what makes writing ‘academic’?

Learning Skills Group What makes writing ‘academic’?

Overview of this workshop

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This module will focus on: 1.  Main characteristics of academic writing 2.  What to avoid in academic writing 3.  Language features of academic writing

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Academic writers need to be certain that their written communications are appropriate in style. Therefore, they need to know what is considered to be academic style and what is not. As a postgraduate student, you also need to know about this.

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Task 1: From your experience, how is an academic text different from other types of texts we read in everyday life? Can you write a list of some features of academic writing on your handout?


1] Main characteristics of academic writing

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Logical Deductive/inductive argument structure, general à specific

Rational Based on reasoning

Impersonal Formal, not personal

Objective Arguments supported by evidence, research results à anecdotal evidence/feelings

Precise Present facts as precise as possible


Task 2: Look at the two extracts in your handout. 1. Which one do you think is from an academic text? 2. What features in writing tell you that this is an academic article? (Source of texts from Brick, 2012, p. 5-‐6)


2] What to avoid in academic writing i.  Avoid using ‘I’ , ‘We’ and ‘you’ ??? ii. Avoid informal expressions •  contractions (e.g., can’t à cannot, won’t à will not) •  vague expression (e.g., and so on and so forth, etc.) •  abbreviations that are not commonly used or informal

(e.g., b4 àbefore), provide the full form when first mention


iii.  Avoid using phrasal verbs (e.g., get rid of à eliminate,

make up à constitute) iv.  Avoid using the imperative

(i.e., start a sentence with a verb, e.g., Consider the case of …, Examine the causes of …)

v.  Avoid being too emotional

(e.g., Unfortunately, ….; It is a pity that …)

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Task 3: Rewrite the following sentences by selecting a word from the list to replace the phrasal verb. You may need to change the tense of the given word. The first is an example.


3] Language features of academic writing

What should we use then? •  nominalisation •  hedging


Use of nominalisation •  frequent use of nouns or noun phrases •  academic writing is about ideas and concepts •  How to use nominalisation? Change verbs to nouns

(e.g., establish à establishment, agree à agreement, pollute àpollution)


Use of nominalisation Compare the following three sentences: 1a. The government has introduced some new regulations to improve road safety. (verb) 1b. The introduction of some new regulations aims to improve road safety. 1c. The government has introduced some new regulations for the improvement of road safety.


Use of nominalisation Compare these two sentences: 2a. The opposition leader strongly disagreed with the new government proposal. 2b. Strong disagreement was expressed by the opposition leader on the new government proposal.


Use of hedging Purposes: •  to show uncertainty •  to weaken our claims when we do not have enough evidence


1. To express likelihood Notice the strength in claims is weaken ... a.  It is certain that … b.  It is highly likely that … c.  It is likely that … d.  It is possible that … e.  It is unlikely that … f.  It is very / highly unlikely that …


Notice the claim changes in the following sentences. a.  Smoking leads to lung cancer. b.  Smoking can lead to lung cancer. c.  Smoking could lead to lung cancer. d.  Smoking may lead to lung cancer. e.  Smoking might lead to lung cancer. Which sentence has the strongest claim?


2. To soften generalisation Sometimes writers have to make generalisations after drawing conclusions from research results. Generalisations should be grounded in some reasonable evidence and stated cautiously. Do you know how to soften generalisations?


Method 1. Use three ‘classic’ verbs

a.  Girls tend to do better in girl schools than in co-educational schools. b. Girls appear to do better in girl schools than in co-educational schools. c. Girls seem to do better in girl schools than in co-educational schools.


Method 2. Qualify the subject

a. Many girls do better in girl schools than in co-educational schools. b. Some girls do better in girl schools than in co-educational schools. c. In certain subjects, girls do better in girl schools than in co-educational schools.


Method 3. Indicate frequency a.  Girls often do better in girl schools than in co-educational schools. b.  Girls usually do better in girl schools than in co-educational schools. c.  Girls sometimes do better in girl schools than in co-educational schools. (other frequency words: rarely, occasionally, at times, frequently, not infrequently)


Method 4. Use weaker verbs We can choose a weaker verb to reduce the strength of claims. a.  Many studies have indicated that there has been an increase in human trafficking.

(stronger claim) b. Many studies have suggested that there has been an increase in human trafficking.

(weaker claim)


Task 4: Underline the verb that makes the weaker claim. a. Previous studies (challenge / question) the effects of alcohol consumption on brain damage in teenagers. b. The survey results (establish / indicate) that there is a link between parenting behaviour and adolescence adjustment.


c. The results given in Figure 1 (validate / support) the conclusion that consumers choice tend to be affected by marketing strategies. d. Changes in the experiment condition may have (influenced / distorted) the test results. e. The listening assessment results have been (assumed / shown) to be affected by the quality of the sound track. (Source: Swales and Feak, 2012, p. 163-‐164)


Task 5: Rewrite the following claims. Try to soften the tone and make the sentences more respectable and defensible. a.  Using solar energy is the best solution to energy crisis. b.  Economic development is essential. c.  Rich people have more healthy eating habits than poor people. d. Financial difficulties cause depression.


Should I use active or passive voice? Compare the following two sentences: a.  Figure 4 shows the population sectors which suffered

from social exclusion between 2000-2005 in Australia. b. The population sectors which suffered from social exclusion between 2000-2005 in Australia are shown in Figure 4.


Compare the following two sentences: a.  Fifty questionnaires were completed by research participants. b. Fifty research participants completed the questionnaire.


Both active and passive voices are used in academic writing. Use the right voice to serve your purpose •  active voice focuses on the doer of action •  passive voice is useful in process descriptions

e.g., Data were collected from 50 semi-structured interviews. (Who actually collected the data is not important.)


Be concise! Compare the following sentences: 1a. It may be difficult to make a decision about the method that should be used. 1b. Selecting the appropriate method may be difficult. 2a. There are some inorganic materials that can be used in tissue engineering by bioengineers in the process of tissue engineering that have been shown to be very promising. 2b. Some inorganic materials have shown great promise in tissue engineering. (Swales and Feak, 2012, p. 25)


What’s more …?

Try: Academic writing conventions quiz in StudyWISE

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References Brick, J. (2012). Academic culture: A student’s guide to studying at university. Sydney: National Centre for English Language Teaching

and Research, Macquarie University. Swales, J.M., & Feak, C.B. (2012). Academic writing for graduate

students: Essential tasks and skills (3rd ed.). Michigan: University of Michigan Press.


what makes writing ‘academic’?

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