What does it show?

What can you infer?

What questions do you have?

How does it link to what you already know?

What does it show?

What can you infer?

What questions do you have?

How does it link to what you already know?

What does it show?

What can you infer?

What questions do you have?

How does it link to what you already know?

What does it show?

What can you infer?

What questions do you have?

How does it link to what you already know?

Lesson 23: Why did America adopt an imperial foreign policy in the 1890s?

• To know some of the motivations for American imperialism

• To understand how the US extended its influence in the Pacific and Latin America

• To be able to use these case studies to explain the drivers of US foreign policy in the 1890s

Key words:

IMPERIALISM

ISOLATIONISM

A policy of extending a country's power and influence over other countries through diplomacy or military force.

A policy of remaining apart from the affairs or interests of other groups, esp. the political affairs of other countries

INTERNATIONALISMA belief in co-operation and understanding between nations

The USA had been mostly an isolationist nation throughout the 19th

century.

There were 3 strands to isolationism:

1. Anti-Colonialism

2. Geographical Isolationism

3. Land of the Free

Most Americans were hostile to imperialist ideas.

The Monroe Doctrine of 1823 said that Europeans were not allowed to interfere in the Americas and that the Western Hemisphere was for the USA to dominate – known as ‘continentalist expansion’. Monroe also emphasised that US policy was to avoid becoming involved in European wars.

The Monroe Doctrine, 1823"We owe it, therefore, to candor and to the amicable relations existing between the United States and those powers to declare that we should consider any attempt on their part to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety. With the existing colonies or dependencies of any European power we have not interfered and shall not interfere. But with the Governments who have declared their independence and maintained it, and whose independence we have, on great consideration and on just principles, acknowledged, we could not view any interposition for the purpose of oppressing them, or controlling in any other manner their destiny, by any European power in any other light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States"

This map shows us that as we move into the 1890s and the 1900s, American interest in foreign affairs grew.

But…what motivated American imperialism?What do the historians have to say?

Using the information on the next slide, provide a short explanation of why each view could explain why America expanded her influence.

It is very important to have a strong understanding of the views on the causes of US imperialism. It is a likely topic in the extract question.

Factor for growth Explanation

Accidental empire Argued by historians such as Harold Evans: America never sought an empire at all. For economic reasons, the USA did not need an empire due to huge trade with Britain.

Progressive imperialism

Economic

The end of Westward expansion & ‘The White Man’s Burden’

Preclusive imperialism

1. Accidental Empire

Argued by historians such as Harold Evans, The American Century (1998). He claimed that USA never sought an empire – it didn’t need it b/c so much trade with Britain. The acquiring of colonies was therefore due to external factors. For example, the decision to annexe the Philippines after the Spanish-American War was due to the deciding vote of Vice-President Garrett Augustus Hobart.

2. Progressive Imperialism

Argued by historians such as Walter McDougall, The American Encounter with the World since 1776 (1997). He claimed that imperialism was driven by a desire to improve lives of non-Americans e.g.: removal of yellow fever in Cuba and the building of hospitals/schools. In other words, imperialism was based on the notion of exporting US values to less-developed countries

Some go further and argue that USA wanted to dominate world by creating countries in its own image. This is shown by the missionary work carried out such as the White Anglo-Saxon Protestants (WASPS) who believed they were a superior peoples who had a duty to help ‘lesser races’ improve by following their examples. Missionaries were often followed by colonists, such as in Hawaii & Philippines.

3. Economic: the need for markets

Argued by historian William A. Williams, The Tragedy of American Diplomacy (1950s) and Niall Ferguson, American Colossus (2003).

According to them the key underlying motive of imperialism was economic, with Depression of 1893 stimulating a desire for new markets. They also could argue that USA faced surpluses in farming and needed markets to absorb these.

3. The end of Western Expansion and ‘The White Man’s Burden’

Historian Jack Turner, Significance of the Frontier in American History, (1893) argued that Westward expansion was a form of imperialism and once this ended USA was then able to turn attention to foreign adventures. This involved the conversion of ‘Manifest Destiny’ to ‘Global Destiny’ – to achieve true greatness, America needed an Empire. The belief that white people were superior to other races and so had a duty to bring them up to the standards of white people was known as ‘The White Man’s Burden;’. President McKinley himself said that Christianising the Philippines was his main motivation for annexing it. Alfred Thayer Mahan was a naval officer who was inspired by the idea of Americans having a civilising mission. He worked closely with Teddy Roosevelt, who also believed in a ‘forward’ foreign policy underpinned by modern sea power.

4. Preclusive Imperialism

Historian William Langer first used this term: refers to the idea that countries take colonies to prevent others from doing so. He argued that the USA copied Britain and France and took advantage of predominant position in Latin America & Monroe Doctrine to expand into Central America & the Caribbean.

China

Going back to this map, we can see how the USA established influence in the ‘crossroads of the Pacific’. The crossroads of the Pacific are the islands which come between the Americas and Asia/Australia.

The case against Empire:William Jennings Bryan, Andrew Carnegie and Mark Twain were critical of US imperial ambitions and in November 1899, were the main founders of The Anti-Imperialist League. They regarded the takeover of foreign territories and the subjugation of other peoples as violating the principles of human equality and self- government on which the Union had been founded. Other anti-imperialists worried about the ‘mongrelisation’ of the American race from contact with ‘little brown brothers’

Use the information over the next slides to fill in the table exploring the extent of, causes of and impact of US intervention in other countries

Country Significant to US because … The US intervened in this country by… The impact of US intervention was…

Samoa

Hawaii

The Philippines

Puerto Rico

Venezuela

China

The Pacific

The PacificSamoaUS actions in Samoa were an example of preclusive imperialism. American interest here began in 1872 when the King of Samoa offered the USA the naval base of Pago Pago on the eastern island of Tutuila. Although this was refused, the USA was aware of increasing German and British interests in the area, with the German Trading and Plantation Company turning Samoa into the most important trading post in the Pacific.In 1898 Samoa had a civil war: USA and GB supported Tanumafili I; Germany supported Mata'afa IosefoIn 1899 the war ended and the Samoan monarchy was abolished. The 3 powers signed the Tripartite Convention: GB relinquished (gave up) rights to Samoa in return for other Pacific Island chains which formerly belonged to Germany; Germany took Western Samoa as a colony; USA established a protectorate in Eastern Samoa. A protectorate is a country which is controlled and protected by another.

Hawaii1898 USA annexed Hawaii which was an important stopping station on the way to Japan and China. Annexation is when one a country becomes part of another country. But why did they do this?

Since 1875 the USA imported Hawaiian sugar duty free & Hawaii had become increasingly dependent on US economy. By 1890s, there were 3,000 US sugar growers out of the 90,000 Hawaiians living on the island. In 1890 the McKinley Tariff removed duties on raw sugar, so Hawaiian growers lost their trading advantage and suffered as a result of competition from other countries who could now import sugar duty-free – this was especially an advantage for Cuba. This was a turning point because since 1875 USA imported Hawaiian sugar free of duty – Hawaii no longer had that advantage over competitors!In 1891, the Hawaiian King died & the new queen, Liliuokalani, led a rebellion against American influence over Hawaii. Hawaii was of high importance to the Americans, not only due to trade but also because since 1887, Hawaii housed the first major Pacific naval base, Pearl Harbor. American residents in Hawaii called for help from the USA. US marines arrived and within 3 days the rebels surrendered. The USA annexed Hawaii in July 1898.

The PacificThe PhilippinesTreaty of Paris 1898 ( which ended Span-American War; we will study this next lesson in depth) allowed the USA to purchase the Philippine Islands from Spain for $20million. There are 3 reasons for this purchase:1)Felt USA could civilise the islanders by converting them to Christianity and bringing their ‘superior’ US ideals – White Man’s Burden2)Preclusive Imperialism – fear that Philippines be taken over by Germany, GB or Japan3)Islands could not be returned to Spain and the Filipinos, who wanted independence, seemed incapable of ruling selves effectively

BUT there was STRONG OPPOSITION to annexation both in the Philippines and USA – the former of which had fought for independence from Spain and assumed if Spain were defeated they'd be granted their independence.The USA had to fight a 4 year war of subjugation (to suppress the Filipinos). This cost $600mill and by 1904 had 126,000 troops in Philippines.

Latin America

Latin America

The USA looked to expand its influence in Latin American in terms of political influence and developing trade links. While there was no intention of annexing regions, US business interests sought to exploit South and Central America and in doing soraise their stands of living and quality of life. However, we will see in later lessons that after the Spanish-American war there would be much more US involvement in Latin America.Puerto RicoThis island was a Spanish colony but had been given degree of independence before outbreak of the Spanish-American War in 1898. It was invaded by US troops in 1898 and after little fighting the Spanish surrendered and withdrew. Under the Organic Act of 1900: Puerto Rico to be administered by the USA. In 1917 Puerto Ricans were granted US citizenship.

VenezuelaIn 1895 Britain and Venezuela were in dispute over the border of the British colony, Guiana. President Cleveland demanded that Britain agree to send the dispute to arbitration; they initially refused but backed down when US threatened to send 54 vessels to disputed area. Arbitration decided in favour of Venezuela. Whilst this did not result in America gaining another colony, it does demonstrate that America still saw itself as the ‘protector’ of the Western Hemisphere and that in the 1890s there was still some efforts to continue the Monroe Doctrine.

Meanwhile the European powers were steadily increasing their control over China. The Americans were anxious not

to be excluded from the Chinese market, but also did not wish to come into conflict with Europeans over China. In

1899 the put forward the concept of the ‘Open Door’, which stated that Chinese ports should be open to merchants

from all nations, not just those from the country that controlled the particular port.

US Secretary of State John Hay was aware that the United States could not challenge the European powers, so he

sent a note to each of them asking for their agreement to the Open Door Policy. The Europeans ignored this note,

but Hay announced regardless that it had been accepted.

Hay was aware that there was likely to be little in the way of European opposition to the policy – there were too

many rivalries between the various European states for any of them to be unduly worried about the United States.

However, Hay did underestimate the reaction in Japan. The Japanese simply considered the American presence in

China to be yet another white power seeking to exploit the Chinese for its own ends. The decision of the USA to

become involved in China therefore marks the beginning of the deep suspicions between Japan and the USA that

ultimately led to the events at Pearl Harbour in 1941.

Far East: China

Accidental Empire

Progressive imperialism

Economic

End of Westward expansion & White Man’s Burden

Preclusive Imperialism

Which argument do you think is the most convincing reason for the growth in US imperial policy in the 1890s? Rank them and explain your reasoning.