what is noun english grammar

8/13/2019 what is noun english grammar

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What is a Noun?

A nounis a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. Nounsare usually the first words which small children learn. The highlightedwords in the

following sentencesare all nouns:

Late last yearour neighboursbought a goat.

Portia Whitewas an opera singer.The bus inspectorlooked at all the passengers' passes.

According to Plutarch, the libraryat Alexandriawas destroyed in 48 .!.

Philosophyis of little comfortto the starving.

A noun can function in a sentence as asub"ect, a direct ob"ect, an indirect ob"ect, asub"ect complement,an ob"ect complement,an appositi#e, an ad"ecti#eor an ad#erb.

Noun Gender

$any common nouns, like %engineer% or %teacher,% can refer to men or women. &nce,

many 'nglish nouns would change form depending on their gender(( for e)ample, a manwas called an %author% while a woman was called an %authoress% (( but this use of

gender-specific nounsis #ery rare today. Those that are still used occasionally tend to

refer to occupational categories, as in the following sentences.

*a#id +arrick was a #ery prominent eighteenth(century actor.arah iddons was at the height of her career as an actress in the -8/s.

The manager was trying to write a want ad, but he couldn0t decide whether he was

ad#ertising for a %waiter% or a %waitress%

Noun Plurals

$ost nouns change their form to indicate numberby adding %(s% or %(es%, as illustrated in

the following pairs of sentences:

1hen $atthew was small he rarely told the truthif he thought he was going to

be punished.$any people do not belie#e that truthsare self(e#ident.

As they walked through the silent house. they were startled by an une)pectedecho.2 like to shout into the 3uarry and listen to the echoesthat returned.

e tripped o#er a boxleft carelessly in the hallway.

ince we are mo#ing, we will need many boxes.

There are other nouns which form thepluralby changing the last letter before adding %s%.ome words ending in %f% form the plural by deleting %f% and adding %#es,% and words
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ending in %y% form the plural by deleting the %y% and adding %ies,% as in the following

pairs of sentences:

The harbour at $arble $ountain has one wharf.There are se#eral wharvesin alifa) arbour.

1arsaw is their fa#ourite citybecause it reminds them of their courtship.The #acation my grandparents won includes trips to twel#e 'uropean cities.

The children circled around the headmaster and shouted, %Are you a mouseor aman5%

The audience was shocked when all fi#e men admitted that they were afraid of

mice.

&ther nouns form the plural irregularly. 2f 'nglish is your first language, you probably

know most of these already: when in doubt, consult a good dictionary.

6ossessi#e Nouns

2n thepossessi#e case, a noun orpronounchanges its form to show that it owns or isclosely related to something else. 7sually, nouns become possessi#e by adding a

combination of an apostropheand the letter %s.%

ou can form the possessi#e case of a singularnoun that does not end in %s% by adding an

apostrophe and %s,% as in the following sentences:

The red suitcase is assandra's.The only luggage that was lost was the prime minister's.

The e)hausted recruits were woken before dawn by the drill sergeant'sscreams.

The miner'sface was co#ered in coal dust.

ou can form the possessi#e case of a singular noun that ends in %s% by adding anapostrophe alone or by adding an apostrophe and %s,% as in the following e)amples:

The bus'sseats are #ery uncomfortable.

The bus'seats are #ery uncomfortable.The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus'seggs.

The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus'eggs.

!elicia "emans'spoetry was once more popular than Lord yron0s.

!elicia "emans'poetry was once more popular than Lord yron0s.

ou can form the possessi#e case of a plural noun that does not end in %s% by adding an

apostrophe and a %s,% as in the following e)amples:

The children'smittens were scattered on the floor of the porch.

The sheep'spen was mucked out e#ery day.ince we ha#e a comple) appeal process, a#ury's#erdict is not always final.

The men'shockey team will be playing as soon as the women'steam is finished.
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The hunter followed the moose'strail all morning but lost it in the afternoon.

ou can form the possessi#e case of a plural noun that doesend in %s% by adding an

apostrophe:

The concert was interrupted by the dogs'barking, the duc$s'3uacking, and thebabies's3ualling.

The#anitors'room is downstairs and to the left.

$y uncle spent many hours trying to locate the s%uirrels'nest.The archi#ist 3uickly finished repairing the diaries'bindings.

9eligion is usually the sub"ect of the roommates'many late night debates.

&sing Possessive Nouns

1hen you read the following sentences, you will notice that a noun in the possessi#e casefre3uently functions as an ad"ecti#e modifying another noun:

The miner'sface was co#ered in coal dust.

ere the possessi#e noun %miner0s% is used to modify the noun %face% and together with

the article%the,% they make up the noun phrasethat is the sentence0s sub"ect.

The concert was interrupted by the dogs'barking, the duc$s'3uacking, and the

babies's3ualling.

2n this sentence, each possessi#e noun modifies agerund. The possessi#e noun %dogs%0

modifies %barking,% %ducks%0 modifies %3uacking,% and %babies%0 modifies %s3ualling.%

The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus'seggs.

2n this e)ample the possessi#e noun %platypus0s% modifies the noun %eggs% and the nounphrase %the platypus0s eggs% is the direct ob"ect of the #erb%crushed.%

$y uncle spent many hours trying to locate the s%uirrels'nest.

2n this sentence the possessi#e noun %s3uirrels%0 is used to modify the noun %nest% and the

noun phrase %the s3uirrels0 nest% is the ob"ectof the infiniti#e phrase%to locate.%

ypes (f Nouns

There are many different types of nouns. As you know, you capitalise some nouns, such

as %!anada% or %Louise,% and do not capitalise others, such as %badger% or %tree% unless

they appear at the beginning of a sentence;. 2n fact, grammarians ha#e de#eloped a wholeseries of noun types, including the proper noun, the common noun, the concrete noun, the

abstract noun, the countable noun also called the count noun;, the non(countable noun
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also called the mass noun;, and the collecti#e noun. ou should note that a noun will

belong to more than one type: it will be proper or common, abstract or concrete, and

countable or non(countable or collecti#e.

2f you are interested in the details of these different types, you can read about them in the

following sections.

Proper Nouns

ou always write a proper nounwith a capital letter, since the noun represents the nameof a specific person, place, or thing. The names of days of the week, months, historical

documents, institutions, organisations, religions, their holy te)ts and their adherents are

proper nouns. A proper noun is the opposite of a common noun

2n each of the following sentences, the proper nouns are highlighted:

The )arroonswere transported from *amaicaand forced to build thefortifications in "alifax.

$any people dread )ondaymornings.

+eltaneis celebrated on the first of )ay.

Abrahamappears in the almudand in the ,oran.

Last year, 2 had a +aptist, a +uddhist, and a Gardnerian Witchas roommates.

ommon Nouns

A common nounis a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a general sense ((

usually, you should write it with a capital letter only when it begins a sentence. Acommon noun is the opposite of a proper noun.

2n each of the following sentences, the common nouns are highlighted:

According to the sign, the nearest townis


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$any witches refer to the 9enaissance as the urning imes.

The .iary of Anne !ran$is often a child0s first introduction to the history of the

"olocaust.

oncrete Nouns

A concrete nounis a noun which names anything or anyone; that you can percei#e

through your physical senses: touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell. A concrete noun is the

opposite of a abstract noun.

The highlightedwords in the following sentences are all concrete nouns:

The#udgehanded the filesto the cler$.

1hene#er they take the dogto the beach, it spends hours chasing waves.

The real estate agenturged the coupleto buy the second housebecause it hadnew shingles.

As the cardro#e past the par$, the thumpof a disco tuneo#erwhelmed thestring %uartet'srenditionof a minuet.The boo$ binderreplaced the flimsy paper coverwith a sturdy, cloth(co#ered

board.

Abstract Nouns

An abstract nounis a noun which names anything which you can notpercei#e throughyour fi#e physical senses, and is the opposite of a concrete noun. The highlightedwords

in the following sentences are all abstract nouns:

uying the fire e)tinguisher was an afterthought.

Tillie is amused by people who are nostalgic about childhood.

*usticeoften seems to slip out of our grasp.

ome scientists belie#e that schi/ophreniais transmitted genetically.

ountable Nouns

A countable nounor count noun; is a noun with both a singular and a plural form, andit names anything or anyone; that you can count. ou can make a countable noun plural

and attach it to a plural #erb in a sentence. !ountable nouns are the opposite of non(

countable nouns and collecti#e nouns.

2n each of the following sentences, the highlightedwords are countable nouns:

1e painted the tablered and the chairsblue.

ince he inherited his aunt'slibrary, =erome spends e#ery wee$endinde)ing his

boo$s.

$iriam found si) sil#er dollarsin the toeof a soc$.


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The oak treelost three branchesin the hurricane.

er the courseof twenty(se#en years, $artha allad deli#ered "ust o#er eight

hundred babies.

Non-ountable Nouns

A non-countable nounor mass noun; is a noun which does not ha#e a plural form, and

which refers to something that you could or would; not usually count. A non(countable

noun always takes a singular #erb in a sentence. Non(countable nouns are similar tocollecti#e nouns, and are the opposite of countable nouns.

The highlightedwords in the following sentences are non(countable nouns:

=oseph 6riestly disco#ered oxygen.

The word %o)ygen% cannot normally be made plural.

(xygenis essential to human life.

ince %o)ygen% is a non(countable noun, it takes the singular #erb %is% rather than theplural #erb %are.%

1e decided to sell the furniturerather than take it with use when we mo#ed.

ou cannot make the noun %furniture% plural.

The furnitureis heaped in the middle of the room.

ince %furniture% is a non(countable noun, it takes a singular #erb, %is heaped.%

The crew spread the gravelo#er the roadbed.

ou cannot make the non(countable noun %gra#el% plural.

Gravelis more e)pensi#e than 2 thought.

ince %gra#el% is a non(countable noun, it takes the singular #erb form %is.%

ollective Nouns

A collective nounis a noun naming a group of things, animals, or persons. ou couldcount the indi#idual members of the group, but you usually think of the group as a whole

is generally as one unit. ou need to be able to recognise collecti#e nouns in order to

maintain sub"ect(#erb agreement. A collecti#e noun is similar to a non(countable noun,

and is roughly the opposite of a countable noun.


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2n each of the following sentences, the highlightedword is a collecti#e noun:

The floc$of geese spends most of its time in the pasture.

The collecti#e noun %geese% takes the singular #erb %spends.%

The#uryis dining on take(out chicken tonight.

2n this e)ample the collecti#e noun %"ury% is the sub"ect of the singular compound #erb%is dining.%

The steering committeemeets e#ery 1ednesday afternoon.

ere the collecti#e noun %committee% takes a singular #erb, %meets.%

The classwas startled by the bursting light bulb.

2n this sentence the word %class% is a collecti#e noun and takes the singular compound

#erb %was startled.%

What is a Pronoun?

A pronouncan replace a nounor another pronoun. ou use pronouns like %he,% %which,%

%none,% and %you% to make yoursentencesless cumbersome and less repetiti#e.

+rammarians classify pronouns into se#eral types, including the personal pronoun, the

demonstrati#e pronoun, the interrogati#e pronoun, the indefinite pronoun, the relati#epronoun, the refle)i#e pronoun, and the intensi#e pronoun.

Personal Pronouns

A personal pronounrefers to a specific person or thing and changes its form to indicate

person, number, gender,and case.

0ub#ective Personal Pronouns
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A sub#ective personal pronounindicates that the pronoun is acting as the sub"ectof the

sentence. The sub"ecti#e personal pronouns are %2,% %you,% %she,% %he,% %it,% %we,% %you,%

%they.%

2n the following sentences, each of the highlightedwords is a sub"ecti#e personal

pronoun and acts as the sub"ect of the sentence:

1was glad to find the bus pass in the bottom of the green knapsack.

2ouare surely the strangest child 1ha#e e#er met.

"estole the selkie0s skin and forced her to li#e with him.

1hen shewas a young woman, sheearned her li#ing as a coal miner.

After many years, theyreturned to their homeland.

Wewill meet at the library at >:>/ p.m.

1tis on the counter.

Are youthe delegates from $alagawatch5

(b#ective Personal Pronouns

An ob#ective personal pronounindicates that the pronoun is acting as anob"ectof a

#erb,compound #erb,preposition, or infiniti#e phrase. The ob"ecti#e personal pronouns

are: %me,% %you,% %her,% %him,% %it,% %us,% %you,% and %them.%

2n the following sentences, each of the highlightedwords is an ob"ecti#e personalpronoun:

eamus stole the selkie0s skin and forced herto li#e with him.

The ob"ecti#e personal pronoun %her% is the direct ob"ectof the #erb %forced% and theob"ecti#e personal pronoun %him% is the ob"ect of the preposition %with.%

After reading the pamphlet, =udy threw itinto the garbage can.

The pronoun %it% is the direct ob"ect of the #erb %threw.%

The agitated assistant stood up and faced the angry delegates and said, %&ur

leader will address youin fi#e minutes.%

2n this sentence, the pronoun %you% is the direct ob"ect of the #erb %address.%

*eborah and 9oberta will meet usat the newest caf? in the market.

ere the ob"ecti#e personal pronoun %us% is the direct ob"ect of the compound #erb %willmeet.%

+i#e the list to me.
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ere the ob"ecti#e personal pronoun %me% is the ob"ect of the preposition %to.%

20m not sure that my contact will talk to you.

imilarly in this e)ample, the ob"ecti#e personal pronoun %you% is the ob"ect of the

preposition %to.%

!hristopher was surprised to see herat the drag races.

ere the ob"ecti#e personal pronoun %her% is the ob"ect of the infiniti#e phrase %to see.%

Possessive Personal Pronouns

A possessive pronounindicates that the pronoun is acting as a marker of possession and

defines who owns a particular ob"ect or person. The possessive personal pronounsare%mine,% %yours,% %hers,% %his,% %its,% %ours,% and %theirs.% Note that possessi#e personal

pronouns are #ery similar topossessi#e ad"ecti#eslike %my,% %her,% and %their.%

2n each of the following sentences, the highlightedword is a possessi#e personal

pronoun:

The smallest gift is mine.

ere the possessi#e pronoun %mine% functions as a sub"ect complement.

This is yours.

ere too the possessi#e pronoun %yours% functions as a sub"ect complement.

is is on the kitchen counter.

2n this e)ample, the possessi#e pronoun %his% acts as the sub"ect of the sentence.

Theirs will be deli#ered tomorrow.

2n this sentence, the possessi#e pronoun %theirs% is the sub"ect of the sentence.

&urs is the green one on the corner.

ere too the possessi#e pronoun %ours% function as the sub"ect of the sentence.

.emonstrative Pronouns
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Whowrote the no#el 9ockbound5

imilarly %who% is the sub"ect of the sentence.

Whomdo you think we should in#ite5

2n this sentence, %whom% is the ob"ect of the #erb %in#ite.%

To whomdo you wish to speak5

ere the interrogati#e pronoun %whom % is the ob"ect of the preposition %to.%

Whowill meet the delegates at the train station5

2n this sentence, the interrogati#e pronoun %who% is the sub"ect of the compound #erb

%will meet.%

To whomdid you gi#e the paper5

2n this e)ample the interrogati#e pronoun %whom% is the ob"ect of the preposition %to.%

Whatdid she say5

ere the interrogati#e pronoun %what% is the direct ob"ect of the #erb %say.%

elative Pronouns

ou can use a relative pronounis used to link onephraseor clauseto another phrase orclause. The relati#e pronouns are %who,% %whom,% %that,% and %which.% The compounds%whoe#er,% %whome#er,% and %whiche#er% are also relati#e pronouns.

ou can use the relati#e pronouns %who% and %whoe#er% to refer to the sub"ect of a clause

or sentence, and %whom% and %whome#er% to refer to the ob"ects of a #erb, a #erbal or a

preposition.

2n each of the following sentences, the highlightedword is a relati#e pronoun.

ou may in#ite whomeveryou like to the party.

The relati#e pronoun %whome#er% is the direct ob"ect of the compound #erb %may in#ite.%

The candidate whowins the greatest popular #ote is not always elected.

2n this sentence, the relati#e pronoun is the sub"ect of the #erb %wins% and introduces the

subordinate clause%who wins the greatest popular #ote.% This subordinate clause acts asan ad"ecti#emodifying %candidate.%
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2n a time of crisis, the manager asks the workers whomshe belie#es to be the

most efficient to arri#e an hour earlier than usual.

2n this sentence %whom% is the direct ob"ect of the #erb %belie#es% and introduces thesubordinate clause %whom she belie#es to be the most efficient%. This subordinate clause

modifies the noun %workers.%

Whoeverbroke the window will ha#e to replace it.

ere %whoe#er% functions as the sub"ect of the #erb %broke.%

The crate whichwas left in the corridor has now been mo#ed into the storagecloset.

2n this e)ample %which% acts as the sub"ect of the compound #erb %was left% and

introduces the subordinate clause %which was left in the corridor.% The subordinate clause

acts as an ad"ecti#e modifying the noun %crate.%

2 will read whichevermanuscript arri#es first.

ere %whiche#er% modifies the noun %manuscript% and introduces the subordinate clause

%whiche#er manuscript arri#es first.% The subordinate clause functions as the direct ob"ect

of the compound #erb %will read.%

1ndefinite Pronouns

An indefinite pronounis a pronoun referring to an identifiable but not specified person

or thing. An indefinite pronoun con#eys the idea of all, any, none, or some.

The most common indefinite pronouns are %all,% %another,% %any,% %anybody,% %anyone,%

%anything,% %each,% %e#erybody,% %e#eryone,% %e#erything,% %few,% %many,% %nobody,%%none,% %one,% %se#eral,% %some,% %somebody,% and %someone.% Note that some indefinite

pronouns can also be used as indefinite ad"ecti#es.

The highlightedwords in the following sentences are indefinite pronouns:

)anywere in#ited to the lunch but only twel#e showed up.

ere %many% acts as the sub"ect of the compound #erb %were in#ited.%

The office had been searched and everythingwas thrown onto the floor.

2n this e)ample, %e#erything% acts as a sub"ect of the compound #erb %was thrown.%

1e donated everythingwe found in the attic to the woman0s shelter garage sale.
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2n this sentence, %e#erything% is the direct ob"ect of the#erb %donated.%

Although they looked e#erywhere for e)tra copies of the magaine, they found

none.

ere too the indefinite pronoun functions as a direct ob"ect: %none% is the direct ob"ect of%found.%

$ake sure you gi#e everyonea copy of the amended bylaws.

2n this e)ample, %e#eryone% is the indirect ob"ectof the #erb %gi#e% (( the direct ob"ect is

the noun phrase %a copy of the amended bylaws.%

+i#e a registration package to each.

ere %each% is the ob"ect of the preposition %to.%

eflexive Pronouns

ou can use a reflexive pronounto refer back to the sub"ect of the clause or sentence.

The refle)i#e pronouns are %myself,% %yourself,% %herself,% %himself,% %itself,%

%oursel#es,% %yoursel#es,% and %themsel#es.% Note each of these can also act as anintensi#e pronoun.

'ach of the highlightedwords in the following sentences is a refle)i#e pronoun:

*iabetics gi#e themselvesinsulin shots se#eral times a day.The *ean often does the photocopying herselfso that the secretaries can do moreimportant work.

After the party, 2 asked myselfwhy 2 had fa)ed in#itations to e#eryone in my

office building.

9ichard usually remembered to send a copy of his e(mail to himself.Although the landlord promised to paint the apartment, we ended up doing it

ourselves.

1ntensive Pronouns

An intensive pronounis a pronoun used to emphasise its antecedent.2ntensi#e pronouns

are identical in form to refle)i#e pronouns.

The highlightedwords in the following sentences are intensi#e pronouns:

2 myselfbelie#e that aliens should abduct my sister.

The 6rime $inister himselfsaid that he would lower ta)es.
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They themselvespromised to come to the party e#en though they had a final

e)am at the same time.

Written by Heather MacFadyen

What is a Preposition?

A prepositionlinks nouns,pronounsandphrasesto other words in a sentence. The word

or phrase that the preposition introduces is called the ob"ectof the preposition.

A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or logical relationship of its ob"ect to

the rest of the sentence as in the following e)amples:

The book is onthe table.

The book is beneaththe table.The book is leaning againstthe table.

The book is besidethe table.

he held the book overthe table.he read the book duringclass.

2n each of the preceding sentences, a preposition locates the noun %book% in space or intime.

Aprepositional phraseis made up of the preposition, its ob"ect and any associated

ad"ecti#esor ad#erbs.A prepositional phrase can function as a noun, an ad"ecti#e, or anad#erb. The most common prepositions are %about,% %abo#e,% %across,% %after,% %against,%

%along,% %among,% %around,% %at,% %before,% %behind,% %below,% %beneath,% %beside,%

%between,% %beyond,% %but,% %by,% %despite,% %down,% %during,% %e)cept,% %for,% %from,%%in,% %inside,% %into,% %like,% %near,% %of,% %off,% %on,% %onto,% %out,% %outside,% %o#er,%

%past,% %since,% %through,% %throughout,% %till,% %to,% %toward,% %under,% %underneath,%

%until,% %up,% %upon,% %with,% %within,% and %without.%

'ach of the highlightedwords in the following sentences is a preposition:

The children climbed the mountain withoutfear.

2n this sentence, the preposition %without% introduces the noun %fear.% The prepositional

phrase %without fear% functions as an ad#erb describing how the children climbed.
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There was re"oicing throughoutthe land when the go#ernment was defeated.

ere, the preposition %throughout% introduces the noun phrase%the land.% The

prepositional phrase acts as an ad#erb describing the location of the re"oicing.

The spider crawled slowly alongthe banister.

The preposition %along% introduces the noun phrase %the banister% and the prepositional

phrase %along the banister% acts as an ad#erb, describing where the spider crawled.

The dog is hiding underthe porch because it knows it will be punished for

chewing up a new pair ofshoes.

ere the preposition %under% introduces the prepositional phrase %under the porch,%which acts as an ad#erb modifying thecompound #erb%is hiding.%

The screenwriter searched forthe manuscript he was certain was somewhere inhis office.

imilarly in this sentence, the preposition %in% introduces a prepositional phrase %in hisoffice,% which acts as an ad#erb describing the location of the missing papers.

What 1s An Ad#ective?An ad#ectivemodifies a nounor apronounby describing, identifying, or 3uantifyingwords. An ad"ecti#e usually precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies.

2n the following e)amples, the highlightedwords are ad"ecti#es:

The truc$-shapedballoon floated o#er the treetops.

$rs. $orrison papered her $itchenwalls with hideouswall paper.The smallboat foundered on the wine dar$sea.

The coalmines are dar$and dan$.

)anystores ha#e already begun to play irritatinghristmasmusic.A batteredmusicbo) sat on the mahoganysideboard.

The back room was filled with large, yellowrain boots.

An ad"ecti#e can be modified by anad#erb,or by aphraseor clausefunctioning as an

ad#erb. 2n the sentence

$y husband knits intricately patternedmittens.
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for e)ample, the ad#erb %intricately% modifies the ad"ecti#e %patterned.%

ome nouns, many pronouns, and manyparticiple phrasescan also act as ad"ecti#es. 2n

the sentence

'leanor listened to the muffledsounds of the radio hiddenunder her pillow.

for e)ample, both highlightedad"ecti#es arepast participles.

+rammarians also consider articles%the,% %a,% %an%; to be ad"ecti#es.

Possessive Ad#ectives

A possessive ad#ective%my,% %your,% %his,% %her,% %its,% %our,% %their%; is similar or

identical to apossessi#e pronoun@ howe#er, it is used as an ad"ecti#e and modifies a nounor a noun phrase, as in the following sentences:

2 can0t complete myassignment because 2 don0t ha#e the te)tbook.

2n this sentence, the possessi#e ad"ecti#e %my% modifies %assignment% and the noun

phrase %my assignment% functions as an ob"ect. Note that the possessi#e pronoun form%mine% is not used to modify a noun or noun phrase.

1hat is yourphone number.

ere the possessi#e ad"ecti#e %your% is used to modify the noun phrase %phone number%@

the entire noun phrase %your phone number% is a sub"ect complement. Note that the

possessi#e pronoun form %yours% is not used to modify a noun or a noun phrase.

The bakery sold hisfa#ourite type of bread.

2n this e)ample, the possessi#e ad"ecti#e %his% modifies the noun phrase %fa#ourite type

of bread% and the entire noun phrase %his fa#ourite type of bread% is the direct ob"ectof

the #erb%sold.%

After many years, she returned to herhomeland.

ere the possessi#e ad"ecti#e %her% modifies the noun %homeland% and the noun phrase

%her homeland% is the ob"ect of thepreposition%to.% Note also that the form %hers% is notused to modify nouns or noun phrases.

1e ha#e lost ourway in this wood.

2n this sentence, the possessi#e ad"ecti#e %our% modifies %way% and the noun phrase %ourway% is the direct ob"ect of the compound #erb%ha#e lost%. Note that the possessi#e

pronoun form %ours% is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.
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2n many fairy tales, children are neglected by theirparents.

ere the possessi#e ad"ecti#e %their% modifies %parents% and the noun phrase %their

parents% is the ob"ect of the preposition %by.% Note that the possessi#e pronoun form%theirs% is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.

The cat chased itsball down the stairs and into the backyard.

2n this sentence, the possessi#e ad"ecti#e %its% modifies %ball% and the noun phrase %its

ball% is the ob"ect of the #erb %chased.% Note that %its% is the possessi#e ad"ecti#e and

%it0s% is acontractionfor %it is.%

.emonstrative Ad#ectives

The demonstrative ad#ectives%this,% %these,% %that,% %those,% and %what% are identical to

the demonstrati#e pronouns,but are used as ad"ecti#es to modify nouns or noun phrases,

as in the following sentences:

1hen the librarian tripped o#er thatcord, she dropped a pile of books.

2n this sentence, the demonstrati#e ad"ecti#e %that% modifies the noun %cord% and the

noun phrase %that cord% is the ob"ect of the preposition %o#er.%

hisapartment needs to be fumigated.

ere %this% modifies %apartment% and the noun phrase %this apartment% is the sub"ectofthe sentence.

'#en though my friend preferred thoseplates, 2 bought these.

2n the subordinate clause, %those% modifies %plates% and the noun phrase %those plates% is

the ob"ect of the #erb %preferred.% 2n the independent clause, %these% is the direct ob"ect of

the #erb %bought.%

Note that the relationship between a demonstrati#e ad"ecti#e and a demonstrati#e

pronoun is similar to the relationship between a possessi#e ad"ecti#e and a possessi#e

pronoun, or to that between a interrogati#e ad"ecti#e and an interrogati#e pronoun.

1nterrogative Ad#ectives

An interrogative ad#ective%which% or %what%; is like an interrogati#e pronoun, e)cept

that it modifies a noun or noun phrase rather than standing on its own see also

demonstrati#e ad"ecti#es and possessi#e ad"ecti#es;:

Whichplants should be watered twice a week5
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Like other ad"ecti#es, %which% can be used to modify a noun or a noun phrase. 2n this

e)ample, %which% modifies %plants% and the noun phrase %which paints% is the sub"ect of

the compound #erb %should be watered%:

Whatbook are you reading5

2n this sentence, %what% modifies %book% and the noun phrase %what book% is the direct

ob"ect of the compound #erb %are reading.%

1ndefinite Ad#ectives

An indefinite ad#ectiveis similar to an indefinite pronoun,e)cept that it modifies anoun, pronoun, or noun phrase, as in the following sentences:

$any people belie#e that corporations are under(ta)ed.

The indefinite ad"ecti#e %many% modifies the noun %people% and the noun phrase %manypeople% is the sub"ect of the sentence.

2 will send you any mail that arri#es after you ha#e mo#ed to udbury.

The indefinite ad"ecti#e %any% modifies the noun %mail% and the noun phrase %any mail%

is the direct ob"ect of the compound #erb %will send.%

They found a few goldfish floating belly up in the swan pound.

2n this e)ample the indefinite ad"ecti#e modifies the noun %goldfish% and the noun phrase

is the direct ob"ect of the #erb %found%:

The title of Belly0s fa#ourite game is %All dogs go to hea#en.%

ere the indefinite pronoun %all% modifies %dogs% and the full title is a sub"ect

complement.

What is an Adverb?

An adverbcan modify a #erb, an ad"ecti#e,another ad#erb, aphrase, or a clause. An

ad#erb indicates manner, time, place, cause, or degree and answers 3uestions such as

%how,% %when,% %where,% %how much%.

1hile some ad#erbs can be identified by their characteristic %ly% suffi), most of themmust be identified by untangling the grammatical relationships within the sentenceor
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clause as a whole. 7nlike an ad"ecti#e, an ad#erb can be found in #arious places within

the sentence.

2n the following e)amples, each of the highlightedwords is an ad#erb:

The seamstress %uic$lymade the mourning clothes.

2n this sentence, the ad#erb %3uickly% modifies the #erb %made% and indicates in what

manner or how fast; the clothing was constructed.

The midwi#es waited patientlythrough a long labour.

imilarly in this sentence, the ad#erb %patiently% modifies the #erb %waited% and

describes the manner in which the midwi#es waited.

The boldly spoken words would return to haunt the rebel.

2n this sentence the ad#erb %boldly% modifies the ad"ecti#e %spoken.%

1e urged him to dial the number more expeditiously.

ere the ad#erb %more% modifies the ad#erb %e)peditiously.%

&nfortunately, the bank closed at three today.

2n this e)ample, the ad#erb %unfortunately% modifies the entire sentence.

on#unctive Adverbs

ou can use a con#unctive adverbto "oin two clauses together. ome of the most

common con"uncti#e ad#erbs are %also,% %conse3uently,% %finally,% %furthermore,%

%hence,% %howe#er,% %incidentally,% %indeed,% %instead,% %likewise,% %meanwhile,%%ne#ertheless,% %ne)t,% %nonetheless,% %otherwise,% %still,% %then,% %therefore,% and %thus.%

A con"uncti#e ad#erb is notstrong enough to "oin two independent clauseswithout the

aid of a semicolon.

The highlightedwords in the following sentences are con"uncti#e ad#erbs:

The go#ernment has cut uni#ersity budgets@ conse%uently, class sies ha#e beenincreased.

e did not ha#e all the ingredients the recipe called for@ therefore, he decided to

make something else.The report recommended se#eral changes to the ways the corporation accounted

for donations@ furthermore, it suggested that a new auditor be appointed

immediately.
http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/claustyp.html#independent%20clausehttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/claustyp.html#independent%20clausehttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/semicoln.html#semicolonhttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/semicoln.html#semicolonhttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/claustyp.html#independent%20clausehttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/semicoln.html#semicolon


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The crowd waited patiently for three hours@ finally, the doors to the stadium were

opened.

atman and 9obin fruitlessly searched the building@ indeed, the =oker hadescaped through a secret door in the basement.


What is a on#unction?

ou can use a con#unctionto link words,phrases, and clauses, as in the followinge)ample:

2 ate the pia andthe pasta.!all the mo#ers whenyou are ready.

o-ordinating on#unctions

ou use a co-ordinating con#unction%and,% %but,% %or,% %nor,% %for,% %so,% or %yet%; to

"oin indi#idual words, phrases, and independent clauses.Note that you can also use thecon"unctions %but% and %for% asprepositions.

2n the following sentences,each of the highlightedwords is a co(ordinating con"unction:

Lilacs and#iolets are usually purple.

2n this e)ample, the co(ordinating con"unction %and% links two nouns.

This mo#ie is particularly interesting to feminist film theorists, forthe screenplay

was written by $ae 1est.

2n this e)ample, the co(ordinating con"unction %for% is used to link two independent

clauses.

*aniel0s uncle claimed that he spent most of his youth dancing on rooftops and

swallowing goldfish.

ere the co(ordinating con"unction %and% links twoparticiple phrases%dancing onrooftops% and %swallowing goldfish%; which act as ad#erbsdescribing the #erb%spends.%
http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/bldphr.html#phrasehttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/bldcls.html#clausehttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/claustyp.html#independent%20clausehttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/claustyp.html#independent%20clausehttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/preposit.html#prepositionhttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/preposit.html#prepositionhttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/preposit.html#prepositionhttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/subjpred.html#sentencehttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/subjpred.html#sentencehttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/nouns.html#nounhttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/phrfunc.html#participle%20phrasehttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/adverbs.html#adverbhttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/adverbs.html#adverbhttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/verbs.html#verbhttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/verbs.html#verbhttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/bldphr.html#phrasehttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/bldcls.html#clausehttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/claustyp.html#independent%20clausehttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/preposit.html#prepositionhttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/subjpred.html#sentencehttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/nouns.html#nounhttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/phrfunc.html#participle%20phrasehttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/adverbs.html#adverbhttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/verbs.html#verb


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0ubordinating on#unctions

A subordinating con#unctionintroduces a dependent clauseand indicates the nature of

the relationship among the independent clauses; and the dependent clauses;.

The most common subordinating con"unctions are %after,% %although,% %as,% %because,%%before,% %how,% %if,% %once,% %since,% %than,% %that,% %though,% %till,% %until,% %when,%

%where,% %whether,% and %while.%

'ach of the highlightedwords in the following sentences is a subordinating con"unction:

Aftershe had learned to dri#e, Alice felt more independent.

The subordinating con"unction %after% introduces the dependent clause %After she had

learned to dri#e.%

1fthe paperwork arri#es on time, your che3ue will be mailed on Tuesday.

imilarly, the subordinating con"unction %if% introduces the dependent clause %2f the

paperwork arri#es on time.%

+erald had to begin his thesis o#er again whenhis computer crashed.

The subordinating con"unction %when% introduces the dependent clause %when his

computer crashed.%

$idwifery ad#ocates argue that home births are safer becausethe mother and

baby are e)posed to fewer people and fewer germs.

2n this sentence, the dependent clause %because the mother and baby are e)posed to fewer

people and fewer germs% is introduced by the subordinating con"unction %because.%

orrelative on#unctions

orrelative con#unctionsalways appear in pairs (( you use them to link e3ui#alentsentence elements. The most common correlati#e con"unctions are %both...and,%

%either...or,% %neither...nor,%, %not only...but also,% %so...as,% and %whether...or.%

Technically correlati#e con"unctions consist simply of a co(ordinating con"unctionlinked to an ad"ecti#eor ad#erb.;

The highlightedwords in the following sentences are correlati#e con"unctions:

+othmy grandfather andmy father worked in the steel plant.
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2n this sentence, the correlati#e con"unction %both...and% is used to link the two noun

phrasesthat act as the compound sub"ectof the sentence: %my grandfather% and %my

father%.

ring eithera =ello salad ora potato scallop.

ere the correlati#e con"unction %either...or% links two noun phrases: %a =ello salad% and

%a potato scallop.%

!orinne is trying to decide whetherto go to medical school orto go to law

school.

imilarly, the correlati#e con"unction %whether ... or% links the two infiniti#e phrases%to

go to medical school% and %to go to law school.%

The e)plosion destroyed not onlythe school but alsothe neighbouring pub.

2n this e)ample the correlati#e con"unction %not only ... but also% links the two noun

phrases %the school% and %neighbouring pub%; which act as direct ob"ects.

Note: some words which appear as con"unctions can also appear as prepositions or as

ad#erbs.


What is an 1nter#ection?

An inter#ectionis a word added to a sentenceto con#ey emotion. 2t is not grammatically

related to any other part of the sentence.

ou usually follow an inter"ection with an e)clamation mark. 2nter"ections areuncommon in formal academic prose, e)cept in direct 3uotations.

The highlightedwords in the following sentences are inter"ections:

(uch, that hurtC

(h no, 2 forgot that the e)am was today.

"eyC 6ut that downC2 heard one guy say to another guy, %e has a new car, eh5%

2 don0t know about you but, good lord, 2 think ta)es are too highC
http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/phrfunc.html#noun%20phrasehttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/phrfunc.html#noun%20phrasehttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/subjpred.html#compound%20subjecthttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/subjpred.html#compound%20subjecthttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/phrfunc.html#infinitive%20phrasehttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/objcompl.html#direct%20objecthttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/subjpred.html#sentencehttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/endpunct.html#exclamation%20markhttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/phrfunc.html#noun%20phrasehttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/phrfunc.html#noun%20phrasehttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/subjpred.html#compound%20subjecthttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/phrfunc.html#infinitive%20phrasehttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/objcompl.html#direct%20objecthttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/subjpred.html#sentencehttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/endpunct.html#exclamation%20mark


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