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What the Fighters Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberiai
February-March 2006
James Pugelii
A UNDP-funded empirical study conducted in partnership with:
African Network for the Prevention and Protection against Child Abuse and Neglect (ANPPCAN)
April 2007
i The UNDP is most appreciative of the assistance rendered by Dr. Macartan Humphreys to this
project and for the subsequent permission provided by him and colleague Dr. Jeremy Weinstein to allow publication of this project’s findings with a naming convention and format similar to those of their study from Sierra Leone (August 2004) —“What the Fighters Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Sierra Leone” — download at http://www.earthinstitute.columbia.edu/cgsd/documents/humphreys_combatantsurvey.pdf.
ii This project would not have been possible with the foresight, personal involvement, and
sponsorship of Mr. Charles Achodo, UNDP Liberia and the stalwart support of the head of the Monitoring and Evaluation Unit – Mr. Shecku Silla. The author is most grateful for the tireless efforts of Eleonora Koeb, who not only established and organized the project and logistics but spent countless hours assisting in the refinement of the study’s design. James Pugel is a research associate with the Centre for the Study of Civil War (CSCW), International Peace Research Institute (PRIO), Oslo, Norway (www.prio.no). The research for this study was done while the author was pursuing a graduate degree from the National Defense Intelligence College, Washington, DC. The views expressed in this report are those of the author and do not reflect the official policy or position of the Department of Defense or the U.S. Government.
JOINT IMPLEMENTATION UNIT (JIU)
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ABSTRACT
Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR) programs have been studied significantly
at the macro-level but little has been done to validate these findings at the micro-level. This paper
complements a study that was conducted in Sierra Leone, the only other countrywide micro-level
investigation of its kind, by introducing an examination of a new data set from ex-combatants in
Liberia. A randomized sample, drawn from across Liberia in February and March 2006, of 590
adult former fighters submitted to an interview that serves as the tool for measuring reintegration
and reconciliation in this study. The interviews collected information on socio-economic
demographics, ex-combatant geographic locations during the 14-year civil war and their actions
while serving with their former factions, respondent knowledge of and participation in international
intervention programs, and captured social integration and political expressions. The initial
findings demonstrate a high degree of convergent validity with the Sierra Leone study and
illuminate both strengths and weakness in the current intervention program in Liberia. The initial
findings also establish a foundation of evidence that can be used to assess the interim impact of
DDR program participation as well as to aid the direction of the ongoing intervention efforts.
Significantly, empirical evidence supports the finding that those former combatants who
registered with the national DDR program and completed a course of reintegration training have
reintegrated more successfully than those ex-combatants who chose not to participate and
reintegrate on their own.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 3
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Micro-level combatant research is a growing area of interest with regard to organizational
structure, management, and recruitment as well as for exploration into the post-conflict realities of
Disarmament, Demobilization, Rehabilitation, and Reintegration (DDRR) and their program and
policy impacts. Groundbreaking field research conducted by Macartan Humphreys and Jeremy
Weinstein in 2003 resulted in a report of initial findings entitled “What the Fighters Say: A Survey
of Ex-combatants in Sierra Leone.” The data set has subsequently yielded multiple, very
important empirically based analytical papers on DDR and combatant recruitment. Through a
close association with the investigators of the Sierra Leone case study, a replication of the
methodology employed for examining micro-level impact on the macro-level outcomes was
heavily relied upon for this study in Liberia. The research covered in this report builds upon the
approach advanced by Humphreys and Weinstein, but also takes a number of important steps
that go beyond the original design.
This report endeavors to meet three broad objectives:
• Provide the initial findings of a survey of a representative sample of 590 ex-combatants from Liberia’s civil war in a manner that allows policy makers and researchers to better understand the nature of the conflict and the subsequent intricacies of the reintegration process in post-conflict Liberia
• Present findings that identify and illuminate areas of convergence and divergence with the initial findings as reported in a similar large-scale ex-combatant study in Sierra Leone3
• Provide the foundation for follow-on empirical investigations and validations that offer alternative perspectives and constructs for consideration
Against the backdrop of a nation emerging from 14 years of civil war and a peaceful round of
national democratic elections, the following major findings4 are recognized two and a half years
removed from the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) on 18 August 2003:
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 4
Intervention Program Perspectives
The study segregated the respondents into two groups – DDRR program participants and non-
participants. The program participants were further divided into their respective categories of
stage of intervention – Disarmed and Demobilized (DD)-only participants (those yet to receive
reintegration training); participants who had enrolled but had not completed reintegration training,
and those participants who had completed reintegration training (“graduates”). Those
respondents who had received program (intervention) benefits were drawn from the same
communities as the group of ex-combatants who had not received benefits.
• Registered Ex-combatants Yet to Receive Training Benefits. There is a major risk of leaving behind a very vulnerable grouping of NCDDRR registered ex-combatants – those who have disarmed and demobilized but have yet to receive training. This category of former fighters is the least educated, most agriculturally oriented, and poorest of the four classes under investigation. Most important, they have been shown to be the least reintegrated of all categories under investigation.
• Ex-combatants Currently Enrolled in a Course of Reintegration Training. The situation of this category of ex-combatants is only slightly better than the situation of those who chose not to participate in the DDRR. These combatants are challenged by their economic situation (42% live on less than US$2/day) and their physical separation from their home communities (52%). The reason for the separation was unclear in the study but may be related to limitations regarding training program availability.
• Ex-combatants Who Have Completed a Course of Reintegration Training. While this group was found to be the most capable of reintegrating back into their respective communities, the international community must not forget them. Many of the former fighters are moving on economically, but some are still having a hard time reintegrating socially within their respective communities. The low self-reported acceptance rates, lack of faith in the communities’ judges of conflict resolution, and large proportion of these former combatants spending their free time on their own indicate that much more progress is needed.
• Non-NCDDRR-Registered Ex-combatants (Program Non-Participants). While this group appears to be reintegrating to some degree, there are a couple of significant areas of concern. Members of this group are the least likely to resettle their home communities and have also indicated an overwhelming concern about being identified as ex-combatants. The survey found a DDRR non-participation rate of 12%, which was nearly identical to the finding in the Sierra Leone case (13%). The significance of the convergence between the two country cases is quite important to policy makers in itself as it may now be able to be utilized as a planning factor for future cases. Non-participation is really a non-measurable action, but convergence should now enable a bit more confidence in the planning stages.
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Post-conflict Reintegration
• Acceptance (self-reported). 94% of the sample of ex-combatants reported that they did not have any problems gaining acceptance from their neighbors today. The percentage of DDRR program completers claiming major problems (7% of sub-sample) more than doubles when compared against any other category.
• Acceptance (perceived). When the sample of ex-combatants was asked to indicate how they believed the community viewed the population of ex-combatants, only 66% believed that acceptance was the norm. While program completers perceive acceptance from the community at a higher rate than the non-participants (62% vs. 44%), they also are doubly disposed to perceive that the community lives in fear of the ex-combatants (20% vs. 10%).
• Social Networks. 63% report spending the majority of their free time with family. Reliance upon family and the primacy of their position in the lives of the sample of former fighters are quite apparent and significant in achieving an overall better socio-economic status. Interesting, however, is the finding that DDRR program completers spend their free time alone at a much higher rate (22%) than any other category of ex-combatants. This finding is troubling as there is a highly significant negative relationship between being alone and reintegrating successfully that was also uncovered.
• Conflict Resolution. Over 96% of the former fighters indicated that their home community’s mechanism for conflict resolution was either “mostly fair” or “almost always fair.” Among the ex-combatants who were dissatisfied with a perceived impartiality the DDRR program completers were clearly the predominant group in both raw numbers and sample proportions.
• Judges of Conflict Resolution. 88% of all conflict was reportedly judged by traditionally based mechanisms (family, elders, and chiefs). There was a definite distinction between what was reported in the Greater Monrovia area versus the rest of Liberia, however. With regard to the traditionally based mechanisms, the chiefs were looked to 68% of the time to settle disputes outside Monrovia versus only 2% in the metropolitan area. The elders appear to accept the role in Greater Monrovia at a rate of 52%. Utilization of the courts system for both locality types stands at an almost nonexistent rate of less than 2%.
• Home Community Resettlement. 58% of the ex-combatants in the sample group have resettled in their home communities. This high rate of home community resettlement by all categories of DDRR program participants is a good indication of a positive progression towards reconciliation. The tendency of the non-participants, in stark contrast, to shy away from their pre-war home communities (56%) may be indicative of many confounding factors, but the worst among them may be the result of abusive or immoral actions committed during the conflict that keeps them away. But the most serious factors that keep them away may be the abusive or immoral actions committed during the conflict. Formal identification as an ex-combatant was the reason most often cited by non-participants (47%) for declining entry into the DDRR program. Whether the decision of the non-participants was due to a general social stigma or the result of individual conduct cannot be explained here.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 6
• Employment Status. 25% of the sample of ex-combatants reported that they were unemployed. The newly introduced construct for determining employment status appears to have provided the variation desired for analysis. In a country like Liberia, where the nationally reported unemployment rate is around 80 percent, researchers and policy makers require a construct that provides a more precise definition. The findings show a strong entry into the formal employment sector by the DDRR program completers as compared with the non-participants. The construct was also useful in multivariate analysis as it reinforced the importance of income-earning employment in post-conflict reintegration and amplified the troubles that face the sick and disabled in Liberian society. Respondents who were categorized as sick/disabled were almost 20% worse off than those former combatants who were unemployed.
• Poverty Reduction. 82% of the respondents live on less than US$5/day. DDRR program graduates indicate a better ability to stay above the US$1/day poverty line (93% versus 85% for the non-participants). Alarmingly, 54% of the sample of respondents who have registered for DDRR benefits but have not received training live on less than US$2/day.
• Breaking Ties with Former Faction Leaders. On average, more than 75% of the sample population reported that they never go to their former faction leaders for financial aid or assistance. Troubling, however, is the finding that 22% of the DDRR program completers sustain routine ties whereas an average of only 14% of the sample’s population does so.
• Arms Presence. Only 2.2% of the respondents believed that small arms were a problem in their respective communities today with the conclusion of the Disarmament and Demobilization phase. The strength of this finding should not be understated as it has been corroborated with a finding from a parallel survey of the country’s non-combatants taken from the same communities which indicated that only 2.5% believed that small arms were a problem.
Impact of the DDRR Program
• Ex-combatants who formally disarmed, registered, and completed a program of internationally funded reintegration training show, on average, an overall 8% increase in their socio-economic situation when compared against those former fighters who never formally disarmed or registered with the National Commission on DDRR (NCDDRR).
• While the results support a markedly positive impact of the DDRR program upon the lives of those who complete the program, registering alone does not necessarily correlate with an improved overall socio-economic situation. In fact, those former fighters who have registered but have yet to receive formal training benefits are the least successfully reintegrated class, faring, on average, more than 9 percentage points worse than those who went on to receive training and complete the program. This class of former fighters is the least reintegrated of all categories.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 7
Gender Perspectives
• While no evidence of problems associated with female fighter reintegration was uncovered in this study, many differences between genders did become apparent when male and female responses were disaggregated.
• Female combatants were found to serve in logistical roles more often than their male counterparts and were also less likely to be injured while participating as an active member. Interestingly, females reported a rate of “abduction” into factions that was also less than that for their male comrades (12% versus 21%). Female combatants also showed an experience rate for participating in cross-border conflicts that was commensurate with that of males.
• Notably, males appear to be progressing through the DDRR process ahead of the females. Indicators of this include a DDRR training completion rate of 10% (female) versus 18% (male) and a percentage of those registrants that are enrolled in a reintegration training course at 42% (female) versus 51% (male).
• Strikingly, females reported not having ever attended formal education at a rate twice that of the males. Additionally, only 28% of the females in the sample had an education above the elementary school level in contrast with the males who reported achieving this same level at a rate 57%.
• Few differences surface with respect to gender in the examination of conflict and its mitigation in Liberian communities. A disaggregation by gender of the frequency of sources of conflict yielded little variation. This possibly indicates that a generally common perception of the sources and frequency of conflict is present across gender.
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CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ...........................................................................................................................................2
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......................................................................................................................3
LIST OF FIGURES..............................................................................................................................10
LIST OF TABLES ...............................................................................................................................11
ACKNOWLEDGMENT.......................................................................................................................12
ACKNOWLEDGMENT.......................................................................................................................12
1 BACKGROUND............................................................................................................................13
2 PURPOSE AND METHODOLOGY............................................................................................16
2.1 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY.............................................................................................................16 2.2 THE APPROACH – RESEARCH DESIGN........................................................................................17 2.3 ACCEPTED PROTOCOLS AND VALIDITY.......................................................................................17 2.4 SAMPLING STRATEGY..................................................................................................................18
2.4.1 DEFINING THE POPULATION.........................................................................................18 2.4.2 NATIONWIDE RANDOM SAMPLING ...............................................................................20 2.4.3 SAMPLING FOR THE LIBERIAN INTERIOR ......................................................................21 2.4.4 SAMPLING FOR GREATER MONROVIA..........................................................................21 2.4.5 OBSERVED CLUSTER VARIATIONS...............................................................................22 2.4.6 POTENTIAL SOURCES OF BIAS.....................................................................................22
2.5 ENUMERATION STRATEGY...........................................................................................................23 2.6 CAPTURING VARIATION IN THE COURSE OF THE CONFLICT ........................................................23 2.7 THE RESEARCH TEAM .................................................................................................................24
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3 FINDINGS......................................................................................................................................26
3.1 EX-COMBATANT PROFILES..........................................................................................................26 3.1.1 FORMER FACTION REPRESENTATION..........................................................................26 3.1.2 BASIC DEMOGRAPHICS................................................................................................27 3.1.3 GENDER DIFFERENCES ...............................................................................................31 3.1.4 KEY PATTERNS............................................................................................................32
3.2 THE DYNAMICS OF THE WARRING FACTIONS..............................................................................32 3.2.1 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL ORIGINS..................................................................................32 3.2.2 RECRUITMENT AND INCENTIVES ..................................................................................34 3.2.3 INTERACTION WITH CIVILIANS ......................................................................................37 3.2.4 INTERSTATE INFLUENCE AND COMBATANT ACTIVITIES ...............................................39 3.2.5 GENDER DIFFERENCES ...............................................................................................40 3.2.6 KEY PATTERNS............................................................................................................42
3.3 INTERVENTION PROGRAM PERSPECTIVES...................................................................................43 3.3.1 DDRR PARTICIPATION RATES.....................................................................................44 3.3.2 DDRR TRAINING PROGRAM PERSPECTIVES...............................................................45 3.3.3 GENDER DIFFERENCES ...............................................................................................46 3.3.4 KEY PATTERNS............................................................................................................47
3.4 POST-CONFLICT REINTEGRATION DETERMINANTS.....................................................................48 3.4.1 SOCIAL REINTEGRATION..............................................................................................48 3.4.2 ECONOMIC REINTEGRATION ........................................................................................52 3.4.3 POLITICAL EXPRESSIONS AND REINTEGRATION ..........................................................56 3.4.4 PSYCHOLOGICAL REINTEGRATION ..............................................................................58 3.4.5 GENDER DIFFERENCES ...............................................................................................58 3.4.6 KEY PATTERNS............................................................................................................60
3.5 CONFLICT AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION......................................................................................61 3.5.1 SOURCES OF CONFLICT...............................................................................................61 3.5.2 MECHANISMS FOR CONFLICT RESOLUTION.................................................................62 3.5.3 GENDER DIFFERENCES ...............................................................................................63 3.5.4 KEY PATTERNS............................................................................................................64
3.6 THE IMPACT OF THE DDRR PROGRAM .......................................................................................64 3.6.1 SOCIO-ECONOMIC REINTEGRATION ............................................................................64 3.6.2 ASSESSMENT BY INTERVENTION CATEGORY...............................................................65 3.6.3 GENDER DIFFERENCES ...............................................................................................68
4 CONCLUSIONS............................................................................................................................69
5 ACRONYMS .................................................................................................................................70
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List of Figures
FIGURE 1: DISTRIBUTION OF THE SAMPLE BY AGE..................................................................................................20 FIGURE 2: ETHNIC COMPOSITION, BY MAJOR FORMER FACTION ............................................................................28 FIGURE 3: EX-COMBATANT RELIGIOUS AFFILIATIONS .............................................................................................28 FIGURE 4: PRE-WAR (1989) POLITICAL ALLEGIANCES...........................................................................................29 FIGURE 5: FORMER FIGHTER PRE-WAR COMMUNITIES..........................................................................................29 FIGURE 6: MILITARY RANK HELD IN FACTION .........................................................................................................30 FIGURE 7: ROLES OF COMBATANTS WITHIN FACTIONS ...........................................................................................30 FIGURE 8: NUMBER OF TIMES WOUNDED...............................................................................................................31 FIGURE 9: GENDER – ROLES (WITHIN FORMER FACTIONS) FIGURE 10: GENDER - TIMES WOUNDED .............31 FIGURE 11: MEMBERS OF FACTIONS WHO WERE PREVIOUSLY DISPLACED ...........................................................33 FIGURE 12: PRE-WAR FAMILY STRUCTURES .........................................................................................................33 FIGURE 13: HOW COMBATANTS WERE INTRODUCED TO THEIR FORMER FACTIONS...............................................34 FIGURE 14: TRIBES NOT TRUSTED, BY FACTION ....................................................................................................34 FIGURE 15: YEAR OF RECRUITMENT TO FACTION...................................................................................................35 FIGURE 16: REASONS FOR JOINING .......................................................................................................................36 FIGURE 17: INCENTIVES FOR PARTICIPATION IN FACTIONS .....................................................................................36 FIGURE 18: DIRECTION ON TREATMENT OF CIVILIANS ON THE BATTLEFIELD...........................................................37 FIGURE 19: FORMER FACTIONAL EMPLOYMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF CIVILIAN FORCED LABOR......................38 FIGURE 20: NON-COMBATANT FREEDOM OF CHOICE IN SUPPORTING FORMER FACTIONS.....................................38 FIGURE 21: CIVILIAN RAMIFICATIONS OF REFUSING TO SUBMIT TO FORCED LABOR DURING CONFLICT..................39 FIGURE 22: EX-COMBATANTS WITH FOREIGN FIGHTER EXPERIENCE......................................................................39 FIGURE 23: FOREIGN FIGHTERS IN THE RANKS OF LIBERIAN FACTIONS..................................................................40 FIGURE 24: GENDER – REASONS FOR JOINING (FOR FORMER FACTIONS) .............................................................41 FIGURE 25: GENDER – FOREIGN FIGHTER EXPERIENCE ........................................................................................41 FIGURE 26: GENDER – FORMERLY DISPLACED BEFORE JOINING............................................................................41 FIGURE 27: DDRR PROGRAM PARTICIPATION.......................................................................................................45 FIGURE 28: REASONS FOR PROGRAM NON-PARTICIPATION, BY FORMER FACTION.................................................45 FIGURE 29: PARTICIPATION IN TYPES OF REINTEGRATION INTERVENTION PROGRAMS, BY MAJOR FACTION...........46 FIGURE 30: GENDER – PARTICIPATION RATES (DDRR).........................................................................................47 FIGURE 31: GENDER – REASONS FOR NON-PARTICIPATION (DDRR) ....................................................................47 FIGURE 32: COMMUNITY ACCEPTANCE OF EX-COMBATANTS, BY CATEGORY OF PROGRAM PARTICIPANT ..............49 FIGURE 33: PERCEIVED COMMUNITY ACCEPTANCE LEVEL, BY CATEGORY OF PROGRAM PARTICIPANT .................50 FIGURE 34: HOME COMMUNITY RESETTLEMENT, BY MAJOR FACTION....................................................................51 FIGURE 35: HOME COMMUNITY RESETTLEMENT, BY CATEGORY OF PROGRAM PARTICIPANT.................................51 FIGURE 36: HOME COMMUNITY RESETTLEMENT, BY GEOGRAPHY .........................................................................51 FIGURE 37: SOCIAL NETWORKS, BY CATEGORY OF PROGRAM PARTICIPANT .........................................................52 FIGURE 38: COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION, BY CATEGORY OF PROGRAM PARTICIPANT ............................................52 FIGURE 39: WAGE AND OCCUPATION OF THE SAMPLE POPULATION OF EX-COMBATANTS......................................53 FIGURE 40: EMPLOYMENT STATUS, BY CATEGORY OF PROGRAM PARTICIPANT AND LOCALITY..............................54 FIGURE 41: DAILY INCOME LEVEL, BY CATEGORY OF PROGRAM PARTICIPANT.......................................................55 FIGURE 42: HOME OWNERSHIP, BY CATEGORY OF PROGRAM PARTICIPANT ..........................................................55 FIGURE 43: EDUCATIONAL LEVELS, BY CATEGORY OF PARTICIPATION ...................................................................56 FIGURE 44: FORMER COMBATANT POLITICAL PARTY AFFILIATIONS (FEBRUARY/MARCH 2006)..............................57 FIGURE 45: BREAKING TIES WITH FACTION LEADERS.............................................................................................57 FIGURE 46: GENDER - SOCIAL (ACCEPTANCE).......................................................................................................59 FIGURE 47: GENDER - ECONOMIC (EDUCATION) ....................................................................................................59 FIGURE 48: GENDER - POLITICAL (BREAKING TIES)................................................................................................60 FIGURE 49: SOURCES OF CONFLICT IN THE COMMUNITY........................................................................................61 FIGURE 50: JUDGES FOR COMMUNITY CONFLICT RESOLUTION, BY CATEGORY OF PROGRAM PARTICIPANT...........62 FIGURE 51: IMPARTIALITY OF JUDGES OF CONFLICT RESOLUTION, BY CATEGORY OF PROGRAM PARTICIPANT ......63 FIGURE 52: GENDER – PERCEPTION OF IMPARTIALITY ...........................................................................................63 FIGURE 53: OVERALL SITUATION COMPARED WITH ONE YEAR AGO, BY CATEGORY OF PROGRAM PARTICIPANT...65 FIGURE 54: GENDER – OVERALL SOCIO-ECONOMIC SITUATION.............................................................................68 FIGURE 55: MAP OF LIBERIA ..................................................................................................................................71
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List of Tables
TABLE 1: SAMPLING FRAMEWORK AND DISTRIBUTION OF EX-COMBATANTS OVER 18 YEARS OLD..........................19 TABLE 2: SAMPLING FRAMEWORK AND DISTRIBUTION OF FEMALE EX-COMBATANTS OVER 18 YEARS OLD ............19 TABLE 3: NATIONWIDE CLUSTER REPRESENTATION................................................................................................21 TABLE 4: GREATER MONROVIA CLUSTERS REPRESENTATION................................................................................22 TABLE 5: RANDOM SAMPLE OF FORMER FACTION REPRESENTATION (1989-2003) ...............................................27 TABLE 6: REINTEGRATION OUTCOMES BY PARTICIPATION CATEGORY (MEAN SCORE COMPARISON MATRIX)........66 TABLE 7: IMPACT OF DDR PROGRAM PARTICIPATION (COMPARED AGAINST PROGRAM NON-PARTICIPANTS)..........67
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The UNDP sponsored this countrywide evaluation for the period December 2005 to February
2007. Extensive planning and coordination was done with many mission partners, and collection
took place during February-March 2006. The author is thankful for the support of Mr. Charles
Achodo, UNDP DDRR Program and Policy Advisor, and the JIU’s Monitoring and Evaluation Unit
headed by Mr. Shecku Silla. Thanks are also in order for the tremendous work done by the two
UNDP M&E enumerator team supervisors, John Newmah and Bernard Mijoni. The data entry
interface for the project was programmed superbly by Mr. Raj Karikol, and the DDRR data entry
clerks of the JIU tirelessly typed in over 120,000 entries from the extensive interview tool used in
the research. The author would also like to recognize Mr. Clement O. Stephens, Executive
Director of the Liberian chapter of African Network for the Prevention and Protection against Child
Abuse and Neglect (ANPPCAN), Alvin Winford, project director, and the rest of his local NGO for
providing an excellent team of enumerator and supervisors for the study. Additionally, I would like
to acknowledge the advice and wisdom provided by Mr. Johnson Kerr, Director for Cartography
at the Liberian National Statistics Bureau, in formulating questions and in the designing the field
collection efforts. I am also very grateful to Jamie Fuller for providing an exceptional editorial
review of this report. The study was founded upon the methodologies and techniques advanced
by Macartan Humphreys and Jeremy Weinstein in their study on Sierra Leone, and without their
instruments, advice, and wisdom, this project would not have properly materialized. Finally, once
again, the author is deeply grateful for the tenacity of project manager and fellow investigator
Eleonora Koeb.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 13
1 BACKGROUND
The Republic of Liberia is emerging from fourteen years of horrific civil war. The conflict has been
traced back, by some, to the initial landing of the former American slaves in 1822.5 It is ironic that
a country conceived as a humanitarian effort to repatriate former slaves became such a
repressive oligarchic state. The elitist class of Americo-Liberians represented only a fraction of
the population in this tiny parcel of African land but ruled tyrannically over the indigenous Africans
from its independence in 1847 until the regime was finally toppled in a military coup in 1980. “The
coup was the manifestation of 158 years of pent-up settler-native and civil society-government
(post-1950s) hostilities, spawned by a sociopolitical order that never evolved fully to
accommodate Liberia’s diverse and dynamic population.”6 Samuel Doe, the master sergeant
turned Liberian president, continued the oppression of his people and introduced a new level of
violence – ethnocide.7 In the wake of an abortive coup, Doe, an ethnic Krahn, ordered a purging
of any possible conspirators in Nimba County who were of Gio or Mano tribal decent. This parlay
by Doe into ethnic dividing would be one of the catalysts that Charles Taylor would rely upon in
the sparking of his insurgency in 1989, which would also begin in Nimba County.
The “war” as most contemporary Liberians understand it began in 1989 when Charles Taylor
crossed into Liberia from neighboring Ivory Coast. The war can be characterized by three distinct
phases. First was the Taylor insurgency, which included the surrounding of Monrovia,
international intervention, the killing of Samuel Doe, and an eventual electoral process that
installed Charles Taylor as president in 1997. Second was a brief interlude where Taylor
continued the legacy of authoritarian rule in Liberia. President Taylor’s “poor governance,
administrative malfeasance, corruption, intimidation, threats, torture, terrorist acts against his
population and summary executions of civilians”8 set the stage for the final phase of the “war.”
In 1999 Liberia spawned a new rebel organization, the Liberians United for Reconciliation and
Democracy (LURD), backed by neighboring Guinean president Lansana Conte. Fighting in
Liberia’s northern Lofa County intensified by 2001 and reached Monrovia in June 2003. By this
time, a second rebel faction intent upon the removal of Taylor from power emerged from the
eastern part of the country – the Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL) – and was said to
be backed by the government of the Côte d’Ivoire.9 With the capital city, Monrovia, surrounded,
Charles Taylor accepted an invitation for asylum from the Nigerian government and departed the
county on 11 August 2003. The UN mission in Liberia (UNMIL) then was established by
September 2003, and the process of negotiating the peace and placing Liberia on a track of
renewal began.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 14
With the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) in August 2003, all former
warring factions including the government troops began the post-conflict process of
Disarmament, Demobilization, Reintegration, and Rehabilitation (DDRR). On 19 September 2003
the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) was established by Security Council resolution
1509 with a mandate to support the implementation of the cease-fire agreement. The National
Transitional Government of Liberia (NGTL) was organized with Monrovian businessman Charles
Gyude Bryant assuming leadership duties as chairman. Multi-party elections were peacefully
charted for and carried out in October 2005, and a constitutionally mandated two-candidate runoff
occurred in November 2005. The inauguration of the first female African head of state took place
in Monrovia on 16 January 2006, and the republic has since begun the process of reconciling and
rebuilding.
The transition to democratically elected officials has gone quite peacefully to date. Much of the
peacefulness can be attributed to the focus on the disarmament process, which has been noted
as the point of failure in the last round of international interventions (1996-1997).10 By December
2004 the UNMIL was able to disarm over 100,000 former combatants and secure approximately
28,000 individual weapons. Gun violence has been almost non-existent11 since the completion of
the Disarmament and Demobilization phase and the election process occurred in a quite peaceful
manner. The Congress for Democratic Change (CDC) and their standard bearer football great
George Weah contested fraud until well into the new year with highly charged rhetoric but only
minor violence. Ultimately, the CDC submitted and political conflict has subsided. The NTGL
succeeded in its mandate of moving Liberia to free and fair elections and with President Sirleaf’s
inauguration, the responsibility of the transitional government was terminated.
It is against this backdrop of a nation emerging from civil war and a peaceful round of national
democratic elections that this large-scale nationwide study was conducted. Field collection
occurred in February and March of 2006 just over two and a half years from the signing of the
Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) on 18 August 2003. The survey was directed in order
to provide an initial assessment of the progress towards the objectives of national reconciliation,
conflict prevention, and social and economic reintegration, as well as the sustainable
development made by the DDRR interventions.
Micro-level ex-combatant research is a growing area of interest with regard to organizational
structure, management, and recruitment as well as exploration into the post-conflict realities of
disarmament, demobilization, rehabilitation, and reintegration (DDRR) and their program and
policy impacts. The research design, implementation, and methods for this study were derived
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 15
from the groundbreaking field research conducted by Macartan Humphreys and Jeremy
Weinstein in 2003 that resulted in a report of initial findings entitled “What the Fighters Say: A
Survey of Ex-combatants in Sierra Leone.” The data set has subsequently yielded multiple, very
important empirically based analytical papers in the topical focus area.
Every study endeavors to ensure the validity of the research though a sound methodological
design that enables others to replicate any of the procedures implemented. While attention to this
component of validity is often strictly adhered to, actual replication of large-scale studies is usually
the exception. Experimental validation is often sacrificed in the quest for the next big theory, and
nuanced areas of research go unattended. In the area of empirical research, a divide has been
identified between the United Nations (UN) and the academic community.12 The International
Peace Academy (IPA) suggests that a lack of empirically based research results in ill-informed
decisions by policy makers which subsequently impact the international program intervention
programs. In order to overcome the safety and logistical issues associated with data collection for
academics in post-conflict countries and the resource constraints faced by the UN, a closer
partnership has been identified as essential to moving ahead.
This report endeavors to build upon the important micro-level research advanced by Humphreys
and Weinstein. Also, the author hopes to close the divide between the UN and academic
community as well as to offer unique individual level (micro) insight into the issues that the ex-
combatants in Liberia faced during the war as well as within their respective communities today. It
is also the purpose of this paper to present findings that can be compared with the case in Sierra
Leone.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 16
2 PURPOSE AND METHODOLOGY
2.1 Purpose of the Study
The study was conceived in order to determine the status of ongoing international intervention
reintegration and reconciliation efforts at the individual level and to obtain a mid-point assessment
of the impact of the DDRR program. To accomplish this, a number of goals were established for
the survey to ensure a comprehensive analysis.
• Collect demographic data on age, gender, tribal and factional affiliations, education level, DDRR program participation status, and other attributes that will enable respondent groupings and allow generalizations of the findings
• Gather information that informs on the factional activities of ex-combatants during the hostilities as well as data that profiles their dispositions prior to the onset of the war
• Collect information on how the former fighters experienced the post-conflict DDRR intervention process, how successfully they reconciled and reintegrated into Liberian communities, and the perspectives that the former fighters have with respect to their political expressions.
• Explore the linkage between reintegration success and the psychological construct of self-esteem
The interview intake questionnaire, which was based upon the instrument designed by
Humphreys and Weinstein for ex-combatants in Sierra Leone, was modified for use in Liberia.
While this study has focused on replicating the approach implemented by Humphreys and
Weinstein in Sierra Leone, a number of important steps that go beyond the original design have
also been implemented. A few of the original survey instrument’s periphery questions were
removed for logistical reasons. A number of new constructs and variables were also formulated
and introduced to amplify discovered nuances and modify perceived methodological
weaknesses. The instrument consisted of 185 questions and took approximately one hour to
administer. Eight sections collected the following information:
1. Background information that collected socio-economic demographics 2. Factional and sub-factional affiliations and geographic locations 3. Combatant recruitment techniques and motivations and incentives for participation 4. Organizational structures and associated patterns of military operations 5. Factional interactions with civilians during conflict 6. Former combatant experience with international intervention programs 7. Individual feelings – self-esteem 8. Perspectives on social integration and political expression
The survey results address many of the unanswered questions that face analysts and policy
makers with regard to the study of African civil wars and post-conflict integration of former
combatants. While the findings of this survey can be generalized to the population of ex-
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 17
combatants in Liberia, the survey also complements the Humphreys and Weinstein study in
Sierra Leone and can be used as the foundation for cross-country case analysis at the micro or
individual level.
2.2 The Approach – Research Design
Since a baseline study had not been conducted and the DDRR program intervention was already
in progress, a non-equivalent control group, posttest-only, quasi-experiment was considered the
best available research design. Assignment of experimental groups was selected randomly from
the same clusters of geographic locations. Ex post facto, the respondents were segregated into
two groups – DDRR program participants and non-participants. The program participants were
further divided into their respective categories of stage of intervention – Disarmed and
Demobilized (DD) only participants, participants who had enrolled but had not completed
reintegration training, and those participants who had completed reintegration training
(“graduates”). Those respondents who had received program (intervention) benefits were drawn
from the same communities as the group of ex-combatants who had not received benefits.
Implementation of the design was conducted in a blended approach that incorporated a
quantitative interview employment alongside a qualitative participatory method – focus group
discussion.13 The findings of this paper are for the most part conclusions of the quantitative
portion of the study only.
2.3 Accepted Protocols and Validity
In order to measure all the variables in the study, an existing instrument used in a previous micro-
level ex-combatant reintegration study was selected. However, as this study is the first of its kind
to address the issues associated with post-conflict Liberia, the investigator developed and/or
modified the existing instrument according to the theoretical definitions of those variables. Two
pilot tests of the modified Liberia survey instrument were carried out before a final version was
established.
Humphreys and Weinstein investigate the Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration
(DDR) programs at a micro-level in order to discriminate components of a successful program.
Little research has been done in this area, and the authors utilize extensive research interviews
that follow the former combatants of Sierra Leone’s civil war. While the study established a
baseline for investigating the micro-level determinants of successful ex-combatant reintegration, it
failed to uncover any evidence of impact variance between program participants and non-
participants. Humphreys and Weinstein provide the framework and instrument for an excellent
quantitative study of micro-level relationships, and their work was heavily relied upon in the
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 18
foundational construction of the methodology for this research. This research endeavored to
improve upon some of the weaker protocols and introduce new constructs that might enable
more variation.
The validity of the survey instrument was established by testing face validity through feedback
from five Liberian ex-combatants and multiple UNDP Liberia staff members. The reliability of the
survey instrument was also established through two successive pilot studies that were conducted
in January-February 2006. As for external validity, congruency of protocols with the Sierra Leone
study should enable findings that can be generalized “across conflicts”14 to a broader population
of ex-combatant reintegration demographics. Replication of the Sierra Leone survey’s
methodological design will allow broader regional analysis and context as well as the testing of a
seamless data set.
2.4 Sampling Strategy
2.4.1 Defining the Population
The survey targeted a sample of 550 of an estimated ex-combatant population of 105,669.15 Field
collection and validation resulted in 590 usable interviews. While the study hopes to inform on
many issues associated with conflict, conflict analysis, reintegration, and reconciliation, the overall
sample size was primarily established as a function of determining the impact of the DDRR
program’s reintegration training. Statistical power analysis16 for sample size estimation utilized the
following parameters: significance (α) = 0.05, power = 0.9, and a population proportion=0.81
(Reintegration Participants/DD Participants). The estimated sample size was selected in order to
control type I and II errors while rejecting the null hypothesis (reintegration training has no impact)
and accepting an alternative that captures a greater than 10 percent improvement in the degree
of reintegration. An additional 20% was added to the study to account for DDRR program non-
participants and problematic/incomplete interviews.
The sampling framework at Table 1 was based upon NCDDRR database numbers for ex-
combatants 18 years of age or older and includes the distribution of the respondents. The study
divided the population into four primary categories – DDRR program non-participants, DDRR
program participants (disarmed and demobilized only), DDRR program participants (currently
enrolled in training), and DDRR participants who had completed reintegration training The study
also sought to obtain a representative sample by category and gender. Table 2 presents the
framework as a function of female ex-combatants. Both tables illustrate that the samples obtained
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 19
are largely representative of the targeted population with the exception of the grouping of females
who completed reintegration training, which appears to be slightly under sampled.
Table 1: Sampling Framework and Distribution of Ex-combatants over 18 Years Old
NCDDRR Totals Survey Sample Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
Disarmed/Demobilized Participants
46,152 43.7% 265
44.9%
Reintegration Participants 26,536 25.1% 170
28.8%
Completed DDRR Reintegration Training
19,244 18.2% 86 14.6%
DDRR Non-participants
13,7371 13.0% 69 11.7%
Total 105,6692 100% 590 100%
Table 2: Sampling Framework and Distribution of Female Ex-combatants over 18 Years Old
NCDDRR Totals Survey Sample Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
Disarmed/Demobilized Participants
13,081 12.4% 63
10.7%
Reintegration Participants 5,465 5.2% 34
5.8%
Completed DDRR Reintegration Training
3,896 3.7% 11 1.9%
DDRR Non-participants
996 0.9% 11 1.9%
Total 23,438 22.2% 119 20.2%
Of secondary importance to population generalizations is the distribution of respondents by their
former factions. While these generalizations are important, a suitable population frame proves to
be quite problematic. A breakdown and discussion of factional representation is included in
section 3.1.1, Former Faction Representation.
For logistical and focus reasons, the decision was made to intentionally exclude all former
combatants currently under the age of 18. Of note, however, is that approximately 108 of the 590
respondents included in this survey would’ve been under the age of 18 at the time of the CPA in
2003. Figure 1 provides a histogram of the age distribution for this study. The mean age for this
study was 26.6 years old. The NCDDRR database reports a mean population age 25.317 years
old. The population included registrants as young as seven.
1 Not a number reported by the NCDDRR; represents an estimated rate of 13%.
2 Exact NCDDRR database total was 81,368.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 20
Figure 1: Distribution of the Sample by Age
020
40
60
Nu
mbe
r o
f R
esp
on
de
nts
18 20 25 30 35 40 45 50Age of Respondents
NB: Not illustrated on the graph are two respondents ages 56 and 78
Age Distribution of Sample
2.4.2 Nationwide Random Sampling
The survey targeted a sample population of 550 of the estimated 105,699 ex-combatants over
the age of 18 in Liberia. In order to obtain a representative selection of respondents for this
countrywide pool, a multi-stage approach of random sampling methodologies was implemented.
To ensure that every potential respondent residing in Liberia had the opportunity to be included in
the study, a cluster random sampling method18 was used.
For efficiency of survey administration, first-stage sampling narrowed the population to thirty
clusters of twenty subjects each. Table 3 illustrates how seventeen of the selected clusters fell
within nine Liberian administrative districts and thirteen fell within Greater Monrovia. The
percentage of clusters in Monrovia (33%) also closely matches the percentage of the population’s
preferred resettlement choice (37%). This method utilized information that was entered into the
DDRR Joint Implementation Unit’s (JIU) ex-combatant database.19 The cluster random sampling
was run using all 66 Liberian administrative districts (includes Greater Monrovia) weighted for the
number of ex-combatant preferred resettlement location choices.
Two refining approaches were employed for the second stage and took into account the
administrative logistical limitations unique to both the urban Greater Monrovia and the rural
interior. The following details the methodology utilized for selecting respondents in both.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 21
Table 3: Nationwide cluster representation
County District Name
Estimated Ex-com
Resettlement Population
Number of 20
person clusters
Sample Size
Bomi Klay 2891 2 40
Bong Jorquelleh 4849 2 40
Bong Suakoko 879 1 20
Grand Bassa District#3 1881 1 20
Grand Cape Mount Tewor 654 1 20
Grand Gedeh Tchien 3339 3 60
Lofa Voinjama 5378 2 40
Montserrado Greater Monrovia 30468 13 260
Montserrado St. Paul River 1014 2 40
Nimba Sanniquelleh-Mahn 5183 2 40
Sinoe Juarzon 152 1 20
Total 600
2.4.3 Sampling for the Liberian Interior
For the rural interior of Liberia—i.e., the 17 clusters selected in nine districts—the second-stage
sampling method employed a second round of cluster random sampling from communities with a
population above 40 households weighted by the number of inhabitants. The National Village
mapping Project data20 from the Humanitarian Information Center, Liberia, was utilized for this
final macro sampling stage.
With the community clusters now selected, the UNDP field team supervisors approached the
local/traditional leaders to organize the ex-combatants residing in the area for the final stage of
sampling. The third stage of the sampling strategy produced the targeted respondents. Potential
respondent pools were built up to two to three times the required numbers and a local method of
random sampling was employed to identify the respondents. In some rural areas however, the
ex-combatant populations were quite small and the field teams could not obtain robust pools on
every occasion. A proportional quota sampling method was utilized to ensure a 20 percent
representation of female ex-combatants.
2.4.4 Sampling for Greater Monrovia
The second-stage method employed for the interior of Liberia could not be easily implemented
within Greater Monrovia because the database listing did not allow suitable geographic
refinement for community definition—i.e., no unique address or location with Greater Monrovia.
So utilizing a listing of the sixteen metropolitan zones of Greater Monrovia and using equal
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 22
weighting for all zones, the 13 clusters designated in the first stage were refined once again
through cluster random sampling. The sampling method yielded a distribution of the 13 clusters
within ten metropolitan zones (Table 4). Within these ten zones, the third-stage sampling strategy
ultimately identified the required sample population.
Table 4: Greater Monrovia clusters representation
With teams of enumerators set up within the targeted
Monrovian communities (zones), the UNDP field team
supervisors approached the local/traditional leaders to
organize the ex-combatants residing in the area for the final
stage of sampling. The third stage of the sampling strategy
produced the targeted respondents. Potential respondent
pools were built up to two to three times the required
numbers, and a local method of random sampling was
employed to identify the respondents. A proportional quota
sampling method was utilized to ensure a 20 percent
representation of female ex-combatants.
2.4.5 Observed Cluster Variations
The random selection of clusters resulted in targeted areas that paralleled the variation found in
the Sierra Leone study and provided a uniquely random sample. As reported in the Sierra Leone
study and presented here redundantly21 are a few of those variations:
• Presence or absence of DDRR programs, government, and social services;
• Levels of ex-combatant presence, and variation in faction membership;
• Diversity of ethnic groups, language groups, and economic activity.
Unlike the survey conducted in Sierra Leone, data collection in Liberia took place before the rainy
season, which negated any possible impacts of the weather. This helped to ensure access to
numerous remote locations.
2.4.6 Potential Sources of Bias
The survey introduces a number of sources of bias that must be considered when evaluating the
findings. While total elimination of bias was the goal, numerous challenges are inherently
encountered when surveying in a post-conflict situation. This section will illuminate the issues that
readers should be aware of when analyzing the findings of the paper. From the administrative
side of collecting the data, to a minor degree, item non-response was encountered in this study
Greater Monrovian Zones
Number of 20 person clusters
01 New Kru Town 2
04 West Point 1
06 Central Monrovia B 1
07 Sinkor 2
08 Lakpazee 1
10 Congo Town 1
11 Paynesville 2
13 New Georgia 1
14 Barnersville 1
16 Caldwell 1
13
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 23
through some enumerator error and possible respondent fatigue, sensitivity, lack of knowledge, or
other factors. Item non-response occurs when respondents are not asked or decline to give any
response during interviews. With regard to the context of the environment, a few additional factors
may possibly have affected the respondents’ answering of questions.
While many levels of randomization were incorporated into the planning of the geographic
clusters that were to be drawn upon for the study, the final selection of respondents was most
definitely influenced by the community leaders who provided the study with the pool of
candidates. This effect was mitigated by selecting random candidates from the pool that was
presented on location.
Truth telling/self-reporting is always a concern when interviewing former combatants. While
Liberia was a quite conciliatory environment during the time of field collection and the
overwhelming majority of the respondents were more than willing to participate, the Liberian Truth
and Reconciliation Commission was inaugurated (21 February 2006) at almost the same time
that the research began field collections. It’s hard to be certain what effect this had on the
respondents’ answers, but it is assumed to have been quite minimal.
An important component of the population that was not accessible to the enumerators was
refugees of the conflict. As of 1 January 2006, UNHCR reported that the Liberian refugee count
was an estimated 231,100.22 The refugees of the Liberian conflict were said to be located in
Sierra Leone, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, and the United States. The population of refugees
most definitely contains an element of former fighters. The perspectives of this group in the
presentation of findings on warring faction dynamics and DDR perspectives are not included.
2.5 Enumeration Strategy
Twenty candidates were interviewed and tested for positions as enumerators of the survey. A
three-day training and testing event resulted in sixteen certified enumerators, who were
subsequently broken down into four teams of four each. Each team was organized with requisite
language skills for their designated cluster areas. UN field officers served as the team leads and
controlled and facilitated movements throughout their assigned zones.
2.6 Capturing Variation in the Course of the Conflict
The civil war in Liberia lasted for over 14 years and involved many warring factions. Many of the
former combatants had participated in multiple factions. A thorough understanding of the conflict
also requires an examination of the war through the lens of Charles Taylor the insurgent warlord
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 24
and then Charles Taylor, Liberian head of state. In order to ensure randomness in data collection,
multiple randomization forms were introduced for focusing the detailed collection of information
associated with factional alliances. The extended temporal nature of the conflict potentially serves
as a bias that can be introduced through a respondent’s “averaging” of the totality of his or her
wartime experiences.
In order to mitigate this bias, the same protocol used in the Sierra Leone study was employed in
Liberia. Respondents were asked to report their geographic locations, factional affiliations, and
level of activity during eleven discrete periods of time between 1989 and 2003. The periods of
time were selected for their ability to trigger a precise memory of the events and activities that
occurred during the period in question. Event recognition for the randomization protocol was
piloted in Liberia prior to inclusion in the final instrument. During the survey, once the enumerator
completed this section that mapped the respondents’ locations, affiliations, and activities, a
separate sheet (randomization form) was used to select one period of time for further
examination. The randomization form drove which faction and period would be addressed in the
sections pertaining to “Recruitment and Participation,” “Inside the Organization & Patterns of
Military Operations,” and “Interaction with Civilians.” For the purpose of this report, sections 3.1,
Ex-combatant Profiles, and 3.2, The Dynamics of the Warring Factions, are driven by this
randomization protocol.
2.7 The Research Team
James Pugel served as the principal investigator for this ex-combatant research effort. Together
with Eleonora Koeb, lead for the qualitative, focus group discussion portion of the project and co-
investigator for the non-combatant parallel project, and the executive committee of the Liberian
chapter of African Network for the Prevention and Protection against Child Abuse and Neglect
(ANPPCAN), Pugel conceptualized the project, designed the survey, and led the research in the
field. The final report was written and coordinated with the assistance of the JIU’s Monitoring and
Evaluation Unit headed by Mr. Shecku Silla.
James Pugel is a Research Associate with the Centre for the Study of Civil War (CSCW),
International Peace Research Institute, Oslo. The data collection effort was completed under the
direction of Mr. Charles Achodo, Senior Program and Policy Advisor, UNDP Liberia, as part of a
graduate thesis with the National Defense Intelligence College, Washington, DC.
The enumerators for this survey included: Franklin Varmah, Armah Winford, Tawah Fayiah, Joe
Bautz, Albert Tokpa, Joseph Sims, Comfort Gayon, Jonathan Roberts, Michael Edwards,
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 25
Laurene Deermi, Cynthia Momo, Benjamin Alete, Masadeh Collins, Rose Dowee, Tiah Diagbe,
and Ruby Folly.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 26
3 FINDINGS
There were 590 validated surveys used in the construction of the findings. The primary findings
are presented according to the former combatant’s program participation category. Secondary in
importance is identifying and validating a sample frame along factional lines. Understanding how
the former factions acted and interacted on the battlefield during the 14 years of conflict will also
help us to understand the nature of the reintegration issues that face the international intervention
programs today. Unfortunately, the NCDDRR database has proven to be quite problematic when
it comes to requiring a benchmark for former faction identification. The purpose of the sampling
frame is to serve as a check for a representative sample. Initial estimates of faction strengths
totaled 38,00023 combatants. In February 2004, the National Transitional Government of Liberia
increased the numbers to 53,000.24 By August of 2004 the DDRR program had demobilized
68,85125 and by February of 2005 over 100,00026 combatants were disarmed.
3.1 Ex-combatant Profiles
Important to understanding the nature of conflict and interpreting indicators associated with
reintegration and reconciliation is ensuring a proper profile for the sample of ex-combatants. As
this paper addresses both the wartime and the post-conflict time periods, two unique profiles will
be presented for discussion. This section introduces the general demographic profile of the
sample of former fighters and then proceeds to present the respondents as a function of their
wartime participatory role. Subsequent sections will then examine the intervention treatments
categorically as pertaining to their association and status in/with the NCDDRR program.
3.1.1 Former Faction Representation
During the 14-year course of the civil war in Liberia, there were many different armed factions.
The difficulty in sorting out the players to the Liberia civil war lies with a transitional period in which
Charles Taylor the “warlord” became Charles Taylor the “president.” Many of the respondents
fought during both segments of the conflict and maintained numerous factional affiliations –
sometimes even jumping from supporting the state to joining the insurgent movements. The
survey was designed to capture the experiences of respondents who had participated in any of
the factions from the war’s onset. Many of the factions that were initially formed have since been
demobilized or renamed. Table 5 represents the breakdown of respondents by former factional
representation. Important to note here is that this breakdown is a random selection of only one of
the factions that the respondents participated in. The distribution given at table 5 constitutes the
sample population that will be drawn upon for subsequent analysis. For the purposes of this
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 27
report, only the four major factions – which also have a significant number of respondents –
NPFL, GoL (Taylor), LURD, and MODEL, will be used for detailed examinations.
Table 5: Random Sample of Former Faction Representation (1989-2003)
Warring Faction
Frequency Sample
Percentage
Armed Forces of Liberia (AFL) 8 1.36
Government of Liberia Militia (GoL/militia) – Taylor 186 31.53
Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD) 126 21.36
Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL) 76 12.88
National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL) 150 25.42
United Liberation Movement for Democracy in Liberia (ULIMO) 7 1.19
ULIMO-K (Alhaji G.V. Kromah) 14 2.37
ULIMO-J (Roosevelt Johnson) 5 0.85
Liberian Peace Council (LPC) 14 2.37
Independent National Patriotic Front of Liberia (INPFL) 4 0.68
TOTALS 590 100.00
3.1.2 Basic Demographics
This section provides a profile of the combatants with regard to some of their pre-war
demographics as well as information that characterizes their status and level of participation
within their reported factions. Figures 2-5 provide a snapshot of the pre-war profiles of the former
combatants. Throughout the illustrations, it is important to note the correlations between the
NPFL and the GOL/Militia categories, for they provide a historical progression and insight into the
predilections of the fighters loyal to Taylor from 1989 to 2003. The tables illustrated here do much
to confirm the polarization of tribal and religious affiliations that are often spoken to in discussions
of the conflict. While the MODEL was found to have an overwhelmingly homogenous
membership of Krahn, the LURD’s combatants were drawn from the tribal groups most
associated with the northeastern hinterland regions where their insurgency was initiated –
Gbandi, Loma, and Mandigo. Taylor’s forces were shown to be drawn from the historically
antagonistic tribes of the LURD and MODEL – Gio and Mano as well as a strong contingent of
Bassa and Kpelle. Figure 3 highlights the predominance of Christians within the ranks of all
factions and the diminishing role that “non-believers” or those practicing traditional religions have
in Liberia. By percentage, the LURD’s population has three times more Muslims in its ranks than
any other faction.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 28
Figure 2: Ethnic Composition, by Major Former Faction
02
04
060
80
Nu
mbe
r o
f R
esp
on
de
nts
Bassa
Gbandi
Gio
Gola
Kpelle
Krahn
Loma
Mandingo
Mano
VaiO
ther
None G
iven
by Major Faction and Tribal Affiliation
Distribution of Respondents
NPFL GOL/Militia LURD MODEL
Figure 3: Ex-combatant Religious Affiliations
93.55%
3.763%
71.43%
26.98%
90.79%
7.895%
91.33%
5.333%
GOL/Militia LURD
MODEL NPFL
None Christian Muslim
NB: 538 respondents (186-Taylor's GoL, 126-LURD, 76- MODEL, 150-NPFL)
by faction
Ex-combatant Religious Affiliations
Figure 4 illustrates the level of political activism within the ranks of the four major factions under
investigation. Almost 88% of all of the respondents did not claim a pre-war political party
affiliation. One important indicator is the showing of support—one out of every five respondents—
for the former President Doe within the ranks of the MODEL membership. Significantly in Figure
5, which highlights pre-war communities, every faction was made up of a membership primarily
from outside the greater Monrovian area.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 29
Figure 4: Pre-War (1989) Political Allegiances
7.692%3.846%
88.46%
.8%
99.2%
20.27%
2.703%
77.03%
4%14.67%
81.33%
GOL/Militia LURD
MODEL NPFL
President Doe NPFL
No Party/Political Affiliation
NB: 582 respondents
by faction
Ex-combatant Pre-war Political Affiliations
Figure 5: Former Fighter Pre-War Communities
54.95%45.05%
57.72%
42.28%
88.89%
11.11%
72.92%
27.08%
GOL/Militia LURD
MODEL NPFL
Outside of Monrovia Greater Monrovia
NB: 521
Outside of Monrovia vs. Greater Monrovia
Pre-war Home Community Locations
A few basic demographics of the factions that characterize the wartime status and level of
participation of the respondents are detailed in figures 6-8. Fully three quarters of the respondents
indicated that they left their factions as an enlisted or “common” soldier. The sample of NPFL
respondents indicated a large proportion of officers, while few MODEL respondents considered
themselves in the category at all. Of note, numerous informal interviews conducted alongside the
collection of primary data set indicated that the MODEL’s organizational structure did not include
many “officer” billets. Figure 7 details an examination of the roles that the former combatants held
within their respective former factions. Fully 84% of the sample of ex-combatants indicated that
their primary role within the factions was as a combat soldier. Extremes on this can be seen when
the roles are disaggregated by faction – MODEL claims a 95% combat role rate while the LURD
claimed a rate of only 72%.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 30
Figure 6: Military Rank Held in Faction
20.43%
79.57%
13.49%
86.51%
2.632%
97.37%
54%46%
GOL/Militia LURD
MODEL NPFL
Officer Enlisted
NB: 538
by faction
Ex-combatant Rank in Former Factions
Figure 7: Roles of Combatants within Factions
81.08%
7.027%
72%
16%
94.67%
1.333%
90%
3.333%
GOL/Militia LURD
MODEL NPFL
Combat Soldier Administrative Medical Corps
Communications Spying Wife
Sex Slave Camp Worker Forced Labor
NB: 535
by faction
Ex-combatant Roles in Former Factions
One final general characteristic of the former combatants speaks to the intensity of their
respective service while serving within their former factions. Figure 8 illustrates the number of
times that a respondent was injured while serving with his or her faction during a given period of
time. Overwhelmingly, both Taylor-related factions incurred the greatest frequency of injury when
compared against their opposing insurgent groups. On average, 77% of Taylor troops reported
battle injuries while the collective insurgent groups reported injuries at a rate of 46%.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 31
Figure 8: Number of Times Wounded
37.41%
37.41%
17.99%
7.194%
46.88%
40.63%
11.46%1.042%
56.9%27.59%
8.621%6.897%
26.55%
44.25%
15.04%
14.16%
GOL/Militia LURD
MODEL NPFL
Never Once Twice Three or more times
NB: 538
by faction
Number of Times Wounded During the Conflict
3.1.3 Gender Differences
Approximately 20% of the sample of ex-combatants were female, and across the four factions,
this percentage generally held true except for MODEL. The MODEL sample indicated a
percentage of almost 40% female. Figures 9 and 10 disaggregate the sample of ex-combatants
by gender in an effort to distinguish any trends. Figure 9 shows that, as expected, the females
appeared to take on more of the administrative or supporting roles within the former factions.
Surprisingly, however, over 70% of the females reported that their primary role was that of a
combat soldier. This administrative or supporting role looks to have afforded the population of
females a level of protection within the units as well. Figure 10 indicates that well over 50%
percent of the population did not receive any battle injuries, compared with only 34% of their male
comrades.
Figure 9: Gender – Roles (within Former Factions) Figure 10: Gender - Times Wounded
34.17%
40.34%
17.09%
8.403%
55.17%32.18%
6.897%5.747%
Male Female
Never Once Twice Three or more times
NB: 444
by gender
Number of Times Wounded During the Conflict
87.15%
3.854%
4.283%
71.43%
4.202%
17.65%
Male Female
Combat Soldier Administrative Medical Corps
Communications Spying Wife
Sex Slave Camp Worker Forced Labor
NB: 586
by gender
Ex-combatant Roles in Former Factions
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 32
3.1.4 Key Patterns
The basic demographics presented in this first section serve as a cornerstone for understanding
the conflict that ravaged Liberia for 14 years. A characterization of the former warring factions
begins to illustrate key patterns that might potentially inform us on some of the variances
encountered during reintegration.
The former warring factions tend to sort themselves out around tribal affiliations. While not
completely homogeneous organizations, the all-Liberian factions appear to have a dominant
group or groups in their membership. Christianity, the predominant spiritual driver of the Liberian
people, was also central to all factions. In the LURD, however, Muslims comprised more than a
quarter of the LURD, which was almost four times as many as any other group. Across factions,
the overwhelming majority of fighters began the war as residents in towns and villages outside
Monrovia.
3.2 The Dynamics of the Warring Factions
In order to fully understand the scope and the challenges of reintegrating the ex-combatants in
Liberia, we must understand the dynamics of the organizations that they participated in during the
conflict. This section endeavors to highlight the dynamics of the former warring factions through
examinations under four particular topical areas – social and political origins, recruitment and
incentives, interactions with civilians, and interstate influences and activities.
3.2.1 Social and Political Origins
The civil war in Liberia is complex on many different levels. The current 14-year war under study
in this report is quite ambiguous when it comes to examining its social and political origins. It can
be said, on the one hand, that the 14-year war was really two wars – one that resulted in the
overthrow of the Doe regime and one that resulted in ousting President Taylor from power.
Others will contend, however, that the war that Charles Taylor started never really ended until his
asylum was instituted in 2003 – one long continuous struggle for power in the transition of
government with roots in the 1980 coup that Master Sergeant Samuel Doe participated. Years of
indigenous Liberian oppression by the ruling Whig Party and the minority elitist group, the
repatriated slaves or Americo-Liberians, can be looked to as one essential piece of the enigma.
Another domino of the social and political origins fell with the promotion by Samuel Doe of an
unhealthy and most hateful rivalry between select Liberian tribes. Both of these catalysts are
surely contributors to the origins that are investigated within this report.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 33
Figures 11-14 attempt to portray some of the characteristics and demographics that help to inform
us on the social and political origins of the former warring factions. The UNHCR reported that
during the height of the conflict, over 800,000 people were displaced. The impact of this very
large number is shown in the findings presented in figure 11. Significantly, at least 50% of the
membership from each faction had suffered a forced displacement prior to joining. The pre-war
family structures are examined in figure 12. The disaggregation by faction shows little variance in
pre-war dispositions of the former combatants, and almost 86% of the respondents maintained
that at least one parent was alive at the war’s onset.
Figure 11: Members of Factions Who Were Previously Displaced
35%
65%
50%50%
42.47%
57.53%
43.75%
56.25%
GOL/Militia LURD
MODEL NPFL
Not Displaced Displaced
NB: 568 responses
Were you ever displaced?
Pre-Recruitment Disposition
Figure 12: Pre-War Family Structures
13.44%
15.05%
11.83%59.68%
15.87%
12.7%
9.524%61.9%
6.579%
19.74%
11.84%61.84%
13.33%
12%
17.33%57.33%
GoL/m LURD
MODEL NPFL
Neither Mother only
Father only Mother and Father
538 respondents
Which parents were alive?
Family Structure Before the War
The introductions to the factions that the sample of ex-combatants received prior to joining varied
tremendously. Figure 13 illustrates the differences in techniques utilized by each faction. While
the factions affiliated with Taylor both pre- and post-presidency relied heavily upon friend and
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 34
family camaraderie, the LURD focused on more violent introductions – village attacks and
ambushes—for filling their ranks. The MODEL, on the other hand, appears to exhibit a uniquely
high percentage of members who actively sought out an introduction.
Figure 13: How Combatants Were Introduced to Their Former Factions
53.3%
13.19%
24.18%
5.495%
39.68%
27.78%
24.6%
5.556%
25.68%
22.97%16.22%
33.78%44.97%
28.19%
10.07%
12.75%
GOL/Militia LURD
MODEL NPFL
Friend/Relative joined group Group attacked my village
Group ambushed me on road Group attacked my faction
A member/family approached me Went looking for faction
NB: 533
by faction
How Introduced to Former Faction
As mentioned within the discussion of demographics of the preceding section, tribal affiliation,
although completely homogeneous, proved to divide along “allied” lines. Figure 14 seeks to shed
some light on the ethnic/tribal conflict that the ex-combatants encountered in their experiences
with the factions. While the majority of respondents did not report distrusting any other tribe, those
tribes that respondents did report being unable to trust include the Mandigo, Gio, and the Krahn.
Figure 14: Tribes Not Trusted, by Faction
020
40
60
80
Nu
mbe
r o
f R
esp
on
de
nts
Americo-Liberian/Congo
Gbandi
Gio
Krahn
Mandingo
Mano
Other
None G
iven
by major faction
Tribes not Trusted by Competing Faction
NPFL GOL/Militia LURD MODEL
3.2.2 Recruitment and Incentives
Insight into the recruitment techniques of the former warring factions provide crucial indicators that
may possibly assist an understanding of the reintegration challenges that the former combatants
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 35
may face. Figures 15-17 illustrate the recruitment schemes, and the findings show some
important variations in approach.
Figure 15 provides a simple overview of the recruitment profiles of the former warring factions
over time. For ease of illustration, the forces affiliated with Taylor have been grouped into one
category and present a profile that begins in 1989. The first stage of the war had a formal
demobilization that ended in 1997. At this point, most of Liberia’s former warring factions were
disbanded – including the NPFL. In many instances, however, demobilization during this interwar
period in Liberia appeared to have no real effect upon the force structures of many of the factional
organizations, specifically the NPFL. Sub-factional (or the units subordinate to the major factions)
tracking analysis surfaces numerous pre- and post-1997 duplicate organizational names. Notably,
the recruitment profile provides a very good picture of how the sample population was drawn into
the final or post-1997 stage of the conflict. The rumblings of the LURD incursion in 2000 reflect
the first post-1997 recruitment spike. The years 2001 and 2002 show a relatively flat profile that
increases significantly during the last year of hostilities. In 2003 we see significant emphasize on
recruitment by all three factions. At this point, both insurgent groups had enveloped Monrovia and
were engaged in intense urban warfare in and around the capital during June and July.
Figure 15: Year of Recruitment to Faction
020
40
60
19891990
19911992
19931994
19951996
19971999
20002001
20022003
2004
by 2003 CPA signatories
Recruitment Years
Taylor's Forces (NPFL/GoL) LURD MODEL
Figure 16 addresses the reasons for joining the faction. Many rationales were cited for
participation in the conflict, and a few distinctions surface when the factions are queried.
Overwhelmingly, family protection was cited most often by the respondents of all groups. Only a
paltry 10% of the sample gave ideological reasons which is fairly consistent across the factions.
MODEL, which reported the highest percentage of those citing “family protection,” also had the
lowest instances of abduction. An important distinction requiring further investigation lies within
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 36
coercion as a means of recruitment. The survey recorded a similar rate of responses from former
fighters with regard to joining because they were “abducted” and those who joined because they
were “scared.” These two methods of coercive recruitment accounted for almost 40% of the
responses. Notably, only 4% of the overall responses cited “money” as reason for joining.
Figure 16: Reasons for Joining
18.8%
22.22%
33.76% 21.47%
19.63%
33.74%
12%
23%
42% 18.46%
20%
34.87%
GoL/m LURD
MODEL NPFL
Supported Political Goals People in Group Lived Better
Abducted Money
Scared Protect Family
Other Soldiers Killed my Family
Respondents could give multiple reasons - 692 responses
by Faction
Reasons for Joining
The incentives used by the factions to encourage participation are presented in figure 17. The
incentives offered by commanders to their membership prove to significantly inform us on the
dynamics of their particular organization. While pecuniary incentives (food, money, job) were the
primary rewards for both of Taylor’s factions and the LURD, the MODEL was distinctly oriented
on a non-pecuniary incentive scheme. Family protection and improving the situation in Liberia
accounted for over 57% of the responses given by former MODEL participants. With an additional
14% of the respondents citing “revenge” as a motivating factor (the only group to really
acknowledge this incentive), the orientation of MODEL is shown to be distinctly different.
Figure 17: Incentives for Participation in Factions
32.81%
16.93%15.1%
17.19%
15.63% 28.51%
16.67%10.09%
21.05%
20.18%
16.13%4.839%5.645%
26.61%30.65%
26.07%
14.52%13.2%
19.8%
23.43%
GoL/m LURD
MODEL NPFL
Money Food
A Job Improve Situation in Liberia
Family would be Protected A way to get Revenge
Other
Respondents were allowed to indicate multiple incentives (1,039 responses)
responses by faction
Incentives Promised for Joining Group
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 37
3.2.3 Interaction with Civilians
Historically on the African continent, civilians have always been forced into participating in conflict
through the mechanism of forced labor.27 This participation and the psychological and emotional
effects attached are often overlooked by the international community in the aftermath of the
conflict. While former combatants can be offered rehabilitation treatment for talking through their
traumatic wartime experiences, the non-combatants are usually left to work through their issues
on their own. Figures 18-21 illustrate the interactions that each of the major factions had with the
civilian population with regard to formal instruction given on the treatment of non-combatants and
also the employment of forced labor by their respective organizations. Figure 18 shows that the
majority of ex-combatants were given directions by a senior commander on how non-combatants
were to be treated. Taylor’s post-1997 supporting factions were found to be the least informed on
civilian treatment, with 1 in 4 soldiers operating without guidance.
Figure 18: Direction on Treatment of Civilians on the Battlefield
25.16%
74.84%
14.58%
85.42%
5.882%
94.12%
12.3%
87.7%
GOL/Militia LURD
MODEL NPFL
No Yes
NB: 424
by faction
Ever Given Instructions on How to Treat Civilian Population?
In order to precisely characterize the employment of non-combatants in forced labor roles during
the Liberian civil war, figures 19-21 will place the phenomenon within context through a
progressive examination of issues as reported by the combatants themselves. Figure 19 displays
the frequency that civilians were reportedly used for forced labor operations – hauling
ammunition, equipment, and the spoils of war. While civilian impressments appears to have been
the norm for both of the Taylor-affiliated factions and the LURD (fewer than 10% of these factions
reported that civilians were never used), again, the MODEL appears to have been less
dominating of the battlefield’s non-combatants, citing a non-usage rate of over 34%.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 38
Figure 19: Former Factional Employment and Implementation of Civilian Forced Labor
41.94%
47.85%
10.22%
38.1%
52.38%
9.524%
22.37%
43.42%
34.21%
46.67%
46%
7.333%
GOL/Militia LURD
MODEL NPFL
Almost Always Sometimes Almost Never
NB: 538
by faction
Forced Labor: Use of Non-combatants
Figures 20 and 21 truly make an argument for challenging the use of “porter” as the descriptor for
the civilians who were drawn into the conflict through this facet of war. The euphemistic
characterization of non-combatant involvement is disputed through examination of their freedom
to choose and the consequences of their decisions should they choose not to participate.
Overwhelmingly across factions, non-combatants were rarely given the opportunity to decide
whether they wanted to participate or not, as illustrated in figure 20. The ramifications of non-
participation were brutal. Important variations, again, surface with respect to the MODEL. While
the other three factions under examination reported unmerciful means of coercion to sway those
civilians who would not comply (on average over 77% reported violent means), MODEL
respondents reported at a rate of 62% that “nothing” actually happened to non-combatants who
did not want to support their efforts.
Figure 20: Non-Combatant Freedom of Choice in Supporting Former Factions
11.83%
38.17%
50%
11.9%
30.16%57.94%
17.11%
38.16%
44.74%
9.396%
40.94%49.66%
GOL/Militia LURD
MODEL NPFL
Almost Always Sometimes Almost Never
NB: 537
to work for a faction
Forced Labor: Non-combatant Freedom of Choice
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 39
Figure 21: Civilian Ramifications of Refusing to Submit to Forced Labor during Conflict
80.22%
3.846%
14.84%
70.4%
10.4%
17.6%
35.53%
61.84%
74.32%
5.405%
16.89%
GOL/Militia LURD
MODEL NPFL
Killed Beaten
Reported to Elders Nothing
NB: 531
for not participating
Forced Labor: Non-combatant Consequences
3.2.4 Interstate Influence and Combatant Activities
The Mano River Region signatories (Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Guinea) have been inextricably
linked to the conflicts of their neighbors due to the porous borders and inability of the states to
control their territorial sovereignty. The recent collapse of state authority in Liberia’s western
neighbor, Côte d’Ivoire, has erased all notions that the region can be viewed with any degree of
stability. The phenomenon of foreign, regional warriors has been promulgated through the
consistent (and profitable) market need for combatants within a very small geographical area with
numerous lines of communication for moving between states. Figures 22 and 23 examine the
interstate influences and activities of the sample of ex-combatants. On average, only a little more
than 13% of the respondents indicated that they had fought in countries other than Liberia. The
majority of these fighters served in Sierra Leone and Côte d’Ivoire. Other countries mentioned
included Guinea and Burkina Faso. Figure 23 presents the foreign fighter experience by faction.
Figure 22: Ex-combatants with Foreign Fighter Experience
92.05%
7.947%
84.38%
15.63%
83.56%
16.44%
86.18%
13.82%
GOL/Militia LURD
MODEL NPFL
Fought only in Liberia Foreign Fighting Experience
NB: 443
by Faction
Ex-combatant Foreign Fighting Experience
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 40
Figure 23 attempts to gauge the influence of foreign fighters within the ranks of Liberian factions.
The findings reinforce the commonly accepted notion that interstate influence is rampant within
African civil wars. Overwhelmingly, the majority of the sample indicated the presence of foreign
fighters within their ranks; the largest percentage was acknowledged by the LURD by nearly 80%
of their membership. At least 100 respondents from the sample acknowledged participation by
citizens from Guinea and Côte d’Ivoire, but the overwhelming interstate participation came from
Sierra Leone, as indicated by 230 of the former combatants.
Figure 23: Foreign Fighters in the Ranks of Liberian Factions
38.85%
61.15%
21.5%
78.5%
37.88%
62.12%
47.66%52.34%
GOL/Militia LURD
MODEL NPFL
No Foreigners in Unit
Foreign Fighters Present in Unit
NB: 458 respondents
percentage of respondents that indicated foreigners in their unit
Foreign Fighter Presence within Liberian Factions
3.2.5 Gender Differences
A few perspectives on gender are worthy of inclusion in this section on factional dynamics. The
findings here do little to show any great variance in perspective or disposition. Interestingly, when
the reasons for joining the former foreign factions are disaggregated by gender (figure 24), the
most notable finding is that only 12% of the females (compared with 21% of the males) reported
that they were abducted. The difference in this category appears evenly distributed through the
rest of the categorical rationales. Figure 25 demonstrates a near equal percentage of female ex-
combatants that had foreign fighting experience commensurate with that of their male
counterparts, and figure 26 illustrates a similarly comparable rate of forcible displacement prior to
joining the ranks of their former factions.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 41
Figure 24: Gender – Reasons for Joining (for Former Factions)
10.25%
20.5%
20.66%
34.38%
11.76%
12.42%
21.57%
36.6%
Male Female
Supported Political Goals People in Group Lived Better
Abducted Money
Scared Protect Family
Other Soldiers Killed my Family
Respondents could give multiple reasons - 758 responses
by Gender
Reasons for Joining
Figure 25: Gender – Foreign Fighter Experience
86.39%
13.61%
88.35%
11.65%
Male Female
Fought only in Liberia Foreign Fighting Experience
NB: 485
by Gender
Ex-combatant Foreign Fighting Experience
Figure 26: Gender – Formerly Displaced before Joining
41.94%
58.06%
42.61%
57.39%
Male Female
Not Displaced Displaced
NB: 568 responses
Were you ever displaced?
Gender: Pre-Recruitment Disposition
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 42
3.2.6 Key Patterns
The dynamics of the former warring factions provide insight into the challenges that the
reconciliation and peace-building process will face as Liberia and the international community
attempt to mend the socio-economic fabric of the country. The discussions on social and political
origins, organizational recruitment techniques and incentives, interaction with non-combatants,
and interstate activities have truly characterized each warring faction as unique. A summary
understanding of each faction’s patterns and predilections is therefore presented now.
Taylor’s Government Forces and Militias
The core of Charles Taylor’s forces while he served as president was the group of fighters that
served the leader when he began his insurgency in 1989 – the NPFL. Taylor’s military force was
resident not only within the capital but also throughout the hinterland. Approximately 40% of the
ranks had lost either one or both parents before the conflict’s onset, and recruitment into Taylor’s
forces appears to have been driven by acquaintances as over 50% of its members were
introduced by their friends and family. Family protection and loyal support to Taylor’s political
ideals constituted the bulk of the reasons cited for joining, and a method of coercion (abduction or
scaring) was indicated in 41% of the responses. Pecuniary incentives were used as the primary
means of recruitment by the sub-factions under Taylor’s control. Over 80% of Taylor’s forces
indicated that they were combat troops, with a fair distribution of combat support roles identified in
the remaining 20%. In the transition from NPFL to government forces and militias, instruction on
how to treat non-combatants diminished and the sub-units were left to establish their own
operating procedures. Taylor’s troops, both NPFL and GoL, had the highest reported rate of non-
combatant forced labor and were also the most brutal when the civilians did not submit to
supporting their war efforts.
Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD)
The former fighters of the LURD primarily resided outside the Greater Monrovian area before the
war. On average, 60% of the fighters had both parents alive before the conflict. Violent
introduction (54%) was the predominant method employed by the LURD in securing new recruits,
and coercion (41%), through either abduction or scaring, was cited as the primary reason for
joining the group. Pecuniary incentives – job, food, money – were cited the majority of the time as
rewards promised for joining. Significant emphasis during the recruiting process was also placed
upon ensuring family protection and touting the group’s ideological goals. During operations the
LURD maintained the lowest percentage of combat soldiers, when compared with the other
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 43
competing factions, within their faction (71%). Dedicated camp workers made up over 15% of the
fighting force. Instruction as to the treatment of non-combatants on the battlefield appears to have
been routinely given. Employment of civilians in a forced labor capacity was also routine, with
very few non-combatants having a choice to participate. Over 72% of the LURD’s membership
reported that the consequences for a civilian who chose not to participate included beatings and
even death. The LURD respondents indicated the highest percentage of foreign fighters within
their sub-factions – almost 80% of the respondents indicated that a foreign fighter was present in
their respective units.
Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL)
The MODEL pre-war disposition identified only 11% of its members as residing in Monrovia. Just
like the other two factions, approximately 60% of MODEL fighters had both parents living at the
commencement of hostilities. The rebel faction had an attraction that induced over 32% of its
members to actively seek them out and join. Violent introductions by the faction were made only
38% of the time for recruitment. Significantly, the fighters of this faction primarily joined to protect
their families (42%), with coercion (35%) playing a much smaller role than was observed in the
other two armed groups. Non-pecuniary incentives topped the rewards scheme for joining the
MODEL. Family protection was at 31% while ideological goals and combined pecuniary
incentives tied at 27%. The primary role during operations most cited by MODEL ex-combatants
was as a combat soldier (93%). Very few of the respondents in the sample acknowledged a
combat support role. Approximately 95% of all soldiers within the MODEL were informed on how
to treat civilians on the battlefield. This faction had the lowest reported rate of civilian
impressments during the conflict and was the most likely to release those non-combatants who
preferred not to support the faction’s efforts with their labor.
3.3 Intervention Program Perspectives
In this study, the sample is broken into four categories of ex-combatants. Three categories of
respondents were at various stages on the DDR process – disarmed and demobilized only,
currently enrolled in reintegration training, and completed reintegration training. The fourth
category includes all respondents who indicated that they did not register with the NCDDRR at all
for any benefits – the “non-participant.” This section will detail the DDR participation rates and
include some perspectives on the mechanics of the program.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 44
3.3.1 DDRR Participation Rates
The approach advanced by this study relies upon obtaining a population of ex-combatants that fit
the distribution profile of the population of Liberian former fighters as reported by the NCDDRR at
the time of the survey. Essential to this is the understanding that to properly assess the impact of
the DDRR program, all categories of intervention must be segregated for analysis. Considering all
DDRR participants as a single homogeneous group artificially skews the targeted outcomes
desired in an assessment and obviates a proper monitoring of the participants engaged in the
process. The temporal nature of the program’s intervention and the uniqueness of not only the
benefits but the socio-economic impacts that influence the lives of the beneficiaries preclude an
analysis that does not disaggregate by intervention type. Given that a representative sample of
the population has been secured through this study, the following findings throughout the rest of
this report should be considered as generalizable to the overall population of Liberian former
fighters.
All former combatants of the Liberian civil war were accepted into this study. Participation in the
DDRR program was not a requisite criterion within the sample and nearly 12% of the respondents
had not registered with the NCDDRR. Figure 27 captures the disposition of the sample with
respect to their category of intervention and locality. As part of the DDRR program, resettlement
preferences were collected during the registration period. While many of the combatants selected
resettlement counties outside the greater Monrovian area, much of the population has been
drawn to the national capital region. The findings indicate an uneven distribution of program
opportunities outside Monrovia. Almost 70% of the sample who had registered with the NCDDRR
and are residing outside the greater Monrovian area had yet to register for a reintegration training
program - even after almost 14 months since the formal portion of the Disarmament and
Demobilization period ended in December of 2004. The disparity in reintegration training
opportunities can be observed against the Monrovian population that is yet to receive training –
only 26%.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 45
Figure 27: DDRR Program Participation
20.39%
42.75%
22.75%
14.12%
Completed Reintegration Training Reintegration Participant
Disarmed/Demobilized Non-participant
Greater Monrovia
DDRR Program Enrollment Status
An examination of the population of former combatants who elected not to register with the
NCDDRR is presented at figure 28. Overwhelmingly, across the three contemporary former
warring factions, the reason most often cited for non-participation was fear of being identified as
an ex-combatant. There is little evidence in this study to indicate that an external barrier to
program entry—e.g., “commander took my gun”—affected program enrollment drastically.
Figure 28: Reasons for Program Non-participation, by Former Faction
0 5 10 15 20Number of Respondents
Commander took my gun
My name was not validated by the JIU
My school/project was not contracted by the JIU
Afraid to apply
Didn't know enough about program
Waiting for the right program to open
Didn't want to be identified as an Ex-combatant
Able to reintegrate without help
NB: 45 respondents
by contemporary faction
Reasons for Program Non-participation
GoL LURD MODEL
3.3.2 DDRR Training Program Perspectives
The national Liberian DDRR program provided former combatants with a wide diversity of
reintegration training alternatives. Figure 29 presents the general types of programs that were
selected by a sub-sample of the population under study. Included are the findings as separated
by the civil war’s most recent antagonists. As observed in the findings, vocational training
opportunities were the most sought after by the former combatants but were followed closely by
formal education enrollments. The MODEL, who appears to have resettled the rural areas of
10.15%
18.21%
61.79%
9.851%
Completed Reintegration Training Reintegration Participant
Disarmed/Demobilized Non-participant
Outside of Monrovia
DDRR Program Enrollment Status
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 46
Liberia at a higher rate than its counterparts, has a preference for agricultural as well as for
vocational training.
Figure 29: Participation in Types of Reintegration Intervention Programs, by Major Faction
0 20 40 60 80 100percent
MODEL
LURD
GOL/Militia
NB: 252 respondents
by 2003 faction
Type of Reintegration Training Enrolled/Completed
Vocational Formal Education
Agriculture Civil Works
Over 90% of the respondents who participated in reintegration training believed that the training
they received through the DDRR intervention programs would ensure their sustainability for many
years to come. Of the respondents who completed reintegration training, approximately half
indicated that the work they do today is directly related to the training they received, but a
significant percentage of reintegration training completers (65%) indicated that there weren’t any
jobs to be found or that the work that was available was only sporadic and temporary by nature.
This rate of frustration over employment appears to be centered around formal employment
sector opportunities as the program completers maintain formal employment (employee or
employer) at a rate of 40%, with the remainder being self-employed or actually unemployed.
3.3.3 Gender Differences
The focus of this section will be on uncovering gender differences that lie within an assessment of
opportunities provided during the DDRR and will also look into reasons for non-participation.
Figure 30 separates the sample population by gender and category of intervention. Notably,
males appear to be progressing through the DDRR process ahead of the females. Indicators of
this include a training completion rate of 10% (female) versus 18% (male) and a percentage of
those registrants that are enrolled in a reintegration training course at 42% (female) versus 51%
(male). Figure 31, unfortunately, includes only 10 female respondents, but the findings appear to
suggest that ex-combatant identification isn’t as problematic with females as with the males.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 47
Figure 30: Gender – Participation Rates (DDRR)
15.92%
28.87%
42.89%
12.31% 9.244%
28.57%
52.94%
9.244%
Male Female
Completed Reintegration Training Reintegration Participant
Disarmed/Demobilized Non-participant
NB: 590
by gender
DDRR Participation Rates
Figure 31: Gender – Reasons for Non-Participation (DDRR)
0 10 20 30Number of Respondents
Commander took my gun
My name was not validated by the JIU
My school/project was not contracted by the JIU
Afraid to apply
Didn't know enough about program
Waiting for the right program to open
Didn't want to be identified as an Ex-combatant
Able to reintegrate without help
NB: 57 respondents (10 female)
by Gender
Reasons for Program Non-participation
Male Female
3.3.4 Key Patterns
Notably, this section surfaced a few imbalances in the employment of the DDRR program. The
national DDRR program appears to have many beneficiaries who have disarmed and
demobilized outside the Greater Monrovian area and are awaiting reintegration training
opportunities. While the members of this category await enrollment opportunities, females appear
to be progressing through the national program at a much slower rate than their male
counterparts.
With regard to participant registration, the stigma of the label “ex-combatant” weighed heavily in
the minds of those who chose not to register in the program. Interestingly, the non-participation
rate in the Liberian program was found to be generally equivalent to the rate found by the study in
Sierra Leone.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 48
3.4 Post-Conflict Reintegration Determinants
Post-conflict reintegration is a very difficult area to assess. Numerous dimensions of reintegration
are referred to in the literature when looking at post-conflict intervention scenarios. A January
2000 UNDP internal evaluation recommends that the organization “should concentrate its support
to political, social and economic reintegration of war-affected populations on restoring social and
human capital while contributing to political and economic stability.”28 Kees Kingma agrees with
the three components of reintegration highlighted by the UNDP evaluation team but goes further
by noting that there are distinct psychological aspects as well.29 Mats Berdal acknowledges the
importance of both the economic and social dimensions of reintegration but also argues that
within a post-conflict environment these two areas are inexorably linked to political and security
considerations.30 Without an agreement in the literature as to what post-conflict reintegration
should be and in the absence of a definable standard, four selected dimensions of reintegration
are framed and discussed in order to achieve a tangible understanding of the situation in Liberia.
Covered in the following sub-sections will be discussions on the determinants of reintegration as
categorized with social, economic, political, and psychological dimensions.
3.4.1 Social Reintegration
The most widely discussed dimension of reintegration is usually presented in a coupling approach
that presents a socio-economic picture of a post-conflict intervention program’s efficiency. While
the economic side of the coin can be observed in many tangible outcomes, the social aspect of
reintegration is full of more ambiguity and can be fraught with many pitfalls for those conducting
the analysis. In many respects, the social impacts that are measured in reintegration are by many
accounts influenced by economic spillover effects. Figures 32-38 present some key findings that
will hopefully illuminate the social dimension of reintegration as it pertains to the Liberian case.
In any conflict situation, “acceptance” is always a variable pursued to gauge the climate of a
community that is undergoing a period of reconciliation. In this study, two perspectives on this
variable were operationalized. Figure 32 portrays “acceptance” as a self-reported level of the
respondent’s personal feeling while figure 33 introduces a nuance into the questioning by asking
the respondents to give what they believe to be their respective community’s perception of the
population of ex-combatants. In figure 32, the self-reported acceptance rate is separated by
category of intervention. Overall, the percentage of respondents that indicated no problems with
community acceptance is 94%. International intervention appears to have little effect on the lives
of those ex-combatants who indicated experiencing “big problems” within their respective
community. All six of the respondents in the completed DDRR training category who indicated
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 49
“big problems” today had also indicted “big problems” immediately after leaving their respective
factions.
Figure 32: Community Acceptance of Ex-combatants, by Category of Program Participant
6.977%
88.37%
1.765%
94.71%
1.515%
95.83%
2.941%
92.65%
Completed Reintegration Training Reintegration Participant
Disarmed/Demobilized Non-participant
Yes, big problems Some problems No problems
NB: 588
Degree that ex-combatants report community acceptance
Ex-combatant Acceptance - Self-reported
Perceived acceptance appears to provide a bit more variance in response by the sample
population. The variable was operationalized and employed with the advice of Mr. Charles
Achodo, the senior UNDP advisor for the Liberian DDRR program. The variable looks to assess
the state of acceptance within communities through a perceived sociological path of reconciliation
that has been observed by Mr. Achodo during his many years of experience in post-conflict
environments. It is interesting to note that while the ex-combatants report that they feel accepted
at a rate of 94%, they also report that they believe their respective communities look upon the
population of ex-combatants “with acceptance” at a rate of only 66%. Two other interesting
anomalies emerge in these findings as well. First is that those ex-combatants who have
completed training programs are doubly disposed to perceiving that the community looks upon
the community of former fighters “with fear.” Second, the NCDDRR non-participants are by far
the most cautious of the community, citing only a 44% acceptance rate and characterizing 46% of
the communities as “watchful or distrustful” of the population of ex-combatants.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 50
Figure 33: Perceived Community Acceptance Level, by Category of Program Participant
19.77%
18.6%61.63%
11.76%
22.94%
65.29%
9.091%
17.05%
73.86%
10.29%
45.59%
44.12%
Completed Reintegration Training Reintegration Participant
Disarmed/Demobilized Non-participant
With fear Watchful/Distrustful With Acceptance
NB: 588
How ex-combatants perceive community acceptance
Ex-combatant Acceptance - Perceived
Figures 34-36 examine the social facet of the physical act of reintegration, the actual rate at which
former combatants have returned to their home communities. As of the time of the survey,
approximately two and half years after the signing of the CPA and the formal cessation of
hostilities, 58% of the population of ex-combatants had returned to their home communities of
record before the war. Figure 34 illustrates significant variation in resettlement across former
factions. The MODEL appears to be the quickest to return at a rate of over 75%, while the former
fighters from the NPFL appear to be drastically averse to returning to their pre-war communities.
Figure 35 examines the issue as a function of DDRR program participation and status.
Interestingly, those respondents who completed a course of reintegration training and those who
have only disarmed and demobilized have returned at a much higher rate than those enrolled in
reintegration training and the non-participants. The non-participants show the slowest rate of
reintegration of any category – 44%. Finally, figure 36 provides insight into the general makeup of
Liberian towns, villages, and cities. In general, the findings with regard to locality and home
community resettlement indicate that about one-third of the ex-combatants outside the greater
Monrovian area could be considered “strangers” within their communities. Alternatively, the
metropolitan area holds a population of near 60% “strangers” to Monrovia.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 51
Figure 34: Home Community Resettlement, by Major Faction
42.7%
57.3%
37.3%
62.7%
25%
75%
54.67%45.33%
GOL/Militia LURD
MODEL NPFL
Not in Home Community Resettled in Home Community
NB: 588
by faction
Ex-combatant Home Resettlement Rate
Figure 35: Home Community Resettlement, by Category of Program Participant
40.7%
59.3%51.76%48.24%
33.33%
66.67%55.88%
44.12%
Completed Reintegration Training Reintegration Participant
Disarmed/Demobilized Non-participant
Not in Home Community Resettled in Home Community
NB: 588
by DDRR participation/status
Ex-combatant Home Resettlement Rate
Figure 36: Home Community Resettlement, by Geography
29.04%
70.96%
59.84%
40.16%
Not Monrovia Greater Monrovia
Not in Home Community Resettled in Home Community
NB: 588
Outside of Monrovia vs. Greater Monrovia
Ex-combatant Home Resettlement Rate
Figures 37 and 38 investigate the final two proposed indicators of reintegration, social networks
and community participation. An understanding of the types of people that former combatants
spend their free time with as well as their propensity for engaging in the community are posited
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 52
here for consideration. Abundantly apparent in figure 37 across categories is the primacy of family
in the lives of ex-combatants. This fact is significantly demonstrated by the population of ex-
combatants who have registered with the NCDDRR but have not yet enrolled in a reintegration
training program. Interestingly, only 4 of 588 respondents indicated that they spent their free time
with friends from their former factions or the war. Figure 38, which details community participation
levels, indicates little variance between categories of respondents, but it does illustrate that the
former fighters appear to regard community participation as a priority.
Figure 37: Social Networks, by Category of Program Participant
22.09%
51.16%
17.44%
8.824%
51.76%24.71%
4.545%
75.76%
10.61%11.76%
58.82%
14.71%
Completed Reintegration Training Reintegration Participant
Disarmed/Demobilized Non-participant
On my own Family
Friends before the war New friends after the war
Former faction friends Friends from war
NB: 588
by DDRR Participation/Status
Ex-combatant Social Networks
Figure 38: Community Participation, by Category of Program Participant
34.12%
47.06%
3.529%
15.29%
36.9%
43.45%
2.381%
17.26%
31.66%
48.26%
7.336%
12.74%28.36%
46.27%
10.45%
14.93%
Completed Reintegration Training Reintegration Participant
Disarmed/Demobilized Non-participant
Often Sometimes
Seldom Never
NB: 579
by DDRR participation/status
Community Participation
3.4.2 Economic Reintegration
Hand in hand with social reintegration is the second dimension considered in this assessment –
economic. Figures 39-40 endeavor to investigate the particulars of an economic perspective. The
first aspect of this reintegration dimension is addressed as a description of the aggregate sample
by daily wage and occupation in figure 39. The figure excludes variable outliers by reporting the
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 53
range of wages received by the middle 80th percentile of ex-combatants. Notably, typical
occupations in Liberia do not exceed 400 Liberia Dollars (LD), or approximately US$7.25/day.
Disturbingly is the daily wage secured by teachers – a meager US$1.50 /day.
Figure 39: Wage and Occupation of the Sample Population of Ex-combatants
0 200 400 600 800
Large Scale Trader/Business
Other
Petty Trader
Professional
Unskilled
Trades/Skilled
Rubber Tapper
Farmer
Home Duties
Student
Teacher
NB: Approximate exchange rate 1 US$ = 55 LD
10th and 90th percentile range in Liberian Dollars
Occupations and Daily Wages
10th percentile 90th percentile
Determining employment status in a post-conflict society with little formal economic capacity can
be problematic for investigators. A new construct, however, for deciphering employment status
was introduced in order to better understand the employment opportunities and challenges. The
construct for employment was formulated in coordination with the Bureau of Statistics,
Government of Liberia. A series of six questions based upon a 1999 Government of Liberia
demographic survey31 was designed to assess the respondents according to a particular
employment status. Ten possible categories of employment are used: employer, employee, self-
employed, unemployed, home duties, student, retired, not looking for work, don’t know/other, and
sick/disabled. This construct differs from the Humphreys and Weinstein’s Sierra Leone study as
the latter focuses on distinguishing employment status through asking what occupation the
respondent is in. In the Humphreys and Weinstein variable, a response of “unemployed”
distinguishes the respondents from the various “employed” occupations of farmer, teacher, etc.
With unemployment estimated at 80% in the formal sector,32 a construct that provides more
variation on employment status is critical to analysis.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 54
Figure 40 illustrates the employment status findings by DDRR participation status and by locality.
The aggregate findings for employment status are summarized as follows:
• Formal sector employment (26%)
• Self-employed (31%)
• Unemployed (25%)
• Student (15%)
• Inactive – home duties, sick/disabled, retired (3%)
In the findings that correspond to DDRR participation, those who completed a course of training
show the highest rate of entry into the formal employment sector at 41%, followed by non-
participants at 32%. Non-participants and those who have not yet enrolled in a reintegration
training program are the most prone to unemployment at 29% and 28%, respectively. When
examination of employment status by locality is taken into account, the significance of self-
employed ventures becomes apparent outside Monrovia. Ex-combatants outside Monrovia
reported a status of self-employed 42% of the time, compared with 18% reported in the capital
region. Notably, unemployment is more than 10% less when former combatants choose to work
outside Monrovia.
Figure 40: Employment Status, by Category of Program Participant and Locality
21.62%
41.74%
20.42%
12.01%
22.05%
17.72%32.28%
18.5%
Not Monrovia Greater Monrovia
Employer Employee Self-employed
Unemployed Home Duties Student
Sick/disabled
NB: 590
Outside of Monrovia vs. Greater Monrovia
Excombatant Employment Status
Over 80% of the ex-combatants report a daily wage of less than US$5/day. Almost half of the
sample reported a wage of US$2/day. Figure 41 disaggregates the intervention categories and
illustrates their self-reported daily wage. Reintegration training completers and non-participants
appear to be securing the best wages, although the non-participants also show one of the highest
rates of those below US$1/day. Those registrants who have not enrolled in a course of training to
date appear to be worst off of all.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 55
Figure 41: Daily Income Level, by Category of Program Participant
6.977%
29.07%
43.02%
20.93% 15.29%
26.47%
40.59%
17.65%
17.74%
36.23%29.06%
16.98% 14.49%
21.74%
37.68%
26.09%
Completed Reintegration Training Reintegration Participant
Disarmed/Demobilized Non-participant
Below US$1/day Below US$2/day
US$2 to $5/day Above US$5/day
NB: 590
by DDRR Participation/Status
Excombatant Daily Income
Figure 42 looks to the indicator of home ownership as a facet of the economic reintegration
dimension. A modicum of economic independence should be perceived from those former
combatants able to secure living accommodations with their own resources – renting or
ownership. With this in mind, those who have completed reintegration training appear to do well
with this indicator as over 85% have paid their way in some capacity. Non-participants are the
least capable category in securing their own living accommodations, with over 42% living with
friends or family for free.
Figure 42: Home Ownership, by Category of Program Participant
25.88%
60%
12.94% 13.02%
47.34%
34.91%
39%
30.5%
27.41%
14.93%
43.28%
35.82%
Completed Reintegration Training Reintegration Participant
Disarmed/Demobilized Non-participant
Owner Renter Family(free)
Friend(free) No home
NB: 580
by DDRR Participation/Status
Home Ownership
The final determinant of economic reintegration is presented in figure 43 – education levels. In the
aggregate, only 18% of the sample reported that they had never received any formal education.
Those ex-combatants who had registered but had not enrolled in a reintegration training program
appear to be the least educated, with more than 60% of the sub-sample able to claim only an
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 56
elementary-level education at best. Notably, the non-participants include a portion of fairly
educated members (high school-level equivalent or higher) – 26%.
Figure 43: Educational Levels, by Category of Participation
0 20 40 60 80 100percent
Non-participant
Disarmed/Demobilized
Reintegration Participant
Completed Reintegration Training
NB: 589 respondents
by DDRR participation/status
Excombatant Educational Levels
No Education Elementary Junior High
High School Some University Vocational
3.4.3 Political Expressions and Reintegration
The political activism of the former combatants as shown in figure 44 is in stark contrast to the
democratic involvement exhibited at the onset of hostilities in 1989 (see figure 3), where over
86% claimed no party affiliation – as of February/March 2006, all but a little more than 2% of the
sample claimed a party affiliation. Of the 30 political parties that registered in the October 2005
elections, 18 were old and 12 were new.33 The UP is led by Liberia’s current executive and
winner of the presidential election, Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf, while the CDC was represented George
Weah’s in the two-person November runoff elections. The Liberty Party (LP) placed third in the
2005 elections with Charles Brumskine serving as its candidate. The National Patriotic Party
(NPP) is former Liberian president Charles Taylor’s old party.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 57
Figure 44: Former Combatant Political Party Affiliations (February/March 2006)
36.56%45.7%
37.3%
54.76%
57.89%
30.26% 27.33%
52.67%
GOL/Militia LURD
MODEL NPFL
Not answered CDC LP
NPP UP None
Other
NB: 590 respondents
by faction
Ex-combatant Current Political Affiliations
The organizational linkages that bound members to their commanders are the second facet of
political reintegration that will be explored by this study. Figure 45 illustrates the degree to which
the ex-combatants in the sample have disassociated themselves from their former commanders.
The question asked how often they had contact with their former commanders for financial or
employment assistance. Significantly, across categories of intervention as well as across former
warring factions, greater than three-quarters of all respondents reported that they never had
contact with their former commanders. Disturbing in the findings, however, is that 8% of ex-
combatants who have completed their reintegration training are in contact “often” with their former
commanders.
Figure 45: Breaking Ties with Faction Leaders
11.96%
82.61%
5.556%
89.68%
18.42%
76.32%
11.33%
81.33%
GOL/Militia LURD
MODEL NPFL
Often Sometimes
Seldom Never
NB: 536 respondents
for financial or employment assistance
Ex-combatant Contact with Former Commander
13.95%
75.58%
14.2%
80.47%
8.333%
88.26%
13.24%
75%
Completed Reintegration Training Reintegration Participant
Disarmed/Demobilized Non-participant
Often Sometimes
Seldom Never
NB: 587 respondents
for financial or employment assistance
Ex-combatant Contact with Former Commander
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 58
3.4.4 Psychological Reintegration
The psychological dimension proved to be a difficult component to address. A construct for “self-
esteem” was employed in this study in an exploratory capacity. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem
Scale (SES), a standard ten-item, four-point Likert scale, was administered to measure global
self-esteem. The resulting score from the ten-item construct provides a quantifiable measure. The
Rosenberg SES “is a unidimensional scale designed to measure only perceptions of global self-
esteem.”34 Originally designed in 1965 for assessing the construct in adolescents, it has been
widely used and accepted for studying adults as well.35 While the instrument has been widely
employed internationally, there are no known uses of it in Liberia. In a report to the USAID that
discusses the psychosocial well-being of youth in the African context, the Rosenberg SES is
highlighted as a very promising psychometric tool.36 The construct has proved to be useful in
other reintegration instigations.37
Unfortunately, the results obtained from the survey were determined to be unreliable as a whole,
but did indeed appear to show some promise when the cases were filtered by enumerator
identification. Overall, a statistical reliability analysis (Cronbach Alpha) yielded a rating for the
construct that was below the threshold usually accepted in the social sciences, and therefore the
decision was made not to advance the findings. Although a tangible finding cannot be presented
here, it is important to share that one of the enumerators appears to have accurately captured the
intent of the construct as his cases, when analyzed for reliability, met the threshold for
acceptance. This particular enumerator received extra training on the delivery of the construct,
and it is believed that insufficient training of the enumerator staff played a significant role in the
inability of the construct to yield reliable findings. More work needs to be done on evaluating the
psychological dimension, but the one small sub-sample (95 cases) indicates some promising
exploration; the self-esteem construct appears to show a strong correlation with numerous
reintegration dimensions.
3.4.5 Gender Differences
With regard to gender differences in post-conflict reintegration, a few perspectives are
disaggregated in an effort to uncover any disparities in the process. A brief presentation of
findings in figures 46-48 includes analysis on three of the dimensions covered - social, economic,
and political. The social determinant of “acceptance” is addressed in figure 46. For completeness,
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 59
both the “self-reported” and the “perceived” findings are included for consideration. Variation only
appears to surface in how males and females perceive acceptance. Notably, females are
interpreting their community’s interactions with the population of ex-combatants as more
conciliatory than their male counterparts, with over 77% reporting “acceptance” versus 63% in the
male population. Figure 47 contrasts the educational levels of the male and female ex-
combatants in the sample. Strikingly, females reported not having ever received formal education
at a rate twice that of the males. Additionally, only 28% of the females in the sample had an
education above elementary school compared with the males at 57%. Finally, figure 48
addresses the status of ex-combatants in their ability to “break ties” with their former
commanders. The illustration doesn’t show much variation with regard to this variable with the
exception that not a single female respondent reported that she kept in touch “often” with her
former commander.
Figure 46: Gender - Social (Acceptance)
13.01%
23.67%
63.33%
5.882%
16.81%
77.31%
Male Female
With fear Watchful/Distrustful With Acceptance
NB: 588
How ex-combatants perceive community acceptance
Ex-combatant Acceptance - Perceived
Figure 47: Gender - Economic (Education)
15.32%
27.66%57.02%
30.25%
42.02%
27.73%
Male Female
None Elementary Junior High or More
NB: 589
by Gender
Ex-combatant Educational Levels
2.772%
94.03%
1.681%
94.12%
Male Female
Yes, big problems Some problems No problems
NB: 588
Degree that ex-combatants report community acceptance
Ex-combatant Acceptance - Self-reported
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 60
Figure 48: Gender - Political (Breaking Ties)
3.419%10.9%
3.632%
82.05%
13.45%
1.681%
84.87%
Male Female
Often Sometimes
Seldom Never
NB: 587
by Gender
Ex-combatant Contact with Former Commander
3.4.6 Key Patterns
Evaluating post-conflict ex-combatant reintegration is a quite complex endeavor. Four dimensions
of reintegration – social, economic, political, and psychological – have been examined in this
section and have yielded some interesting patterns. With regard to the social dimension,
understanding “acceptance” continues to be challenge, but the construct introduced in this study
which asks for the respondents’ “perceived” view of community acceptance shows promise in
obtaining a degree of variance. In general, both variables illustrated findings that showed that
reconciliation is on the right track in Liberian communities. Resettlement also proved to surface
some interesting patterns by faction. The former Taylor fighters were the least likely to return to
their home communities as of the time of the survey – 43% had not yet returned home. The
LURD reported a rate of almost 63%, while fully 75% of the MODEL fighters had returned to their
home communities – the highest return rate of any faction.
Significant insight has been gained through the incorporation of the construct developed to
determine employment status. The differences in employment status patterns in the urban
Monrovian area vice the rest of the country illustrate the need to plan for varied economic
opportunities. The primacy of self-employed ventures in the lives of former combatants also
became apparent. Politically, across factions and categories of intervention, the former
combatants are actively involved in the politics of their country. They also appear to be breaking
their ties to their former factions with great consistency. Unfortunately, tangible results that
illustrate a linkage between “self-esteem” and reintegration were not achievable in the report, but
the exploratory findings with this construct appear quite promising.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 61
3.5 Conflict and Conflict Resolution
A number of questions were asked of the ex-combatants that addressed sources of conflict within
their respective communities as well as the mechanisms available for resolution. Important to
note within Liberia’s governance structure is a traditional leadership hierarchy that serves as the
mitigator of conflict within most of the communities outside Monrovia and the larger towns. The
general model for conflict resolution is to begin by settling disputes through family; should that fail,
a number of elders may be called upon to resolve the situation. The system of “chiefs” then
provides disputants with another layer of appeal (village, town, Paramount). This traditional
system parallels the police and the courts system.
3.5.1 Sources of Conflict
The survey asked the ex-combatants to evaluate numerous sources of conflict by occurrence
within their communities. Figure 49 provides a snapshot of all sources of conflict and their scaled
scores as pertaining to frequency – the higher the average score, the higher the frequency of
occurrence. The top four reported sources of conflict within Liberian communities were 1) bad
Leadership; 2) crime/lawlessness/lack of prisons 3) land; and 4) unemployment, idleness, youth
dissatisfaction. The sources of conflict reported to occur less frequently include 1) IDP/refugee
return, 2) firearms possession, 3) forced labor, and 4) ex-combatant violence. Significantly, the
indicator of “firearms possession” is also corroborated by a question asked about arms presence
within the community. Only 2.2% of the respondents believed there was an issue with small arms
in their communities. The strength of this finding should not be underestimated because a parallel
study which collected surveys from non-combatants who resided in the same geographic cluster
also indicated that small arms were not a problem at a rate of 2.5%.
Figure 49: Sources of Conflict in the Community
0 .5 1 1.5 2 2.5Frequency of Potential Conflict Source
rated from 'Never=0' to 'Often=3'
Sources of Conflict within Communities
IDP/Refugees Firearms Possession Forced Labor
Ex-com Violence Ethnic/Tribal Illegal Squatting
Big-man Politics Commercial Sex Poverty
Polygamy Idleness Land
Crime Corruption
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 62
3.5.2 Mechanisms for Conflict Resolution
As noted above, Liberians rely upon many different mechanisms for conflict resolution. The
traditional venues for resolution (especially in the more rural areas) include family-elder-chief,
while the police and the courts are also available to the general public but in a limited capacity in
some cases. In the aggregate, 88% of all conflict was reportedly resolved at one of the traditional
levels. There was a definite distinction between what was reported in Monrovia vice the rest of
Liberia, however. The “chiefs” were looked to settle disputes 68% of the time outside Monrovia
compared with 2% in the metropolitan region. In place of the “chiefs” in Monrovia, “elders”
assumed the lead role at 52%. Utilization of the courts system at the time of the survey stood at a
meager 2%. Figure 50 illustrates the distribution by category of DDRR participation. While there
seems to be consistency across categories, only one – those who had registered but had yet to
enroll in training – shows any real deviation, and it is their dependence upon the “chiefs” to
resolve issues. Figure 51 presents the findings on the impartiality of the conflict resolution
mechanism. Overwhelmingly, great news is presented – over 96% of the former fighters indicated
that their home community’s mechanism for conflict resolution was either “mostly fair” or “almost
always fair.” Interestingly, the ex-combatants who had completed their reintegration training had
the highest percentage of respondents who appeared to be disgruntled with the process, with
over 8% citing that the mechanisms for conflict resolution were “mostly unfair.”
Figure 50: Judges for Community Conflict Resolution, by Category of Program Participant
19.77%
40.7%
17.44%
17.44%15.29%
42.35%
27.65%
14.12%
6.464%
31.18%
55.89%
5.323% 11.76%
39.71%33.82%
13.24%
Completed Reintegration Training Reintegration Participant
Disarmed/Demobilized Non-participant
Family Elders/Zoe Chiefs
Police Courts
NB: 587
as reported by ex-combatants
Level at which Conflict is Peacefully Resolved
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 63
Figure 51: Impartiality of Judges of Conflict Resolution, by Category of Program Participant
35.29%
56.47%
8.235%
38.46%
58.58%
2.367%
26.34%
71.37%
1.145%
31.34%
67.16%
Completed Reintegration Training Reintegration Participant
Disarmed/Demobilized Non-participant
Almost always fair Mostly fair
Mostly unfair Almost always unfair
NB: 583
as reported by ex-combatants
Fairness of Mechanism for Conflict Resolution
3.5.3 Gender Differences
A few differences surface with respect to gender in the examination of conflict and its mitigation in
Liberian communities. A disaggregation by gender of the frequency of sources of conflict yielded
little variation, indicating that a generally common perception of conflict is present across gender.
Female respondents also demonstrated a variance in the location of the venues chosen for
resolution. Primarily, females responded that the “chiefs” resolve conflict for them in their
communities at 52% versus 36% for their male counterparts. With regard to the police and courts,
females cited these venues only 5% of the time, while males indicated them 14% of the time.
Finally, figure 52 presents the findings on the perception of impartiality when gender is
disaggregated. While a quarter of the female sample gives its highest endorsement of the
impartiality of Liberian “judging” systems, the male sample puts a full third of its support behind
this testament. Interestingly, not a single female respondent in the survey indicated that the
mechanisms for conflict resolution were “mostly unfair.”
Figure 52: Gender – Perception of Impartiality
33.62%
62.72%
24.37%
73.95%
Male Female
Almost always fair Mostly fair
Mostly unfair Almost always unfair
NB: 587
by gender
Fairness of Mechanism for Conflict Resolution
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 64
3.5.4 Key Patterns
Interestingly, with regard to the sources of conflict within Liberian communities, the potential
catalysts commonly associated with post-conflict reintegration were reportedly occurring at a
lesser rate than those sources associated with security and legal issues. While the reported
usage of the police as a mechanism for resolving conflict was reported to be minimal, the former
fighters as a group fully endorsed the impartiality of the “traditional” judges – family, elders, and
chiefs. Significantly, the issue of small arms presence within communities has been reported to
be non-existent by both the population of former fighters and a sample of non-combatants drawn
from the same geographic clusters.
3.6 The Impact of the DDRR Program
The Integrated Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration Standards (IDDRS) suggests
that program evaluations can assess a variety of aspects – relevance, effectiveness, efficiency,
impact, and sustainability.38 This study has made a concerted effort to understand the “impact” of
the program upon the lives of former combatants. The study is inclusive of both types of Liberian
ex-combatants – those who registered with the NCDDRR and those who never formally disarmed
and opted to reintegrate on their own. That said, evaluating the impact of the DDR program is
quite a challenging and complex endeavor. A methodical approach to the presentation of findings
has been presented: 1) characterize the beneficiaries or ex-combatants; 2) review perspectives
on the program and participation levels; 3) examine outcomes based upon four dimensions of
reintegration; 4) document the mechanisms for resolving conflict within communities and gauge
ex-combatant perceptions of impartiality.
3.6.1 Socio-Economic Reintegration
In an effort to operationalize a variable that attempts to account for the many different dimensions
of reintegration into a single indicator, the respondents were asked to indicate how their situation
in February/March of 2006 compared with that of the previous year (a point near the end of the
formal disarmament period). It is believed that a variable such as this will serve well in the
capacity of a criterion (or dependent) variable that will help to make sense of many detailed
“predictor” or independent variables. This socio-economic criterion variable is derived from a one-
item, five-point Likert scale question that relies upon the assumption that the intervals between
the nominal Likert categories are equal. Figure 53 presents a graphical representation of findings
as they correspond to the categories of DDR intervention. The good news is that over 80% of the
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 65
respondents indicated an increase in their “overall situation” since the completion of the formal
disarmament period. Notably, those respondents who had completed a course of reintegration
training indicated the largest percentage of improvement in their situation at 89% with 45% or
almost half of the sub-sample indicating that their situation was “much better.”
Figure 53: Overall Situation Compared with One Year Ago, by Category of Program Participant
45.12%
43.9%
7.317%30.43%
52.8%
13.04%
24.81%
52.67%
19.47% 29.41%
44.12%
22.06%
Completed Reintegration Training Reintegration Participant
Disarmed/Demobilized Non-participant
Much Better Better Same
Worse Much Worse
NB: 573
by DDRR Participation/Status
Socio-Economic Status Since January 2005
3.6.2 Assessment by Intervention Category
This section provides a summary “snapshot” that incorporates the preceding discussions on
reintegration as well as the findings of a more rigorous assessment of the data through a higher
order statistical process. The quantitative assessments regarding the impact of the DDR program
upon the lives of the sample of ex-combatants are based upon an ordinary least squares
regression (not provided in this report) of reintegration variables that controls for many of the
social, economic, and political predictors presented throughout this paper. Table 6 provides a
matrix of the variables tested against the categories of DDRR program participation and table 7
presents the results of difference of means testing between program non-participants and two
categories of program participants – program completers and those yet to enroll in a training
program. The empirical results provide an illustration of the difference between categories of
intervention class. They not only demonstrate that each class exhibits unique reintegration
characteristics, but that enrollment into a DDR program does not result in a decidedly linear
benefits progression. Importantly, as table 7 demonstrates, those who disarmed and demobilized
and have yet to enroll in a training program have not fared as well as those who chose not to
register at all (or any other category for that matter).
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 66
Table 6: Reintegration Outcomes by Participation Category (Mean Score Comparison Matrix)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
DD only
Enrolled
Complete Non-part.
N Mean SD Min Max (mean) (mean) (mean) (mean)
Daily Income (fig. 41)
590 1.58 0.96 0 3 1.452 1.605 1.779 1.753
Home Owner (fig. 42)
580 0.27 0.44 0 1 0.389 0.130 0.258 0.149
Education Level (fig. 43)
589 1.33 0.77 0 2 1.045 1.576 1.581 1.478
Idleness/Unemployment (fig. 40)
503 0.32 0.47 0 1 0.339 0.278 0.285 0.350
Perceived Acceptance (fig. 33)
588 0.66 0.47 0 1 0.738 0.652 0.616 0.441
Reported Acceptance (fig. 32)
588 0.96 0.18 0 1 0.971 0.964 0.906 0.948
Community Participation (fig. 38)
579 1.98 0.99 0 3 1.988 2.000 2.000 1.880
Home Resettlement (fig 35)
588 0.58 .49 0 1 0.666 0.482 0.593 0.441
Impartiality (fig. 51)
583 2.28 0.55 0 3 2.229 2.349 2.270 2.283
Breaking Ties (fig. 45)
587 2.66 0.79 0 3 2.784 2.603 2.453 2.558
Overall Situation (fig. 53)
573 3.06 0.78 0 4 2.988 3.099 3.304 2.985
Registered ex-combatants yet to receive training benefits
There is a major risk of leaving behind a very vulnerable grouping of NCDDRR registered ex-
combatants – those who have disarmed and demobilized but have yet to receive training. This
category of former fighters is the least educated, most agriculturally oriented, and poorest of the
four classes under investigation. Most important, they have been shown to be the least
reintegrated of all categories under investigation when examined through the lens of the four
proposed dimensions of reintegration.
Ex-combatants currently enrolled in a course of reintegration training
The situation of this category of ex-combatants is only slightly better than that of those who chose
not to participate in the DDRR. The category of combatants is challenged by their economic
situation (42% live on less than US$2/day) and their physical separation from their home
communities (52%). The reason for the separation was unclear in the study but may be related to
limitations regarding training program availability. The question still remains, though, will the
Liberian economy have the capacity to capitalize on this group’s newly acquired education and
training?
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 67
Ex-combatants who have completed a course of reintegration training
While this group was found to be the most capable of reintegrating into their respective
communities, the international community must not forget them. Many of the former fighters are
moving on economically, but some are still having a hard time reintegrating socially within their
respective communities. The comparatively lower self-reported acceptance rates, lack of faith in
the communities’ judges of conflict resolution, and large proportion of these former combatants
spending their free time on their own indicate that much more progress is needed.
Non-NCDDRR-registered ex-combatants (program non-participants)
While this group appears to be reintegrating to some degree, there are a couple of significant
areas of concern. Members of this group are the least likely to resettle their home communities
and have also indicated an overwhelming concern about being identified as ex-combatants. The
survey found a DDRR non-participation rate of 12%, which was nearly identical to the finding in
the Sierra Leone case (13%). The significance of the convergence between the two country
cases is quite important to policy makers in itself as it may now be able to be utilized as a
planning factor for future cases. Non-participation is really a non-measurable action, but
convergence should now enable a bit more confidence in the planning stages.
Table 7: Impact of DDR Program Participation (Compared against program non-participants)
Program Completion DD only (not training) (3)minus(4) (1)minus(4) (mean difference) (mean difference)
Daily Income (fig. 41)
0.03 (0.17)
-0.30 (-2.27)**
Home Owner (fig. 42)
0.11 (1.65)*
0.24 (3.78)***
Education Level (fig. 43)
0.10 (0.97)
-0.43 (-3.78)***
Idleness/Unemployment (fig. 40)
-0.06 (-0.80)
-0.01 (-0.159)
Perceived Acceptance (fig. 33)
0.18 (2.18)**
0.30 (4.83)***
Reported Acceptance (fig. 32)
-0.04 (-1.06)
0.23 (1.08)
Community Participation (fig. 38)
0.12 (0.73)
0.12 (0.82)
Home Resettlement (fig 35)
0.15 (1.88)*
0.23 (3.47)***
Impartiality (fig. 51)
-0.01 (-0.14)
-0.05 (-0.76)
Breaking Ties (fig. 45)
-0.11 (-0.70)
0.23 (2.48)**
Overall Situation (fig. 53)
0.32 (2.44)**
0.00 (0.03)
Note: *significant at 10%, **significant at 5%, ***significant at 1%
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 68
3.6.3 Gender Differences
Significant to the findings of this paper is that no major differences between genders were
uncovered with regard to the impact of the program upon the lives of Liberian ex-combatants.
Figure 54 separates the socio-economic variable by gender for illustration. The findings actually
indicate that the female population believes that its situation has improved at a slightly greater
rate than that of males. The regression model utilized to quantify the evaluation, which also
accounts for gender, did not uncover any evidence of differences between males and females.
Figure 54: Gender – Overall Socio-Economic Situation
30.13%
48.91%
17.25%
3.493%
28.7%
56.52%
12.17%2.609%
Male Female
Much Better Better Same
Worse Much Worse
NB: 573 (473 males, 115 females)
by gender
Self-Reported Socio-Economic Status Improvement
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 69
4 CONCLUSIONS
The purpose of this report is to present the initial findings of the study and lay the groundwork for
more detailed and topical analytical work. An evaluation of the impact of reintegration and
reconciliation activities in Liberia has been discussed though a methodical approach that has
dissected the lives of the country’s civil war combatants.
This study has uncovered a modicum of empirical evidence that the DDRR program in Liberia
has indeed enabled a much better life for those ex-combatants who have completed their
program of training when compared with those former fighters who chose not to register,
preferring to reintegrate on their own. In almost every sub-facet of the dimensions of reintegration
(social, economic, and political), the DDRR program completers were decisively more advanced
in their efforts to reintegrate than those combatants that chose self-reintegration or any other
category, for that matter. One important point must be clear with regard to the national DDRR
program. The program was designed not to increase the economic capacity of the country—i.e.,
job creation—but to enable former fighters to reintegrate with the assistance of reinsertion
benefits and training and education. The international community needs to fight the perception
that the DDRR is a “jobs” program when, in fact, the capacity for the Liberian economy to absorb
many of the training graduates into formal sector employment is quite limited.
There is strong evidence that indicates that the presence of small arms has ceased to be an
immediate threat to the peace and stability of Liberian communities, but other sources of violent
conflict are still very prevalent. The socio-economic-political environment is in the process of
healing itself in this post-conflict country, but a serious commitment on behalf of the international
community is, obviously, still very much necessary to ensure a full recovery and to keep Liberia
away from the edge of chaos.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 70
5 ACRONYMS
AFL Armed Forces of Liberia
CAFF Children Associated with Fighting Forces
CBR Community Based Recovery
CESD Community Empowerment & Skills Development Inc
CPA Comprehensive Peace Agreement
CWC Child Welfare Committee
DEX Direct Execution
DFID Department for International Development (UK)
DDC District Development Committee
DDR Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration
DDRRP Disarmament, Demobilization, Rehabilitation and Reintegration
Program
DSRSG Deputy Special Representative of the Secretary General
EC European Commission
GOL Government of Liberia
JIU Joint Implementation Unit
LNP Liberia National Police
LURD Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy
MODEL Movement for Democracy in Liberia
MIS Management Information System
M&E Monitoring and Evaluation
NCDDRR National Commission for Disarmament, Demobilization,
Rehabilitation and Reintegration
NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations
NTGL National Transitional Government of Liberia
RBM Results Based Management
RRR Reintegration, Rehabilitation and Recovery
SF Strategic Framework
TSA Transitional Safety Allowance
SRSG Special Representative of the Secretary General (United Nations)
UNDP United Nations Development Program
UNMIL United Nations Mission in Liberia (established by Security Council
Resolution 1509 of 19 September 2003)
USAID United States Agency for International Development
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 71
Figure 55: Map of Liberia
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 72
Endnotes:
3 A downloadable version of the study “What the Fighters Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Sierra
Leone” can be found at URL:< http://www.earthinstitute.columbia.edu/cgsd/documents/ humphreys_combatantsurvey.pdf>.
4 United Nations Development Program (UNDP) Liberia, to serve as the principal investigator for
the nation-wide "UNDP Liberia Community Reintegration and Reconciliation Study," 2005-2006. URL:<http://www.lr.undp.org/Ex-combatants%20Nationwide%20Survey%20-%20Key%20Findings.pdf>
5 Jeremy I. Levitt, The Evolution of Deadly Conflict in Liberia (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic
Press, 2005), 4. Hereafter known as The Evolution of Deadly Conflict in Liberia. 6 The Evolution of Deadly Conflict in Liberia, 195.
7 Ibid., 201.
8 Ibid., 216.
9 Ibid., 223.
10
UNOSAA (UN Office of Special Advisor on Africa). 2005. Disarmament, Demobilization, Reintegration (DDR) and Stability in Africa. Conference report Freetown, Sierra Leone. New York: UN. June.
11
LNP (Liberia National Police). 2006. Annual Crime Report and Statistics for 2005. October. 12
IPA, (International Peace Academy). 2006. “Counting What Counts: Ten Steps toward Increasing the Relevance of Empirical Research in the UN system,” Meeting Note, February.
13
Koeb, Eleonora. 2006. Summary Report on Twelve Focus Group Discussions held in Montserrado, Bomi, Grand Gedeh and Sinoe Counties (draft), report for the UNDP Liberia.
14
Kalyvas, Stathis N. 2005. “Warfare in Civil Wars,” in Rethinking the Nature of War, Isabelle Duyvesteyn and Jan Angstrom (eds.). Abingdton: Frank Cass.
15 The actual number of ex-combatants in the Liberian conflict will never be known for certain.
Although the NCDDRR registered over 91,932 adult former fighters, many others will not have disarmed for a variety of reasons and will remain anonymous to any database. In order to quantify the sampling frame, a “best-guess” rate of 13% (or 13,737) was used to determine the number of DDRR program non-participants. The rate corresponds to the finding on non-participation in the Sierra Leone study. Humphreys and Weinstein (2004), 30.
16
STATA release 9 statistical software was utilized for all of this paper’s findings and analysis. 17
JIU (2004). NCDDRR Statistical Summary Report. August, page 3. 18
Dr. Macartan Humphreys provided a coded Microsoft Excel spreadsheet (used in determining the location and number of clusters in the Sierra Leone study) that allowed districts to be selected randomly based upon weights.
19
NCDDRR ex-combatant reintegration intake form FORM-DDRR003A indicates the former combatant’s preferred choice of location resettlement.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 73
20
This mapping project was completed in 2004. The data lists all villages with a unique “P-code” (Place Code) that can subsequently be linked to many other sources of information. The database currently associates the following information as well: county, district , number of houses, percentage of displacement, percentage that have returned, presence and functionality of schools and health facilities, accessibility by car in wet and dry seasons. The database can be accessed at: URL:<http://www.humanitarianinfo.org/liberia/ mapcentre/ reference/village_ws_maps/index.asp>.
21
Humphreys and Weinstein (2004), What the Fighters Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Sierra Leone, page 10.
22
Information access through the on-line UNHCR report “Refugees by the Numbers, 2006 Edition,” URL:<http://www.unhcr.org/basics/BASICS/3b028097c.html#Refugees>
23
Draft Interim Secretariat (2003), Liberian Disarmament, Demobilization, Rehabilitation, and Reintegration Programme: Strategy and Implementation Framework. Monrovia. October.
24
NTGL (National Transitional Government of Liberia) (2004), United Nations, World Bank: Joint Needs Assessment, February, 41. URL:<www.un.org/Depts/dpko/missions/unmil/Needs_Assessment_for_Liberia.pdf>
25
Fortnightly Statistical Monitoring Report (22 August 2004) produced by Monitoring and Evaluation Unit (M&E) Unit at the JIU.
26
NCDDRR status reports can be viewed at URL:<http://www.lr.undp.org/ddrr.htm> 27
“Forced labor” is a most euphemistic term. A more correct terminology would be “slavery” or “human trafficking.” Taking civilians as “spoils of war” in Africa has been most common throughout the history of the continent.
28
UNDP (2000), Sharing New Ground in Post-Conflict Situations, 55, January, URL:< www.undp.org/eo/documents/postconflict_march2000.pdf>. 29
Kees Kingma, “Demobilization, Reintegration, and Peacebuilding in Africa,” International Peacekeeping (Frank Cass) 9, issue 2 (Summer 2002), 183.
30
Mats R. Berdal, Disarmament and Demobilization after Civil Wars: Arms, Soldiers, and the Termination of Conflict, Adelphi Paper No. 303 (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 14.
31
Government of Liberia, “1999 Liberia Demographic and Health Survey Field Manual,” 9. 32
US Department of State, “Liberia,” Background Notes, January 2006, URL:<http://www. state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/6618.htm>, accessed 14 February 2006.
33
UNDP “Facts and Figures,” URL:<http://www.lr.undp.org/facts.htm>, accessed 3 July 2006. 34
Barbara M. Byrne, Measuring Self-Concept across the Lifespan: Methodology and Instrumentation for Research and Practice (Washington DC: American Psychological Association, 1996), 141. Hereafter known as Measuring Self-Concept.
35
Measuring Self-Concept, 189. 36
Sweta Shah, Georgina Graidage, and Josephine Valencia, “Youth on the Streets: The Importance of Social Interactions on Psychological Well-being in an African Context,” Report for USAID, May 2005, URL:< pdf.dec.org/pdf_docs/PNADD170.pdf>, accessed 16 July 2006.
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What the Fighter’s Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia February-March 2006 74
37
The study presented by Hee-Young Song addressing the social reintegration of persons with spinal cord injury proved to be valuable not only in providing construct recommendations but for methodological design as well. The study implemented “structural equation modeling to examine the direct and indirect effects of self-esteem, social barriers, physical function, family support, informational support, perceived stress, emotion-focused coping, and problem-focused coping on social reintegration.” The relevance of self-esteem to reintegration is of paramount importance, and the model warrants inclusion of this construct in ex-combatant models for further investigation. For more, readers should see: Hee-Young Song, “Modeling Social Reintegration in Persons with Spinal Cord Injury,” Disability and Rehabilitation 27, no.3 (2005), 131-141.
38
United Nations (2006). Operational Guide: To the Integrated Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration Standards., 114.