Nine month E-discussion from November 2012 to July 2013

on http://next.dgroups.org/rwsn/groundwater

http://www.rural-water-supply.net

What are we talking about?

Experiences and Ideas from RWSN’s Sustainable Groundwater Community

2013

Compiled by Kerstin Danert

Coordinator - Sustainable Groundwater Development Theme

Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN)

Hosted by Skat Foundation, Switzerland

Compilation Supported by

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Executive Summary

There is resounding consensus that poor construction quality is one of the main reasons that boreholes fail. In

Africa, there are a growing number of initiatives to tackle this issue, and generally improve groundwater

development policies and practices. For example Botswana has a system in place for borehole data. Ghana

now prescribes standards for borehole construction in its National Community Water and Sanitation Strategy

and has started to licence drilling companies. Nigeria has developed a code of Practice for water well

construction and the drilling contractors have formed an association. Kenya is in the process of completing its

National Policy on Groundwater Development and Management, and the Kenya Water Institute has been

designated as a UNESCO Centre of Excellence for Groundwater Research, Training and Education. In Malawi,

efforts are underway to standardise drilling contracts. In Mozambique, a drilling association has been

established, but training opportunities remain ad-hoc with no sustainable mechanism to support the growth

of an emerging drilling sector. Uganda has published a series of groundwater maps for the entire country but

faces challenges with construction quality. In Tanzania, groundwater regulations have been developed and

guidelines for groundwater explorations and borehole drilling are in progress.

Aquifer protection, including actions at the local level is crucial for the long term viability of groundwater

supplies. The usefulness of groundwater data is well illustrated by the recent publication of Uganda’s

groundwater maps. Unfortunately, in many countries, drilling logs, if kept at all, remain dispersed around the

country. Unless this data is collated and interpreted, this precious knowledge will never be properly used.

Groundwater contamination arises from the geology itself (geogenic contamination), or is caused by human

activity (anthropogenic contamination). There are specific examples of iron in groundwater. In some places

this is due to the geology and its interaction with the environment. In others it stems from corrosion of certain

below-ground pump materials. Replacing these with PVC rising mains can solve the iron problem in the latter

case. General concerns have been raised about contamination of groundwater by chemicals, particularly from

insecticides and pesticides, but specific, documented examples were not given.

It is important to properly define rock types, noting that the term crystalline refers to the genesis of the

material, and not how it is decomposed. It may be better to use terms like “hard” and “soft” when discussing

which technologies are appropriate.

Overall, there was consensus that manual drilling techniques cannot drill extensively through hard rock.

Despite numerous attempts to develop such a technology it just takes too long and requires too much human

energy. It is noted that “old fashioned” percussion drilling provides a viable low cost option and is still being

used in some parts of the world. In hard formations, down-the-hole hammer technology is the quickest

option, and reliable small drilling rigs, costing US$100,000 are on the market. For drilling technology, we

should think of a continuum of technologies from manual drilling, to percussion rigs and small rotary rigs, to

small rigs with DTH capability, to larger truck mounted rigs. One should consider the combination of lowest

cost and most effective methods that can be used by businesses effectively, thus matching the drilling

technology with the job that needs to be done.

When drilling, there is almost always that the well will not yield sufficient water of the desired quality.

Professional siting should reduce the risk. Many boreholes stop working after some time. Opinions as to the

main reasons for this vary, reflecting a wide range of experiences. Poor construction quality was frequently

cited. However, there are also those that argue that the problems of borehole failure are most commonly

caused by the pump itself. Most of the evidence presented in the e-discussion was anecdotal, rather than

based on specific studies to systematically diagnose and document the reasons for failure. The on-going

research in Uganda, led by the British Geological Survey to diagnose the causes of borehole failure and

develop a simple mechanism that can be applied more widely is a promising initiative.

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With fairly strong opinions in RWSN’s groundwater community that poor construction quality is one of the

reasons that boreholes fail, the next question is what is required to improve it? This question and subsequent

discussion was at times rather polarised. It is worth quoting the opening of RWSN's Code of Practice: "The

term “cost-effective” means optimum value for money invested over the long term. Boreholes are drilled to

function for a lifespan of 20 to 50 years. Thus, the lowest cost well is not always the most cost-effective,

particularly if construction quality is compromised to save money. Cheap drilling or poor construction quality

can lead to premature failure of the well or contamination of the water supply. Boreholes that are

subsequently abandoned by the users are clearly not cost-effective". There was considerable debate around

the fact that cost-effective should not mean cheap, noting that cheap wells are being drilled in some places, at

the cost of sustainability. Concerns by RWSN’s groundwater community have also been raised regarding the

applicability of some of the recommendations in the code of practice, particularly regarding good borehole

design for gravel packing, open hole/fully cased borehole, sanitary seal and the fact that in Africa, many of

these principles are not being adhered to in practice.

We draw no conclusions but note that more discussion and possibly more research are required. There may

also be need to improve the code of practice in the future. Discussions on the life of a handpump were a

reminder of the need for regular maintenance and the replacement of wearing parts.

The main issue emerging is how to bring about good quality siting, supervision, procurement and

contract management – all issues covered in RWSN’s set of publications. There is need for engagement

with the institutions and individuals that design, plan, finance and implement drilling programmes to ensure

that wells are cost-effective, rather than cheap (and unsustainable). There are numerous suggestions and ideas

on what needs to be done, in terms of leadership and governance; advocacy and promotion; training,

adherence to Codes of Practice or equivalent and the Code of Practice itself. It is suggested to organize a

regional meeting to look at drillers training issue strategically and explore collaborative linkages more

generally. RWSN will take forward four actions over the next nine months:

Publish and share this synthesis document widely, including webinar type presentations

Webinar/telephone/face-to-face discussions to develop joint work and better sharing between

existing implementers, institutions and associations, as well as AGW-Net, IAH, UNCESO and others so

as to move forwards systematically and improve the quality of borehole drilling.

Series of webinar exchanges in partnership with lead rural water supply agencies to share on-going

initiatives (and struggles) in specific countries to improve sustainable groundwater development.

Continue the dialogue within RWSN’s online Sustainable Groundwater Development community.

Acknowledgments

Thanks to the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, UNICEF and Skat Foundation for the financial

support to compile this synthesis which took some time! This synthesis is based on the correspondence from

the following members of RWSN’s Sustainable Groundwater Development community: Abubakar Baba,

Alberto Lobo Guerrero, Alan MacDonald, Ashitiva, Ashok Kumar, Bekele Abaire, Bill Cocke, Bob Hather,

Byarugaba, Callist Tindimugaya, Curt King, Daniel Nkhuwa, Draleke Titus More, Dwight Hanson, Fabio Fusi,

George Krhoda, Gerrit van Roekel, A/Aziem A Osma, Harouna Moustapha, Jake Carpenter, Jan de Jongh, Jesse

Coffie Danku, Jim Anscombe, Jim Hocking, John Cherry, John Pinfold, Jon Naugle, Ken Gibbs, Kerstin Danert,

KS Isiorho, Lawrence Brown, Lemessa Mekonta, Luís Macário, , Martin Obada Eduvie, Michael Ale, Mohammed

Kamfut, Moses Enangu, Munamirghani, Muraya, Muyangwa, Peter Wurzel, Richard Carter, Richard Owen,

Robin Hazel, Ron Reed Rupert Talbot, Sampath Kumar, Santos Ochaya, Socaya, Saul Arlosoroff, Shammy Puri,

Steve Schneider, Stuart Smith, Sunday Arafan, Tesfaye Hailu, Timothy Cleath, Tony Beers and Yussif Abdul-

Rahaman. Thanks to Dotun Adekile for the cover picture (Sanniquilli test drilling in Nimba County, Liberia). Last

but not least a big thanks to Jake Carpenter for proof-reading.

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Contents

Executive Summary ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 1

Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 2

Contents ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5

Sustainable Groundwater Development Initiatives ......................................................................................................................... 6

Summary ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6

Botswana ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6

Ghana ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 6

Kenya ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 6

Malawi .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6

Mozambique .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 8

Nigeria .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8

Tanzania ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9

Uganda ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9

Sierra Leone ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 9

Zimbabwe .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9

Groundwater Resources ............................................................................................................................................................................. 9

Summary ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9

Aquifer Protection .................................................................................................................................................................................. 10

Monitoring and Data ............................................................................................................................................................................ 11

Contamination ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 13

Drilling Technology and Techniques................................................................................................................................................... 14

Summary .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14

Technology Continuum ....................................................................................................................................................................... 14

Drilling in Hard Formation - Manually ........................................................................................................................................... 15

Percussion Drilling ................................................................................................................................................................................. 16

Rotary and DTH Drilling....................................................................................................................................................................... 18

Why Boreholes Fail? ................................................................................................................................................................................... 18

Summary .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 18

Reasons Given ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 18

Defining and Ensuring Quality – for Sustainability ........................................................................................................................ 20

Summary .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 20

Debate 1: Cost-effective does not mean cheap......................................................................................................................... 20

Debate 2: The Filter Pack ..................................................................................................................................................................... 21

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Debate 3: The Open Hole ................................................................................................................................................................... 23

Debate 4: The Sanitary Seal ............................................................................................................................................................... 24

Debate 5: The Life of a Handpump ................................................................................................................................................. 25

Siting ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 26

Supervision ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 26

Procurement and Contract Packaging ........................................................................................................................................... 27

Moving Forwards: What needs to be done? .................................................................................................................................... 27

Conclusion and Specific Actions ........................................................................................................................................................... 29

Annex 1 Documentation and Links Shared ...................................................................................................................................... 30

Annex 2 Requests and Responses ....................................................................................................................................................... 31

Annex 3 Research ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 33

Ongoing Research ................................................................................................................................................................................. 33

Research Ideas ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 33

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Introduction

The RWSN’s Sustainable Groundwater Development community (http://next.dgroups.org/rwsn/groundwater)

comprises over 500 members from 69 countries (Figure 1). Following the structured e-discussion in

September/October 2012, the community has continued to grow and share knowledge. There has been

vibrant exchange and debates on topics such as national groundwater policies, gravel packing, drilling

technologies, the life of a handpump and many more. Questions have been numerous and responses are

often detailed. At times these triggered new discussions within the community.

What is particularly striking is that all participants express commitment and concerns about ensuring that

boreholes are constructed of a quality that will last and be sustainable. Concerns are being raised about

construction quality and supervision when drilling, as well as about the water resources itself.

Essentially, an online international community of individuals with a strong interest in Sustainable Groundwater

Development is developing. However, with about 300 emails sent over the past nine months, it is hardly

possible for everyone to read everything. This is the genesis of this synthesis document.

Figure 1 Geographic Spread of Sustainable Groundwater Development Members (31 July 2013)

This synthesis pulls together the many ideas, opinions, experiences and suggestions from the online

community. Every contribution has been read, re-read and (where possible) summarised. The structure of this

document has evolved from the issues raised and the debates that took place. One contribution may cover

three or more issues. The synthesis has been structured to make is easier to follow the dialogue – country by

country, and issue by issue. The compilation has also taken the liberty to edit the contributions so that they

are succinct and clear. Tables and boxes are used for particularly technical issues or detailed examples. It is

hoped that the document is easy to read.

The challenge now is moving from dialogue to action. It is apparent that some members are already

benefitting from the knowledge of others. The exchange has also raised awareness of RWSN’s Cost-Effective

Boreholes publications, as well as those of others. However, there is need to “walk the talk”. The final chapter

of this synthesis draws together the contributions for a way forward, and closes with a set of specific actions

that will be catalysed by the coordinator of RWSN’s Sustainable Groundwater Development theme in late

2013 and early 2014 together with the community. It is hoped that tremendous dialogue can continue and

ultimately improve groundwater protection and development practices around the world.

The compiler apologises in advance if she has misrepresented any of the participants. Please contact her

directly if you object strongly to the way that your contribution has been summarised and edited.

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Sustainable Groundwater Development Initiatives

Summary

There is resounding consensus that poor construction quality is one of the main reasons that boreholes fail.

This is mirrored by a growing number of initiatives in Africa to tackle this issue, and generally improve

groundwater development policies and practices. Botswana has a system in place for borehole data. Ghana

now prescribes standards for borehole construction in its National Community Water and Sanitation Strategy

and has started to licence drilling companies. Nigeria has developed a code of Practice for for water well

construction and the drilling contractors have formed a dynamic association. Kenya is in the process of

completing its National Policy on Groundwater Development and Management, and the Kenya Water Institute

has been designated as a level 2 UNESCO Centre of Excellence for Groundwater Research, Training and

Education. Training courses are planned (but not funded) for the region. In Malawi, efforts are underway to

standardise drilling contracts. In Mozambique, a drilling association has been established, but training

opportunities remain ad-hoc and no sustainable mechanism has been found to support the growth of an

emerging drilling sector. Uganda has published a series of groundwater maps for the entire country. In

Tanzania, groundwater regulations have been developed and guidelines for groundwater explorations and

borehole drilling are in progress.

Every country needs to have clear guidance and standards with respect to borehole drilling – without

them there is a lack of clarity - which leads to confusion and arguments [Kerstin Danert, Switzerland].

Botswana

Botswana ?has laws, acts, regulations, procedures and official paperwork which ensure that borehole data and

hydrogeology is held at a central location in the interests of the nation [Jim Anscombe, Zambia].

Ghana

In Ghana, the National Community Water and sanitation Strategy, prescribes standards for borehole

construction (Box 1). In ensuring standards and quality well construction, the Water Resources Commission is

now licensing drilling companies and educating them on the correct procedures to be adopted when

constructing boreholes. Depending on the location of the site and the drilling company base camp, the cost of

drilling a borehole (excluding community mobilisation and the handpump) ranges from US$3,000 to US$5,000.

Kenya

The Water Resources Management Authority of Kenya is developing a National Policy on Groundwater

Development and Management [Ashitiva, Kenya]. It is now near completion [George Krhoda, Kenya]. The

Kenya Water Institute is being designated as a Level 2 UNCESCO Centre of Excellence for Groundwater

Research, Training and Education The institute will support training for drillers not only for Kenya, but for the

entire region [George Krhoda, Kenya]. It also plans to formulate a programme to attach its trainees to a drilling

company for six months after training. The institute is, however, currently challenged by a lack of resources

[Muraya, Kenya].

Malawi

Over 95% of the boreholes constructed through UNCIEF-funded programmes in Malawi in the last 1 to 5 years

are functional [John Pinfold, Malawi]. The Anscombe (2011) report provides an example of highly relevant

post-construction monitoring for the sector [Kerstin Danert, Switzerland]. The study, which investigated

construction, was well received by the whole sector (particularly officials from local and central government as

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well as contractors). Anscombe’s (2011) report, Quality Assurance of Unicef Drilling Programme for Boreholes

in Malawi1 provides insights into a number of challenges for the drilling sector, with respect to:

siting (drillers carrying out geophysical techniques badly)

drilling practices (using inappropriate drilling in very soft formations or insufficient well development)

supervision (dependence on driller for transport and allowances, as well as inadequate knowhow)

borehole numbering practices [Kerstin Danert, Switzerland]

Following the study, the main aspects that are now being addressed are:

Standardisation of contracts - we are currently working with the Ministry to standardise (and improve)

contracts at central (Ministry and Unicef) and local levels (districts).

Procurement process - supporting decentralisation of procurement and management while ensuring

quality contractors in tender process.

Siting - general rule in Malawi is not to pay for dry boreholes (we've discussed pros and cons but

sticking with this) - discussions have looked at how we improve information availability on

groundwater (difficult as depends on institutional capacity to provide this service) and guiding tender

process to ensure contractors use good siting procedures. [John Pinfold, Malawi].

The SMART centre in Malawi has been training manual drillers [Henk Holtslag, Netherlands].

Box 1 Major Procedures for Borehole Drilling in Ghana

1. Minimum diameter of borehole is 5”. Depending on the intended purpose, this can increase to 6”, 8” and in

certain circumstances, 12”

2. Boreholes are constructed using uPVC pipes. The well is lined starting with a 1-meter plain (solid) casing with a

bottom plug attached to it. This is to ensure that sediments entering the well from the aquifer settles in this

section to prevent turbidity of the water. On top of this is the screen (slotted casing) followed by plain and

screen sections alternating depending on the logging done during the drilling. The screens are set at the aquifer

zones depending on the number of aquifer zones (some could passed to be perched aquifers though)

encountered during the drilling.

3. A hand pump well must have a minimum 13.5l/min (3 gallons British measure) before it could be developed into

a productive well and must equally sustain a 4-hour constant pumping test to ascertain the safe yield.

4. Mechanised wells must necessarily sustain a minimum of 24-hour constant pumping test and must be a high

yielding borehole.

5. Prior to developing the borehole, the annulus is filled from the bottom to about 2 meters above the last screen

section (closer to ground level) with quartz gravels, with the right grain size. This serves as a filter media to

promote quality of the water supply. The well is now developed through surging of compressed air till the water

becomes clear. This process also allow the gravel packs to settle well. The top of the gravel is sealed with about 1

meter grouted cement. The remaining annulus is filled with drilled cuttings to about 2m below ground level. The

remaining section is now filled with 2m cement grouting to serve as the sanitary seal to prevent run-offs from

entering the borehole.

6. Water quality test is conducted on all wells before the borehole can be developed into a productive well. This is

to ensure that the quality of the groundwater meets WHO and Ghana approved standards

7. Documentation is encouraged at all stages. Paramount among them is the borehole construction log. This shows

a pictorial boreholes with all relevant information (airlift yield, safe yield, constant discharge rate during

pumping test, depth of borehole, screen and plain sections, gravel packs, grouting sections, static water level,

community information, drilling company, etc). This is to serve as a guide to any future work on the borehole.

[Jesse Coffie Danku, Ghana]

1Anscombe’s (2011), Quality Assurance of Unicef Drilling Programme for Boreholes in Malaw, UNICEF, Available on http://www.rural-

water-supply.net/en/resources-top/details/509

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Mozambique

As the Water and Sanitation Programme (WSP) I have been supporting the Mozambique Drilling Association

(APM- its acronym in Portuguese) since its creation in 2008. This has mainly involved organizing ad-hoc

training sessions, supporting the creation of a drillers certification framework and providing technical

assistance to the executive presidency as needed. After such a long period of engagement with the

association, I find it difficult to set up a sustainable training mechanism that will support the growth and

development of emerging drilling companies and alike; therefore I consider that we should organize a

regional meeting to look at the drillers training issue strategically [Luís Macário, Mozambique].

Nigeria

The code of practice for water well construction has already been developed in Nigeria but needs enforcement

[Michael Ale, Nigeria]. The National Water Resources Institute in Kaduna has adopted this code of practice for

and also designed short courses programmes (Box 2), all as effort to reduce borehole failures in Nigeria.

[Martin Eduvie, Nigeria]

Box 2 List of short courses available at the National Water Resources Institute in Kaduna

1. Geophysical techniques for groundwater development 2. Borehole drilling, design and development 3. Borehole drilling technology 4. Borehole maintenance and rehabilitation 5. Drilling machinery maintenance 6. Alternative rural water water (hand-dug well, rainwater harvesting and spring

development) 7. Handpump installation, operation and maintenance 8. Sanitation and Hygiene practices 9. Community mobilization and manageme 10. Training on Community-led Total Sanitation (CLTS)

It is of great importance to train drillers and render technical and managerial training/support to the rig

owners so that wells are properly constructed. Currently, owners who are employer of drillers and other

practitioners in the underground water industry are amalgamating into one body through AWDROP (Box 3).

Standards for drilling of Water well in Nigeria will be set and best practices in designing good water well are to

be adopted, thus reducing cost [Michael Ale, Nigeria].

Box 3 Association of Water Well Drilling Rig Owners and Practitioners (AWDROP) Maiden Seminar

The Association of Water Well Drilling Rig Owners and Practitioners (AWDROP) is concerned about the need to address failed borehole projects in Nigeria. AWDROP’s maiden seminar, held in Ibaden on the 5th June 2013 was on topic "WHY WATER PROJECTS FAIL?" A wide range of stakeholders participated at the event, with analysis and recommendations made by representatives from the National Water Resources institute, the Lagos State Water Regulatory Commission and the Ministry of Water Resources Oyo State.

AWDROP’s approach to curbing the unwholesome practices of the drilling practitioners is to first get the existing drillers and organized, identify their skills deficiency and proffer solution to this. This will be undertaken through knowledge sharing among the International professionals, meeting with the Government to stop patronizing brief-case contractors and stopping them from using water contract for self benefit.

AWDROP shall organize a workshop to sensitize both the general public and the policy makers on the need to patronize only the Professionals and Registered members of the association who has been trained in a professional way and have requisite capacity and equipment to deliver good jobs that has also been certified by the identified regulator. Website: http://www.awdrop.org/.

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Tanzania

Tanzania has developed groundwater regulations and now we are working on the guidelines for groundwater

explorations and borehole drilling [Stuart Smith, USA]. The SMART centre in Tanzania has been training

manual drillers [Henk Holtslag, Netherlands].

Uganda

Uganda has published a series of groundwater maps for the entire country (Box 6) [Callist Tindimugaya,

Uganda]. However, there major concerns have been raised about the fragmented way in which drilling

contracts are procured and managed (Box 4).

Box 4 Poor Drilling Procurement and Contract Management Practices in Uganda

In Uganda, each small district has its own procurement unit, and each region may have over 20 districts, all advertising in the national media, sometimes to procure the drilling of two boreholes (because of small budgets). This means that a contractor may prepare over 40 bid documents a year, and yet only win 2-4 tenders. This is in addition to mis-use/abuse of procurement procedures; where a supplier or contractor will be asked to submit 3-5 copies of prequalification documents, and re-submit the same during open bidding, increasing the costs of bid preparation, further contributing to the already high cost as a result of low success rate in tender winning.

Note that, in the Ugandan case, procurement for all government entities is done at the same time, and also tender awards are given at the same time. You thus find a contractor has been selected in 10 or 15 districts to drill 70-100 boreholes in two months, which ultimately forces him to do shoddy work or short cuts due to a hurry. To make matters worse, if you finish work outside the 2 months (normally April-June), the money is taken back to the central government, and the contractor would have to wait for 1 to 2 years before he gets paid!

Further to this worse situation, technical officers at the local government do not supervise the siting and drilling, neither do they hire a fulltime consultant to do this crucial role. It is therefore not surprising that, the boreholes drilled in this type of arrangement may not last for 20 years! [Byarugaba, Uganda]

The lack of a training institute, with certificates awarded (after six months) has left Uganda with unprofessional drillers both local and foreign doing drilling, which end result is high rate of borehole failure within a short period of time (except for the few which is being monitored by the staff from the centre). Very little lithological data collected from drilling can be relied upon as different private companies have different lithological interpretation of the soil collected within the same area. Little attention put on the data collected [Moses Enangu, Uganda].

Sierra Leone

On-going work to develop “principles for cost-effective boreholes” and training courses is being undertaken

with the Ministry of Water Resources – implemented by Skat with DFID support [Kerstin Danert, Switzerland].

Zimbabwe

Apparently Zimbabwe there are records of at least 40,000 boreholes in a data base, but cautious is needed as

some data is flawed [Peter Wurzel, Australia].

Groundwater Resources

Summary

Aquifer protection, including actions at the local level is noted as crucial for the long term viability of

groundwater supplies. The usefulness of groundwater data is well illustrated by the recent publication of

Uganda’s groundwater maps. Unfortunately, in many countries, drilling logs, if kept at all, remain dispersed

around the county in different organisations. Unless this data is collated and interpreted, there is a danger that

this precious knowledge will never be properly used.

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Groundwater contamination arises from the geology itself (geogenic contamination), or is caused by humans

(anthropogenic contamination). There are specific examples of iron in groundwater in Zambia and Ghana. In

some places the iron is due to the geology and its interaction with the environment. In some parts of Zambia

(and other countries), the iron actually stems from corrosion of certain below-ground pump materials.

Replacing these with PVC rising mains can solve the iron problem. General concerns have been raised about

contamination of groundwater by chemicals, particularly from insecticides and pesticides, but specific,

documented examples were not given.

Aquifer Protection

However cheap and effective the drilling method is, the ultimate constraint is the safe yield of the aquifer (Box

5). In some places, as aquifers decline through over-abstraction, the dug well and the hand pump become less

viable [Rupert Talbot, UK]. In Pakistan in the late 1980’s efforts to prevent the drying up of mother wells for the

karezes (qanats) of Baluchistan by inappropriate drilling and extraction were thwarted as local leaders simply

drilled where they wanted and the government turned a blind eye [Anon]. A challenge for ground water is the

possible depletion due to over pumping; groundwater is declining in several well fields due to over use.

Therefore in planning groundwater for large scale use (urban or irrigation) attention must be given to

groundwater management [Bekele Abaire, Ethiopia]. In the rush to get things done quicker and cheaper we do

not do a good job, we do not protect the diminishing number of good aquifers that are available and we shy

away from the hard places where people really need water or where there is good security in order to drill

wells in easier and safe places [Bekele Abaire, Ethiopia].

Water programmes need to be assessed not just on break down rates, but on the seasonality of the source

and the quality of the water they deliver. Might we then consider some local conservation action that will help

to recharge ground water in the vicinity of each and every water point? Communities can't wait for legislation

to protect their assets. But, they can take action today to protect their own interests, e.g. through rainwater

harvesting and building of simple check dams [Rupert Talbot, UK].

Box 5 Crystalline rocks in West Africa (Hazel et al 1992)2

Excluding crystalline limestones, we are dealing with aquifers of limited extent, limited permeability and limited storage. I was involved in the siting and drilling of over two thousand boreholes in crystalline rocks in West Africa, and I can reasonably state that: 1. The aquifers have an effective catchment of a few hectares at best. This catchment area has an above average

thickness of regolith. 2. The area of saturated aquifer (which is less than the catchment area) has a perimeter following a regolith thickness

of 15 +/- 2.5 metres. This regolith is the storage host rock, with an effective porosity of at best 5%. The deepest regolith is usually around 25-30 metres. So the volume of stored water is not great.

3. In countries with annual recharge following a few weeks of effective rain, recharge is complete and remarkably rapid.

4. The aquifer follows the deeper weathering of fractured crystallines, and there is hydraulic continuity between the aquifer and the highly conductive fracture system. This system, induced by differential stress, does not normally connect with other systems.

5. Therefore a borehole into fresh rock fractures, or into the permeable basal zone of the regolith, can draw on an annually recharged but very limited storage.

Over-abstraction does no permanent harm, but the community has to go without until the next period of recharge. A borehole yielding about one tonne an hour satisfies the domestic needs of a community of 600 to 800 souls. Other regions may be different, but the storage is still a strong limiting factor. If one hand pumped borehole, drilled and equipped in a few days is the effective limit, there is little point in drilling more.

2 Hazel et al (1992) The hydrogeology of crystalline aquifers in northern Nigeria, in Wright and Burgess (eds), Hydrogeology of Crystalline

Basement Aquifers in Africa., Special Publication No 66 Geological Society of London SP66 1992

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Monitoring and Data

Protecting aquifers goes hand in hand with measurement of water levels-so at least communities know where

they are at in terms of diminishing supplies and the need for 'recharge' strategies. If there was a measurement

mind-set in the sector, people would be aware if the resource needs resuscitation or less withdrawal. Of

course in [parts of] India large extraction has regional effects on water tables and there is little that the poorer

rural communities can do except cry foul, to which no-one will listen [Peter Wurzel, Australia]. [We need]

monitoring data to show seasonal water levels in aquifers as well as recharge and natural discharge and the

impact of pumping [Richard Owen, Zimbabwe]. There is a vital need to measure water levels, especially serial

water levels in both pumped and observation holes [Steve Schneider, USA]

Box 6 Groundwater Mapping in Uganda

Uganda’s Ministry of Water and Environment has just completed a Groundwater Resources Mapping Program. It provides tools for guiding the planning and implementation of groundwater development activities at both national and district levels. Maps have been prepared principally at district, regional and national levels. They provide a first compilation and interpretation of hydrogeological and related data currently available in the country. The maps are prepared to illustrate groundwater conditions in each area. Each set of groundwater resources maps includes: maps on:

Groundwater source location

Groundwater technology options

Hydrogeological Characteristic

Groundwater Potential

Groundwater Quality

Hydrochemical Characteristics

Water Supply Coverage

Figure (right) Extract from Hydrogeological Characteristic Map for Oyam District, Uganda

The maps have been disseminated to stakeholders within the country for use and are expected to be updated after a period of 3 to 5 years depending on availability of additional data. Sample maps and reports have been uploaded on the Web site of the Ministry of Water and Environment. However, any district maps not on the website can be provided on request.

All stakeholders are requested to review the maps and provide a feedback on their usefulness as well as any recommendations for improving their quality which should be considered in the next update. The availability of groundwater maps is expected to significantly reduce the costs of groundwater development and increase success rates and hence safe water supply coverage.

For any further information, contact Dr Callist Tindimugaya, Commissioner for Water Resources Planning and Regulation, Ministry of Water and Environment, Uganda. Email: callist.tindimugaya@mwe.go.ug

To download the maps, please go to the MWE website (http://www.mwe.go.ug), and then to: Publications and Reports/Water Resources Management/Water Resources Monitoring and Assessment Reports. Alternatively, you can get there directly for the time being with the link: http://www.mwe.go.ug/index.php?option=com_docman&task=cat_view&gid=27&Itemid=223

12 | P a g e

With good borehole data, collated over time, analysis of groundwater disposition and occurrence in any

particular area can become pretty rewarding [Peter Wurzel, Australia]. It is clear that there is a lot of

information on groundwater that needs to be harmonised for the purposes of sustainable groundwater

management [Ashitiva, Kenya]. I have supervised 1000's of boreholes in the SADC region and have collected

and stored the siting, drilling, development, yield test, civil work and installation data on most of them. It's part

of my professional training [Jim Anscombe, Zambia]. It is essential to keep the existing data well organized and

accessible, because this is the first source of information that we have to look for when siting a borehole

[Fabio Fusi, Italy].

Botswana is an example of a country with laws, acts, regulations, procedures and official paperwork which

ensure that borehole data and hydrogeology is held at a central location in the interests of the nation [Jim

Anscombe, Zambia]. The recently completed groundwater mapping project in Uganda (Box 5) provides a good

example of how data can be made more easily available. Of course this depends on having access to a

national groundwater database and regulations in place requiring drilling records to be submitted to the

government. I’m not sure how many countries have this type of system in place, but it should be encouraged

[Lawrence Brown, UK]

There should also be more effort (ie more coordination) to link all the waterpoint mapping that is being

carried out to the original drilling and construction records. Functionality could then be compared the various

aspects of construction, including siting method, who drilled the borehole, borehole design, etc. This could get

rather complicated given the lack of good control on borehole numbering and poor GPS data [Lawrence

Brown, UK].

Alas, in the quest to drill an ever increasing

number of boreholes (I refer especially to

Africa), there is often little time and money for

‘proper’ data collection and borehole labelling

[Peter Wurzel, Australia]. Needless to say in

certain countries (e.g. Malawi and Zambia)

information from thousands of boreholes

annually is lost to the wind at the time of

drilling, and then becomes difficult to update

geological/ hydrogeological maps or properly

plan new interventions based on previous ones

[Jim Anscombe, Zambia]. Data collection is an

absolute priority, but the degree of detail

required needs be weighed against funds and

time [Peter Wurzel, Australia].

RWSN’s Code of Practice for Cost-effective

Boreholes3 (Annex E - page 22 to 35) includes

templates for borehole record sheets [Kerstin

Danert, Switzerland]. Figure 2 shows an example

of a drilling log extract.

3 English: http://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/128 and French: http://www.rural-water-

supply.net/en/resources/details/417

Figure 2 Example of Drilling Log by ICID (Jim Hocking, CAR)

13 | P a g e

Contamination

Iron (and Manganese)

High iron concentration in groundwater is one of the major problems faced in Equatorial region [Draleke Titus

More, Uganda]. However, not all rural water supply implementers have expert knowledge about the causes,

what should be done about it and who to contact (Box 6).

Box 7 Water Quality Query from Uganda

Many communities, in Northern Uganda have informed me that borehole water, after storing for some time turns brownish, sometimes discolouring food and laundry. This could be due to high iron levels in the water, after drawing it and exposing it to the environment it forms iron oxide that causes brownish deposits in the water later. No tests have been done yet for this, but I am more interested in the cause of this problem [Socaya, Uganda]. Responses:

In case high iron concentration results from riser pipe corrosion, then you may either use plastics or stainless steel pipes. I suggest you try to work with district Water Office and Technical Support Unit in your area, to discuss the solution together. The Directorate of Water Development has been piloting iron removal plants in Uganda for some time and I understand it is effective and economical. However, the challenges with the iron removal filters are related to operation and maintenance [Draleke Titus More, Uganda].

Exposure to the air brings the sequestered iron oxide out of solution. Fill a tank with marble or limestone chips and duct the pumped water through it. Put a tap at the bottom. The iron will be dumped on the surface of the chips, so you need to back flush occasionally, or churn the chips around with a stick now and again. It needs to be a fair sized tank to give the water some residence time. This idea works and is cheap, but the community needs to cooperate, by hand pumping in from the borehole the same quantity that is taken out (there will be a temptation to drain the tank). It is human nature that back flushing will be neglected unless the women keep complaining enough about stains on the clothes they wash [Robin Hazell, UK].

In most parts of western province Zambia like Luapula and Western province, the amount of iron when you

deep drill is too high and in most cases a brand new borehole is not used for the purposes it was provided for,

[Muyangwa, Zambia]. If the rocks that lie beneath the villages in Zambia’s Western Province are pre-Cambrian

mudstone or similar this could explain the high iron, as these have low transmission rates and have dumped

iron into the groundwater with time. I have seen this in north-western province, particularly in Kabompo. In

such areas I would agree that keeping the borehole shallow may be the best approach. However, this is not

always the case in Zambia. In some areas the high-iron content of the groundwater is a shallow, perched

phenomena. It develops in the shallow zone due to a bouncing water table over the millennium - iron

constantly going into and out of solution in sync with the water table and the oxidation front. There is nearly

always a ferricrete or laterite to be seen either popping out of the ground or within the drill cuttings. These are

very high in iron and play havoc with the local shallow ground water [Jim Anscombe, Zambia].

In Zambia they are now finding out that high iron in groundwater can be related to corrosion of steel

borehole casings, even India Mk II galvanised iron riser pipes. PVC borehole casings and hand pump riser

pipes are the way to go to minimize high iron in the pumped water and this has been practiced in Malawi

with the AFRIDEV for over 20 years now. [Jim Anscombe, Zambia].

Experience in Ghana has shown that drilling and constructing boreholes in the overburden reduces iron and

manganese content. Naturally, Precambrian rocks are noted for high iron contents by nature of their

mineralogical composition (the mineral feldspar which is common in these rocks is one such example) [Jesse

Coffie Danku, Ghana].

In South Pakistan, ground water is contaminated through arsenic and iron; now wells and other sources like

“harrumphs” are no more suitable for drinking purposes. Other needs can be met through groundwater. For

the drinking purposes there is urgent need to use rain or canal water.

14 | P a g e

Insecticide and Pesticide

Of much concern is the contamination of drinking water from wells in regions where unrestricted application

of insecticide and pesticide has been practiced. Many of these chemicals are a disaster from the point of view

of human health. Unaware people have been taking drinking water from wells that draw on highly

contaminated aquifers (after years of such application of chemicals). The majority of the affected people have

never been informed. There are cancer and related health impacts in infants, through to adults [Shammy Puri].

Arsenic

Arsenic affected large no. of families (in Pakistan) and now AHD motivated them to use canal water or rain

stored water [Shammy Puri].

Drilling Technology and Techniques

Summary

The following question, [by Alberto Lobo Guerrero, Columbia] triggered an extensive discussion: What can one

do if the only material in which to drill is a relatively fresh [granite] or gneiss? What would be the best way to

bore a hole through these hard, coarse-grained rocks using low cost techniques? Are there hand-operated

percussion drills that can be manufactured locally?

It is important to properly define rock types, noting that the term crystalline refers to the genesis of the

material, and not how it is decomposed. It may be better to use terms like “hard” and “soft” when discussing

which technologies are appropriate. Overall, there was consensus that manual drilling techniques cannot drill

extensively through hard rock. Despite numerous attempts to develop such a technology it just takes too long

and requires too much human energy. It is noted that “old fashioned” percussion drilling provides a viable low

cost option. In hard formations, down-the-hole hammer technology is the quickest option, and reliable small

drilling rigs, costing US$100,000 are on the market. In conclusion, for drilling we should think of a continuum

of technologies from manual drilling, to cable tool and small rotary rigs, to small rigs with DTH capability, to

larger truck mounted rigs. One should consider the combination of lowest cost and most effective methods

that can be used by businesses effectively, thus matching the drilling technology with the job that needs to be

done.

Technology Continuum

For drilling we should think of a continuum of technologies from manual drilling, to small rigs like LS -300, to

small rigs with DTH capability like the PAT drill, to larger truck mounted rigs. We should be looking at the

combination of lowest cost and most effective methods that can be used by businesses effectively. The key in

is to match the drilling technology with the job that needs to be done [Jon Naugle, USA]. The first question is

the target drilling depth and type of formation (Box 6). This defines the type of machine that you are going to

use. In geological terms, the only way that you can find water in the formation is in shallow weathered material

and in the fractured rocks [Tesfaye Hailu, Ethiopia]. One drilling technology may not be the best in [hard]

crystalline basement conditions but may be great for another application [Jake Carpenter, Uganda].

15 | P a g e

Box 8 Rock Terminology

Crystalline rocks, refers to how the

rocks came into being, i.e.

crystallization. It doesn't indicate

the current situation of the rock.

These rocks could be highly

decomposed, forming laterites.

There could be also intermediate

degree of weathering. In Ethiopia,

the crystalline rocks in the

southern and northern areas are

totally different from the western

part. In the latter case, where the

rocks are highly weathered, there is

high groundwater yield and the

rocks can be drilled manually in

most places. Highly decomposed

rocks of more than 80m thick

prevail in this area. Therefor we

need to be cautious when we link the

drilling techniques with the genesis of rocks; rather it would be logical to use simple terms like "hard"

or "soft" rocks, which is more of engineering geology term [Lemessa Mekonta].

Photo (right): Weathered crystalline rock overlying fresh rock at road cutting on the Hill Bye Pass road, Grafton, Freetown,

Sierra Leone (Source: Dotun Adekile)

Drilling in Hard Formation - Manually

In the case of crystalline formations, what matters for the application of manual drilling is the degree of

weathering to which the rocks have been subjected [Lemessa Mekonta, Ethiopia]. There is not an easy way of

drilling through [hard] crystalline formations, especially using a hand technology. There is not a single hand

operated [rig] that I know of that is capable of drilling 40m meters into [hard] crystalline rock [Tesfaye Hailu,

Ethiopia].

There are some involved in hand drilling that will tell you that very thick layers of hard rock can be drilled

manually. And perhaps they did it, once or twice. However, there is a limit as to how much manual labour one

can expect. Unless you are breaking through relatively thin layers of laterite, or a small boulder, drilling such

hard materials by hand is very inefficient [Kerstin Danert, Switzerland]. An effective tool in drilling through the

basement using hand tools is not an easy task to accomplish; there is a limit to how far that can be achieved.

In most cases, the hand tools will become ineffective and unable to go further just when you are about to get

to the potential part of the rock that is capable of yielding more water4 [Sunday Arafan, Nigeria]. Manual

drilling should not be answered as a one size fits all but must be taken as a case by case approach.

[Muyangwa, Zambia].

4 Usually, this is the layers of the rock that holds more water; in-between the overburden and the very hard (Fresh) rock - fairly weathered

sort of and at times fractured making it more difficult for the hand tool to pass through since the fractured edges would be catching the

bit or blade requiring greater force to rotate crush which cannot be supplied by hand. The depth of this layer varies with location. Most

hand tool drillers would terminate just above it and about to strike good yield. Sometimes these kind of formation would look not very

hard to the eyes but yet difficult to penetrate through with hand tools [Sunday Arafan].

16 | P a g e

Box 9 Research into Manual Drilling for Hard Rocks

Lifewater International, Rotary International clubs in California and California Polytechnic University, San Luis Obispo (Cal Poly), designed & tested drilling rig[s] for developing countries: to drill in all conditions; using as much locally available materials as possible; portable, with as low an operating cost as possible and construct a well to accommodate either a hand pump or an electric pump. After several months, it was concluded that a manually operated drilling rig doesn't provide enough power to accomplish these objectives [Timothy Cleath, USA].

The “SHIPO drill” is a combination of sludging and percussion and is based on the Baptist method. It has a

heavy weight drill pipe of some 35 Kg and the rest is Light weight PVC pipes of 1.25Inch so even in 40 m deep

holes the drill pipes can still be lifted by 2 persons. The drill bits, teeth are made of high quality spring blades

of ej Volvo trucks or good quality steel chisels. It can drill in hard layers but of course you will need to have

spare bits to change when they become blunt. This drill option is used in Tanzania and Malawi (some 150 tube

wells made) to 40 m deep. However, it drills 10 to 20cm / day in hard rock so if there are thick layers, other

technologies are needed. The cost of a drill set to 40 m deep is around 500US$ and the technology is

disseminated via the so called Smart centres (WASH training centres) in Njombe and Mzuzu

A basic manual can be downloaded from: http://www.connectinternational.nl/english/smartmodules/smart-

tec/wells-boreholes. Pictures of this drilling can be seen at websites of the Smart centres:

http://www.mzuzusmartcentre.com/ and http://www.shipo-tz.org/services/training-centre

Percussion Drilling

Percussion rigs will drill through most anything but are slow going and some materials will dull your bits

quickly requiring them to be forged or ground sharp again. The advantage of percussion drilling is that it

takes very little horse power to lift the tool out of the ground and zero to drop it. Diesel engines are useful as

they do not get tired. For an example, look at a Buffalo 3000 from Dando5 [Tony Beers, USA]

6.

Percussion rigs are indeed slow by comparison to rotaries. The mechanism and maintenance are comparable

to an older farm tractor. Bits can be sharpened and reforged under "bush" conditions. Most truck- or trailer-

mounted rigs used in water well drilling can safely construct 8-inch wells to 100+ meters. Fuel use is about 20

litres per day vs. more than that per hr for rotary. The rigs are also excellent for well rehabilitation and as

pump hoists. They can be pulled/dragged/hoisted into most inhabitable places. Training is absolutely

necessary for safety and effectiveness [Stuart Smith, USA].

For nearly all situations where drilling cannot be done manually, then cable tool is the simplest, lowest

equipment cost and most versatile option. It was done for thousands of years. The main reason why cable tool

drilling is now rare in the developed world is the cost of labour; wells must be made fast so technology is

replacing human labour. There are few drillers and hydrogeologist still alive in the developed world that know

much about cable tool drilling. If the goal in well creation in developing counties is to drill fast then mud

rotary, air rotary and DTH hammers are the way to go. However, if the cost of labour is low and the desire is to

use the most technologically appropriate drilling methods, then cable tool drilling should be high on the list

[John Cherry, USA].

5 See: http://www.dando.co.uk/water-well/dando-buffalo-3000

6 [For percussion rigs] I have made satisfactory drill bits from rail road rails (relatively high carbon steel 1080 with some manganese) I cut

the rail long wise through the web and weld two pieces 2-3.5m long of the top flange sides together. Make sure you preheat the metal

with a torch and put fire blanket on it so I cools slowly or you will get a quench crack at room temperature, low hydrogen rods help.)

These are welded along the web this gives you an approximation of the traditional rock cutting bit used in percussion drilling. I like to use

hard face rods on the end of the tool before final sharpening. This shape is useful since it give the water and mud in the hole a place to

escape. The steel pipe filled with cement with teeth welded to the bottom (I have [heard] these called Ghana pattern bits) tends to smack

the water [and lose] most of its energy before sinking again. [Tony Beers]

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Box 10 provides examples of successful groundwater development projects using percussion drilling.

Box 10 Experiences of Percussion Drilling in Mozambique and Zimbabwe

Two decades ago, 10 x Dando Buffalo 3000 percussion rigs were purchased to drill low yield holes in Mozambique (10

percussion rigs for the price of 2 DTH machines)7. These, small highly manoeuvrable rigs proved cost effective; some of

the salient statistics during the first 12 months of the program (with eight drills delivered) were as follows:

The rigs were scattered over a broad spectrum of geological terrain, from a few in crystalline rock to most in semi consolidated to unconsolidated sedimentary formations;

Two boreholes/month/drill were constructed

The cost/m was USD37/m (mean depth of all boreholes 35m). This was 30% of the average drilling costs in Mozambique at the time - 1994)

Of the 145 holes drilled, 10 were dry and 6 saline; a success rate of 90%;

None of the holes had gravel packs, but high quality Dutch imported PVC screens were used (lower quality probably would have sufficed);

Site selection was done by the drilling crews after cursory formal training in site selection by the technique called the ‘experienced intelligent eye’, always conscious of villagers’ wishes!

All of the wells were handpump-mounted

I do not know their long term history [Peter Wurzel, Australia].

In Zimbabwe crystalline rock underlies 80% of the country-there are in the region of 60,000 boreholes in the country

most of them drilled with the 'old fashioned' but hugely reliable, relative low cost (but yes, rather slow) percussion drill.

Limited small yields (usually plenty for a hand pump) were often obtained in so called ‘basins of decomposition’ where

the traditional percussion drill was reasonably fast [Peter Wurzel, Australia].

Cable tool methods were drilling all over North America (including crystalline rock) from their development in the 1830s up to the appearance of practical truck-mounted rotaries rigs after World War II [Stuart Smith, USA].

Cable tool drilling is still widely used in the Ohio Valley and its tributary for well rehabilitation. The Tanzanian government Drilling and Dam Construction Agency still uses some cable tool rigs [Stuart Smith, USA].

Cable tools were used 20 to 30 years before. UNICEF had supplied many cables tools those days. Due to high labour cost, the cost of borehore drilled by cable tool are more expensive than drilled by DTH or rotary rigs [Sampath Kumar, India]

Cable tool rigs are still used by farmers in Botswana, South Africa and Namibia, although they are dwindling. I saw a very dilapidated but working rig by the road side in Zambia the other day. I used to supervise 8 rigs across the central Kalahari in Botswana some 20 years ago for mineral exploration. They could go down to 200 meters but would take 1 month to do so. [Jim Anscombe, Zambia]

We are still working with a cable tool rig in. Niets Ghana. Sometimes reaching adequate depth is a bit a problem due to hard rock [Gerrit van Roekel]

A motorized cable tool has many advantages for use in developing counties. Low capital cost, low fuel

consumption, only one piece of equipment needed, greater mobility, less equipment to maintain, less training

required, they easily drill through rock, etc. The drawbacks are the need for steel casing to keep the borehole

open in unconsolidated material. If the casing cannot be removed it leaves no space to construct a cement

sanitary seal and the steel casing is expensive to leave in the bore. Second cable tool drills penetrate at about

five feet per hour. As long as the bore can be drilled open hole, cable tools have a substantial advantage in

developing countries. We are building small cable tool rigs just for that purpose [Bob Hather, USA].

It is absolutely true cable tool rigs work, but it does take a special expertise and comes with risks as well as

benefits of more reasonable cost structures in some places [Jim Hocking, CAR].

7 A prime criterion for purchasing these drills was that they could fit in an Antonov 121 aircraft-the rigs were ordered during the

Mozambique civil war, when the only transport to some drilling sites was by air-however they were delivered after the end of the war.

18 | P a g e

There is a place still for the Cable tool method. In developing nations this method is being neglected because

of the culture "I want it Now not Tomorrow". This culture does not look at the cost. So the cable tool as an

appropriate technology is still valid especially for the soft rock areas. The cable tool major limitation now is the

lack of skilled manpower as more and more drilling service providers go for the rotary methods that seem to

give instant results [Muraya, Kenya]

Rotary and DTH Drilling

A small rotary drilling rig (suitable for drilling in unconsolidated materials, much the same conditions that a

hand dug well could be completed in) is built and sold by Little Beaver and is known as the LS-2008. There are

modifications that enable it to drill on air but it is a relatively light weight rig and really is not suited for drilling

in heavy gravels or consolidated rock. PAT Drilling in Bangkok9 also builds an excellent small rotary drilling rig

[Timothy Cleath, USA].

Smaller air hammer rotary drill rigs are available, some of which are trailer mounted. If the depths get too

deep, larger machines are needed [Jim Hocking, CAR]. PAT drilling have a nice set up that will do DTH at a

reasonable cost: generally sub $100k capital cost. They have spent a lot of time developing these rigs for

precisely this purpose and they have offices around Africa [Alan MacDonald, UK]. I use a set of PAT 301A Basic

for drilling and installation of hand-pump boreholes in the [hard] crystalline, it’s very robust and we could

drilled and complete a borehole down to 40meters in a day or two, hammering a substantial part of the depth

drilled. Capital cost for the rig and compressor/tools is about $85k, excluding shipping. Spares are easily

available [Sunday Arafan, Nigeria]. Deep Rock is another manufacturer that offers low cost options that have

been used here in Uganda [Jake Carpenter, Uganda].

Why Boreholes Fail?

Summary

When drilling, there is almost always the risk that the well will not yield sufficient water of the desired quality.

Professional siting should reduce this risk. However, many boreholes stop working after some time. Opinions

as to the main reasons for this vary, simply reflecting a wide range of experiences. Poor construction quality,

(explored later) was frequently cited. However, there are also those that argue that the problems of borehole

failure are most commonly caused by the pump itself. Most of the evidence presented in the e-discussion was

anecdotal, rather than based on specific studies to systematically diagnose and document the reasons for

failure. The on-going research in Uganda, led by the British Geological Survey to diagnose the causes of

borehole failure and develop a simple mechanism that can be applied more widely is a promising initiative.

Reasons Given

The story of failed boreholes would appear to be a ubiquitous challenge for most of Africa, South of the

Equator [Daniel Nkhuwa]. AWDROP’s maiden seminar concluded with a set of factors that lead to borehole

failure which were extended and elaborated further (Table 1). Additional experience and opinions are:

Based on field reports and gauging from the contributors' perspective, there is a general trend of high

failure rate across board. This is attributable to several factors, most importantly the quality of

construction [Mohammed Kamfut, Nigeria].

From my personal experiences of supervision of borehole projects and training at the National Water

Resources Institute Kaduna, the most prominent problem is from the pumping device, especially

8 http://www.lonestardrills.com/

9 http://www.patdrill.com/

19 | P a g e

boreholes fitted with the handpumps. Research have shown that over 60% of boreholes functionality

failures is due hand pump/submersible pumps while problems that are attributed to the borehole

itself is approximately less than 10% except where the geological areas/terrains is very difficult.

Therefore, there is the need to focus attention on the pumping device to reduce the borehole failures

presently been reported in all parts of the world [Martin Eduvie, Nigeria]

I wanted to emphasis the important of qualified and experienced professionals for increasing success.

[Bekele Abaire, Ethiopia]

I did a study a few years ago on 128 rehabilitations of old hand pump boreholes in Malawi. The

reasons for failure are set out in Figure 3.

Figure 3 Reasons for borehole failure in Malawi (Source data: Jim Anscombe, Zambia)

Table 1 Some opinions about why boreholes fail

AWDROP’s Factors [Michael Ale, Nigeria] Modifications [Dwight Hanson, Uganda]

Lack of clear vision on why water well is needed. Lack of clear vision on why water well is needed.

Lack of understanding of the terrain by the contractors. Is the well properly sited? Including the end users desires and proper geophysics and data collection

Lack of requisite expertise (Drillers and supervisors) to carry out the project.

Lack of requisite expertise (Drillers and supervisors) to carry out the project. a) Ability to drill to the production zone. b) Ability to properly construct and complete the

borehole according to the specifications

Improper design

Lack of development

Unsuitable pump for the users needs.

Lack of finance. Lack of finance.

Improper bidding process. Improper bidding process.

Lack of proper maintenance procedure. Lack of proper maintenance procedure.

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Defining and Ensuring Quality – for Sustainability

Summary

With fairly strong opinions in RWSN’s groundwater community that poor construction quality is one of the

reasons that boreholes fail, the next question is what is required to improve it? This question and subsequent

discussion was at times rather polarised. It is worth quoting the opening of RWSN's Code of Practice: "The

term “cost-effective” means optimum value for money invested over the long term. Boreholes are drilled to

function for a lifespan of 20 to 50 years. Thus, the lowest cost well is not always the most cost-effective,

particularly if construction quality is compromised to save money. Cheap drilling or poor construction quality

can lead to premature failure of the well or contamination of the water supply. Boreholes that are

subsequently abandoned by the users are clearly not cost-effective". There was considerable debate around

the fact that cost-effective should not mean cheap, noting that cheap wells are being drilled in some places, at

the cost of sustainability. Concerns by RWSN’s groundwater community have also been raised regarding:

(i) the applicability of some of the recommendations in the code of practice, particularly regarding

good borehole design for :

a. gravel packing

b. open hole/fully cased borehole

c. sanitary seal.

(ii) the fact that in Africa, many of these principles are not being adhered to in practice.

We draw no conclusions but note that more discussion, and possibly more research is required. There may

also be need to improve the code of practice in the future. Discussions on the life of a handpump were a

reminder of the need for regular maintenance and the replacement of wearing parts rather than the entire

handpump. The main issue emerging is how to bring about good quality siting, supervision, procurement and

contract management – all issues covered in RWSN’s set of publications. There is need for engagement with

the institutions and individuals that design, plan, finance and implement drilling programmes to ensure that

wells are cost-effective, rather than cheap (and unsustainable) wells being drilled. There is a call for greater

accountability.

Debate 1: Cost-effective does not mean cheap

Cost-effective means getting the cost down so that donors can drill

more and report more with their budgets [Jim Anscombe, Zambia].

This statement triggered considerable response for the membership:

Cost-effective does not mean cheap, nor does it mean short-

lived. It means designs and completed boreholes which are

fully fit for purpose without incurring unnecessary

expenditures [Richard Carter, UK].

Cost-effective doesn't mean that there should be a trade-off

between quality and the actual standards of the borehole. It is

maintaining the quality by decreasing the cost [Tesfaye,

Ethiopia].

If standard on the code of practice are to be followed, then,

the need to have borehole projects sited in a cost effective

manner may vary from one terrain to the other considering

the heterogeneity nature of the land. We need to stop

21 | P a g e

confusion between “cheap borehole” and “cost effective borehole” [Michael Ale, Nigeria].

Cost-effective never implied low quality. It simply means that we need to know what is necessary and

what is the additional cost without improving the quality of the end product [Jon Naugle, USA]

I think it is not cost effective when the borehole is constructed cheaply but the operation and

maintenance costs are high on the users. Any technology that will be cheaper but compromise the

quality and standards should be revised or not used [Santos Ochaya].

Box 11 Defining a Sustainable Borehole

Sustainability = A + B + C + D + E

Where: A = Aquifer (including siting on a sustainable pocket of ground water) B = Borehole (design, drilling method, the contract specifications and the supervision C = Components (of hand pump are quality, matched to intended ground water regime, well machined and spares supply-chain in place) D = District selection process) E = End-User (training, coaxing, support and monitoring) [Jim Anscombe, Zambia] )

I agree with your A, B, C, D, E, but in terms of the order of events I’d put D and E right at the beginning – for me sustainability is the starting point not an add-on at the end [Richard Carter, UK]..

The definition of "cost-effective" should consider and accommodate the working life span of the

product. For a borehole this has to be in the order of 50+ years and for a hand pump this has to be a

replacement cycle of at least 15-20 year [Jim Anscombe, Zambia].

I’d question the above design life figures (at least if they are meant to be averages). In my experience

25 years for a borehole (on average) and 7-10 years for a handpump would be good going. The only

handpumps I’ve seen of the age you suggest are a few ancient Climax pumps here in southern Africa

[Richard Carter, UK]

A borehole and a hand pump are separate entities. If a borehole is sited and drilled properly there is

no reason why it will not be productive for 50 years or more10

. There are plenty of boreholes “out

there” which were drilled in colonial times which are still productive. In the developed west, many

water authorities still rely on very old productive boreholes. [Jim Anscombe, Zambia].

I agree Jim. It is true that the life span of a successful and properly constructed water well exceeds 50

years and after that it can be renovated up to 90 % of its initial safe yield to serve for another 50 years.

I attended a renovation of old wells in Former East Germany to remove the incrustation which resulted

in screen clogging and eventually reduction of safe yield . The well fields in this area dates back to

early 1920s, when average output was approximately 300 m3/h. Prior to German reunification, the

capacity of pumping was retarded 100 m3/h by accumulated incrustation in the screen section. After

renovation, the output increased to 230 m3/h [A/Aziem A Osma]

Debate 2: The Filter Pack

Table 2 summarise the extensive exchange on whether an artificial gravel pack, is always needed or not for

boreholes fitted with handpumps. Note that many of the discussants refer to this simply as a gravel pack,

whereas in RWSN’s supervision publication an artificial gravel pack is referred to as a filter pack. Each

discussant makes strong arguments for his case, backed up with considerable experience. Concerns have been

raised as to whether holes developed for low discharge handpumps can be upgraded to motorised systems.

10

The factors which might lessen or end its productivity are; less than perfect construction; falling water table; encrustation or bio-fouling

of the screens; or cementation of the gravel pack. All are not well researched, but the latter two can be reversed.

22 | P a g e

If this is such a contentious issue for specialists, it is even more difficult for non-drilling specialists to decide

what to do in their programs. What came out very strongly is that all of the discussants want to see boreholes

constructed in a manner that enables them to continue to function over time, and that alas, this is not always

the case. It is also rather difficult to reconstruct what went wrong with the drilling, the filter pack installation or

the well development and thus diagnose the cause of siltation afterwards.

Table 2 Should a filter pack (artificial gravel pack) be always used or not on a borehole for a handpump?

My view and experience is that in general fines entering the borehole for a handpump supply is not a usual occurrence. In formations where the sand is well-sorted, the entrance velocity required to move fine sands is seldom reached. Hand pumps usually extract water at 0.5 to 1m3 per hour. In Zimbabwe, the screens in thousands of boreholes (some of which were drilled 40-50 years ago) were mild steel with several vertical flame cut slots, giving an open area of less than 1%. There was no gravel pack yet no sand ingress. I accept that sand does enter boreholes designed for hand pumps where the uniformity coefficient is low and where the material is fine, such as in the Thar Desert of Pakistan. For motorised schemes, designed for a higher pump yields a totally different story pertain. It is imperative that the screens have a large open area (<20-30%) and gravel pack to reduce entrance velocities. [Peter Wurzel, Australia].

Many hand pumps are highly vulnerable to permanent failure because the PVC casing fills with silt. I say that gravel pack [filter pack] must be a standard inclusion in the technical specification of the drilling contract. More so it should be specified as washed, rounded quartz gravel rather than crushed quarry stone. [Jim Anscombe, Zambia]. I've yet to meet a borehole in acid rock regolith or fresh fractured crystalline rocks improved by shovelling in a [filter] pack. More often than not, when the supervisor is asleep or doing a crossword puzzle under a tree, the rubbish that has been put back is less permeable than the parent material. Even in most sedimentary aquifer drilling, I suggest that a naturally developed screened hole has a better specific yield than where the mud wall cake has been scraped off, screen and casing run, and a pack inserted prior to development. [Robin Hazel, UK]. I do not think it is a good idea to promote the non-use of gravel pack, especially in countries where not putting it in has been shown to reduce the lifespan of the boreholes. Drillers generally don't want to put it in because they have to bear the cost of sourcing, digging, sieving, washing and transporting it, to the satisfaction of the contract specifications and the on-site consultant (if there is one) [Jim Anscombe, Zambia]. In Malawi the national standard is to PVC case to bottom of the borehole (with end cap) and inset in the annulus between casing and borehole wall something called "Nkope" gravel, collected from a site by that name in Mangochi District. It is well-rounded, coarse quartz gravel. The Ministry and the donors have the specification is in there for a very definite reason. When you drill the meta-sediments and igneous rocks of Malawi you often go from hard and dry to soft and wet over the space of 50 meters - several times11. It's so important then to stabilise the loose layers from which the water flows. This is done in Malawi with the Nkope gravel. Pouring it down the borehole annulus places it against the soft zones and prevents same soft material from slopping down the borehole to block off yield zones. Soft fracture material or micaceous / clayey weathered material will actually squeeze out of the formation where it is sitting, under pressure of the weight of rocks above, and up the borehole. So it can come into the PVC casings through the open hole section. In some instances an apparently good borehole at the time of drilling will be found full of mud and silt when re-visited some time later. Lack of [artificial] gravel [packing], coupled with very coarse screens exacerbate this problem. Around Lusaka Zambia the myriad of drilling contracts have forced the cost of drilling down to "rock-bottom" price of $1500 per 50m borehole. You get a 6 " borehole open hole between 20-50m. The clients pay up front and so many are crying because some weeks or months later their electric pump starts spluttering or burning up as the pump gets buried in accumulating debris. It's a very sad story indeed [Jim Anscombe, Zambia].

11

This is due to faulting and fracturing and folding, variable weathering of the metamorphic fabric and often because the metamorphic "layering" is steeply inclined to the vertical - meaning that you drill down through more layers than you might do in other rock environments (Kenya for example).

23 | P a g e

I wonder if we can have consensus that in most instances gravel packs are not mandatory in hand pump mounted low yielding holes. thesis (spawned from experience in Pakistan, Mozambique and Zimbabwe), is that in such holes the stringent design criteria that apply to large yielding boreholes can be relaxed, in the interest of costs and speed of borehole completion. Further I cannot see that not having a gravel pack will decrease the life of a borehole. The genesis of what we called “low cost wells” was the work of David Grey and John Chilton (working for the British Geological Survey) in Malawi 30 years ago. They attempted to significantly reduce the cost and decrease drilling times. The whole story with accompanying detail can be found in a small booklet published by Skat, ‘Drilling Boreholes for Handpumps12 [Peter Wurzel, Australia]. Our donors are interested in upgrading wells to use electrical pumps, especially submersibles to use with a small storage tank to double the output. In the two cases where we did these replacements, we found the well completion and gravel packing in the older wells to be problematic. And most of the wells we tested were sand pumpers when pumped at a higher rate. It was hard to find a well that would be a good candidate for a submersible pump. It might be a good idea to include an option in the Code of Practice that would make any well more easily upgradable in the future [Bill Cocke, Togo].

At least there was consensus, regarding the materials that should be not used for a filter pack, e.g.

Using laterite/granite chippings for gravel packing a very serious and criminal offence [Martin Obada

Eduvie, Nigeria].

Here in Zambia drillers are putting crushed limestone or dolomite down the boreholes. This is

ridiculous because it dissolves away in months/years of pumping leaving the mud and silt to slide in

[Jim Anscombe, Zambia]

Debate 3: The Open Hole

The topic of whether it was advisable to allow an open hole in hard formation was referred to within several

conversations (Table 3).

Table 3 Should a borehole always be left open or cased to the bottom in hard rock?

A more cost-effective well design in crystalline rock Is where to case the overburden with a 5'' casing and hammer open through the hard part of the rock using a 4.5'' rock bit and terminate drilling as soon as the potential layers (aquifers) are exhausted. No need of continuing with drilling in the fresh rock in order to minimise unnecessary wear on the drill bit and diesel consumption, less man power required. With this kind of approach, the life span of the rig, the hammer/bits and the compressor is prolonged. Also, the job is completed in good time, funds are saved and the entire operational cost is kept low. Take note that the approach to this method should only be applied where it is absolutely necessary so that it does not become a standard for all sites [Sunday Arafan, Nigeria].

The life of a borehole cased top to bottom and with an appropriate gravel pack - regardless of the formations penetrated - will almost always be greater than an uncased borehole. Since in most cases there will not be a sufficiently skilled professional on site to assess if a borehole can be left uncased, then it is sensible to have a standard of fully cased and gravel packed boreholes. This will lead to boreholes with longer lifespans and fewer pump breakdowns due to ingress of fine materials [Richard Owen, Zimbabwe]

The zeitgeist and current driving-force for rural water supply projects in Africa this means getting the cost down so that donors can drill more and report more with their budgets. Some say that gravel pack is not required, others that the casing need not go all the way to the bottom of the hole (i.e. an open hole section), still others make very small rigs that can be bolted on the back of land cruiser to dill open hole at 90mm. I object very strongly to all of these “cost-effective” measures – particularly in areas where the water table is up, weathering is deep and/or the bedrock contains cyclic layering of weathered/saturated and fresh/dry horizons. Such conditions are in the majority and leaving out the pack or leaving it open hole are disastrous

12 Wurzel (2001) Drilling Boreholes for Handpumps, Working Paper 2 on Water Supply and Environmental Sanitation, Skat, Available on http://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/148

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in terms of short, medium - not to mention longer term – sustainability [Jim Anscombe, Zambia].

Debate 4: The Sanitary Seal

From gravel packing, the discussion veered onto the sanitary seal.

Table 4 Comments on Sanitary Seal

In the last about 400 wells I've drilled in east Africa. I use a shaletrap, or sometimes two, to assure a proper seal. The old Johnson drillers manual calls it a natural pack. My wells are tested and approved by government geologists [Curt King, USA].

How are you protecting the different aquifers with no real solid seal...I have used shale traps but simply to be sure there is a solid base against which to put first my gravel pack and then a sufficiently solid seal to be sure that the upper level surface water or upper lever aquifer's do not filter down into the lower pure and clean aquifer. I do not understand how a shale trap will do that and protect from contamination. I am assuming you have drawings of these wells with a description of the seals between aquifers? I would welcome the opportunity to learn from you. My drillers have drilled over 1500 wells and we have for the past nearly 500 made it a practice to not only gravel pack the wells but also to put seals in to protect between aquifers and another seal to protect from surface water contaminating the well [Jim Hocking, CAR].

We had fairly horrible shallow water west of the Zambezi in the sandy areas of Zambezi and Chavuma Districts. Here we found plenty of fresh water underneath at 20-50m. To stop the bad upper water ruining the lower good water we placed a 1m cement slurry on top of the gravel pack at about 8-10 meters depth. This worked very well - so much so that I now always insist that the driller put this seal in. Not only does it solve this problem it also stops fine mud and silt, prevalent after the first rains, from also getting down the borehole and turning the water from clean to muddy overnight [Jim Anscombe, Zambia].

In Luangwa valley we used the same technique to cut off the upper salty water and pump the fresher aquifer below!!!! That there is salty water in the Luangwa Valley next to the river seems odd - but must be related to periodic flooding and evaporation events. Same along the shores of Lake Malawi and Shire River [Jim Anscombe, Zambia].

I fully agree with you about the need to have a sanitary seal, I always do it for our manual drilled boreholes including rapid jetted ones, it has shown that the water quality improves with such measures. Most of western province has the same conditions as Chavuma and Zambezi, and so the solution there is not so much to do with depth but where does the water go into the casings – we normally do a screen much lower and all the top part casings would be solid casings [Muyangwa, Kenya].

In Africa in rural villages, quite often the contract documents include a sanitary seal, but, in my 30 years of experience the very maximum the driller will do is pour slurry down the top of the borehole around the casing which rests at 1-2m below ground level and just about seals the aquifer from direct contamination from surface down. Others just cast the concrete pump apron over the borehole, with no seal below at all. Often as soon as the rainy season starts the pumped borehole water goes instantly brown. A difference can be made to a rural borehole in terms of potability, water clarity, reduction in smell, iron content and salt content – and sustainability - if a seal is placed below first water such that the deeper main aquifer is isolated from the upper shallow aquifer or perched water. I have been experimenting with this seal in Zambia – placing it in the 8-10m depth range and low-and-behold the results are better when compared to boreholes in the same area where the seal has been omitted [Jim Anscombe, Zambia].

I have a partner constructing 25 boreholes for us and during the control I come to discover that they are not making the sealing. They actually cast the apron directly over the boreholes. [Harouna Moustapha, Chad]

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Debate 5: The Life of a Handpump

The discussion on cost-effectiveness spawned another discussion on the life of a handpump, as set out in

Table 5.

Table 5 Comments on the life of a handpump

I am somewhat bemused by the figures which have been quoted for the life of a handpump. I wonder if there are any hard data on this? I suspect not. If we take a surrogate of how many handpumps are operational at any one time, in any one area, this would probably indicate that even Prof Carter’s estimates might be rather high [Ken Gibbs, UK].

I fully agree and support the views expressed by Ken Gibbs- I would just add that life span in various technologies is a vague definition as it depends on the maintenance cycle and if you replace in times all the worn parts of a car, for example, it will run for hundreds of years-it is mainly decided by Economic and management issues [Saul Arlosoroff, Israel].

Some data from Malawi:

From the UNICEF sustainability check 2013, Malawi, AFRIDEV hand pumps emplaced in 2008/9 are still operative. Very few breakdown events had occurred in the interim and very few servicing events were reported. Many were cranking on severely worn bushes and leaking profusely from the cylinder – but all were still serviceable.

Going a little further back to the Kalembo Groundwater Project and the East Mangochi RWSS Project (1995-2006; KfW- funded). Over 1300 boreholes with AFRIDEV Revision 3 hand pumps were put in. All drilled through the aquifer at 8” diameter with gravel pack, development and yield test, WPCs formed from women who were extensively trained (at high cost). Functionality is still very high and well above the SADC average.

Going back a little further, JICA put in over 350 AFRIDEVs in Machinji District Eastern Malawi 1993-1995 - drilled with imported Japanese Rig by Japanese drillers. In late 2012 I found JICA back again and reviewing all of them. They decided to re-drill 40 as they were non-serviceable and rehabilitate the remaining 300-odd as they were either working or repairable. These latter water points are approaching 20 years of age.

The India MK II and the AFRIDEV pedestals and pump head are robust items which last easily for 20+ years. It is the fast wearing parts (rubbers, bearings, chains, bushes, pivots, pins) that need 2-5 year replacement and the medium wearing parts (pipes and rods) that need 5-10 year replacement) [Jim Anscombe, Zambia]

In the MKII and the Afridev the wearing parts can easily be replaced and if they are replaced in a timely manner the rest of the pump need not suffer any damage. The weldments on the pumps rarely fail, flanges may break if bolts are not attended to, but even these can be re-welded and continue to service the pump. The rising mains and pump rods should not fail once the initial parts with bad welds or other defects are removed. I cringe when I see organizations pulling up entire pumps to put in all new pumps. They pay for a whole pump when replacing bearings or a set of valve seals would likely solve the problem. It is a bit like replacing an engine in a car when all that is needed is a new sparkplug [Tony Beers, USA].

If hand pumps have proper repair once in three months like checking nut bolts, wear of rubber parts (by checking discharge ). If discharge less then replace all rubber parts. Handle bearing may damage in long run but if the handle is working smoothly then check the handle bearings put fresh greasing. There should be proper records for maintained for each pump stating when it was last inspected and what parts were replaced. If one demands as rod centralizers, they help keep pump performing better [Ashok Kumar].

It is very important undertake regular maintenance. Every three month should be OK in areas with low iron content. Each area should determine a time frame for maintenance to minimize high rate of pump failure [Abubakar Baba, Nigeria]

(In the 1980’s, when the World Bank, UNICEF, Government Departments and external support agencies worked on the design of the India II and the Afrifev). After years of observations and discussions with many stakeholders we came to the conclusions that a pump with a riser that will allow the replacement of worn parts with minimum efforts and financial investments. These pumps changed the prevailing concepts that Hand Pumps are not a feasible solution to RWS [Saul Arlosoroff, Israel].

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Siting

Lack of thorough hydrogeological investigations [BEFORE] drilling

water wells may be the cause of a high failure [rate]. Too little focus

is placed on the preliminary investigations, which involve real field

geological work; not only electrical resistivity and satellite imagery

interpretation. Siting includes the compilation of nearby water well

stratigraphy, stratigrahic correlation of subsurface data, field

observation of local geology, careful mapping of stratigraphic

contacts and fracture systems, measurement of strikes and dips,

preparation of geological cross sections and preparation of water

budgets [Alberto Lobo Guerrero, Columbia]. I fully agree that

geological field survey and interpretation of existing data (like

stratigraphic logs, existing drilling reports) is essential [Fabio Fusi,

Italy]. The key to sustainability of well I believe starts with a good

groundwater survey that feed into a good design of the well

[Muraya, Kenya].

RWSN’s publication: Siting of Drilled Water Wells: A guide for

project managers sets out a stepwise approach to siting, covering

the aforementioned aspects [Kerstin Danert, Switzerland].

Supervision

There was consensus that good supervision is required; but several

discussants noted that it is severely lacking in several African

countries (e.g. Box 4).

To support implementation, there is a need to have good

supervision of the drilling process to ensure the driller

follows the design and does not take short cuts. The

supervisor will also ensure the data collected is correct which

then feeds into a proper survey results [Muraya, Kenya]

Drilling contracts are often bundled in lots of 10-150 water

points, spread over the country, province or district which

can be several hundreds of kilometres across. In this day and

age we are dealing with district council supervision or an

unsupervised borehole. Given this, it is far better to

standardize the contract and say all boreholes will be

geophysically sited, all will have this diameter and depth and

all will have gravel pack [Jim Anscombe, Zambia]

In fact in Chad we trained 43 small enterprises in manual drilling enlarging therefore the offer for

drilling. However, the main concern with drilling both mechanized and manual is that, the completion

work is generally poor. In fact most the time, the equipment, development protocols, the pump

testing and the sealing are poorly done. Consequently, the performance of the boreholes is impacted

with water quality problems [Moustapha Harouna, Chad].

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Procurement and Contract Packaging

Overheads and depreciation costs for a drilling company can be

reduced considerably if a driller can utilize his equipment to full

capacity to over 80% of the time in the year, 20% being left for

maintenance. However, with the current procurement systems in

place, coupled with political influences at local government levels,

and corruption tendencies, some competent drillers end up with

work just enough to utilize their equipment to 30-50% capacity. In

the end, the overheads and depreciation of the whole drilling

company are spread on just very few wells, making each individual

borehole very expensive [Byarugaba, Uganda].

Moving Forwards: What needs to be done?

Tucked inside the numerous emails were several suggestions and

ideas on what needs to be done to address the problems raised.

Leadership and Governance

The RWSN 'Myths' paper contains much wisdom and is well worth re-reading. We need to turn the

suppositions identified as myths (but which in reality are political preferences) into pragmatic action

points under national leadership, and with the collective support of sector partners. Governments

need help to make some fundamental policy changes and prevent further slippage against past

accomplishments. Who will take the lead in all of this at the national level? [Rupert Talbot, UK]

Is Water Governance the solution. Is there need to sensitise our government on sustainability, which

starts from the way the borehole projects contracted. This should be to competent and skilful

professionals [Michael Ale, Nigeria]

Advocacy and Promotion

To ensure that borehole data and hydrogeology is held at a central location in the interests of the

nation such as practiced by Botswana should be promoted broadside. This might take years and years.

As a very first step the benefits and reasons have to be advertised and emphasized to all the

stakeholders in Governments and the private sector [Jim Anscombe, Zambia].

Training

The need for training was raised repeatedly:

One of my main concerns is seeing untrained persons using equipment that is inadequate for the job,

with the potential of permanently damaging good aquifers by such things as improper sealing of the

hole, allowing a shallow, heavily polluted aquifer to infiltrate potable water deeper. Training personnel

to operate a machine for a few weeks, then expecting them to know how to handle any situation is

admirable, but it has the potential to destroy the water people so desperate need [Curt King, USA].

Proper training of drillers and availability of good standards will support sustainability. If driller has to

guarantee a successful borehole it the pressure to falsify results to ensure he is paid [Muraya, Kenya].

National staff needs to be trained to implement (properly) [Jim Hocking, CAR].

There is need to get the Government and Development Partners involved in enhancing the capacity of

the drillers and the Rig Owners (Managers [Micheal Ale, Nigeria].

Many drilling contractors will not read documents but can dedicate time to workshop or field training

[Michael Ale, Nigeria]

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There still is a huge lack of skilled water engineers, drillers, pump producers, and in commercial

companies. To improve that situation we need Training, Training, Training [Henk Holtslag & Jan de

Jongh, Netherlands]

The recommendation NGOs and Ministries to invest in training should be taken very serious because

its benefits are enormous [Yussif Abdul-Rahaman, Ghana]

Africa desperately needs technical people. Hydrogeologists, water engineers, field technicians -

trained in practical stuff such as managing field operations as well as how to plan, prepare and

manage contracts on time. There are a few "hydrogeologists" around but when you investigate you

find it was just a module in a Geography degree. So quality, practical training of strong people -

plenty of them. Totally agree. I think all the donors and governments should get together on this one,

[Jim Anscombe, Zambia].

We have found that when we give the course on basic hydrogeology for manual well drillers that even

experienced machine drillers comment that they now understand why certain things happen in the

field, like loss of drilling fluid or collapsing holes. We feel strongly that capacity building for drillers is a

process and it should be accompanied in parallel with capacity building for independent quality

controllers. Drilling programs and capacity building can go together but it requires experienced

drillers to provide training [Jon Naugle, USA].

Jon makes a very important point. Some basic hydrogeology and some form of certification program

would be a great help. This could be something NGWA could do. A basic, simple and fundamental

program for well drillers [Steve Schneider, USA].

Some training opportunities area already available:

The National Water Resources Institute in Kaduna has designed short courses programmes (Box 2), all

as effort to reduce borehole failures in Nigeria. [Martin Eduvie, Nigeria]

The Africa Grounwater Network (AGW-Net) typically hold 5 day short courses in collaboration with

other organizations such as NWRI (National Water Resources Institute - Nigeria), IAH and BGR.Please

consider visiting our web site agw-net.org and getting in touch with the network manager Tamiru.

[Richard Owen, Zimbabwe]

And there were several ideas for improving training and making it more available:

A regional drillers training institute is the only way to go by as the only way to improve the quality of

staff involved in well construction and installation [Moses Enangu, Uganda]

We should think about linking to existing regional institutes of learning like 2iE in Ouagadougou.

Perhaps they would both incorporate cost effective drilling in their curriculum as well as offering

professional well drilling short courses for drillers and quality controllers [Jon Naugle, USA]

Networks, such as AGW-Net (with its Africa-wide member institutions) is in a great position to deliver

capacity building needs at local level. AGW-Net has already implemented a number of trainings in

drilling, & planning to replicate the course in other countries [Munamirghani]

Adherence to Codes of Practice or equivalent

Specific steps need to be defined, country by country, and organization by organization to ensure that

such good drilling practices are actually adhered to – all over the world [Kerstin Danert, Switzerland].

We require a holistic approach to developing the capacity of stakeholders alongside implementing the

code of practice. As organizations and in our individual capacities we can support. For a start, we can

all work towards promoting the proposed initiatives by colleagues in this discourse including

knowledge sharing and advocacy, training package as well as other learning channels [Mohammed

Kamfut, Nigeria]

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The next step (for hydrogeological data) is for the project planners and stakeholders to make it

mandatory in tender and contract specification that the contractor or consultant collect, store and

report the data. Possibly penalties should be in place for those that do not comply. There should also

be in place the means to monitor compliance [Jim Anscombe, Zambia].

Make available a system to submit drilling data. Establishment of the central submission system will be

the responsibility of the government to ensure unbiased data. [Tesfaye Hailu, Ethiopia].

RWSN should partners with other developing countries and the drillers association like AWDROP to

design a methodical approach to a well-designed borehole for long life [Michael Ale, Nigeria].

Study on the extent of borehole supervision [Michael Ale, Nigeria]..

Is it not possible to enforce the drilling contractor to finally submit these well values under the drilling

contact/well report submission? The accuracy will be the sole responsibility of the consultant, but the

preparation and submission will be the responsibility of the contractor [Tesfaye Hailu, Ethiopia].

Code of Practice

The Code of Practice really must be seen as a work in progress. I’d like to see version 2 in the next two

or three years [Richard Carter, UK]

Conclusion and Specific Actions

As a conclusion to this synthesis, please find a summary of suggestions on how to move forwards, as well as

three actions that RWSN can take forwards within the cost-effective boreholes community. Suggestions by

members of the community:

Organize a regional meeting to look at drillers training issue strategically [Luís Macário, Mozambique]

Explore diverse options to achieve the desired objective such as facilitating a collaborative linkage

[between UNICEF], AWDROP NWRI and others [Mohammed Kamfut, Nigeria]

AGW-Net can help with a training program; our financial support system is such that we can raise 50%

but require the balance to be raised by our local ad hoc partners. We are flexible and can hold short

courses in many different subject areas given the size and diversity of our network membership. We

have a presence on the ground in most African countries, which can help to reduce costs of such

training programs quite significantly [Richard Owen, Zimbabwe].

Four actions for RWSN for late 2013/early 2014:

Publish and share this synthesis document widely, including webinar type presentations

Webinar/telephone/face-to-face discussions to develop joint work and better sharing between

existing implementers, institutions and associations, as well as AGW-Net, IAH, UNCESO and others so

as to move forwards systematically and improve the quality of borehole drilling.

Series of webinar exchanges in partnership with lead rural water supply agencies to share the details

of on-going initiatives (and struggles) in specific countries to improve sustainable groundwater

development.

Continue the dialogue within RWSN’s online Sustainable Groundwater Development community.

It is envisaged that these actions should help to identify the leadership, mechanisms and even resources

needed for improving sustainable groundwater development around the world.

30 | P a g e

Annex 1 Documentation and Links Shared

AGW-NET Membership database for all African Countries, Africa Groundwater Network, Available on agw-

net.org - have.

Ako Ako, A (2012) Groundwater in the Banana Plain and Mount Cameroon Area Cameroon, Lambert Academic

Publishing, Available on http://www.morebooks.de/ or contact akoandrewako@yahoo.com,

akoandy@gmail.com

Anon (no date) FORAGES : CONSEQUENCES D’UN MAUVAIS DEVELOPPEMENT, by Vergnet Hydro

Anon (no date) REQUIREMENTS FOR REGISTRATION OF WATER CONTRACTORS for Kenya

Anscombe (2011) Quality Assurance of UNICEF Drilling Programme for Boreholes in Malawi, Consultancy

Report for UNICEF, Available on http://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources-top/details/509

BMB/Euroconsult Mott MacDonald (2013) Status Review of Basic Services Fund (BSF) borehole drilling

component in South Sudan (2006-2012), Available on http://www.rural-water-

supply.net/en/resources/details/516

Danert K and Adekile D (2013) Tapping Treasure: Cost Effective Boreholes in Sierra Leone, Inception Report, Skat

Foundation, Available on http://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/493

ICDI (2013) Fiche De forage, Available from Jim Hocking

Schneider, S (2012) Water Supply Well Guidelines For Use In Developing Countries And The Related, Available

on http://www.seidc.com/pdf/Hydrophilanthropy_Well_Guidelines.pdf

Whinnery, J (2012) J. A Well Construction Cost-Benefit Analysis: For Water Supply Well Guidelines for use in

Developing Countries published a Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) related to properly versus improperly

wells

RWSN code of practice documents: available on: http://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/sort/year-

desc/filter/2_32_9

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Annex 2 Requests and Responses Name/Email Organisation Country Topic Online responses

Jess MacArthur

jessica.macarthur@hmc.ox.ac.uk

Oxford University UK Handpump Standards

Marina Rubio

m.rubio@unesco.org

International

Hydrological

Programme (IHP)

UNESCO

France Groundwater Governance

Christopher Cotner

chris@water4.org

Water4 USA/ Cote

D'Ivoire

Contact Request (drilling company in Cote

D'Ivoire)

FORACO, FOREXI

Kelsie DeFrancia

kd2436@columbia.edu

USA Groundwater Contamination (Ghana)

Srinivasa Rao Podipireddy

spodipireddy@worldbank.org

India

Gibson I Munanga

gibikumu2004@yahoo.com

NIPE MAJI

ORGANIZATION

Kenya Funding request Register with Ministry of Water, Environment and Natural resources (class D

driller)

Erik Iwan

erik.iwan@gmx.de

DRC Manual Drilling (manuals and equipment design) link to all of the manuals that were developed for manual

http://www.enterpriseworks.org/display.cfm?id=5&sub=23 [Jon Naugle];

group in Kananga (DR Congo) who hand-made a drilling rig and bit. They

were based on the EMAS system [Woody Collins]

Rahul Mitra

rahulpm@gmail.com

Lead - Engineers

Without Borders - DC

USA/Camero

on

Groundwater Mapping (Northwest Cameroon)

Iwses@live.com Groundwater recharge

Michael Mokoena

michaelmok1@yahoo.com

Groundwater Contamination (from pit latrines)

Alan MacDonald

amm@bgs.ac.uk

Borehole Failure Muraya, Jim Anscombe

John Pinfold

jpinfold@unicef.org

UNICEF Malawi Satellite Imaging (WATEX) Fabio Fusi, Italy

Muraya

wawerubm@yahoo.com

Kenya Water Institute Kenya Funding request (Training Institute in Kenya) Enangu Moses, Uganda,

Callist Tindimugaya

callist.tindimugaya@mwe.go.ug

Ministry of Water and

Environment

Uganda Groundwater Mapping (Review)

D. P. Ashitiva National Kenya Groundwater Policy (successful policies in place)

32 | P a g e

danashitiva@yahoo.com Environmanagement

Authority

Boniface Muraya

wawerubm@yahoo.com

Kenya Water Institute Kenya Partner request/collaboration (e.UNESCO and

UNICEF)

[Moses Enangu]

[Luis Macário, Mozambique]

Micheal Ale

awdrop@yahoo.com

AWDROP

Nigeria Partner request/collaboration

socaya@clearwaterinitiative.org Clear Water Initiative Uganda Water Quality (Iron) Several Responses

Ben Mann

bhmann@email.unc.edu

Information Communication Technologies (ICTs)

survey

Pat Fulton

patmfulton@yahoo.com

Well Development (with iron and calcium in GW)

Detailed suggestions from Steve Schneider and Moses Enangu

tpb1@unh.edu Water Quality test kits (Uganda) Response from Richard Carter, W Right, Erik Iwan, Vishwas Joshi, Isaac, Jake

Carpenter

Michale Ale Compliance examples from other countries

Ken Gibbs Former UNICEF Has anyone in this fascinating discussion been

involved in long-term planning to achieve total

coverage in any area ?

33 | P a g e

Annex 3 Research

Ongoing Research

U-Guelph in Canada13

is researching how to drill wells in all types of rock including crystalline rock.

We are acquiring and experimenting with portable rock drills to make monitoring wells. The approach

is using gasoline or diesel engine drills that are portable and are used in the mineral exploration

industry globally. Hundreds of millions of people live in mountainous regions where water is the key

limiting factor in quality of life, so a focus of the U-Guelph program is on drilling in mountain terrain

where roads are minimal and it is in this terrain that the mineral exploration drills have their main

advantage, given that is what they were designed for. We are making steady, slow progress along this

path to develop the methods. So far all our work is still in the experimentation and practice stage, in

rock in North America. We have purchased and are using three sizes of rock coring drills, all portable,

ranging from a back pack drill that costs 6 K dollars to much large ones that cost about 100 K. The

back pack drill is an amazing machine- does much more than its size would suggest; for some

situations, this drill offers possibilities for making useful water wells, but there is some technique

involved (http://www.backpackdrill.com) [John Cherry]. It may be worth checking:

http://practicalaction.metapress.com/content/lh746tkx6255m814/ for more about the hand boring tools

used by Sunday Arafan which are very similar to Shaw’s equipment.

A student team at Brigham Young University in Provo, have been designing and testing a hand

operated drilling rig:

(https://www.engineeringforchange.org/news/2011/08/10/a_new_drill_bores_wells_with_human_power.

html)

The British Geological Survey (BGS), WaterAid, University of Mekere, ODI and RWSN are just about

to embark on a small pilot study of “why 30% boreholes fail”. The pilot will be in Uganda and we

hope to develop a truly interdisciplinary method for trying to work out and quantify the different

aspects: water resources drying up, engineering, bad drilling & construction, poor siting, governance,

spare parts etc.

Research Ideas

I think that il would be interesting to observe how different techniques of hydrogeological mapping,

at different levels of details, will improve the success of borehole drilling (and evaluating the

influence of mapping/siting in relation to the effect of other engineering parameters that affect

borehole performance), and estimating the difference in this improvement in different aquifers and

hydrogeological condition in general. In my University at Milano we are working on that, with special

emphasis on the use of satellite images and radar data to improve mapping of shallow

hydrogeological conditions [Fabio Fusi, Italy].

13

U-Guelph in Canada are contaminant hydrogeologists who study groundwater contamination in developed countries due to

industrial chemicals