Western Civilization IIHIS-102

Unit 6 - The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution One of the great revolutions of mankind

First being the Neolithic (agricultural) revolution Last of Great Revolutions that shaped modern Europe

After the Enlightenment and the French Revolution Importance

Radically changed the methods of production Before, humans were limited to human and animal power Now, humans were able to harness the power of machines Also able to mass produce goods Leads to a changes in lifestyles (e.g., workplaces and free

time) Supported Western expansion into other countries

The Industrial Revolution Began in Britain around 1750

By 1830, it had spread to the continent Causes of the Revolution go back to the

Glorious Revolution (1688) Wealthy landowners took control of Parliament From this point until 1832, this “squirearchy” was in

control Their focus was to make more money

How do landowners make more money? Need to increase the production of the land that

they had Done by increasing crop yields and raising fatter

sheep and cattle The question became “how to do it?”

Dutch Agricultural Revolution Dutch Agricultural Revolution (c. 1650)

Dutch population was increasing too rapidly for food supplies to keep up with

In Amsterdam alone, the population shot up from 30,000 to 200,000 over the course of the century

Needed to drastically increase agricultural production

Focused their efforts on increasing crop yields How?

Enclosing the fields, raising new crops, and crop rotation

Heavy fertilization using manure They also did not have serfdom so the

peasantry could move where necessary

Protests Against Enclosure

Agricultural Revolution in Britain British wanted to adopt many of the Dutch

techniques However, some are not going to be as easy as others

Biggest controversy: enclosure Sectioning off of land by the use of a fence, wall, or

hedge Old medieval laws allowed peasants to use the open

fields to graze their own animals on During the early Tudor dynasty, there were attempts by

the landowners to enclose their lands This was mainly to allow them to graze sheep as the

cost of wool was skyrocketing at the time Peasants revolted and monarchy took the side of the

peasantry

Agricultural Revolution in Britain With the squirearchy, enclosure was going to be

pushed Parliament passed hundreds of enclosure acts Peak between 1760 and 1832 By the end of this, most of the land in England was

enclosed Enclosure hurt the small landowner and farmer

No longer had a place to graze their animals Many were forced to sell what land they had

Enclosure may have been beneficial to the landless Would be hired on as farmhands with wages There was also an increase in tenant farmers

Charles “Turnip” Townshend (1674-1738)

Agricultural Revolution in Britain Another method adopted was crop rotation Charles “Turnip” Townshend (1674-1738)

Introduced the four-field crop rotation that was used in the Netherlands

It was the system of planting wheat, barley, turnips, and clover in the fields The clover would help replenish the nutrients in the fields The clover and turnips also produce feed for

domesticated animals year round With more domesticated animals, there is more manure

that could be used for the crops He also introduced turnips as a major crop in

England

Crop Rotation

Agricultural Revolution in Britain Jethro Tull (1674-1741)

His contributions included the introduction of the seed drill

This replaced hand planting of seeds This meant less waste and more crop growth He also encouraged the use of horses instead of

oxen for plowing Innovations were also made to improve the

raising of domesticated stock like cattle and sheep Better breeding practices were brought over to

breed bigger animals

Tull’s Seed Driller (c. 1752)

Effects of the Agricultural Revolution Short term effects

From 1700 to 1760, bountiful crops Better quality of life for most British Focus no longer on survival Could spend income on things other than food Better quality of life in all Europe outside Holland More productive land meant less labor required to

cultivate the same amount of food This freed up labor for other pursuits, including

entering the cottage industry of weaving or spinning wool

Rise in the number of wage laborers People would go where the jobs were

Effects of the Agricultural Revolution Long term effect:

Less people were involved in agriculture By 1870, England produces 300% more than in

1700 Only 14% of the population worked on the land Larger percentage is free to engage in industrial

work Creates a new type of economy that was

impossible in a purely agricultural economy

Flatford Mill (c. 1816)

Why Britain? Had a stable government

Large landowners (Whigs) were in charge of Parliament Numerous economic freedoms

Businessmen and landowners did what they wanted No internal trade barriers, like tariffs, to hinder

domestic trade A tremendous amount of available capital

Part was due to the growing cottage industry Another part was due to the profits made off the

colonies Many entrepreneurs who were willing to take the

necessary risks to make a profit Well developed and central banking system

With this it also had a well developed credit system

Why Britain? Mobile population

No large privileged "feudal" class to hold back change or population movements

Population not tied to the land and could move wherever necessary

Was a large landless population who was eager to find work wherever possible

Easy access to water Full of natural waterways to provide transportation

for trade You were never more than 20 miles from water In the 1770s, built up a canal system which

improved the waterways even more

Why Britain? Rich with coal and iron ore

Coal was used as a source of power Iron was used in the building of machines

Plenty of colonies Provided plenty of markets to sell its goods Navigation Acts gave full trade monopoly with its colonies From 1660 to 1760, exports quadrupled

Control of the seas No competition from Europe, especially in the 19th century

Damp climate Cotton goods were more desirable than the traditional

wool

Extent of the British Empire

What Is the Industrial Revolution? The name “Industrial Revolution” did not

come about until the latter part of the 19th century

It was broken down into three phases: The birth and growth of mills and factories Urbanization of the population Massively increased production

The Revolution was actually a series of processes based on demand One invention lead to another This lead to new situations which call for even

more changes

Industrialism in Britain After the Agricultural Revolution, focus

became making even greater profits The best way to do so was to increase the

speed of production More goods could be made to meet the worldwide

demand The first modern factories were created in

1770s and 1780s Made for cotton textile industry This was where the greatest demand occurred Ushered in the Industrial Revolution

Industrialism in Britain Industrial Revolution was a process

New inventions led to new challenges which led to even more inventions

The textile industry was the first affected Growth of this industry was based on demand As production increased, it led to the need for both

power and iron Led to movement of both industry and population to

the northern England Investment in industries

Desire for increasing profit led to new methods and inventions

First started by merchant capitalists Britain could afford industrialization

The Spinning Mule

The Cotton Industry Cotton industry was first affected

Britain tried to compete with Asia for cotton goods Growing demand for cotton goods

British industries could not keep up with demands The whole process—spinning, weaving, and

printing—was done by hand Need led to improve the processing of cotton goods

Fly Shuttle (1733) Invented by John Kay It allowed one person to weave cloth instead of two Increased output of weaving dramatically Also led to a large demand for yarn

The Cotton Industry Spinning Jenny (c. 1764)

Invented by James Hargreaves Mechanized spinning wheel that increased the

production of yarn Both perfect for the home (cottage) industry

Too slow for mass production Water Frame (1769)

Invented by Richard Arkwright This allowed for not only the spinning of multiple

threads, but was powered by water instead of human power

The Cotton Industry Spinning Mule (1779)

Invented by Samuel Crompton (1753-1827) Combined the spinning Jenny and the water frame Produced high quality thin yarns that could be

used in multiple textile industries, not just cotton Too big to be placed in a private home

Power Loom (1785) Invented by Edmund Cartwright Changed the design of the water frame by

allowing it to be powered by steam engine instead of water

Between 1770 and 1790, production of yarn increased ten fold

The Cotton Industry Now there was an increased demand for cotton

Cotton picking and removal of seeds were all done by hand

Cotton Gin (1793) Invented by Eli Whitney Automatically removed the seeds from the cotton Processing of cotton was sped up to meet the demand

Birth of Cotton Mills Moving equipment into large buildings allowed cotton

yarn could be massed produced From 1813 to 1850, number of power looms

increased from 2,400 to over 250,000 Hand-loom weavers dropped from 250,000 in 1820 to

only 3,000 in 1860

1830s British Cotton Mill with a Power Loom

The Power Crisis The power crisis began around 1700

Government realized that the country was running out of its lumber supply

Impacted every aspect of life No lumber meant no charcoal which meant no

smelting of iron Lord Nelson worried about the impact on the navy

(he walked around with acorns in his pockets) Many began turning to coal for a power source

People had already been using coal for heating since 1700 in London

Coal was very hard and expensive to extract Did not stop demand because coal was the only

viable source

The Power Crisis As the demand for coal increased, new

problems emerged Mines had to be dug deeper, below the water table This meant that they quickly filled up with water At first, horses were used to power mechanical

pumps to help bring the water out of the mines but they were not effective

Deeper mines could not be dug without some effective way of pumping water out of them Inventors turned to a new source of power: steam

Steam had powered small items since 1600 It was not until the 18th century that a large scale

and efficient steam engine was created

Newcomen Steam Engine (c. 1712)

The Steam Engine Newcomen Steam Engine (1712)

Built by Thomas Newcomen An “atmospheric engine” designed to run a more

efficient water pump While it was the first economically significant

steam engine, it was still too ineffective It consumed too much fuel for the amount of

power it was producing In 1763, James Watt was asked to repair a

Newcomen engine He spent the next 12 years devising a way to

improve it

The Steam Engine Watt Steam Engine (1775)

First true steam engine It had a rotary engine that could turn a shaft This meant that it could run machinery as well

Watt partnered up with Matthew Boulton and began selling the engine to the textile industry Up until this point, the textile industry was limited

to hand-looms and water-powered looms Used this technology to improve the output of

textiles In 1785, Cartwright took Watt’s engine to create

the power loom

The Steam Engine Many cotton mills then began adopting the

steam engine as a power source By 1850, 7/8’s of the power for the cotton industry

came from the steam engine This had a huge impact on production of cotton

In 1760, Britain produced 2.5 million pounds of raw cotton

By 1787, this jumped to 22 million By 1840, this skyrocketed to 366 million pounds

Price of cotton goods dropped to 1/20th their value Asia could not compete with Britain in cotton

Puddling furnace (c. 1881)

The Iron Industry The iron industry was also affected Britain stilled used old medieval style methods of

processing iron Charcoal was used to provide the intense heat source

required for smelting With the shortage of lumber, this could no longer be

used Henry Cort improved the process of making clean

iron in the 1780s known as “puddling” Mixed used coke (a derivative of coal), pig iron, and

iron bars As they were mixed, they were exposed oxygen The oxygen burned off the excess carbon off the pig

iron This method was later used to create modern steel

The Iron Industry Led to a major boom in the iron industry

In 1740, over 17,000 tons of iron were produced in Britain

In 1788, jumped to 68,000 tons in 1788 In 1840, skyrocketed to over 3 million tons

The center of the iron industry was Manchester The coal and iron mines were located nearby along

with a ready water supply Steel was important because it led to:

Machines Development of railroad Ships Larger buildings

Illustration of the 1804 Pen-y-Darren Locomotive

Revolution of Transportation Steam engine led to advancements in the

transportation industry In order to make profits, one had to get goods

from one place to another more cheaply and quickly While waterways were good, there was a demand for

an even more effective method of transportation With this, there is the development of the railway Railways had been around since 1500

They were first developed for use in mines throughout Germany

The idea was later adapted to British coal mines around 1600

Revolution of Transportation These “railways” were carts that ran along wooden

rails Used to move coal and ore from deep within the mines They were powered by humans or horses Around 1700, wooden rails were replaced with cast iron

ones Pen-y-Darren Locomotive (1804)

Invented by Richard Trevithick in south Wales First steam-powered locomotive First trip was on February 21, 1804 For just over four hours, it carried ten tons of iron on five

wagons with 70 men at an average speed of close to 5 mph

Named after the ironworks company it was used for

Revolution of Transportation For the next few decades, the steam engine was

improved upon Numerous inventors worked on ways to carry larger

loads faster over longer distances The Rocket (1830)

Built by George Stephenson Included the first public rail line It traveled 32 miles from Liverpool to Manchester at

16mph By 1840, Britain had almost 2,000 miles of

railroads By 1850, that was up to 6,000 miles with trains that

reached speeds of 50mph

Revolution of Transportation Changed not only the face of Britain but it was

also key to the expansion of the Industrial Revolution

Many investors put money into the ever-growing railway industry Railroad companies were able to hire a lot of

peasants and laborers, creating new jobs The most important impact was to reduce the

costs in shipping Lower overall cost of manufacturing and thus lower

prices This led to increased demand, which created more

jobs and factories

Manchester in 1840 Known as “Cottonopolis” for its booming cotton industry

Social Consequences Industrialization had a huge social impact on

Britain in the 19th century Increased population

From 1750 to 1850, the population jumped from 10 million to around 30 million

Many moved into the cities throughout the country Factory system that changed the way of life for

the British Industrialization led to a new type urbanization

Originally factories were in the country near water sources

However, with steam power, they needed to be near large work forces

Social Consequences The factory owners were the first industrial

capitalists They were the first people to think of themselves as a

class in the modern sense They participated in a highly competitive system They believed they were doing the workers a favor by

giving them jobs They also did not like any type of business regulations

The working conditions of the factories were harsh Employed women and children if it gave them the

edge in business While adult workers could be threatened with

dismissal, children were regularly beaten if they did not follow the tough rules of the workplace

Social Consequences Factory work brought in a new time-work

discipline With agriculture and the cottage industry, people

set their own hours In the factories, owners wanted to keep the

machines going at a steady pace This way they could produce as much as possible Workers had to work regular hours and in shifts The shifts were long, usually 14 or more hours a

day The work was also repetitive and boring. Only Sundays were given off and very few holidays

were celebrated

Social Consequences There were calls to improve the working

conditions of the factories Parliament was willing to do something about it These were known as the Factory Acts

Factory Act of 1802 This prevented children under the age of 9 from

working in the factories It also limited the amount of hours children could

work to no more than 12 hours a day Provided some education for children

Labor in Cotton Mills Act of 1831 Prohibited night work for anyone under the age of

21

Social Consequences Labor of Children in Factories Act of 1833

Limited the amount of hours a child could work and included an hour lunch break

Required a minimum of two hours of education a day for children between 9 and 13

Factory Act of 1844 It limited the daily hours of children between the

ages of 9-13 to six hours a day Women were not allowed to work more than 12

hours a day Factory Act of 1847 – “Ten Hour Bill”

This limited the work days to 10 hours for women and children under 18

Adam Smith (1723-1790)

Classical Economics: Laissez-Faire Laissez-Faire Economics

Emerged during the Enlightenment Name came from the opponents of this theory Pushed no government interference in economics Included free markets, very little taxation, and no

legal restrictions on business Businesses would regulate themselves

Promoting self interest Individual interests would add up to the general

welfare of society Poor relief and charity should come from the

individual not the government

Classical Economics: Laissez-Faire “Iron Law of Wages”

Workers should make only as much as was necessary to live

If they don’t, they will have more children Too large populations can hurt the economy

Britain spearheaded the laissez-faire movement Adam Smith (1723-1790)

Laid down the foundation with Wealth of Nations (1776)

The Manchester School Economic school of thought centered in Manchester It promoted free trade and an end to tariffs on corn Believed mercantilism hurt the lower classes as they

could not afford the basic necessities

Classical Economics: Laissez-Faire Thomas R. Malthus (1766-1834)

Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) Human population growth was kept in check with war,

famine, and disease Agricultural revolution would lead to a population boom Industrialism would aggravate this as there were more

jobs Believed in regulating marriages and promoting

celibacy Wanted abolition of poor laws as they hurt the overall

economy Taxes needed for them resulted in prices being too high He called for private charity instead

Classical Economics: Laissez-Faire David Ricardo (1772-1823)

Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock (1815)

He wanted to get rid of the tariffs placed on imported grains

Tariffs artificially inflated the price of grains and hurt the lower classes

Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (1817) With population increases, rents went up but wages

went down Called for population controls because too many

people were living on wages that barely provided subsistence

Richard Cobden (1804-1865) Manchester

School

Industrialization after 1850 Individual British factories remained small but

output was tremendous Iron industry the largest in the world

Continental changes Mostly in transport, commerce, and government

policy Free trade and the removal of trade barriers Guild controls relaxed or abolished Communications

Transatlantic cable (1865) Telephone (1876) New chemical processes, dyestuffs, and pharmaceuticals

New sources of energy Electricity and oil

Industrialization after 1850 Internal combustion engine

Invented by Carl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler in the 1880s

Eastern Europe Developed into concentrated, commercialized

agriculture The persistence of serfdom

The industrial core Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands,

and Switzerland The industrial periphery

Russia, Spain, Bulgaria, Greece, Hungary, Romania, and Serbia

Industry and Empire European nations begin to control the national

debts of other countries First Europeans would attempt trade agreements When those could not be made, they turned to

force New networks of trade and interdependence The world economy divided into two groups:

Producers of manufactured goods (Europe) Suppliers of raw materials and buyers of finish

goods (everyone else) There was a move towards a global economy

Breakdown of populations living in cities

Social Consequences Population of Europe

205 million in 1800 274 million in 1850 414 million in 1900 480 million in 1914

Explanations for dramatic increase Fatal diseases became less virulent Edward Jenner invented the smallpox vaccination

(1796) Improved sanitation Governments became more concerned with

improving the lives of their people Less-expensive foods of high nutritional value Rising fertility

“Searching for Potatos”

Social Consequences Peasantry during industrialization

Lived in rural poverty Harsh conditions of the countryside Millions of tiny farms produced a bare subsistence Rising population put pressure on the land Unpredictability of weather and the harvest

Great Famine of 1845–1849 Potato blight

No alternative food source At least one million Irish died of starvation Forced 1.5 million people to leave Ireland for good

Social Consequences The role of the state

Became more sympathetic to commercialized agriculture

Encouraged the elimination of small farms and the creation of larger farms

Serfdom Land owners and serfs had little incentive to

improve farming or land management Made it difficult to buy and sell land freely Was seen as an obstacle to the commercialization

and consolidation of agriculture Industrialization in the countryside

Improved communication networks Government intervention in the countryside

Social Consequences Centralized bureaucracies

Made it easier to collect taxes and conscript soldiers from peasant families

Rural violence “Captain Swing” protesters in southern England

(1820s) Protesting against threshing machines; burned barns and

haystacks Insurrections against landlords, taxes, and laws

curtailing customary rights Russian serf uprisings as a result of bad harvests and

exploitation Governments seemed incapable of dealing with rural

discontent

Homeless people huddling together

Social Consequences The urban landscape

Growth of cities Urbanization moved from northwest Europe to the

southeast London’s population grew from 676,000 (1750) to 2.3

million (1850), Paris from 560,000 to 1.3 million Overcrowding and poor sanitation Construction of housing lagged well behind population

growth Governments passed some legislation to rid cities of slums

Environment Air pollution Water pollution Fertile breeding grounds for cholera, typhus, and

tuberculosis

Social Consequences Sex in the city

Prostitution Seen as one of the dangers and corruptions of urban life

The problems of the cities posed dangers that were not just social but political

Time period of social surveys and studies Trying to

Critics of the urban scene Victor Hugo (1802–1885) Charles Dickens (1812–1870) Honoré de Balzac (1799–1850)