what are media

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Toolbox Menu > Learning and Instruction Menu > What are Media?

What are Media?

Media are physical elements within the environment that communicate messages (media is plural,medium is singular).

Instructional media represent media designed or used to deliver messages that can contribute to

learning. In a classroom, media represent almost every physical element within the walls of the

room, including people. Recall that learning is defined as the development of new knowledge, skills,

or attitudes resulting from an individuals "external" interaction with her/his environment

(information presented via media) and/or "internal" interaction between new and previously-existing

information.

External Interaction : The degree to which human input influences (changes) the messages presented from externalmedia.

Internal Interaction: The interchange between new information (received via media) and previously-existing

information/knowledge structures, possibly resulting in changes to existing cognitive knowledge structures and

processes.

Some media are, by their very nature, more interactive than others. For example, a videotape

constitutes a medium with a relatively low degree of interactivity because the messages are presented

in a fairly linear fashion. Stopping and starting the messages is about all that is typically done with a

videotape (although the ability to fast-forward, reverse, and freeze-frame do increase its interactivity

a bit). In contrast, a multimedia computer program can have a high degree of interactivity because a

user can influence or change the messages presented on the computer screen in many different ways,

resulting in many different types of messages presented. Why is this potentially important?

How would you rank the following types of instructional media in terms of interactivity?

Books

Wall posters

Audio tape

Teacher

Chalkboard

Overhead projector Cabletelevision program

Videotape

Students

Networked computer

Aquarium

Human body model

A Case for Computers in the Classroom

Point #1: Computers are more interactive than some other media

As previously indicated, the degree to which media are considered "interactive" depends

on the type and amount of opportunities for learner input to affect changes in message

are Media? http://pt3.nau.edu/toolbox/what-are_M

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(information) delivery or presentation. Consider the following chart contrasting "older"

and "newer" media:

"Older" Less Interactive Media "Newer" Highly Interactive Media

Messages (information) are structured in linearfashion

Messages (information) are structured

in "web" fashion

Reliance on the message for motivationReliance on the medium and the

message for motivation

Examples include videotape, textbook,

overhead projector, chalkboard, audio

tapes

Examples include computers and

interactive video, some books, PEOPLE

Multimedia represent messages (information) presented through more than one channel

of communication. Multimedia computers can present text, static images, animation &

motion images, and sound. Books are less multimedia, usually presenting only text and

static images. "New" highly interactive media can present messages in a more concreteway than older, less interactive media. For example, many CD-ROM programs can present

dramatized events as well as contrived experiences in very creative and interactive ways.

Since all learners come to the classroom with different levels of motivation, different

cognitive abilities, different learning styles, and different types and amount of previous

experiences, individual learner input (interactivity) is critical in determining the most

effective type and amount of information (messages).

Point #2: Computers Can Define Concrete Learning Environments

The diagram below depicts Edgar Dale's "Cone of Experience" (1969). Dale constructed

this illustration to communicate the idea that learners will find greater success within

more abstract media-supported instructional experiences (like reading text--verbal

symbols-- and deciphering diagrams and charts--visual symbols) if they are built upon a

greater number and variety of more concrete experiences.


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Jerome Bruner (1966) presented a similar idea, emphasizing the mental operations of

learners. Bruner suggested that successfully "thinking" at abstract levels involved

progressing from related direct experiences (enactive), through related iconic experiences,

and then into the realm of abstraction.

The following diagram depicts a more detailed look at the different ways to represent an

object, from more concrete to more abstract:

Note that the most concrete representation of the Earth isn't necessarily the clearest in

terms of identifying specific, distinguishing features (such as continental land masses, or

the relative amount of land to ocean). There are times when it is actually better to use

more abstract representations in order to clarify specific concepts or ideas.


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But what does this have to do with making a case for computers in the classroom? Well,

"new" media such as CD-ROM multimedia programs, networked computers, and interactive

video presentations often structure information environments in a more concrete ways

than "older" media (textbooks, lectures, notes-on-the-board). For example, many

CD-ROM programs can present dramatized events as well as contrived experiences in very

creative and interactive ways.

In addition to supporting the learning theories of Bruner, newer media can also be used to

define experiences that support the learning theories of Jean Piaget as well as Howard

Gardner. One important aspect of Jean Piaget's developmental theories of learning

(Piaget, 1970) is the importance placed on environmental interactions. As learners

organize the information received through their interactions, mental structures and

thought processes become enhanced or even changed. Learning occurs as learners

continually search for a balance between existing mental thought processes and

information from the environment. Newer media are capable of providing a varied array

of environments with which to receive meaningful information, thus increasing the

opportunities for learning.

Gardner (1993) suggests that individuals possess unique abilities to process and express

thought (multiple intelligences). All students experience instructional situations

differently, but schools traditionally present singular approaches to learning and

evaluation. In order to maximize genuine learner understanding, Gardner recommendsmore authentic apprenticeship and hands-on museum-type experiences. New media can

more easily accommodate these types of authentic learning experiences than text-based

learning environments.

For additional information about Piaget, Gardner, Bruner, and others....visit the Theory

Into Practice database:

http://tip.psychology.org

References

Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a Theory of Instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UniversityPress.

Dale, E. (1969).Audiovisual Methods in Teaching. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice. New York: Basic

Books.

Piaget, J. (1970). The Science of Education and the Psychology of the Child. New York:

Grossman.

copyright 2002 Greg Sherman


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