What is “Good Science”?

WHAT IS SCIENCE?

Science is a process by which we try to understand how the natural and physical world works and how it came to be that way.

Science is a human endeavor.

• Scientists are all human, with the typical faults that non-scientists have.

• Therefore science has “quality control measures” to increase its reliability.

• Good science is objective–Unbiased (Objective): not influenced

by feelings, interests and prejudices–Biased (Subjective): influenced by

feelings, interests & prejudices.

Science follows certain rules & guidelines.

• Exactly “what” these rules and guidelines are depends on what area of science a specific scientific is in.

• The scientific method (i.e. hypotheses are formulated from observations, and theories develop from these hypotheses) can be used

• Science is not so simply organized all the time.

Facts versus opinions. • An important distinction to make clear

when science is an issue is the difference between fact and opinion.

• "Fact" in a scientific context is a generally accepted reality (but still open to scientific inquiry, as opposed to an absolute truth).–Hypotheses and theories are generally

based on objective inferences, unlike • Opinions, which are generally based on

subjective influences

Science generally uses the formulation of falsifiable hypotheses

• Hypotheses that cannot ever be disproven are not real science. –Explanations based on supernatural

forces, values, or ethics can never be disproved and thus do not fall under the realm of science

–Note: it does not say these things are unimportant, just not in the realm of science

• Many scientists “say” that a hypothesis cannot ever be proven, only disproven.

• HYPOTHESIS—proposed, testable explanation for the way “something” functions. The “educated guess”

Acceptance of scientific ideas is based on a process of publication and peer review.

• To become a legitimate theory a hypothesis must be subjected to the approval of a scientist's peers and published in an accredited scientific journal.

• Theories tend to persist until a better theory is proposed and gains broad acceptance, rather than new theories being proposed for every tiny fact that is deduced.

• THEORY—highly tested, generally accepted principal that explains a vast number of observations and experimental data–The “most sure” we get in science

–Common use of the word theory is very different from the actual scientific definition. Example—“it’s just a theory who murdered the girl”

Replication is also vital to good science

• For the scientific community to accept a finding, other investigators must be able to duplicate the original investigator's findings.

• Thus, you cannot make up your data; other scientists must be able to follow the same methods you used (whether experimentation, mathematical calculations, formulating major concepts, measuring data, or whatever) and come up with the same results.

Knowledge of what science is, what it can and cannot do and how it works is important for all people• True or False?• People need to be able to evaluate

scientific information in order to make informed decisions about–Health care–Environmental issues–Technological advances–Public health issues

• OBSERVATION—act of gathering information firsthand using your five senses

Be careful not to confuse an observation with an inference

• INFERENCE—a conclusion that results from past observations or knowledge.–You need observations in order to

make inferences. –You’ll use inferences when you draw

conclusions about what has happened.

OBSERVATION

• ___________________

• ___________________

• ___________________

• The owl has wings

• Both of the owls eyes face forward

 • It is night

INFERENCE

• Owls live in trees

• Owls feed on mice

• Owls kill prey with their talons

• ___________________

• ___________________

• ___________________

DataWhen scientists look at DATA they…

1. Determine if it is reliable2. Look to see if it supports or does not

support the hypothesis3. Determine possible sources of error4. Usually shown in graph or table form

• Scientists analyze tables, graphs and charts to draw conclusions about whether the hypothesis is supported or not supported.

Data Sources

All organizations produce unbiased data. However, it is important to understand the organization’s motivation to be able to identify potential bias. In some situations, the need to promote special interests or make profits may lead to bias.

1. University Research

2. Corporate Research

3. Government Research

4. Research by Special Interest Groups

A prejudiced presentation of material

A consistent error in estimating a value

Two types of bias

1.Sampling Bias

2.Measurement Bias

When gathering data you could “introduce a bias…

Good science depends on a well-designed experiment that minimizes bias by using the

appropriate:

•Sample size•Sample selection •Measurement techniques

***for the question being investigated

Examining the Data Source

Investigations of Passive Smoking Harm:

Relationship between Article Conclusions & Author Affiliations

Number (%) of Reviews

 Article Conclusion Tobacco Affiliated Authors (n=31)

Non-Tobacco Affiliated Authors (n=75)

Passive smoking harmful 2 (6%) 65 (87%)

Passive smoking not harmful 29 (94%) 10 (13%)

Significance Χ2=60.69; P<.001

Barnes, Deborah E. 1998. Why review articles on the health effects of passive smoking reach different conclusions. JAMA. 279(19): 1566-1570.