play only supportive Glial Cell thought to play only supportive role of neuron function in the brain role of neuron function in the brain

It is now known that they play a major role It is now known that they play a major role in controlling Neurotransmission!in controlling Neurotransmission!

Schematic & Types of Glial Cells. Note Astrocytes both hold neurons and blood vessels in place and provide structural connections to the Pia matter and Ependymal cells.While the Ependymal Cells form the surface of the Ventricles, there are specialised Ependymal Cells called Tanycytes that anchor the Ependymal cells into the brain structure.

Astrocyte Endfeet: Form the Blood-Brain Barrier by physically coating Brain Capillaries & inducing Tight-Gap Junctions in the Endothelial Cells of the Capillaries. These tight-gap junctions and layer of Astrocyte endfeet prevent most molecules from entering the brain, hence the name the Blood-Brain barrier.

New Roles of Glial Cells:New Roles of Glial Cells:•Astrocytes control the synaptic function, not neurons!

•Neurons are the mechanism of neurotransmission,

• Like a telephone handset, its cables & telephone lines are the mechanism of a telephone conversation!

• If you cut the cable or lines – End of conversation!

• However, who is intelligent it is not the telephone, but rather the person speaking into the telephone!!!

• Astrocytes are whose speaking into the neurons!

• So there is a whole other layer of neural control unsuspected only 5 years ago!

Fibrous Astrocyte. Note how in contrast to Proto-plasmic Astrocytes, the Fibrous Astrocytes do not have many Endfeet,but rather many thin fibres extending from the cell body. These thin extensions are often inter-twined between the Myelin sheaths of highly myelinated axons in the White Matter Tracks. Rapid or repeated firing of the Protoplasmic Astrocytes fires the Fibrous Astrocytes who release glutamate onto the Oligodendrocytes stimulating them to make thicker myelin – Practice makes you Faster!

Sensory Integration:Sensory Integration:

Occurs within a particular sense & between separate senses.

Processing of Individual Senses occurs not in one brain area, but rather in a number of areas within each sensory cortex,

And relies to a greater or lesser degree upon processing at the subcortical brainstem and limbic levels.

With the exception of Sight, all Senses undergo considerable processing in lower brain areas (e.g. brainstem) before entering the primary sensory cortices for final processing:

Final result of multi-level processing is a conscious perception of each original sensory input.

Sensory Integration is dependent upon the combined input of two Primary Brainstem Systems:

Sensory Integration:Sensory Integration:The Vestibular – Cerebellar Connection. The Vestibular – Cerebellar Connection.

The Vestibular System providing the position of the head in space via orientation to the universal force of Gravity.

And the Proprioceptive System of the Cerebellum which provides the position of each body part relative to the known position of the Head in Space.

The Cerebellum is the only structure in the brain that receives both direct Vestibular & Proprioceptive input, and thus the great Integrator of these primary sensory systems!

The Foundation of Sensory Processing is theThe Foundation of Sensory Processing is theVestibular – Cerebellar Proprioceptive Systems.Vestibular – Cerebellar Proprioceptive Systems.

Only when these two primary systems are integrated can higher level Cortical sensory processing begin to develop an integrated Conscious Perception of sensory input!

However, there has been a Paradigm Shift with regard to how Cortical Sensory processing occurs that adds another level of integration over-looked until recently, and provided an explanation for various phenomena, .e.g. Synesthesia.

The Discovery of Multi-Sensory Neurons in the Superior Colliculi and the Primary Sensory Cortices has provided both another level of Sensory Integration and a mechanism that underlies difficult sensory processing problems.

In Primary Visual Areas (V1 & V2 for the p-pathways & V3, V4, V5, MT/V5 for m-pathways) multi-step integration of all components results in the emergence of our conscious visual perception.

The Old View of Sensory ProcessingThe Old View of Sensory Processing::

m-pathways transmit “Where” information – from Rods to the Extra-striate Cortex & p-pathways transmit “What” information from Cones to Striate Cortex.

Light entering the eyes activates Rods and Cones of the Retina, with these signals carried to the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus via the Optic Nerve.

From Lateral Geniculate Nucleus - Optic radiations divide into Magnocellular (m-pathways) & Pavrocellular (p-pathways).

The Old View of Sensory ProcessingThe Old View of Sensory Processing: :

From Inferior Colliculi to Medial Geniculate Nucleus – on to the Primary Auditory Cortices BA 41 & 42.

From Spiral Organ of Cochlea through several layers of process- ing at several levels within the brainstem to Inferior Colliculi.

Considerable processing of “Where” pathways within Inferior Colliculi generates an Audiotopic map of sound in space.

Or, sound waves enter Ear & mechanically transmitted from tympanum to oval window to activate the Spiral Organ generate nerve impulses.

The Old View of Sensory Processing:

Then each individual Sense Perception (e.g. Vision , Hearing, etc.) must be integrated first within each area, and then again with the other Senses to form our multi-sensorial Conscious Perception of our Sensory World.

The “What” pathways end in series of overlapping Tonotopic maps for frequency discrimination in Primary Cortex.

“Where” pathways ending in series of Tonotopic and Audiotopic maps for loudness and location of the sound in space in Para- Auditory Cortex.

Individual Tonotopic and Audiotopic Maps must be integrated to create our conscious perception of auditory experience.

New Model of Sensory Processing: New Model of Sensory Processing: Role of Multi-Sensory NeuronsRole of Multi-Sensory Neurons..

When these initial Multi-Sensory inputs are de-synchronized, input from one sense can then de-synchronize another sense.

Light entering eyes not only activates Primary Visual Cortex, but also neurons in the Primary Auditory Cortex, the Primary Somatosensory Cortex, the Primary Gustatory Cortex, & the Primary Olfactory Cortex.

Via these Mutli-Sensory Neurons, each Primary Sensory Cortex is stimulated by every type of Sensory Input, beginning their integration long before any conscious perception.

When these Multi-Sensory inputs are integrated, they initiate and sustain integration of the two-linked senses enhancing the integration of the final conscious sensory perception.

New Model of Sensory Processing: New Model of Sensory Processing: Role of Multi-Sensory NeuronsRole of Multi-Sensory Neurons. .

Not yet understood, this is a Multi-Sensory Neuron problem & can be eliminated by integrating Multi-Sensory Neurons of two Primary Sensory Cortices. This is role of using 2-Senses at the same time – e.g. Paul & Eve’s CDs.

This results in poor integration at the lowest level of input, and can thus cause one sense to de-synchronize higher levels of processing of another sense creating problems in the conscious perception of the second sense.

A Central Auditory Processing Problem (CAPP) results from poor integration of auditory inputs creating poor auditory comprehension & is now becoming widely acknowledged as a major sensory integration problem.

Case Study: Charles KrebsCase Study: Charles Krebs..

Had always had great difficulty with auditory perception although his hearing tested normal – he would listen carefully, but usually forget most of what was said.

However he compensated successfully with the gift of a near- photographic memory.

Charles had extreme difficulty learning German even after living in Germany for 5 years! He just could not accurately hear what was said & you can only say what you can hear!

Case Study: Charles KrebsCase Study: Charles Krebs..

When challenged to repeat a famous German tongue-twister – “Fischer Fritz fischt frische Fische” – he could only hear Fritz and the other words were totally unknown to him.

One treatment for CAPP using Auditory Multi-Sensory Neuron integration and he has learned more German in 3-months of intermittent travel to Germany than in 5 years he previously lived in Germany, now he learns new German words easily!

Role of Fronto-Cerebellar Loops in Visualization:Role of Fronto-Cerebellar Loops in Visualization:

In Conscious Mental processing, the Cortex initiates sensory processing and thinking about the sensory data received.

Then the Cerebellum sustains & re-synchronizes the function initiated by the Cortex!

For example, BA 46 – Lateral Frontal Cortex initiates construction of a visual image in your head.

At the same time the cortex sends a timing signal to cerebellum where the signal is fractally smoothed, and returned to cortex to “refresh” the image!

Role of Fronto-Cerebellar Loops in Visualization:Role of Fronto-Cerebellar Loops in Visualization:

However, if the “refresh rate” is too slow the image is unstable and is often lost or re-arranged before it can be accessed & thus is useless for memory!

When the “refresh rate” is high enough the image in your mind’s eye is stable & can be easily accessed, then Spelling and Times Tables are learned easily!

If the fractal smoothing is sufficiently de-synchronized, the image initiated by the cortical processing is actually disrupted by the returning timing signal – then you do not construct any image – you cannot see anything in your mind’s eye – these are the totally phonetic spellers!

I Thank You for your Attention

& I hope you found this information

of Interest.

Charles T. Krebs, PhD

The Lydian Center for Innovative MedicineThe Lydian Center for Innovative Medicine777 Concord Avenue, Cambridge, MA777 Concord Avenue, Cambridge, MA

www.lydiancenter.com