what next after a ban on glyphosate – more toxic chemicals and...

What next after a ban on glyphosate – more toxic chemicals and GM crops?

Or the transformation of global food systems?

TWNThird World Network

ContentsAcronyms 3Glossaryofterms 4Aboutthebriefing 5Keyissues 5Introduction 6GlyphosateandGeneticallyModified(GM)Crops 6 Weed resistance and other pesticides 9 Health and environmental risks 10Glyphosate:IARC/WHOassessmentandtheglobalresponse 12 Understanding the industry’s response 12Realalternatives 13Annexure:NewGMherbicidetolerantvarietiesintheUSA 15GlobalapprovalsforMON87708xMON89788(MON89788) 15References 16

2A F R I C A N C E N T R E F O R B I O D I V E R S I T Y

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©The African Centre for Biodiversitywww.acbio.org.zaPO Box 29170, Melville 2109, Johannesburg, South Africa. Tel: +27 (0)11 486 1156.

The Network for a GE-Free Latin America (RALLT) was established in January 1999, inspired by the need for communities to develop global strategies to deal with the increase of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in the region, and to prevent new introductions into the region.

The objectives of the Network are:• To avoid the introduction of transgenic organisms into new areas, supporting

national and local processes within the region;• To promote the creation of GE Free Zones; and• To support communities facing the impacts of the expansion of GE crops and the

associated technology package in their demands for full reparations.

The Third World Network (TWN) is an independent non-profit international network of organisations and individuals involved in issues relating to development, developing countries and North-South affairs. Its mission is to bring about a greater articulation of the needs and rights of peoples in the South, a fair distribution of world resources, and forms of development which are ecologically sustainable and fulfill human needs.

TWN’s objectives are:• To deepen the understanding of the development dilemmas and challenges

facing developing countries; and• To contribute to policy changes in pursuit of just, equitable and ecologically

sustainable development.

Design and layout: Adam Rumball, Sharkbouys Designs, JohannesburgCover design: Adam Rumball

Cover photograph: Medioambiente. www.paginapopular.net

TWNThird World Network

What next after a ban on glyphosate 3

Acronyms

AMPA AcompoundthatisaspecificagonistfortheAMPAreceptorANVISA NationalHealthSurveillanceAgency(Brazil)APHIS AnimalandPlantHealthInspectionService(APHIS)CA ConservationAgricultureCIMMYT InternationalMaizeandWheatImprovementCentreCSA ClimateSmartAgricultureEC EuropeanCommissionEFSA EuropeanFoodSafetyAuthorityFAO FoodandAgricultureOrganizationFESPROSA FederationofHealthProfessionals(Argentina)GMO GeneticallyModifiedOrganismHa HectaresHT HerbicideTolerantIAASTD InternationalAssessmentofAgriculturalKnowledge,Scienceand TechnologyforDevelopmentIARC InternationalAgencyforCancerResearchIR InsectResistantISAAA InternationalServicefortheAcquisitionofAgri-biotechApplicationsJMPR JointFAO-WHOMeetingonPesticideResiduesMRL MaximumresiduelevelsPAN PesticideActionNetworkRR RoundupReadySIMLESA SustainableIntensificationofMaize-Legumesystemsforfoodsecurityin EasternandSouthernAfricaUN UnitedNationsUNCTAD UNConferenceonTradeandDevelopmentUSA UnitedStatesofAmericaUSDA UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgricultureUSEPA UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyWEA DanishWorkingEnvironmentAuthorityWHO WorldHealthOrganization


Glossary of termsActiveingredient:Theingredientinapesticidethatisconsideredbiologicallyactive.

Adjuvant:Otherchemicalsaddedtotheactiveingredientincommercialherbicideformulationstoincreasetheirefficacy.Thepreciseformulationsofactiveingredientsandadjuvantsincommercialherbicidesarecloselyguardedcommercialsecrets.Riskassessmentsofherbicidesusuallyconcentrateontheactiveingredientandnottheactualchemicalformulationsused.

Agroecology:Isthestudyofecologicalprocessesthatoperateinagriculturalproductionsystems.Theprefixagro-referstoagriculture.

Biotechnology:Istheuseoflivingsystemsandorganismstodevelopormakeproducts,oranytechnologicalapplicationthatusesbiologicalsystems,livingorganismsorderivativesthereof,tomakeormodifyproductsorprocessesforspecificuse.

Carcinogen:Anysubstancecapableofcausingcancerinlivingtissue.

GeneticallyModifiedOrganism(GMO):Anyorganismwhosegeneticmaterialhasbeenalteredinawaythatdoesnotoccurnaturallybymatingand/ornaturalrecombination.Inagriculture,themajorityofGMOsarecropsthathavehadgenesaddedtothemthatenableanorganismtotoleratecertainchemicals,oraddedgenesfoundinsoilbacteriathatenabletheorganismtoproducecertainproteinsthataretoxictoinsectpests.

Glyphosate:Achemicalthatistheactiveingredientinmanyglyphosate-basedherbicides.Glyphosateisconsideredabroad-spectrumherbicidebecauseitsmodeofactioninhibitsametabolicpathwaythatispresentinallplantlife,aswellasinsomefungiandbacteria.

Glyphosate-basedherbicides:Herbicidesthatcontaintheactiveingredientglyphosate.

Herbicide:Atypeofpesticidespecificallydesignedtokillweeds,i.e.aformulationcontaininganactiveingredientplusadjuvants.

Herbicideresistance:Thisoccurswhenweedsnaturallydevelopresistancetoaherbicideovertimeduetolong-termexposure.Glyphosate-resistantweedsareamajorproblemintheUSA.

Herbicidetolerance(HT):Thisoccurswhenaplanthasbeengeneticallymodifiedtotoleratetheapplicationofcertainchemicalactiveingredients.Thevastmajorityofherbicidetolerantplantsaretolerantofglyphosate.

Modeofaction:Theoverallmannerinwhichaherbicideaffectsaplantatthetissueorcellularlevel.Forexample,glyphosateisanaminoacidinhibitor.Otherherbicides,suchas2,4-D,areauxingrowthregulators,whichactasanartificialgrowthhormone.

Pesticide:Abroadgroupofagriculturalchemicalsthatincludesherbicides(weed-killers),insecticides(forinsectpests),andfungicides(forplantdiseases).

Roundup:Monsanto’sbrandofcommercialglyphosate-basedherbicides.

RoundupReady(RR)crops:Monsanto’svarietiesofgeneticallymodifiedcropsthathavebeenspecificallydesignedtotoleratetheapplicationofglyphosate-basedherbicides.Forexample,RoundupReadymaizeandsoya.


About this briefingThisbriefinghasbeenpromptedbytherecentconclusionoftheInternationalAgencyforCancerResearch(IARC),oftheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO),thatglyphosate,theworld’smost-usedchemicalingredientforweedcontrol,isa“probablehumancarcinogen”.

Inrecentyears,theuseofglyphosatehascometobeassociatedwithherbicide-tolerant(HT)geneticallymodified(GM)crops,withglyphosateuseincreasingdramaticallyinallmajorGMHTcrop-producingcountries.Theconsequencesforhumanhealthandtheenvironmenthavebeendisastrousinmanycommunities.AnumberofcountrieshavealreadytakenactiontoreduceorhalttheuseofglyphosateinresponsetotheIARCassessment.

WhileglyphosateisstillinuseandisheavilyrelieduponforGMsoyaproductioninparticular,Monsantoandotherbiotechnologyandagro-chemicalcompaniesarealreadyplanningforbusinessafterglyphosate.AplethoraofGMcropsthataretoleranttomultipleherbicidesarealreadyapprovedforthemarket,whileMonsantohasrecentlysoughtthepotentialacquisitionofSyngenta,theworld’slargestproducerofherbicides.

ItisimperativethattheIARC’sfindingstakethedebatefurther—beyondsimplyreplacingglyphosatewithothertoxicchemicalherbicides—intodeeperconversationsaboutthecharacteristicsofourfoodandagriculturesystemsandhowtheyinteractwithandimpactuponpeopleandtheenvironment.

Key Issues• Theintroductionofgeneticallymodified

(GM)herbicide-tolerant(HT)crops,suchasMonsanto’sRoundupReady(RR)varieties,hasledtodramaticincreasesintheuseofglyphosate.Between1997and2014theglobalareaexploitedbytheseHTcropsincreasedfrom6.9millionhato154millionha.IntheUSAoverallherbicideuseincreasedby237millionkgfrom1996to2011;RRsoyaalone

accountedfor70%ofthisincrease.InSouthAmerica,theintroductionofRRsoyahasseenglyphosateuseinArgentinaandUruguayincreasetenfold,whileBrazilisnowtheworld’slargestpesticidemarket.

• Thishugeincreaseinglyphosateusehasresultedinmassoutbreaksofglyphosate-resistantweeds,totheextentthatin2013glyphosate-resistantweedscoveredapproximately28millionhaintheUSA.BywayofresponsebiotechnologyandagrochemicalcompanieshavebegundevelopingGMcropswithresistancetomultipleherbicides,manyofwhichareolderandevenmoretoxicthanglyphosate.MonsantoisonthevergeofreleasinganewGMsoyavarietythatisresistanttoglyphosateanddicamba,suggestingthatthecompanyintendstoekeasmuchprofitfromglyphosateaspossible.(Dicambaisanotherherbicide;itisachemicalcompoundcomprisinganorganochloride(acompoundcontainingcarbon,chlorineandhydrogen)andaderivativeofbenzoicacid.)AtthetimeofwritingMonsantoisalsointhemiddleofatakeoverbidfortheworld’slargestherbicideproducer,Syngenta.

• Theimpactsofthismassiveincreaseinglyphosateuse,forbothhumanhealthandtheenvironment,havebeencatastrophic.RRsoyagrowingareasinArgentinahavewitnessedfourfoldincreasesintheratesofbirthdefectsandchildhoodcancers.SimilarrelationshipsbetweenglyphosateuseandnegativehealthimpactshavebeenfoundinCanadaandParaguay.Highlevelsofglyphosatehavealsobeenfoundasresiduesinharvestedsoybeansandinwatersources.Inaddition,theexpansionofRRsoyainSouthAmericahasproducedmassivedeforestation,

JavieraRulli.BASEIS.Presentation:LatinoamericaSojera.Socio&enviroimpactsofsoymonocultureinParaguay&Argentina.www.lasojamata.net


lossofbiodiversityandland-lossforindigenouscommunities.

• TheIARC’sfindingthatglyphosateisa“probablehumancarcinogen”hasbeenrejectedbybiotechnologyandpesticidecorporations,whocitefindingsof‘safety’fromanumberofregulatorybodies.However,thesesamecompanieshavebeenintimatelyinvolvedintheassessmentsconductedbytheregulatingagencies.

• TheIARC,ontheotherhand,haslookedatallavailablestudies,includingthosethatexamineformulatedproducts,anditsassessmentisup-to-date.Inresponse,severerestrictionsontheuseofglyphosate,oroutrightbans,havebeenputinplaceinnumerouscountries.InArgentinaandBrazilthefederationofpublichealthprofessionalsandthepublicprosecutorrespectivelyhavecalledforthebanningofglyphosate.

• Whilethebansonglyphosatearetimelyandappropriate,giventheevidence,othertoxicherbicides,suchas2,4-Dichlorophenoxyaceticacid(2,4-D)anddicamba,similarlymustcomeunderurgentreview.(2,4-Disacommonsystemicherbicide,asyntheticauxin(planthormone)).TheIARCitselfhasrecentlyclassified2,4-Das‘possiblycarcinogenictohumans’.Comprehensiveindependentassessmentsoftheseherbicidesandtheirimpactsonhumanhealthandtheenvironmentmustbeconducted.

• Appropriateinternationalbodiesmustinitiateaprogrammeoffairandequitablereparationstoaffectedpeoples,togetherwiththerestorationandremediationofcontaminatedenvironments.

• Ashiftfromchemicalinput-intensiveweedmanagementandchemicalinputagricultureingeneral,toagroecologicalmethodologiesisurgentlyneeded.

IntroductionGlyphosateistheactiveingredientinmanychemicallybasedherbicides.Glyphosate’smodeofactivity(howitworks)isbasedontheinactivationofanenzymeoftheshikimatemetabolicpathway(theEPSPSenzyme).Thisenzymeiscriticalfortheproductionofthreedifferentaminoacidsessentialforplantgrowth,

aswellasseveralothermetabolitesthatplayacriticalroleinprotectingorganismsatdifferentstagesofdevelopment.Becausetheshikimatepathwayispresentinallplantlife,aswellassomefungiandbacteria,glyphosateisreferredtoasa‘non-selective’or‘broad-spectrum’herbicide.1Otherchemicalsknownasadjuvantsorsurfactantsareaddedtoglyphosateincommerciallyavailableherbicideformulations,suchasMonsanto’sRoundupbrand.2

Glyphosatewasfirstsynthesisedin1950butitwasnotuntil1974thatascientistworkingforMonsantoidentifiedthechemical’spotentialforuseinagriculture.Ithassubsequentlybecometheworld’stopsellingherbicide.Monsanto’spatentonglyphosateexpiredin2000,leadingtodramaticincreasesingenericproduction,particularlyinChina.Monsantostillholdspatentsandtrademarksoveranumberofglyphosate-basedherbicideformulationsandcontinuestomakebillionsofdollarsevery-yearfromglyphosate,thankstotherapidspreadofgeneticallymodified(GM)glyphosate-tolerantcrops(forwhichMonsanto’sRoundupReady(RR)varietiesarebyfarthemostcommon).3

In1995,whenthefirstglyphosate-tolerantcropswereapproved,theglobalmarketforglyphosatewaswortharoundUS$1.2billion.4By2012thishadincreasedtoapproximatelyUS$5.5billionanditisexpectedtoincreasetoUS$8.8billionby2019.5

Glyphosate and Genetically Modified (GM) CropsDespitethepromiseofnumerousbenefitssuchasenhancednutritionandclimatechangeresilience,nearlyallGMcropsgrowntodayhavebeenengineeredtosurviveexposuretochemicallybasedherbicides(herbicide-tolerant(HT)varieties),ortoproducetheirowninternaltoxinstokillinsectpests(insect-resistant(IR)varieties).Manycropscombinebothofthesetraitsandareknownas‘stacked’varieties.AmongtheHTvarieties,thosetoleranttoglyphosate-basedherbicides,such


asMonsanto’sbrandedRoundupherbicides,arebyfarthemostcommon.ItmustbenotedthatwhiletheexactfiguresonglyphosatetoleranthectaresplantedarehardtocomebyasindustryfiguresrefertooverallHThectaresplanted,whichcouldincludevarietiestoleranttootherchemicalssuchasglufosinate.However,itisfairtosaythatglyphosatetoleranceaccountsforthevastmajorityofoverallHTvarietycultivation.

Theadoptionofherbicide-tolerantGMcrops,thoughconfinedtoahandfulofcountries,hasbeenspectacular.In1997theywereplantedon6.9millionhectares(ha)worldwide,accountingfor54%ofthetotalglobalareaofGMcrops.By2014thishadincreasedto154.3millionha,accountingfor85%ofGMcropsplantedglobally(eitherassingletraitherbicidetoleranceor‘stacked’withinsect-resistantvarieties).6

Over86%oftheworld’sGMcropsaregrowninNorthandSouthAmerica.ThemaindriverbehindthewidespreadgrowingofGMcropsinSouthAmericahasbeentheuseofglyphosate-tolerant(orRoundupReady)soya,whichisnowplantedonover55millionha.BrazilandArgentinaarethemajorHTsoyaproducersinSouthAmerica,havinggrown29millionand20.8millionharespectively,in2014.In

Argentinathisareahasmorethandoubledsincetheturnofthecentury,whileinBraziltheareaunderHTsoyahasincreasedbyastaggering778%overthesameperiod.7

SimilartrendshavebeenobservedinotherHTsoyagrowingcountriesinSouthAmerica.InParaguay,thesoyaareahastrebledsincethemid-1990sto3.2millionha,covering80%ofthecountry’sagriculturalland;95%ofthissoyaisoneofMonsanto’sRoundupReadyvarieties.8InBoliviaover1millionhaofHTsoyawerecultivatedin2014/15,whichisa400,000haincreasesinceHTsoyawasfirstgrowntherein2008.9Between2003/14and2014/15theHTsoyaareainUruguayincreasedfrom77,000hatoover1.35millionha.10

Glyphosatewasalreadytheworld’sbest-sellingherbicidebythetimethefirstHTcropsweregrowninthemid-1990s,buttherapidadoptionofHTcropshasresultedinhugeincreasesinglyphosateuseitself.IntheUSA,overallherbicideuseincreasedby237millionkgfrom1996to2011,withHTsoyaaloneaccountingfor70%ofthisincrease.Canadasawathreefoldincreaseinglyphosateusefrom2005to2011,from34millionlitresto102millionlitres.11

InArgentinaglyphosateusehasincreasedfrom20–26millionlitresperyearin1996to

GlobalGMandGMHTcropplantings(millionsHa),1996–2014

Source:InternationalServicefortheAcquisitionofAgri-biotechApplications(ISAAA).


Glyphosate, Climate Change and No-Till Agriculture

Climatechangeandpredictionsoverpopulationgrowthhavemadesustainability(itselfamuchdisputedterm)afundamentalcomponentofcurrentagriculturaldebate.Mechanicaltillageofthesoil,whetherbyhand,draughtanimalortractor-power,hasbeenastandardagriculturalpracticesinceancienttimes.However,inmorerecenttimesthishasbeenacknowledgedasacauseofsoildegradationanderosionandalsoasalargesourceofgreenhousegasemissions—asignificantamountofcarbondioxideisheldintheworld’sagriculturalsoils.14

Inano-tillsystem,minimalsoildisturbanceshouldpreventsoilerosionandallowthebuild-upoforganicmatterinthesoil.Thereiscurrentlysomedebateregardingprecisedefinitionsofwhatconstitutesno-tillagriculture.TheFoodandAgricultureOrganisation(FAO)oftheUnitedNations(UN)statesthatsoildisturbancesshouldbe“reducedtoanabsoluteminimumoravoided”.Bydefaultthisrulesoutthemajorityofmanualweedingmethodswhichwouldneedtobereplacedwithalternatives;thesecouldincludetheuseofherbicidesorothermethods(suchasbio-pesticides,cropcoverorcroprotation).

TheFAOisambiguousovertheroleofherbicidesinno-tillsystems,sayingonlythat,alongwithotherexternalinputstheyshouldbe“appliedoptimally”,thoughitdoesemphasisethatforbestresultsno-tillshouldbepracticedinconjunctionwithothermethods.15Naturallythebiotechnologyandagrochemicalindustrieshavebeenquicktopromotetheuseofherbicides(suchasglyphosate)andthepotentialforHTcrops,claimingthatthesearetailor-madetofitintono-tillagesystemsandthattheywillthereforemakeacontributiontosustainablepractices.16

ConservationAgriculture(CA)holdszeroorminimumtillageasoneofitsthreecentralprinciples(alongwithleavingcropresiduesinfieldsandinter-croppingorcroprotation).ManyprojectspromotingCAinSub-SaharanAfrica,suchastheSustainableIntensificationofMaize-LegumesystemsforFoodSecurityinEasternandSouthernAfrica(SIMLESA),whichismanagedbytheInternationalMaizeandWheatImprovementCentre(CIMMYT),havebeenactivelypromotingtheuseofherbicides,includingglyphosateasaminimumtillagepractice.17

ClimateSmartAgriculture(CSA),acontroversialconceptoriginatingfromtheUNFAOandsubsequentlytakenonbytheWorldBankandthegovernmentsoftheUSAandtheNetherlands,hascitedHTcanolainCanadaasbeingaCSAbestpracticeduetoitsminimumtillageaspect.18However,tillingisalsonowrecommendedasatooltodealwiththeevolutionandspreadofherbicide-resistantweeds,particularlyinmaizeandsoya,resultingfromtheoveruseofherbicideswithHTcrops.

ItishugelyironicthatGMcrops,whichatpresentarefurtherentrenchingsystemicallyunsustainableagriculturalproductionmethods,arenowbeingtoutedasasolutiontotheclimatecrisis.Herbicide-tolerantcropsmaywellreducesoildisturbancesintheshortterm,butarethepracticesthatarecomplementarytono-till—suchascropcoverorinter-cropping—feasibleinthelarge-scale,mono-croppedsystemswithinwhichHTcropsarecurrentlygrown?


200millionlitresby2013.InBraziltheoverallsalesofpesticidesincreasedby360%from2000–2009,andthecountrysurpassedtheUSAastheworld’slargestpesticidemarket.Overthesameperiod,salesofglyphosateincreasedfromjustunder50,000tonsto300,000tonsandin2010soybeanfieldsaccountedfor44%ofallpesticidesappliedinBrazilianagriculture.12Uruguay’sglyphosateconsumptionincreasedtenfoldfrom1998–2010,from1.22millionkgto12.29millionkg,whileinBoliviatheuseofglyphosateincreasedfrom3.18millionlitresin2004to11.19millionin2008.13

Weed resistance and other pesticides

Despiterepeatedwarningsfromweedscientistsandenvironmentaliststhatglyphosate-tolerantcropswouldleadtotheemergenceofglyphosate-resistantweeds,thesefearsweredismissedbythebiotechnologyandagrochemicalindustries.In1997,shortlyafterthefirstHTcropswereplantedglobally,Monsantostatedthat‘theprobabilityofglyphosate-resistantweedsevolvingwillnotincreasesignificantly’.19

However,accordingtoadatabaserunbytheWeedScienceSocietyofAmerica,32speciesofweedaroundtheworldhavedevelopedresistancetoglyphosate.Intheearly2000smostofthesedocumentedcasespertainedtofieldsofGMglyphosate-tolerantcrops,andmostcasesoverallareincountrieswhereGMglyphosate-tolerantcropsaregrown:14intheUSA,10inAustralia,7inArgentina,5inCanadaand6inBrazil.IntheUnitedStatesthesituationhasreachedepidemicproportions,withtheUnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)estimatingthat28.3millionhaofUSfarmlandswereinfestedwithglyphosate-resistantweedsin2013.This,inturn,hasdrivenupoverallherbicideusebybetween25%and50%.20

Inresponsetothis,thebiotechnologyandagrochemicalindustrieshavebeenencouragingfarmerstouseotherherbicidesandaredevelopingnewGMHTcropsthataretoleranttoothertoxicherbicides,suchasglufosinate,2,4-D,dicambaandIsoxaflutole(seeAnnexure).21ManyofthesenewGMvarietieswillbestackedformultipleherbicidetolerance,resultinginhugeoverallincreases

inherbicideuseandwidespreadcombinationsoftoxicchemicalsnotpreviouslyseen.DowChemical,forexample,planstoreleaseits‘Enlist’GMsoybeanvarietiesin2016.Thesewillbestackedwithtolerancetoglyphosateand2,4-D,achemicalthathasbeenlinkedwithvariousformsofcancerforanumberofyears.222,4-DhasbeenrecentlyclassifiedbytheIARCas‘possiblycarcinogenictohumans’,whichisonelevellowerthanthatofglyphosate(‘probablycarcinogenictohumans’).Nonetheless,a‘substantialminority’oftheIARCworkinggroup(whichalsoincludedmembersoftheindustry-sponsored2,4-Dworkinggroup)consideredtheretobelimitedevidenceofcarcinogenicityinhumansandsufficientevidenceofcarcinogenicityinanimals,whichwouldplace2,4-Dinthecategoryofa‘probable’humancarcinogen,thesamelevelasglyphosate.23DowhopesitsEnlistsystemwillgenerateuptoUS$1billioninextrarevenuesby2018,andplanstomarketinbothNorthandSouthAmerica.24

ForMonsantoinparticular,thesedevelopmentscouldhavesevereramificationsforitsbusinessmodel.In2014thecompanymadeoverUS$5billionfromagrochemicals,thebulkofwhichcamefromitsRoundupherbicides.25InJanuary2015MonsantoreceivedregulatoryapprovalintheUSAforanewGMcottonvarietythatistoleranttoglyphosate,glufosinateanddicamba,andanewGMsoyavarietythatistoleranttodicamba.Dicamba,like2,4-D,isasynthetic‘auxin’herbicidethatactsasanartificialgrowthhormoneinvirtuallyallbroadleafplants,causingdeformitiesandultimatelyplantdeath.ThePesticideActionNetwork(PAN)haslisteddicambaasadevelopmentalorreproductivetoxinandasa

PhotograohcontributedbyElizabethBravo,andtakeninParaguay.Sourceunknown.


possibleendocrine(hormone)disruptor.26Incommonwith2,4-D,dicambaishighlydriftprone,beingresponsibleforthethirdhighestincidentsofcropdamageintheUSA.AccordingtoprojectionsfromMonsantoandtheUSDA,dicamba-tolerantsoybeansareexpectedtoresultina500-foldincreaseingeneraldicambauseinsoyacultivation.27Monsantoissetonincreasingproductionofdicambaandplansoninvestingawhopping$1billioninadicambaproductionfacilityinLuling,Louisiana.i

However,farfromreplacingglyphosate,itappearsthatdicambawillbeusedasacomplementaryherbicidetokilltheweedsthatarenowresistanttoglyphosate.Monsanto’soriginalapplicationforitsdicamba-tolerantsoyavariety,MON87708,statesthatit“willbecombinedwithMON89788(RoundupReady2Yield)”andthat“thecombinationofdicambaandglyphosatetoleranceinsoybeanswillalsoprovidethebasisfordelayingorpreventingtheevolutionoffurtherweed[s]resistancetoglyphosate,dicambaandherbicidesingeneral”.28ThisstackedGMsoyavarietyisexpectedtobereleasedduring2016,whileMonsantointendsalsotointroduceanaccompanyingdicambaandglyphosatebasedherbicidemixture.29NowthatPioneerHi-BredhasconfirmeditwillbelicensingMonsanto’snewstackedGMsoybeanvariety,industryanalystspredictitcouldbegrownonapproximately90%oftheUSsoybeanarea.30

ThoughthebiotechnologyindustryinsiststhatapprovalsofGMOsshouldbepurely‘science-based’,regulatoryapprovalofaGMcropforimportpurposesisoftensoughtbyamajorGMgrainimportertostrengthenapplicationsforcommercialcultivation.Monsantohasalreadygainedimportapprovalforitsdicamba-tolerantsoyavariety(asfoodorfeed)intheEuropeanUnion(EU),thePhilippines,TaiwanandSouthKorea.Thoughitsstackeddicambaandglyphosate-tolerantvarietywillnotbeavailableuntil2016,ittoohasbeengrantedimportapprovalinJapanandSouthKorea(seeAnnexure).31

Morerecently,Monsanto’shighprofileattempttoacquireSyngenta,theglobalmarketleader

inagrochemicals,suggeststhatMonsantostillseesalucrativefutureinchemicalherbicidesandpesticidesandalonger-termshiftawayfromglyphosate.Atthetimeofwriting(June2015)SyngentahadjustrejectedasecondofferofapproximatelyUS$45billion;itsaidthatMonsanto’sofferundervaluedthecompanyandcitedconcernsthatsuchadealwouldnotpassmusterwithvariousanti-trustauthoritiesaroundtheworld,includingintheUS.Industryanalystspredictthat,inordertoappeaseanti-trustregulators,MonsantowillhavetosellpartsofSyngenta’sbusiness,includingitsseedand(possibly)glyphosateunits.TherewouldbenoshortageofpotentialsuitorsforSyngenta’sseedbusinessshouldthishappen,withallthemajorseedandagrochemicalcompanieslinkedtothis.32

ShouldMonsantobesuccessfulinitsacquisitionofSyngenta,thenewentitywouldcontrolalmostone-thirdoftheglobalagrochemicalmarket(worthUS$57billionin2014).ItwouldalsodramaticallyexpandMonsanto’sglobalfootprint,asabout50%ofSyngenta’srevenuescomefrom“fast-growingemergingmarkets”.33InthemajorGMproducingregionsofNorthandSouthAmerica,Monsanto’snewpesticidemarketshareswouldbe42%and28%respectively.34ReportshaveemergedthatMonsantowillalsoseektoincorporatethenewlycombinedcompanyintheUnitedKingdom,amovethatcouldreduceMonsanto’sannualtaxbillbymorethanUS$500million.35

Health and environmental risks

Industry-linkedsourcesclaimthatglyphosateandcommercialherbicideformulations,suchasMonsanto’sRoundup,aresafe.Buttheseclaimsarebasedonoutdatedandlargelyunpublishedstudiescommissionedbypesticidecompaniesinsupportoftheproduct’sregistration.Further,thesestudiestestonlyglyphosate,theactiveingredient,andnotthecommerciallysoldherbicideformulations.Independentlaboratorystudieswithmammalsandhumancellshavefoundtheseformulations,andtheadjuvantchemicalsinthem,tobeevenmoretoxicthanglyphosateitself.36

i. Gillam,C.June2014.Reuters.Monsantotoinvestmorethan$1blnindicambaherbicideproduction. http://finance.yahoo.com/news/monsanto-invest-more-1-bln-203825246.html


InArgentinatheimpactsofsprayingglyphosateusedinconjunctionwithRRsoyahavebeendevastating.AreportcommissionedbytheprovincialgovernmentofChacofoundthattherateofbirthdefectshadincreasedfourfoldandthatrateofchildhoodcancershadtripledwithinadecadeoftheadoptionofGMHTcrops,singlingoutglyphosateinparticular.AgroupofArgentinephysiciansandscientists,usingclinicaldata,foundincreasedincidencesoftoxicliverdisease,neurologicaldevelopmentalproblemsinchildren,kidneyfailureandrespiratoryproblems.37

Similarly,epidemiologicalstudiescarriedoutinParaguayandCanadahaveshownarelationshipbetweenexposuretoglyphosate-basedherbicidesandbirthdefectsandmiscarriages.38ExposuretoRounduphasalsobeenlinkedtoanepidemicofchronickidneydiseaseinfarmingregionsofSriLanka.39

Inadditiontodirectexposurefromspraying,theconsumptionofRRmaizeandsoyacontainingpesticideresiduesisanotherlong-termandlargelyun-investigatedsourceofhealthrisk.In2014anindependent,peer-reviewedstudycomparedcompositionaldifferencesinRRsoybeanswiththosegrownunderaconventionalagriculturalsystem(non-GMbutstillusingchemicalinputs)andanorganicsystem(i.e.nochemicalinputs).AllindividualsamplesofGMsoyacontainedresiduesofbothglyphosateanditsbreakdownproduct,AMPA(acompoundthatisaspecificagonistfortheAMPAreceptorandwhichmimicstheeffectsoftheneurotransmitterglutamate)withaverageconcentrationsof3.26mg/kgand5.74mg/kgrespectively.40Thisiswellabovelevelsofglyphosatethathavebeenfoundtoinducetheproliferationofcancercellsinvitro.41Bycomparison,nosamplesofconventionalororganicsoybeansshowedanyresiduesofglyphosateorAMPA.Theauthorsconcludedthat“lackofdataonpesticideresiduesinmajorcropplantsisaseriousgapofknowledgewithpotentialconsequencesforhumanandanimalhealth”.42

Thereareregulationsinplacethatgovernthemaximumresiduelevels(MRLs)ofpesticidesinfood,butthereissomecontroversyoverhowthesearecalculatedandwhoactuallysetstheselimits.Forexample,afterthecommercialisation

ofHTsoyain1996,theEuropeanUnionMRLforimportedsoyaincreased200-fold,from0.1mg/kgto20mg/kg.43ThoughthemajorityofRRsoyagrownworldwideisusedforanimalfeed,thisisnotthecasewithallGMcrops.InSouthAfrica,forexample,wheremaizeisastaplefood,HTmaizeaccountedforover60%oftheentiremaizecropin2013/14.44

Therearealsoconsiderableenvironmentalimpactsassociatedwithglyphosateuse.Theserangefromimpactsonsoilbiodiversityandplantnutrientintake,todecliningbirdpopulations(thewildplantsandweedsthatglyphosateandotherherbicideseradicateareanimportantfoodsourceformanyspeciesofbird).45InNorthAmerica,MonarchButterflypopulationshavefallenby90%,chieflybecausehugeincreasesinglyphosateuseintheUSmaizebelthaseradicatedmillionsofhaofmilkweedinthebreedinggroundsoftheMonarchButterfly.46InArgentinaandParaguay,theexpansionofRRsoyahasresultedinmassivedeforestationandlossofnaturalvegetation,aswellaslossofthetraditionalterritoriesofindigenouscommunities.

Agriculturalpesticidessuchasglyphosateareamajorsourceofwaterpollutionandcanenterriversandstreamsviasoilrun-offorleaching,ordirectlywhenappliedaerially.47Onceinwaterglyphosateishighlysolubleandthereforemobileinwatersystems.Studieshaverevealedglyphosate-basedherbicideformulationstobehighlytoxictoaquaticlifeandamphibians.48From2008–2010thegovernmentofQuebec,Canada,testedfourriversinmaizeandsoyagrowingareasforpesticides;glyphosatewasfoundin86%ofthesamples.49AUSgeologicalsurveyfrom2001–2006detectedglyphosate

http://horizontesur.org/radio/index.php/paren-de-fumigar.html.Sourceunknown.


anditsbreakdownproduct,AMPA,in32%of608watersamplescollected.Inareaswithnearcontinualapplications(commoninareaswithHTcrops),glyphosateandAMPAweredetectedinnearlyeverysample.50

Glyphosate: IARC/WHO assessment and the global responseAgainstthisbackdrop,inMarch2015theIARC,thebodytaskedwithprovidingevidencetoguidethecancercontrolpoliciesoftheWHO,announcedthatglyphosateisa“probablehumancarcinogen”.TheIARChaddrawnthisconclusionfollowingayear-longreviewofthescientificliteratureontheherbicide,inwhichitfound“convincingevidence”thatglyphosatecausescancerinlaboratoryanimals,“limitedevidence”thatitdoessoinagriculturalworkers,andevidencethatitcausesDNAandchromosomaldamageinhumancells.51

InternationalreactiontotheIARC’sfindingshasbeenswift,andisnotmerelyconfinedtotheglobalnorth.Colombiahassuspendedaerialsprayingofglyphosateoncocaplantations,whileBermudaandSriLankahavebothbannedglyphosateimports.InEuropetheDanishWorkingEnvironmentAuthority(WEA)concurredwiththefindingsoftheIARC,whileGermany’sstateconsumerprotectionministerscalledfor“thesupplytoandusebyprivatepersonstobebannedforprecautionaryreasons”;52andtheFrenchenvironmentandenergyministerhasaskedgardencentrestostopself-servicesalesofRoundup.53InArgentinatheFederationofHealthProfessionals(FESPROSA),whichrepresentsmorethan30,000doctorsandhealthprofessionals,hascalledforthebanningofglyphosate.54TheBrazilianpublicprosecutorhaswrittentothecountry’sNationalHealthSurveillanceAgency(ANVISA)askingtheagencytoperformanurgenttoxicologicalre-evaluationofglyphosatewiththeexpectationofadomesticbanonherbicidesbasedonthechemical.

Understanding the industry’s response

Predictably,theIARC’sfindingshavebeenmetwithafiercebacklashfromtheagrochemicalindustry.Monsantoclaimedtobe“outraged”bytheassessmentandaccusedtheIARCof“cherry-picking”dataandhavingaclear“agenda-drivenbias”.55Acommonresponsehasbeentocitenumerousregulatoryagenciesaroundtheworldthathavefoundglyphosatesafe,includingtheUnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(USEPA),theEuropeanFoodSafetyAuthority(EFSA)andtherecentGermangovernment’sassessmentofglyphosate,conductedonbehalfoftheEuropeanCommission(EC).

However,unliketheseandotherregulatorybodies,theIARChaslookedatallavailableandup-to-datestudiesinthescientificliterature,includingstudiesperformedontheformulatedproduct.56LargepartsofthemuchrecentlycitedGermangovernmentreviewofglyphosatewereactuallycarriedoutbytheEuropeanGlyphosateTaskForce,anagrochemicalindustrygroup.57Inaddition,in1985theUSEPAhadoriginallyclassifiedglyphosateas“possiblycarcinogenictohumans”,basedontumoursfoundinmice;afindingwhichwasdowngradedto“non-carcinogenicityinhumans”in1991.Thisre-interpretationreportedlyfollowedinputfromMonsanto.58TheEuropeanFoodSafetyAuthority(EFSA),whosefindingsonglyphosatecontradictthoseoftheIARC’s,foryearshasbeenaccusedofconflictsofinterestandalackoftransparency.59

Interestingly,twooftheotherpesticidesreviewedbytheIARCatthesametimeasglyphosate,i.e.tetrachlorvinphosandparathion,werebothclassifiedas“possiblycarcinogenictohumans”,whichisalevelbelowglyphosate,butbotharesubjecttorestricteduse,unlikeglyphosate.TetrachlorvinphosisbannedintheEuropeanUnionwhiletheuseofparathionhasbeenseverelyrestrictedsincethe1980s.AllauthorisedusesinboththeEUandUSAwerecancelledby2003.60

ItisworryingtonotethatinresponsetotheIARCclassificationtheJointFAO-WHOMeetingonPesticideResidues(JMPR),abodywhoseprimaryfunctionistoadviseonpesticideMRLs


infood,hasdecidedtoundertakeareviewofthedatathattheIARCusedinreachingthisnewclassification.Asnotedinarecentletter,signedbynineNGOs61,thetaskforcesetupbytheJMPRtothisendcontains‘severalmemberswithactualorapparentconflictsofinterest,includingtiestoglyphosateusersandproducersincludingMonsanto’.ThelettercalledupontheJMPRtoaccepttheIARC’sclassificationand‘notestablishaprocesstosecond-guesstherecentworkofIARC’.62

Real AlternativesInlightoftheaccelerateduseofglyphosatewiththeuseofGMherbicide-tolerantcrops,andthedevelopmentofGMcropstoleranttotheherbicides2,4-Danddicamba,includingincombinationwithglyphosate,theIARC’sconclusionthatglyphosateisa“probablehumancarcinogen”indicatesthatseriousactionisneededtoprotecttheenvironmentandhumanhealth.Thisshouldstartwith:

1. Animmediatebanonallusesofglyphosate.2. Adequatemeasuresshouldbeputinplace

toensureothermoretoxicchemicalsdonotreplaceglyphosate.

3. Animmediatesuspensionoftheuseof2,4-Danddicamba-tolerantcropsandahalttoanynewapprovalsforGMherbicidetolerantcrops.

4. AcomprehensiveassessmentoftheimpactsanduseofGMherbicide-tolerantcropsandaccompanyingherbicidesonhumanhealthandtheenvironment,inparticularinallRRsoyaproducingareas.Theassessmentshouldincludefullparticipationbytheaffectedpeoplesandlocalcommunities.

5. Subjecttotheoutcomesoftheseassessments,measuresshouldbetakentoinitiateathoroughprogrammeofreparationstoaffectedpeoplesandthecomprehensiverestorationandremediationofcontaminatedecosystems.

6.Ashiftfromchemicalinput-intensiveweedmanagement,andagricultureingeneral,toagroecologicalmethodologies.

Biotechnologyandagrochemicalcompaniesarealreadyinvestingsignificantlyinthe

developmentofnewGMHTcropsandtheuseofotherchemicalherbicidesinadditiontoglyphosate.TheintroductionofnewGMHTcropswillinevitablyleadtoaviciouscycleofincreasingtheuseofchemicalssuchas2,4-Danddicamba,andtheevolutionandspreadofresistantweeds,increasingtherisktohumanandenvironmentalhealth.

Itisvitalatthisjuncturethatthestormofcontroversyaroundglyphosatebecomesacatalystfordeeperconversationsaboutthefuturedirectionsofagriculturalpolicyandfoodproduction.Thereisagrowingrecognitionthatthestatusquoofhighchemicalinputsandmass-producedmonocultures,isuntenable—inboththeirenvironmentalandsocialcosts—andwillnotbeabletofeedagrowingglobalpopulationintheeraofclimatechange.ThiswasaconclusionreachedbythegroundbreakingInternationalAssessmentofAgriculturalKnowledge,ScienceandTechnologyforDevelopment(IAASTD),thelargeststudyonagricultureundertakentodate,whichcalledfora“thoroughandradical”overhaulofagriculturalpoliciesinthe21stcentury.63

Instead,theIAASTDcalledforgovernmentstostrengthentheirfocusonagroecologicalsciences.Agroecology,whichusesecologicalprinciplesforthedesignandmanagementofsustainableagriculturalsystems,hasconsistentlyprovencapableofincreasingproductivitysustainablyandhasfargreaterpotentialforfightinghunger,particularlyduringeconomicandclimaticallyuncertaintimes.Thiscalltofocusonagroecologyhassincebeentakenupforexample,bythethenUN

JuanBertola


SpecialRapporteurontherighttofood64andtheUNConferenceonTradeandDevelopment(UNCTAD)initsTradeandEnvironmentReview2013.65

Therearenosilverbulletstoendthisstruggleandcircumstanceswilldifferdependingonparticularagroecologicalandsocio-economiccontexts.However,alternativefarmingandfoodsystems,encompassedbyagroecology,food

sovereigntyandsustainablefoodsystems66offerasetofprinciplesthatcanguideusforward.Chiefamongsttheseareprinciplesaroundenvironmentalsustainability,socialequity,democraticparticipationindecision-making,andaccountability.Thesearealongwayfromwhatiscurrentlybeingofferedbythekeyarchitectsofglobalfoodsystems,whowillnotgiveuptheirprivilegedpositionslightly.Thereismuchworkstilltobedone.


Annexure: New GM herbicide-tolerant varieties in the USA

Company Crop Event Herbicides Approved

Dow Cotton DAS-8191Ø-7 2,4-D,glufosinate Underassessment

Monsanto Soybean MON87708 Dicamba 2015

Monsanto Cotton MON-887Ø1-3 Dicamba,glufosinate

2014

Bayer/Syngenta Soybean SYHT0H2 Glufosinate,HPPD 2014

Dow Soybean DAS-444Ø6-6 2,4-D,glufosinate,glyphosate

2014

Dow Soybean DAS-68416-4 2,4-D,glufosinate 2014

Dow Maize DAS-40278-9 2,4-D,ACCase-Inhibitor

2014

BASF Soybean BPS-CV127-9 Imidazolinone 2014

Bayer&M.S.Technologies

Soybean FG72 Glyphosate,Isoxaflutole

2013

Source:AnimalandPlantHealthInspectionService(APHIS)oftheUSDA.

Global approvals for MON 87708 x MON89788 (MON89788)

Country Food Feed Cultivation

Australia (2012)

Brazil 2010 2010

Canada (2012) (2012) (2012)

Colombia 2012 2012 2012

EuropeanUnion (2015) (2015)

Japan 2014 2013(2012)

Mexico 2013(2012)

NewZealand (2012)

Philippines (2014) (2014)

SouthKorea 2012 2012(2012)

Taiwan (2013)

Uruguay 2012

USA (2011) (2011) (2015)Source:InternationalServicefortheAcquisitionofAgri-biotechApplications(ISAAA).


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