werle - einstein's big break
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EinsteinsBigBreak:OntheMiracleYearof1905NicholasWerleBrownUniversity10
Majors:Physics,ModernCriticalPhilosophy
(516)[email protected]
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EinsteinsBigBreak:OntheMiracleYearof1905
Attheendofthenineteenthcentury,physicistsdeclaredtheirscience
complete.Themechanicsofmatterwaswellunderstood:accordingtoNewtons
lawsofmotionandresearchersmodels,thedynamicsoffluids,optics,andsound
wavesweregrowingmorerefined.JamesClerkMaxwellhadrecentlyformulated
thepropagationofelectromagneticwavesinfourrelativelysimpleequations.
Drivenbymathematicalformalisms,hederivedrelationshipsbetweentraveling
electricandmagneticdisturbancesthatdefiedanysimplephysicalexplanationsbut
seemedtopreciselydescribeexperimentalphenomena.Thiswasnottosaythere
wasnotworktobedonebutmostphysicistsbelievedfutureprogresswouldmainly
consistofexperimentalrefinementsandmoreprecisemeasurementsofthe
universesfundamentalconstants.
Withinthefirstdecadeofthetwentiethcentury,however,physicistsfound
themselvesstrugglingtounderstandthemostfundamentalfeaturesoftheuniverse
includingtheshapeofspace,themeaningoftime,thecharacteristicsofmatter,and
thenatureoflight.Insteadofputtingthefinishingtouchesonagrandedificeof
completedknowledgeoftheuniverse,twentiethcenturyphysicistswereconsumed
byaracetodisassemblethatverysystemandfindsomestablegroundonwhichto
rebuild.Thisradicalreversalwasneithereasytobeginnorsimpleforgreatmindsto
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acceptbut,onceitsnecessitywasrealized,newfieldsofpossibleknowledgeswere
openedtoscience.
Thisjoltingbeginningtomodernphysicswasnotatransitionthatlogically
followedfromtheknowledgeofatriumphantclassicalphysicsbutratheraradical
discontinuitywithwhatcamebefore.In1905,AlbertEinstein,anunknownGerman
physicistworkingasapatentexaminerinBern,publishedaseriesofshortpapers
onBrownianmotion,thequantumnatureoflight,andtheelectrodynamicsof
movingbodiesinoneofthemostastoundingburstsofcreativityinthehistoryof
thought.Theseideas,afteryearsoflaborioustheoreticalelaboration,werethestart
ofamajorbreakwiththephysicalknowledgeofthepast.WhileEinsteinwasnot
abletocontinueworkingthisbreakthroughitscontinualbattleagainstclassical
ideologyindeed,hewouldspendhislateryearsfightingagainsttheveryconcepts
thatfollowedfromhisdiscoveriesinthemiracleyearof1905theconjunctureof
hisreadingofnineteenthcenturyphysicswiththerecentphysicaldiscoveriesof
MichaelFaraday,Maxwell,andMaxPlanckandthemathematicalformalismsof
BernhardRiemannsnonEuclideangeometryproducedanewphysicalproblematic.
Thisproblematicpermittedthedevelopmentofquantummechanicsandrelativity
theory,thecornerstonesofthenewedificeofmodernphysics.
AnAlthusserianreadingofmodernphysicsisaninterestingprojecton
multipleregisters.Thispaperwillarguethatquantumandrelativityphysicsisthe
firsttrulyAlthusserianhardscience.Wecanreaditsbirthasabreakinthestrong
sense:theproductionofanewscientificproblematicfromareadingofthe
contradictions,seams,andlacunaeintheideologicalframeworkthatcamebefore.
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Applyingthisreadingtoahardscience(hardscienceshouldbeunderstoodinthe
Americansensetomeanthestudyofthestructureofthephysicalworld,especially
thedomainsofphysics,chemistry,biology,astronomy,geology,etc)providesa
uniqueopportunitytorefinetheAlthusseriannotionofscienceintoaconceptthatis
atleastprovisionallystableandconnectedwiththeotherepistemologicalnotionsof
thebreak,theproblematic,theencounter,andideology.Unfortunately,thescaleof
thisprojectpreventsthissinglepaperfromprovidingclosureonanyoftheseissues.
Therefore,theseargumentsshouldbetakenasthefirstnotesforamuchlarger
investigationofphysicalscience.
Thefoundingofmodernphysicsasascienceisnottheonlytargetofthis
reading;thecontentofthisnewproblematicisalsoparticularlyAlthusserian.In
contrastwiththeidealismoftheNewtonianmodel,quantummechanicsand
relativityuseconceptsthataremorefluidtounderstandthephysicalnatureofthe
universe.Theproblematicofmodernphysicsdispenseswithabsolutereferentiality
notionsofabsolutespace,motion,andtimelosetheirmeaninginthisnew
problematiccontinuity,andlinearcausality,infavorofrelativitysfabricofspace
time,quantummechanicsdiscretizedenergyandlight,nonEuclideangeometrys
fieldeffectivityandfundamentalindeterminacy.TheCopenhageninterpretation
challengedthenotionsofobjectivephysicalrealityandtransparentexperimentation
thatwerepreviouslytakenasfundamentalontologicalassumptions.Finally,
quantummechanicsandrelativityassertedtheexistenceofabsolutephysicallimits
onvelocitiesandenergiesthateliminatedidealistnotionsofinfinitespeedandzero
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energy.Yetthisisonlythebeginningofthelistoftheintenselystrangeresultsof
modernphysics.
Attheendofthenineteenthcentury,thesuccessofMaxwellsequations
thoroughlyconvincedthephysicscommunitythatlightandelectromagnetic
radiationtraveledinwaves.Countlessexperimentshadalsoproducedcharacteristic
interferencepatternswithbeamsoflightorelectromagneticradiation,allowing
researcherstodeterminethewavelengthsofthesedisturbances.Nevertheless,
thereweretwoareasinwhichclassicalphysicstheoreticalunderstandingof
electromagnetismbrokedown.First,theproblemoflightpropagationledphysicists
toposittheexistenceoftheether,amediumthatallowedthetransmissionoflight
andfilledallspace.Butitprovedundetectable.Second,theproblemofblackbody
radiation(asolidbodyemitsacertainspectrumofelectromagneticradiation
dependingontemperature)wasincomprehensibletotheclassicaltheoryoflight.
Thesedifficultiesweresymptomsoftheproblemswiththeproblematicofclassical
physics.ThegeniusofEinstein,however,wasnotanyexperimentalone.Instead,
Einsteinwasabletorefoundphysicsinatrulyscientificproblematic.Heproduceda
newmodeoftheoreticalpracticebasedondeductivereasoning,whichallowed
theoreticalphysicstomoveaheadofexperimentationforthefirsttime.Becausehis
instinctualapproachwassensitivetotheepistemologicalconcernsofscience,
Einsteinsucceededineffectingaprimarybreakwithclassicalmechanics,rejecting
Newtonianidealism,andproducingaproperobjectofknowledgeforhisnew
science.
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FromtheEthertoSpecialRelativity
Classically,wavestransmitenergythroughspacebycausingvibrationsor
rarefactionsinsomemedium,suchaswater,air,orastring.Indeed,thevery
conceptofawavewasunthinkablewithoutsomevibratingsubstance.Sincelight
wasknowntotransmitthroughavacuum,physicistswereforcedtofindsome
vibratingsubstancethattransmittedlight,evenwhenacontainerwasapparently
empty.Thesolutiontothisproblemwastoposittheexistenceoftheluminiferous
ether,asubstancethatfilledallspaceandvibratedtoallowthetransmissionoflight.
Themoreexperimentallyobservedfeaturesoflightpropagationthatwereincluded
inthistheory,themoreoutrageouscharacteristicstheetherwasrequiredto
possess.Theetherwasrequiredtobealiquidinordertofillspacebutalso
incrediblyrigidinordertopermitlightshighfrequencyvibrations.Inorderto
preventthedisruptionofotherphysicalsuccessessuchasthecalculationsof
planetaryorbits,theetheralsohadtobeinvisible,incompressible,andmassless
withzeroviscosity.
AsEinsteinwasgrowingup,thephysicscommunitywasworkingtirelessly
tosomehowdetecttheether.Themostfamousand(un)successfulattemptwasan
experimentconductedbyAlbertMichelsonandEdwardMorleyinCleveland,Ohio.
Theacceptedtheorypositedthattheetherfilledtheentireuniverse,whichmeantit
wastheabsoluterestframeoftheuniverse.Sincelightshouldpropagateata
constantspeedthroughtheether,lightshouldappeartomoveatadifferentspeed
inrelationtotheEarthastheplanetmovesthroughtheetherwind.Michelsonand
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Morleysapparatusincludedasemisilveredmirrorthatsplitalightbeamandsent
itinorthogonaldirectionsbeforereunitingitataninterferometer.Becauseonearm
ofthedeviceshouldbepointinginthedirectionoftheetherwind,theypredicted
thelightinthatdirectionwouldtakelongertotravelthroughtheapparatusthanthe
lighttravelingorthogonaltotheetherwind.Fortunately,noamountofinsulation,
refinementoradjustmentwasabletoproduceanyresults.Buttheetherwasso
essentialtothedominanttheoriesoflightpropagationthatphysicistscontinuedto
struggletoexplaintheresultsintermsofnewerandmoreelaboratetheoriesofthe
ether.
Einsteinhadstruggledwiththeproblemoftheethersincehistimestudying
attheZurichPolytechnicInstitute.Whileheworkedwithhisprofessors,whowere
occupiedwithtryingtodevisemoresophisticatedetherdetectionmethods,hewas
certainlyexposedtoMichelsonsexperimentalfailure,amongothers.Butthese
experimentaldatahadarguablylittleimpactonEinstein;throughouthislife,he
maintainedthathisobjectionstotheinclusionoftheetherinphysicswerepurely
theoretical.1In1899hewrotetoMilevaMaric,hisclassmateandfuturewife,that
theintroductionofthetermetherintotheoriesofelectricityhasledtothe
conceptionofamediumwhosemotioncanbedescribedwithout,Ibelieve,being
abletoascribephysicalmeaningtoit.2ThisremarkrevealsthepowerofEinsteins
subtlereadingofexistingtheoreticaldiscourse.Ofcoursetheetherequations
workedwithinthelogicofclassicalphysics,foritwasatheoreticallyrequired
addition.YetEinsteinwasabletoworkthislogicagainstitselftodeterminehowthe
1WalterIsaacson,Einstein(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,2007),116222Ibid.115.
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stringentrequirementsplacedontheetherproducedanartifactthatexpressed
noneofthephysicalqualitiesascribedtoanyrealsubstance.
WhiletheproblemoftheetherpresentedEinsteinwithstrongevidencethat
therewerefundamentalproblemswithclassicalphysics,hewouldlaterinsistitwas
nottheetherthatdrovehisthinkingtowardsthetheoryofspecialrelativity.
Throughouthislife,Einsteincontinuallydeclaredthathismethodwasentirely
deductive;hereliedalmostexclusivelyonabstractthoughtexperiments,thoughhe
laterincludedabstractmathematics(nonEuclideangeometry)inhistheoretical
arsenal.Thiswasasignificantdeparturefromthemethodologyofthetime,which
countedentirelyonexperimentationandinductiveexplanationsofobserveddata.
ButEinsteinthoughtlittleofatheorythatfollowsinthewakeofexperimentation.
Thebigadvancesinscientificknowledgeoriginateinthiswayonlytoa
smalldegree,wroteEinsteinaboutinduction.3Indeed,itwasthroughafaulty
inductiveapproachthatphysicswassidetrackedfornearlyacenturybythe
ideologicalillusionoftheether.
InanAlthusserianepistemology,theinductiveapproachwouldcertainlybe
dismissedasaharmfulempiricistpractice.Relyingonempiricismrisksbeing
incapableofmakingthescienceprogress,sincewewillbeblindtothenatureofthe
realprocessoftheproductionofknowledges,andwillremaininthewakeoffacts
andevents.4Inordertobreakwiththeclassicalproblematic,Einsteinhadto
developanewmodeofproductionofknowledgethatworkedtoshedtheideological
3Ibid.118.4LouisAlthusser,Theory,theoreticalpracticeandtheoreticalformation:Ideology
andideologicalstruggleInPhilosophyandthespontaneousphilosophyofthescientistsandotheressaysed.GregoryElliott(London:Verso,1990),14
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assumptionsofthepast.Atruetheoreticalscience,farfromreflectingthe
immediategivensofeverydayexperienceandpractice,isconstitutedonlyonthe
conditionofcallingthemintoquestion,andbreakingwiththem,totheextentthat
itsresultsappearindeedasthecontraryoftheobviousfactsofeverydaylife.5
Thiseffortisnotdirectedonlyatindividuallyfalsefacts,butanentiresystemof
ideologicalbeliefs(forideologypositsobviousnessesasobviousnesses)that
standsinthewayofscientificprogress.6(Ameasureofthemagnitudeofthisbreak
withinduction:ittookEinsteinuntil1921towinaNobelPrizebecausetheSwedish
experimentalistswhocontrolledtheawardjudgedhisworkwastooabstractand
theoretical.)
Hisdeductivemethodwasthebeginningofexactlythisnewtypeof
theoreticalpractice,onespecifictoandresponsiblefortheoreticalphysics.Forthe
firsttime,theoreticalworkwasreachingaheadofexperimentalprogressinanew
modeofknowledgeproductionuniquetotheobjectoftheoreticalphysics.To
properlyconstituteascienceistoproducetheadequateconceptoftheobjectby
puttingtoworkmeansoftheoreticalproductionappliedtoagivenrawmaterial.
Thisproductionofknowledgeinagivenscienceisaspecificpracticewhichshouldbe
calledtheoreticalpracticeaspecificpracticedistinctfromotherexistingpractices
andabsolutelyirreplaceableatitslevelandinitsfunction.7WhileEinsteinbegan
withhisthoughtexperiments,histheoreticalpracticematuredwithhis5Ibid.15.6LouisAlthusser,IdeologyandIdeologicalStateApparatuses:NotesTowardsan
InvestigationinLeninandPhilosophyandOtherEssays(NewYork,MonthlyReviewPress,2001),1167LouisAlthusser,Theory,theoreticalpracticeandtheoreticalformation:Ideologyandideologicalstruggle,15
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understandingofhisobject.Bythetimehewasworkingtogeneralizehisspecial
theoryofrelativityin1915,Einsteinhadfullyrealizedthevalueofabstract
mathematics.Indeed,bythistimeitwasRiemannsworkonmetrictensorsthatwas
drivinghisunderstandingofthenonEuclideangeometryofspacetime,leadinghim
tosuccessfullyformalizegeneralrelativity.
Todaystheoreticalphysiciststakethisuniquetheoreticalpracticetoan
extreme.Asadiscipline,particlephysicsaimstopredicttheexistenceofnewkinds
ofmatterthatmightexistonlyinveryspecificscenarios,suchastheuniverseinthe
momentsaftertheBigBang.Becausedecadesmightelapsebetweenthetheoretical
discoveryofaparticleandexperimentalobservation,thedisciplinestheoretical
apparatusmusthavetheabilitytodeterminethetruthofaparticularidea
independently.ThepresentsearchfortheHiggsBosonattheLargeHadronCollider
isaperfectexampleofhowfartheorycanrunaheadofexperimentalcapability
today.ForAlthusser,thisisahallmarkofaproperlyconstitutedscience.Atruly
scientifictheoreticalpracticeisindeeditsowncriterion,andcontainsinitself
definiteprotocolstovalidatethequalityofitsproduct.Once[sciences]aretruly
constitutedanddevelopedtheyhavenoneedforverificationfromexternalpractices
todeclaretheknowledgestheyproducetobetrue,i.e.,tobeknowledges.8Indeed,
theLHCisthelargest,mostcomplex,mostexpensivemachineinthehistoryof
humanity.ItwasbuiltbyCERN,aninternationalconsortium,solelyonfaithinthe
rigorofphysiciststheoreticalpractice.
8LouisAlthusserFromCapitaltoMarxsPhilosophyinReadingCapital,Trans.BenBrewster(London:Verso,1997),59.
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Asconfoundingasparticlephysicsis,stringtheoryisevenfartherremoved
fromexperiment.Scientistssearchingforaunifiedfieldtheoryofeverythinghave
beenworkingonstringtheoryfordecadeswithoutanyhopeofexperimental
verification.Stringtheoryprobesthefabricoftheuniverseonsuchsmalldistance
scalesthattheoristsestimatethataparticlecolliderwouldhavetobecapableof
producingenergiesmorethanonemillionbilliontimesashighastheLHCinorder
totestthetheoryspredictions.9Thesepredictions,whicharetheresultsproduced
byhighlyabstractmathematicalarguments,makesuchcounterintuitiveclaimsas
anelevendimensionalspacetime.Today,thereissignificantdebatewithinthe
scientificcommunityaboutwhetherstringtheorycanevenbeconsidereda
scientifictheoryifitis(currentlyandfortheforeseeablefuture)untestable.
Ultimately,thisisnotascientificdebateaboutthenatureoftheuniversebuta
philosophicaldebateabouttheacceptablemodesoftheoreticalpracticeinphysics.
Clearly,noneofthiswouldhavebeenpossibleintheproblematicofclassical
physics,whichwasneithercapableofposingthesekindsofabstractquestionsin
advanceofexperimentalevidencenorabletoevaluateaclaimwithouttestable
claims.
Soifitwasnothisskepticismabouttheexistenceoftheetherthatdrove
Einsteinsthoughtstowardspecialrelativity,wheredidhisdeductivemethodbegin?
Later,hewouldclaimnottobeabletocompletelyuntanglethepreciseseriesof
thoughtsleadinghimtospecialrelativity,butitsurelystartedwithathought
experimenthehadbeenponderingforyears.Einsteinhadspentagreatdealoftime
9BrianGreene,TheElegantUniverse(NewYork:Vintage,2003),141.
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thinkingaboutwhatitwouldbeliketoobservealightbeamwhiletravelingatthe
speedoflight.Hestartedwithwhatwasalongheldbeliefintheprincipleof
relativity,whicharguedthatthelawsofphysicsshouldbethesameforany
observerinaninertialreferenceframe(anobservertravelingataconstantspeedin
thesamedirection).Galileohadprovedthistoholdforclassicalmechanics,but
Einsteinbelievedthatitshouldholdforallphysicallaws,includingMaxwells
equations.
ThisfirstpostulatereceiveditsforcefromEinsteinsthinkingabouta
particularlytroublesomeasymmetryintheclassicaltheoryofelectrodynamicsthat
cametohisattentionwhilehelpinghisfatherengineersomeinductorsforan
electricgenerator.(Inductanceisthepropertybywhichanalternatingmagnetic
fieldisabletoinduceacurrenttoflowinaseparatecoilofwire.)Accordingto
classicalelectrodynamics,thereweredifferentequationsgoverningthesituation
whenamagnetwasmovedpastastationarywirecoilandwhenawirecoilwas
movedpastastationarymagnet.Einsteincouldnotfathomwhythesetwosituations
shouldbedistinct,sincetherelevantphysicalchangewastherelativemotionofthe
twoobjects.EvenGalileanrelativitysuggestedthatthereshouldbenomechanical
waytodeterminewhichobjectsinertialreferenceframewasatrest.Yet
electromagnetictheorydidhaveathirdtermtodefinethestateofabsoluterest:the
ether,whichallegedlytransmittedtheelectromagneticwavesbetweenthemagnet
andthewire.Withouttheether,therewouldbenoneedtoformallyexplainthetwo
physicallyidenticalscenariosdifferently.
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ThisasymmetrywasthekeytoEinsteinsformalrejectionoftheetherinhis
seminalspecialrelativitypaper,OntheElectrodynamicsofMovingBodies.
Restoringthelogicalunitytotheproblemofinductancesuggest[s]thatthe
phenomenaofelectrodynamicsaswellasofmechanicspossessnoproperties
correspondingtotheideasofabsoluterest.[Thus]theintroductionofalight
etherwillprovetobesuperfluous,inasmuchastheviewtobedevelopedherewill
notrequireaspaceatabsoluterest.10ThisisthefirststepofEinsteinsbreakwith
theproblematicofclassicalphysics.Removingtheconceptofabsoluterestthereby
assertingthefundamentalrelativityofmotioncollapsestheapparentasymmetry,
whichhadbeenallowedtopersistforsolongbecauseitwasnotstrictlywrong
accordingtothelogicoftheoldproblematic.Indeed,theasymmetrywasasymptom
ofthatfaultylogicitself.
ForAlthusser,thissymptomaticreadingistheexactprocessnecessaryto
foundanew,scientificproblematic.InReadingCapital,hearguesthatMarxs
achievementwasnottheabilitytoseewhatbourgeoispoliticaleconomycouldnot
theanswertothequestionwhatisthevalueoflabor?butthesensetoexplain
thenon-visioninsideitsvisionbyarticulatingtheabsenceswithinitstext.11In
arguingfortherelativitypostulate,Einsteinaccomplishedasimilarfeat,whichcan
beexplainedbyreformulatingAlthusser:Itisnot[Einstein]whosayswhatthe
classicaltextdoesnotsay,itisnot[Einstein]whointervenestoimposefrom
withoutontheclassicaltextadiscoursewhichrevealsitssilenceitistheclassical
10WalterIsaacson,Einstein,12711LouisAlthusserFromCapitaltoMarxsPhilosophy,23
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textitselfwhichtellsusthatitissilent:itssilenceinitsownwords.12Heneither
positedtheidentityoftheetherasthestateofabsoluterestnorcreatedthe
asymmetryintheexplanationofinductance.Instead,hewasabletoshowthelogical
absenceintheclassicalproblematicitselfthatishowthetwoinductancescenarios
couldbephysicallydistinguished.Thisabsenceintheclassicalproblematicwasthe
kindofriftwiththerealityitsupposedlyrepresented,andthatisindicativeofafalse
problematic.Here,Newtonianphysicsrevealedafundamentalmisunderstandingof
itsowntheoreticalobject.
Einsteinssecondpostulateinvolvedthevelocityoflight.Thereweretwo
possibleexplanationsforthepropagationoflight.Iflightwerecomposedof
particlesitwouldnotneedanetherealmediumbutitsvelocitywoulddependonthe
speedofitssource.(Imaginehowabulletshotstraightaheadfromafastmovingcar
wouldgetaspeedboost,relativetotheground,comparedtoabulletshotfroma
gunatrestrelativetotheground.)Thispossibilitywassupportedbytheresearch
intolightquantaEinsteinhadrecentlycompleted.Yetiflightbehavedmorelikea
wave,thenitwouldtravelataconstantspeed(c=2.98x108m/s)regardlessofthe
motionofitssourceorobserver.(Thisisanalogoustothebehaviorofsound,which
travels770milesperhourinairnomatterhowfastitssourceismoving.The
motionofthesourceortheobservermerelyaffectstheperceivedfrequencyofthe
tone;thisisknownastheDopplereffect).Aftermucheffortexpendedtoadapt
Maxwellsequationstoexplainthefirstpossibility(anemissiontheoryoflight),
Einsteinsettledonthesecondoption.Fromthislogicheproducedthelight
12Ibid.22.
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postulate:Lightalwayspropagatesinemptyspacewithadefinitevelocitythatis
independentofthestateofmotionoftheemittingbody(Isaacson,120).
OverwhelmingastronomicalevidenceallstarlightreachesEarthatthesamespeed
validatedthischoice.
However,whenEinsteincombinedthesetwopostulatesinhisthought
experimentstheyappearedtocontradicteachother.Ifarayoflightweresentdown
arailroadtrack,itwouldappeartotravelpastastationaryobserver(someone
standingontheground)atc.Yetifanotherobserverwereonatrainmovingat0.4c
inthesamedirectionasthelightbeam,Einsteinrealizedthatthelightmightseemto
betravelingat0.6c.Accordingtotherelativitypostulate,thereshouldbenophysical
methodtodeterminewhichobserverisatrestinanyabsolutesensesincehehad
alreadydoneawaywiththeabsoluterestframeoftheether.However,ifthe
observersmotionwastrulyindistinguishablethen,accordingtothelightpostulate,
theyshouldbothperceivethelighttomoveatc.Thecontradictioninitiallyseemed
insoluble.
Einsteinsbrilliantresolutiontothisapparentcontradictioncompletedthe
primarybreakwithclassicalmechanicsthatbeganwiththerejectionoftheether.
Onemorning,Einsteinrealizedhehadtoworkoutarigorousoperationaldefinition
oftimetoreplacetheclassicalnotionofanabsoluteprogressionoftime.Inhis
Principia,Newtonassertedthatabsolute,true,andmathematicaltime,ofitselfand
fromitsownnature,flowsequablywithoutrelationtoanythingexternal(Isaacson,
125).Thisselfevidentstatementhad,for216years,functionedasastandinforany
rigorousformulationofthemeaningoftime.Einsteinreformulatedtimeasa
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statementaboutsimultaneity,whichturnedouttodependonanobservers
perspective.Returningtothetrainscenarioandaddingsomeinclementweatheris
sufficienttoprovideabriefexplanationofsimultaneity.Tosayanobserveronthe
groundwitnessestwoequidistantboltsoflightningstrikesimultaneouslyistosay
thatheseesthelightfromtheseeventsarriveatthesametime.However,these
sameeventsappeardifferentlytotheobserveronthetrain.Ifshepassesthe
stationaryobserverattheexactmomentofthelightningstrike,shewillhavemoved
alittledistanceinonedirectionbythetimetheburstsoflightreachher.Because
shewillthenbeclosertothelocationofonestrikethantotheother,thetwoflashes
oflightwillnotarrivesimultaneously.Thus,thereisanirreconcilabledifference
betweenthetimeinthesetwoinertialreferenceframes.Inotherwords,an
observeratrestperceivesaclockinarapidlymovinginertialreferenceframe
appearstomovemoreslowly.(Foramoredetaileddescriptionofthisthought
experimentandanexplanationofLorentzcontraction,seeIsaacson,pp.12235or
Greene,2353.)
ThisdiscrepancyallowedEinsteintoconfidentlyabolishthenotionofan
audibleticktockeverywhereintheworldthatcanbeconsideredastime.13Time
dilationimpliedthatthenotionofanabsolutespaceshouldalsobeabandoned,
producingtheconceptofLorenzcontraction(rapidlymovingobjectsappearshorter
toobserversatrest).Together,theseconceptsradicallydestroyedtheNewtonian
ideasofdiscreteandabsolutespaceandtime.WhileNewtonianmechanicshad
demonstratedanincrediblyaccuratepredictivepowerforgenerations,special
13WalterIsaacson,Einstein,128
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relativitydisproveditsmostfundamentalassumptionsaboutthefabricofthe
universe.Inplaceofabsolutethreedimensionalspaceanduniversaltime,Einstein
positedaninvariant,fourdimensionalspacetime.
SpacetimeisunthinkableinaNewtonianregime.Thatistosay:Noamount
ofexperimentationandthinkingdrivenbyNewtonianlogiccouldhavearrivedat
theconceptofspacetime,sinceabsolutespaceandtimeareessentialterms
undergirdingtheNewtonianequationsdescribingmotion.Beforespecialrelativity,
spaceremainedsimplythepassivecontainerofallevents.14Again,theproblem
wasnotoneofclassicalphysicsvisionbuttheabsoluteepistemologicallimitsofthe
classicalproblematic.Inordertothinktheideasofspecialrelativity,Einsteinhadto
domorethannewcalculations;hehadtoreformulatetheverytermsonwhichhis
disciplineunderstooditstheoreticalobject.Inalettertoaclosefriend,Einstein
displayedhisclearunderstandingofthisepistemologicalnecessity:Aftereffortsto
discovertheprivilegedstateofmovementofthishypotheticaletherthrough
experimentshadfailed,itseemedthattheproblemshouldberestated.Thatiswhat
thetheoryofrelativitydid.Itassumedthattherearenoprivilegedphysicalstatesof
movementandaskedwhatconsequencescouldbedrawnfromthis.15Inrestating
theproblemandposingthequestionwhatistime?Einsteinproduce[d]theasyet
unposedquestion,whichtheasyetunaskedforansweranswered.16This,
Althusserargues,istheexactprocessbywhichanewproblematicisconstituted.
14AlbertEinstein,TheProblemofSpace,Ether,andtheFieldinPhysics(1934)in
IdeasandOpinions.(NewYork:Bonanza.)28015WalterIsaacson,Einstein,131.Emphasismine16LouisAlthusserFromCapitaltoMarxsPhilosophyinReadingCapital,Trans.BenBrewster(London:Verso,1997),23
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Fromtheperspectiveofthisnewproblematicitisfinallypossibleto
understandthetruetheoreticalstatusoftheether,whichnolongerappearsto
simplybeanincorrectanswer.RetrospectivelyreadingtheterrainoftheNewtonian
problematic,itisnoweasytoseehowphysicalspaceandtheetherareonly
differenttermsforthesamething.[But]ifnoparticularstateofmotioncanbe
ascribedtotheether,theredoesnotseemtobeanygroundforintroducingitasan
entityofaspecialsortalongsideofspace.17Thetheoreticalappearanceoftheether
isaneffectoftheNewtonianproblematicitself,whichrequiredsomewaytobridge
thegapinlogicbetweenMaxwellswaveequations(thesemathematicallyderived
equationsnowappearasprematureelementsanticipatingthemodernproblematic)
andthesolelymechanicaleffectivityofNewtoniandynamics.ItistheNewtonian
answertothequestionunaskedinclassicalproblematic:Whatisspace?
Inepistemologicalterms,theetherisamanifestationoftheideology
requiredbytheoldproblematic.AdaptingAlthussersformulationtothe
knowledgesoftheoreticalphysicsitispossibletounderstandhowideologymust
bethoughtofasslidingintoallthepartsoftheedifice,andconsideredasa
distinctivekindofcementthatassurestheadjustmentandcohesionof[elements]in
theirroles,theirfunctions,andtheir[physical]relations.18Thiscementfillsinthe
problematicsstructuralfissures,suturestogetherincorrectlyformulated
theoreticalobjects,andensurestheseelementsproperfunctioningaccordingtothe
logicofthegivenproblematic.Thisiswhy,inordertorejecttheexistenceofthe
17AlbertEinstein,TheProblemofSpace,Ether,andtheFieldinPhysics,28118LouisAlthusser,Theory,theoreticalpracticeandtheoreticalformation:Ideologyandideologicalstruggle,25
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ether,heneededtoeffectawholesalebreakwithastructurethatnotonlyharbored
thesespecificideologicalconceptsbutwasafundamentallyideologicalproblematic:
atotalsystemof[ideological]representations,asystemthatis,inprinciple,
orientatedanddistorted,asystemdominatedbya falseconceptionoftheworld
[and]ofthedomainofobjectsunderconsideration.19Thisiswhy,beforehecould
explaintimedilationorLorenzcontraction,Einsteinwascompelledtorefoundhis
disciplineinaproperlyscientificproblematic.
QuantumMechanics:FundamentalUncertainty
InMay1905,beforepublishingthefirstpaperofhismiracleyear,Einstein
correspondedwithaclosefriendaboutfourpapershewasworkingon.Thefirst,
hewrote,dealswithradiationandtheenergypropertiesoflightandisvery
revolutionary.20Hewasright.Thepaper,OnaHeuristicPointofViewConcerning
theProductionandTransformationofLight,builtonMaxPlancksrecentworkon
blackbodyradiationandcompletelyupendedtheclassicaltheoryofthenatureof
light.ThesuccessofMaxwellsequationshadthoroughlyconvincedphysiciststhat
light,likeallelectromagneticradiation,isawave.However,Einsteinarguedinhis
paperthatawavetheoryoflightdidnottellthewholestory;therewereaspectsof
lightsbehaviorthatindicateditcouldbedescribedinconcertascomposedof
discretepacketsofenergy.
19Ibid.24.20WalterIsaacson,Einstein,93
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In1900Planckhadbeenstudyingthespectraofblackbodyradiation,a
problemthathadthusfareludedinductiveexplanation.Hisattemptstoproducea
mathematicalmodelofthespectrawereunsuccessfuluntilhereluctantlyapplied
LudwigBoltzmannsstatisticalmethods,whichhehadpreviouslyresisted.
Strangely,hecouldonlygetthemodeltoworkifheincludedanunexpectedtiny
constant:h=6.62607x1034jouleseconds.Planckexplainedthisunexpected
parameter,todaycalledPlancksConstant,asanartifactofhiscalculationthat
modelshowmatterabsorbsandemitsenergy.Whileherealizedhwasthemost
importantaspectofhisresearch,herefusedtobelieveitwasanintrinsic
characteristicofenergy.Heimaginedthatmoleculesofmatteractedliketiny
harmonicoscillators,whichareonlyabletoabsorbenergyinspecific,discrete
quantities.Heassumedthemoleculesofmattercouldonlyabsorbelectromagnetic
energyinmultiplesofsomeminisculequantity.Inthisview,quantizationwas
merelyaneffectofmatterabsorbingandemittingenergy,notacharacteristicofthe
energyitself.
EinsteinstartedwithPlancksresultbutassumedhtohavemorephysical
significance;heimaginedthatlightreallyiscomposedofdiscretepointsofenergy.
Hecalledtheselocalizedparticlesquanta,thesmallestpossibleunitsofenergy.
Thetrulyrevolutionaryaspectofthetheory,however,wasthatEinsteindidnot
completelydiscardtheclassicalwavetheoryoflight,bestdescribedbyMaxwell.
Instead,hearguedthatlightcouldnotbefullydescribedbyeithertheoretical
formulation.TheideaofanemissiontheoryoflightwasnotnewevenNewton
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heldthisbeliefitwasEinsteinsabilitytothinkthisintrinsicdualitythatupsetthe
categoriesphysicistshadrelieduponforgenerations.
AfterEinsteinspaperwaspublished,ittookyearsforthescientific
communitytounderstandandaccepttheintrinsicwave/particledualityoflight.
Mostastonishingly,Planckhimselfresistedtheconceptforquitesometimesinceit
underminedhisstrictlyclassicalunderstandingofthephysicalworld.
Philosophically,assertingthisdualityrestoredtheproperrelationbetweenthe
knowledgeanditsproperobject.Physicistsinitialideologicalmisgivingsabout
quantummechanicswerefoundedonanincorrect,empiricistepistemologythat
confusedthetrueobjectofknowledge,preventingscientificprogress.Inan
empiricistproblematic,knowledgeiscompletelyinscribedinthestructureofthe
realobject,intheformofthedifferencebetweentheinessentialandtheessential.
Knowledgeisthereforealreadyreallypresentintherealobjectithastoknow.21In
thismodelofknowledgeproduction,controlledexperimentsaredesignedtostrip
awaythedrossoftheinessentialtoexposeandprobethekerneloftruth,i.e.,its
knowledge.Thus,accordingtothisempiricism,thecategoriesproducedin
knowledgearereallyexistingcategoriesintherealobjectitself.Intermsofthe
problemoflight,thiswasthemistakeofclassicalphysicists:toattributethe
absolutecategoriesofwaveandparticledynamics(categoriesthatareproductions
inknowledge)totherealobjectitself(light).Inotherwords,physicistsascribedthe
sameabsolutedifferencebetweenandradicalnonidentityofwavesandparticlesto
therealphenomenonoflightpropagationthatexistedintheirsystemofknowledge.
21LouisAlthusserFromCapitaltoMarxsPhilosophy,38
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Onceagain,Einsteinwasabletorefoundhisdisciplineonanappropriately
scientificfooting,thistimebypracticallyassertingtheproperrelationbetween
knowledgeanditsobject.Maintainingscientificityrequiresawarenessofthe
distinctionbetweentherealobjectandtheobjectofknowledge,aproductofthe
thoughtwhichproducesitinitselfasathought-object,absolutelydistinctfromthe
realobject.22Thus,therealobjectlightpropagationisabstractedtoproducea
theoreticalobject,whichistheonestudiedbyphysicists.Einsteinrecognizedthis
epistemologicallynecessarydifferencebyrealizing(atleastinapracticalmanner)
howtheproductionprocessoftheobjectofknowledgetakesplaceentirelyin
knowledgeandiscarriedoutaccordingtoadifferentorder,inwhichthethought
categorieswhichreproducetherealcategoriesdonotoccupythesameplaceas
theydointheorderofrealhistoricalgenesis,butquitedifferentplacesassigned
thembytheirfunctionintheproductionprocessoftheobjectofknowledge.23The
empiricisterroroftheconservativephysicistscanthereforebereadasa
calcificationanddisavowalofthisprocess.Becausetheirdisciplinewasnot
sufficientlytheorized,becauseclassicalphysicsneverinterrogateditsproblematic,
thisprocessofknowledgeproductionwasforgottenandtheybegantoconfusethe
wave/particlecategoriesconstructedasaprocessualelementoftheproductionof
physicalknowledgewiththenaturalcharacteristicsoftherealobjectitself.They
forgotthattheircategorieswereproducedtorationalize,divide,andmakemeaning
outofNature.TheyforgotthatNaturedidntfollowthelawssetoutbymen.
22Ibid.41.23Ibid.
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AfterEinsteinwasabletoconvincethephysicsestablishmenttosoftenthe
logicoftheirmutuallyexclusivecategoriesworkonquantummechanicsexploded.
ThepaceofinnovationincreasedsorapidlythatEinsteinhimselfwentfrombeing
aniconoclasticinsurgenttoafigureofconservativeauthority.AsEinsteinaged,
youngerphysicistsBohr,Born,deBroglie,Schrdinger,Pauli,Dirac,and
Heisenbergtooktheleadinprobingtheprofoundlyweirdcharacteristicsofthe
universeatthissmallscale.Increasingly,Einsteinnotonlyfoundhimselffollowing
theworkoftheseothersbutalsorefusedanytheoreticaladvancethatundermined
hisfoundationalbeliefinthestrictdeterminismoftheuniverse.Inaparticularlyapt
quip,Einsteinremarked,Topunishmeformycontemptofauthority,Fatehas
mademeanauthoritymyself.24
JustasPlanckhadresistedEinsteinsradicalleapfromhisblackbodyresults,
EinsteinbecameapowerfulvoiceagainsttheworkoftheNielsBohrandhis
Copenhagenschool.ThetheoreticalworkofWernerHeisenbergdisturbedEinstein
mostprofoundly.In1927,Heisenbergformulatedhis(in)famousuncertainty
principle,whichstatedthatitisimpossibletosimultaneouslyknowboththeexact
positionandexactmomentumofaparticleatanygiventime.CombinedwithErwin
Schrdingersstatisticalapproachtodeterminingaparticleslocationwithwave
functions,quantummechanicsinsertedafundamentaluncertaintyintothephysical
knowledgeoftheuniverse.TheimplicationsofHeisenbergsUncertaintyPrinciple
(andtheothersthatfollowed)werebothnumerousandprofound.Experimentation
couldnolongerbetreatedasatransparentexperienceofthereallyexistingreality
24WalterIsaacson,Einstein,317
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oftheuniversesincetheveryactofmeasurementcausedacollapseofthewave
functionandchangedtheresult.Therewasnolongeraconceptofemptiness,since
evenavacuumwasproventohaveapredictablezeropointenergy.Itwasnolonger
possibletounequivocallylocateaparticlewithanaccuracythatdependedonlyon
thesensitivityofthemeasuringapparatus.Insteadofspeakingaboutindividual
particles,physicistswerereducedtomakingstatisticalandprobabilisticstatements
aboutapopulationofparticles.(Eachofthesequantummechanicalresultshasan
interestingschematicrelationshipwithAlthusserianthought,particularlyhislater
writingonthematerialismoftheencounter.However,thesefascinatingissuesare
beyondthescopeofthisessay.)Butthelossofstrictlydeterministiccausalitywas
thedevelopmentthatmostdisturbedEinstein,whousedalectureonthe200th
anniversaryofNewtonsbirthtopubliclydeclarehishope:Maythespiritof
Newtonsmethodgiveusthepowertorestoretheunionbetweenphysicalreality
andtheprofoundestcharacteristicofNewtonsteachingstrictcausality.25
BeyondtheintransienceofhisbeliefinaGodwhowouldntplaydicewith
theuniverse,Einsteinsreactionarystancevisvisfundamentalquantum
indeterminacyreflectsamisunderstandingoftheepistemologicalchangesto
physicsheinitiated.Bohrsummedupthechange:Itiswrongtothinkthatthetask
ofphysicsistofindouthownatureis.Physicsconcernswhatwecansayabout
nature.26Bohr,alongwithHeisenberg(Ibelievethatindeterminism,thatis,the
nonvalidityofrigorouscausality,isnecessary.27)andothers,understoodtheneed
25Ibid.333.26Ibid.27Ibid.332.
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forphilosophytokeeppacewithachangingscience.Andthischangeispartofthe
natureofscienceitself;Althusserargues,Theideawehaveofscienceisdecisivefor
scienceitself.Ifwehaveadogmaticconceptionwewilldonothingtodevelopit,we
willindefinitelyrepeatitsresults,andnotonlywillthesciencenotprogress,itwill
wither.28ItisasadfactthatEinsteinwasnotabletoplaceasmuchfaceinhisown
radicaltheoreticalpracticeashisfollowers.However,thismaybeacorrelative
resultofhowperfectlyhismindwasmatchedtotheconjunctureofhismiracleyear.
Indeed,itisalmostfittingforthelaterlifeofaman,whoseunrivaledintuitivegrasp
ofscientificepistemologyrevolutionizedhumanknowledgeoftheuniverse,toserve
asawarningagainstthedangereverysciencefaces:scienceisconstantly
submittedtotheonslaughtofexistingideologies,andparticularlytothatmost
disarmingbecauseapparentlynonideologicalideologywhereinthescientist
spontaneouslyreflectshis/herownpractice:empiricistorpositivistideology.29
Perhapsthisdangerisexactlywhyaparticularencounterisalwaysfinite:because
theplayersarealwaysspecifictothatparticularconjuncture.Whatittakestomake
oneencountertakeholdisspecificandnontransferrabletothenext.
_____________________
Thispaperrepresentsaninitialattempttobringtwohighlytheoretical
discursivefieldsintocontactandcloseswithmoredanglingquestionsthanfinished
answers.Hopefully,futureworkontheepistemologicalproblemsofclassical
physicsandongoingscientificinquiryofitsmodernoffspringwillproducemore
28LouisAlthusser,Theory,theoreticalpracticeandtheoreticalformation:Ideology
andideologicalstruggle,14.29Ibid.12.
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satisfyingconnectionsbetweentheAlthusserianphilosophyandthecontentand
formoftheoreticalphysics.Fromallusiontophysicalprocessestoinvocationsof
Newton,Althusserswritingcallsoutforthiskindofproject.Quantummechanics
andrelativityspecificallygeneralrelativity,whichwaslargelyignoredbythis
papersinceEinsteindevelopeditmanyyearsafterhisprimarybreakwithclassical
mechanicspresentuniquechallengestoaMarxistphilosophyofscience,which
alsoworkstoproduceknowledgesofthemostfundamentalaspectsoftheworld.
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LouisAlthusser.Theory,theoreticalpracticeandtheoreticalformation:Ideologyand
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scientistsandotheressays,Ed.GregoryElliott(London:Verso,1990)pp.142
FromCapitaltoMarxsPhilosophyinReadingCapital.Trans.BenBrewster.
(London:Verso,1997)pp.1170.
AlbertEinstein,OntheMethodofTheoreticalPhysics(1934)inIdeasandOpinions
(NewYork:Bonanza)pp.271276.
TheProblemofSpace,Ether,andtheFieldinPhysics(1934)inIdeasand
Opinions(NewYork:Bonanza)pp.276285.
WalterIsaacson,Einstein(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,2007)
BrianGreene,TheElegantUniverse(NewYork:Vintage,2003)