What is Rhetoric?What is Rhetoric?

What is Rhetoric?What is Rhetoric?

• Plato:  Plato:  Rhetoric is "the art of winning the soul by discourse."Rhetoric is "the art of winning the soul by discourse."• Aristotle:Aristotle: Rhetoric is "the faculty of discovering in any particular Rhetoric is "the faculty of discovering in any particular

case all of the available means of persuasion.case all of the available means of persuasion.• Cicero:  Cicero:  "Rhetoric is one great art comprised of five lesser arts:  "Rhetoric is one great art comprised of five lesser arts: 

inventio, dispositio, elocutio, memoria, and pronunciatio."  inventio, dispositio, elocutio, memoria, and pronunciatio."  Rhetoric is "speech designed to persuade."Rhetoric is "speech designed to persuade."

• Quintillian:  Quintillian:  "Rhetoric is the art of speaking well.""Rhetoric is the art of speaking well."• Francis Bacon:  Francis Bacon:  Rhetoric is the application of reason to Rhetoric is the application of reason to

imagination "for the better moving of the will."imagination "for the better moving of the will."• John Locke: John Locke: Essay Concerning Human Understanding Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)(1690)[Rhetoric,] that powerful instrument of error and deceit.[Rhetoric,] that powerful instrument of error and deceit.• RhetoricRhetoric (Greek) is the art or technique of persuasion through the (Greek) is the art or technique of persuasion through the

use of oral or written language. There is a divide between classical use of oral or written language. There is a divide between classical rhetoric and contemporary practices of rhetoric which include the rhetoric and contemporary practices of rhetoric which include the analysis of written and visual texts. analysis of written and visual texts.

Aristotle (384-322 BC) Aristotle (384-322 BC)

• Aristotle says that "rhetoric is the counterpart of Aristotle says that "rhetoric is the counterpart of dialectic ( the exchange of arguments and dialectic ( the exchange of arguments and counter-arguments)." The art of rhetoric follows counter-arguments)." The art of rhetoric follows and is structurally patterned after the dialectic and is structurally patterned after the dialectic form of exchanging propositions.form of exchanging propositions.

• Aristotle emphasizes logical appeals (logos). But Aristotle emphasizes logical appeals (logos). But he also discusses emotional appeals (pathos) and he also discusses emotional appeals (pathos) and ethical appeals (ethos). He identifies three steps ethical appeals (ethos). He identifies three steps in the process of developing rhetoric--invention, in the process of developing rhetoric--invention, arrangement, and style--and three different types arrangement, and style--and three different types of rhetorical claim.of rhetorical claim.

Types of Rhetorical AppealsTypes of Rhetorical Appeals

• Ethos: how the character and credibility of a speaker Ethos: how the character and credibility of a speaker influence an audience to consider him to be believable. influence an audience to consider him to be believable.

- Ethical appeals refer to the intelligence, virtue or goodwill - Ethical appeals refer to the intelligence, virtue or goodwill inherent in a speaker or writer.inherent in a speaker or writer.

• Pathos: the use of emotional appeals to alter the audience's Pathos: the use of emotional appeals to alter the audience's judgment. judgment.

- Commercial language, for example, aims at creating an - Commercial language, for example, aims at creating an emotional connection to a product.emotional connection to a product.

• Logos: the use of reasoning, either inductive or deductive, Logos: the use of reasoning, either inductive or deductive, to construct an argument. to construct an argument. – Inductive reasoning uses examples to draw conclusions.Inductive reasoning uses examples to draw conclusions.– Deductive reasoning uses hypotheses to derive specific Deductive reasoning uses hypotheses to derive specific

conclusions. conclusions.

Rhetorical ModesRhetorical Modes

• A rhetorical mode is a strategy for A rhetorical mode is a strategy for organizing your ideas about a subject organizing your ideas about a subject and also a way of understanding what and also a way of understanding what you read.  Some of the better known you read.  Some of the better known rhetorical modes are "argument," "cause rhetorical modes are "argument," "cause and effect," and “classification.”  and effect," and “classification.”  Knowing the modes can help us Knowing the modes can help us understand the organization of most understand the organization of most kinds of writings or other presentations. kinds of writings or other presentations. 

ArgumentArgument

• An "argument" is an opinion, or claim made about An "argument" is an opinion, or claim made about a subject, not a simple fact. It is something a subject, not a simple fact. It is something debatable: “George Bush is president" is a fact, debatable: “George Bush is president" is a fact, but "George Bush’s presidency will be but "George Bush’s presidency will be remembered as reactionary" is an opinion. remembered as reactionary" is an opinion. Anything that reasonably can be debated is an Anything that reasonably can be debated is an argument. A simple argument paper usually argument. A simple argument paper usually presents a debatable opinion and then offers presents a debatable opinion and then offers supports in favor of it, or sometimes an argument supports in favor of it, or sometimes an argument paper will discuss both sides of an issue and then paper will discuss both sides of an issue and then give good reasons for choosing one side over the give good reasons for choosing one side over the other. other. 

Cause and EffectCause and Effect

•     "Cause and effect" means that you start "Cause and effect" means that you start with a subject (an event, person, or object) with a subject (an event, person, or object) and then show the causes (reasons) for it, and then show the causes (reasons) for it, and/or the effects (results) of it.  "Cause" and/or the effects (results) of it.  "Cause" means the reasons why or for something, or means the reasons why or for something, or the source of something. "Effects" simply the source of something. "Effects" simply are results or outcomes. Cause-and-effect are results or outcomes. Cause-and-effect writing shows a chain of connected events, writing shows a chain of connected events, each the logical result of the one before it. each the logical result of the one before it.

ClassificationClassification

• "Classification" means that a subject--a person, place, event, or "Classification" means that a subject--a person, place, event, or object--is identified and broken into parts and sub-parts. This type object--is identified and broken into parts and sub-parts. This type of paper is slightly more complex than others. of paper is slightly more complex than others. 

• For an example of a classification paper, imagine you want to For an example of a classification paper, imagine you want to classify a specific student.  You might first start by identifying this classify a specific student.  You might first start by identifying this student by name and briefly defining him or her.  Second, you student by name and briefly defining him or her.  Second, you would choose a would choose a systemsystem by which to classify him: e.g., you could by which to classify him: e.g., you could choose a system that would describe his looks, school classes, and choose a system that would describe his looks, school classes, and after-school activities; or you might choose a biological system and after-school activities; or you might choose a biological system and describe him by his physical type, health, blood type, and other describe him by his physical type, health, blood type, and other biological markings; or, perhaps, you might choose to describe the biological markings; or, perhaps, you might choose to describe the student by his psychological makeup, his family history, and/or student by his psychological makeup, his family history, and/or even his medical history.  Third, once you have chosen a system, even his medical history.  Third, once you have chosen a system, you would then describe the person.  As you do so, you would want you would then describe the person.  As you do so, you would want to show how, in each part of our classification, he is to show how, in each part of our classification, he is similarsimilar to to others like him and also how he others like him and also how he differsdiffers from them--this is the heart from them--this is the heart of developing lengthy description in a good classification paper, to of developing lengthy description in a good classification paper, to use comparisons and contrasts with each small element of our use comparisons and contrasts with each small element of our classification system.     classification system.     

Compare/ContrastCompare/Contrast

• "Comparison/contrast" means to "Comparison/contrast" means to show how subjects are alike and/or show how subjects are alike and/or different. A simple different. A simple comparison/contrast paper often has comparison/contrast paper often has two subjects and describes how they two subjects and describes how they are alike and then how they differ. are alike and then how they differ.

DescriptionDescription

• "Description" means "illustrative "Description" means "illustrative detail." A description paper often takes detail." A description paper often takes a person or object and then describes a person or object and then describes that person or thing in great that person or thing in great illustrative detail. One system is to use illustrative detail. One system is to use the five senses to describe; another, is the five senses to describe; another, is to use the five W's of journalism by to use the five W's of journalism by answering the questions "Who, What, answering the questions "Who, What, Where, When, and Why or How?" Where, When, and Why or How?"

ExemplificationExemplification

• "Exemplification" means "the giving of "Exemplification" means "the giving of an example." An exemplification paper an example." An exemplification paper usually starts with a main idea, belief, or usually starts with a main idea, belief, or opinion--something abstract--and then opinion--something abstract--and then gives one extended example or a series gives one extended example or a series of shorter examples to illustrate that of shorter examples to illustrate that main idea. In fact, an exemplification main idea. In fact, an exemplification paper is a paper that illustrates an paper is a paper that illustrates an abstract idea.abstract idea.

DefinitionDefinition

• An extended definition simply An extended definition simply defines a subject in a fuller or more defines a subject in a fuller or more extended--more thorough--way than extended--more thorough--way than does a dictionary.does a dictionary.

NarrationNarration

• "Narration" or a "narrative" provides "Narration" or a "narrative" provides details of what happened.  It is almost details of what happened.  It is almost like a list of events in the order that like a list of events in the order that they happened, except that it is written they happened, except that it is written in paragraph form.  A narration or in paragraph form.  A narration or narrative doesn't have to show any narrative doesn't have to show any cause and effect; it only needs to show cause and effect; it only needs to show what happened in the order that it what happened in the order that it happened.happened.

Conclusion:Conclusion:Rhetorical ModesRhetorical Modes

•                         Each rhetorical mode is an Each rhetorical mode is an excellent device to use for writing a excellent device to use for writing a paper or understanding a text.  paper or understanding a text. 

Ethical AppealsEthical Appeals

• For Aristotle, the writers' For Aristotle, the writers' ethosethos meant the degree of meant the degree of credibilitycredibility or or trustworthinesstrustworthiness that authors that authors establish with the audience through their writing. establish with the audience through their writing. Through tone an author's character and attitude Through tone an author's character and attitude toward his/her audience and subject becomes clear toward his/her audience and subject becomes clear to the audience: this forms the basis of the author's to the audience: this forms the basis of the author's ethical appeal. The author's character is what gives ethical appeal. The author's character is what gives value to the ideas in the argument and thus value to the ideas in the argument and thus provides support for the arguments since the provides support for the arguments since the audience audience truststrusts the speaker. the speaker.

• Rhetors can establish credibility by demonstrating Rhetors can establish credibility by demonstrating three characteristics: intelligence, virtue, and three characteristics: intelligence, virtue, and goodwill. goodwill.

Logical AppealsLogical Appeals

• LogosLogos translates as "word" or "reason," and translates as "word" or "reason," and in rhetoric, in rhetoric, logoslogos refers to different systems refers to different systems of reasoning, working together to persuade of reasoning, working together to persuade an audience. an audience. LogosLogos, , pathospathos, and , and ethosethos are are different but complementary methods of different but complementary methods of persuasion. persuasion. EthosEthos moves an audience by moves an audience by proving the credibility and trustworthiness proving the credibility and trustworthiness of the rhetor, of the rhetor, pathospathos seeks to change the seeks to change the attitudes and actions of the audience by attitudes and actions of the audience by playing to the emotions of the audience, playing to the emotions of the audience, and and logoslogos persuades through the powers of persuades through the powers of reasoning (Covino and Jolliffe 17).reasoning (Covino and Jolliffe 17).

Emotional AppealsEmotional Appeals

• PathosPathos, also called the pathetic or emotional , also called the pathetic or emotional appeals, persuades audiences by arousing appeals, persuades audiences by arousing the emotions. In his the emotions. In his RhetoricRhetoric, Aristotle , Aristotle argued that there are two different sources of argued that there are two different sources of the emotional appeals. First, the rhetor may the emotional appeals. First, the rhetor may use use enargeiaenargeia. The word 'enargeia' means . The word 'enargeia' means literally "in work" — energizing or actualizing. literally "in work" — energizing or actualizing. It refers to the rhetor's goal of arousing the It refers to the rhetor's goal of arousing the passions within the audience to move them passions within the audience to move them to act (Corbett 319).to act (Corbett 319).