Welsh language

Welsh (Cymraeg or y Gymraeg, pronounced [kəmˈrɑːɨɡ,ə ɡəmˈrɑːɨɡ]) is a member of the Brittonic branch of theCeltic languages spoken natively in Wales, by some alongtheWelsh border in England, and in YWladfa (theWelshcolony in Chubut Province, Argentina).[7] Historically ithas also been known in English as “the British tongue”,[8]“Cambrian”,[9] “Cambric”[10] and “Cymric”.[11]

The 2011 UK Census counted 3.1 million residents ofWales. Of these, 73% (2.2 million) reported having noWelsh language skills. Of the residents of Wales, 25% ofthe population is not from the country. Of the residentsof Wales aged three and over, 19% (562,000) reportedbeing able to speak Welsh, and 77% of these were ableto speak, read, and write the language (making 431,000– 15% of the total population).[12] This can be comparedwith the 2001 Census, in which 20.8% of the population(582,000) reported being able to speak Welsh.[13] In sur-veys carried out between 2004 and 2006, 57% (315,000)of Welsh speakers described themselves as fluent in thewritten language.[14]

A greeting in Welsh is one of 55 languages includedon the Voyager Golden Record chosen to be represen-tative of Earth in NASA’s Voyager program launched in1977.[15] The greetings are unique to each language, withthe Welsh greeting being Iechyd da i chwi yn awr ac ynoesoedd, which translates into English as “Good health toyou now and forever”.[16][17]

The Welsh Language (Wales) Measure 2011 gave theWelsh language official status in Wales,[18] making it theonly language that is de jure official in any part of theUnited Kingdom, English being de facto official.Throughout Wales, roadsigns are bilingual with Welshand English (e.g. Chepstow is the English name, alsogiven as Cas-gwent which is the Welsh name). The lan-guage that appears on the signs first is decided by the localgovernment.

1 History

Main article: History of the Welsh languageWelsh emerged in the 6th century from Common Brit-tonic, the common ancestor of Welsh, Breton, Cornishand the extinct language known as Cumbric.Four periods are identified in the history of Welsh, withrather indistinct boundaries: The period immediately fol-lowing the language’s emergence from Brittonic is some-times referred to as PrimitiveWelsh;[19] this was followed

This tattered Welsh Bible of 1620, in Llanwnda church, is saidto have been rescued from the hands of French invaders in 1797.

by the Old Welsh period, considered to stretch from thebeginning of the 9th century to the 12th century.[19] TheMiddle Welsh period is considered to have lasted fromthen until the 14th century, when the Modern Welsh pe-riod began, which in turn divided into Early and LateModern Welsh.The name Welsh originated as an exonym given to itsspeakers by the Anglo-Saxons, meaning “foreign speech”(seeWalha). The native term for the language is Cymraegand Cymru for “Wales”.

1.1 Origins

Welsh evolved from British, the Celtic language spokenby the ancient Britons. Alternatively classified as InsularCeltic or P-Celtic, it probably arrived in Britain duringthe Bronze Age or Iron Age and was probably spokenthroughout the island south of the Firth of Forth.[20] Dur-ing the Early Middle Ages the British language began tofragment due to increased dialect differentiation, evolv-ing intoWelsh and the other Brythonic languages (Breton,Cornish, and the extinct Cumbric). It is not clear whenWelsh became distinct.[21]

Kenneth H. Jackson suggested that the evolution in syl-labic structure and sound pattern was complete by around550, and labeled the period between then and about 800“Primitive Welsh”.[21] This Primitive Welsh may havebeen spoken in both Wales and the Hen Ogledd (“OldNorth”), the Brythonic-speaking areas of what is nownorthern England and southern Scotland, and thereforebeen the ancestor of Cumbric as well as Welsh. Jackson,

1

2 2 GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION

however, believed that the two varieties were already dis-tinct by that time.[21] The earliest Welsh poetry – that at-tributed to the Cynfeirdd or “Early Poets” – is generallyconsidered to date to the Primitive Welsh period. How-ever, much of this poetry was supposedly composed inthe Hen Ogledd, raising further questions about the dat-ing of the material and language in which it was originallycomposed.[21]

1.2 Old Welsh

Main article: Old Welsh

The next main period, somewhat better attested, is OldWelsh (Hen Gymraeg, 9th to 11th centuries); poetry fromboth Wales and Scotland has been preserved in this formof the language. As Germanic and Gaelic colonisation ofGreat Britain proceeded, the Brythonic speakers inWaleswere split off from those in northern England, speak-ing Cumbric, and those in the south-west, speaking whatwould become Cornish, and so the languages diverged.Both the Poetry of Aneirin (Canu Aneirin, c. AD 600)and the Poetry, or Book, of Taliesin (Canu Taliesin) werein this era.

1.3 Middle Welsh

Main article: Middle Welsh

Middle Welsh (Cymraeg Canol) is the label attached tothe Welsh of the 12th to 14th centuries, of which muchmore remains than for any earlier period. This is thelanguage of nearly all surviving early manuscripts of theMabinogion, although the tales themselves are certainlymuch older. It is also the language of the existing Welshlaw manuscripts. Middle Welsh is reasonably intelligible,albeit with some work, to a modern-day Welsh speaker.The famous cleric Gerald of Wales tells a story of KingHenry II of England. During one of the King’s many raidsin the 12th century, Henry asked an old man of Pencader,Carmarthenshire, whether he thought theWelsh languagehad any chance:

Never will it be destroyed by the wrath of man,unless the wrath of God be added, nor do Ithink that any other nation than this of Wales,or any other tongue, whatever may hereaftercome to pass, shall on the day of the great reck-oning before the Most High Judge, answer forthis corner of the Earth.[22]

1.4 Welsh Bible

The Bible translations into Welsh helped to maintain theuse of Welsh in daily life. The New Testament was trans-

The 1588 Welsh Bible

lated by William Salesbury in 1567 followed by the com-plete Bible by William Morgan in 1588.

2 Geographic distribution

Welsh has been spoken continuously in Wales throughoutrecorded history, but by 1911 it had become a minoritylanguage, spoken by 43.5% of the population.[23] Whilethis decline continued over the following decades, the lan-guage did not die out. By the start of the twenty-first cen-tury, numbers had begun to increase again. The 2004Welsh Language Use Survey showed 21.7% of the popu-lation ofWales spokeWelsh,[24] compared with 20.8% inthe 2001 census, and 18.5% in 1991. The 2011 census,however, showed a slight decline to 562,000, or 19% ofthe population.[25] The census also showed a “big drop” inthe number of speakers in theWelsh-speaking heartlands,with the number dropping to under 50% in Ceredigionand Carmarthenshire for the first time.[26]

The number of Welsh-speaking people in the rest ofBritain has not yet been compiled for statistical purposes.In 1993, the Welsh-language television channel S4C pub-lished the results of a survey into the numbers of peo-ple who spoke or understoodWelsh, which estimated thatthere were around 133,000 Welsh-speaking people living

3

The proportion of respondents in the 2011 census who said theycould speak Welsh.

in England, about 50,000 of them in the Greater Londonarea.[27] The Welsh Language Board, on the basis of ananalysis of the Office for National Statistics Longitudi-nal Study, estimated there were 110,000 Welsh-speakingpeople in England, and another thousand in Scotland andNorthern Ireland.[28]

Welsh-speaking communities persisted well on intothe modern period across the border with England.Archenfield was still Welsh enough in the time ofElizabeth I for the Bishop of Hereford to be made re-sponsible, together with the four Welsh bishops, for thetranslation of the Bible and the Book of Common Prayerinto Welsh. Welsh was still commonly spoken here in thefirst half of the nineteenth century, and churchwardens’notices were put up in bothWelsh and English until about1860.[29]

Historically, large numbers of Welsh people spoke onlyWelsh.[30] Over the course of the twentieth century thismonolingual population “all but disappeared”, but a smallpercentage remained at the time of the 1981 census.[31]Most Welsh-speaking people in Wales also speak English(while in Chubut Province, Argentina, most speakers canspeak Spanish – see Y Wladfa). However, many Welsh-speaking people are more comfortable expressing them-selves in Welsh than in English. A speaker’s choice oflanguage can vary according to the subject domain andthe social context, even within a single discourse (knownin linguistics as code-switching).Welsh as a first language is largely concentrated in thenorth and west of Wales, principally Gwynedd, Conwy,Denbighshire (Sir Ddinbych), Anglesey (Ynys Môn), Car-marthenshire (Sir Gâr), north Pembrokeshire (Sir Ben-fro), Ceredigion, parts of Glamorgan (Morgannwg), and

north-west and extreme south-west Powys, although first-language and other fluent speakers can be found through-out Wales.

3 Current status

3.1 Official status

Trilingual (Spanish, Welsh and English) sign in Argentina

Bilingual roadmarkings near CardiffAirport. InWelsh-speakingareas, the Welsh signage appears first.

Although Welsh is a minority language, support for itgrew during the second half of the 20th century, alongwith the rise of organisations such as the nationalist po-litical party Plaid Cymru from 1925 and Cymdeithas yrIaith Gymraeg (the Welsh Language Society) from 1962.The Welsh Language Act 1993 and the Government ofWales Act 1998 provide that the Welsh and English lan-guages be treated equally in the public sector, as far as isreasonable and practicable. Each public body is requiredto prepare for approval aWelsh Language Scheme, whichindicates its commitment to the equality of treatment

4 3 CURRENT STATUS

principle. This is sent out in draft form for public consul-tation for a three-month period, whereupon comments onit may be incorporated into a final version. It requires thefinal approval of the now defunct Welsh Language Board(Bwrdd yr Iaith Gymraeg). Thereafter, the public bodyis charged with implementing and fulfilling its obligationsunder the Welsh Language Scheme. The list of otherpublic bodies which have to prepare Schemes could beadded to by initially the Secretary of State forWales, from1993–1997, by way of Statutory Instrument. Subsequentto the forming of the National Assembly for Wales in1997, the GovernmentMinister responsible for theWelshlanguage can and has passed Statutory Instruments nam-ing public bodies who have to prepare Schemes. Neither1993 Act nor secondary legislation made under it coverthe private sector, although some organisations, notablybanks and some railway companies, provide some of theirliterature through the medium of Welsh.On 7 December 2010, the Welsh Assembly unanimouslyapproved a set of measures to develop the use of theWelsh language withinWales.[32][33] On 9 February 2011,this measure received Royal Approval and was passed,thus making the Welsh language an officially recognisedlanguage within Wales.[34] The Measure:

• confirms the official status of the Welsh language;

• creates a new system of placing duties on bodies toprovide services through the medium of Welsh;

• creates a Welsh Language Commissioner withstrong enforcement powers to protect the rights ofWelsh-speaking people to access services throughthe medium of Welsh;

• establishes a Welsh Language Tribunal;

• gives individuals and bodies the right to appeal de-cisions made in relation to the provision of servicesthrough the medium of Welsh

• creates a Welsh Language Partnership Council toadvise Government on its strategy in relation to theWelsh language;

• allows for an official investigation by the WelshLanguage Commissioner of instances where thereis an attempt to interfere with the freedom ofWelsh-speaking people to use the language with oneanother.[35]

With the passing of this measure, public bodies and someprivate companies will be required to provide servicesin it, though it remains to be seen which companies willhave to comply. The Minister for Heritage, Alun FfredJones, said, “The Welsh language is a source of greatpride for the people of Wales, whether they speak it ornot, and I am delighted that this Measure has now be-come law. I am very proud to have steered legislationthrough the Assembly which confirms the official status

of the Welsh language; which creates a strong advocateforWelsh speakers and will improve the quality and quan-tity of services available through the medium of Welsh. Ibelieve that everyone who wants to access services in theWelsh language should be able to do so, and that is whatthis government has worked towards. This legislation isan important and historic step forward for the language,its speakers and for the nation.”[35] The measure was notwelcomed warmly by all supporters; Bethan Williams,chairperson of language campaign group Cymdeithas yrIaith Gymraeg, gave a mixed response to the move, say-ing, “Through this measure we have won official status forthe language and that has been warmly welcomed. Butthere was a core principle missing in the law passed bythe Assembly before Christmas. It doesn't give languagerights to the people ofWales in every aspect of their lives.Despite that, an amendment to that effect was supportedby 18 Assembly Members from three different parties,and that was a significant step forward.”[36]

On 5 October 2011, Meri Huws, Chair of the WelshLanguage Board was appointed the newWelsh LanguageCommissioner.[37] In a statement released by her, shesaid that she was “delighted” to have been appointed tothe “hugely important role”, adding, “I look forward toworking with the Welsh Government and organisationsin Wales in developing the new system of standards. Iwill look to build on the good work that has been done bythe Welsh Language Board and others to strengthen theWelsh language and ensure that it continues to thrive.”First Minister Carwyn Jones said that Meri will act as achampion for the Welsh language, though some had con-cerns over her appointment; Plaid Cymru spokeswomanBethan Jenkins said, “I have concerns about the transitionfrom Meri Huws’s role from the Welsh Language Boardto the language commissioner, and I will be asking theWelsh government how this will be successfully managed.We must be sure that there is no conflict of interest, andthat the Welsh Language Commissioner can demonstratehow she will offer the required fresh approach to this newrole.” She started her role as the Welsh Language Com-missioner on 1 April 2012.Local councils and the National Assembly for Wales useWelsh, to varying degrees, issuing their literature andpublicity in Welsh versions (e.g. letters to parents fromschools, library information, and council information)and most road signs in Wales are in English and Welsh,including the Welsh placenames. However, some refer-ences to destinations in England are still given in Englishonly, even where there are long-established Welsh names(e.g. London: Llundain; The [English] Midlands: Canol-barth Lloegr).Since 2000, the teaching of Welsh has been compulsoryin all schools in Wales up to age 16, and that has had amajor effect in stabilising and to some extent reversingthe decline in the language. It means, for example, thateven the children of non-Welsh-speaking parents fromelsewhere in theUK grow upwith a knowledge of or com-

3.2 Welsh in education 5

plete fluency in the language.Although most road signs throughoutWales are bilingual,the wording on currency is in English only. The one ex-ception is the legend on Welsh pound coins dated 1985,1990 and 1995 (which are legal tender in all parts of theUK): Pleidiol wyf i'm gwlad, which means “True am Ito my country”) and derives from the national anthem ofWales, Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau. The new British coinagefrom 2008 will not bear anyWelsh language at all, despitebeing designed by a resident of North Wales and beingminted at the RoyalMint in Llantrisant, SouthWales. Al-though many shops employ bilingual signage, Welsh stillrarely appears on product packaging or instructions.TheUK government has ratified the European Charter forRegional or Minority Languages in respect of Welsh.[38]

Bilingual road sign near Wrexham Central station.

The language has greatly increased its prominence sincethe creation of the television channel S4C in Novem-ber 1982, which until digital switchover in 2010 broad-cast 70% of Channel 4’s programming along with a ma-jority of Welsh language shows[39] during peak viewinghours. The all-Welsh-language digital station S4C Digi-dol is available throughout Europe on satellite and on-line throughout the UK. Since the digital switchover wascompleted in South Wales on 31 March 2010, S4C Digi-dol became the main broadcasting channel and fully inWelsh. The main evening television news provided bythe BBC in Welsh is available for download.[40] There isalso a Welsh-language radio station, BBC Radio Cymru,which was launched in 1977.There is, however, no daily newspaper in Welsh, theonly Welsh-language national newspaper Y Cymro (“TheWelshman”) being published once a week. A daily news-paper called Y Byd (“The World”) was scheduled to belaunched on 3 March 2008, but was scrapped,[41] ow-ing to poor sales of subscriptions and the Welsh Gov-ernment deeming the publication not to meet the crite-ria necessary for the kind of public funding it needed tobe rescued. There is, however a Welsh-language onlinenews service which publishes online news stories inWelshcalled Golwg360.Persons applying for naturalisation in the UK are required

to have both an understanding of life in the UK and suf-ficient knowledge of either the Welsh language, Englishor Scottish Gaelic.[42]

3.2 Welsh in education

Main article: Welsh medium educationThe decade around 1840 was a period of great social up-

Children at a Welsh language school in Wales, 2008

heaval inWales, manifested in the Chartist movement. In1839, 20,000 people marched on Newport, resulting in ariot when 20 people were killed by soldiers defending theWestgate Hotel, and the Rebecca Riots where tollboothson turnpikes were systematically destroyed.This unrest brought the state of education in Wales tothe attention of the English establishment since social re-formers of the time considered education as a means ofdealing with social ills. The Times newspaper was promi-nent among those who considered that the lack of educa-tion of the Welsh people was the root cause of most ofthe problems.In July 1846, three commissioners, R.R.W. Lingen, Jel-lynger C. Symons and H.R. Vaughan Johnson, were ap-pointed to inquire into the state of education inWales; theCommissioners were all Anglicans and were presumedto be unsympathetic to the non-conformist majority inWales. The Commissioners presented their report to theGovernment on 1 July 1847 in three large blue-boundvolumes. This report quickly became known as Brad yLlyfrau Gleision (The Treachery of the Blue Books)[43]since, apart from documenting the state of education inWales, the Commissioners were also free with their com-ments disparaging the language, non-conformity, and themorals of the Welsh people in general. An immediateeffect of the report was for a belief to take root in theminds of ordinary people that the only way for Welshpeople to get on in the world was through the mediumof English, and an inferiority complex developed aboutthe Welsh language whose effects have not yet been com-pletely eradicated. The historian Professor Kenneth O.Morgan referred to the significance of the report and itsconsequences as “the Glencoe and the Amritsar of Welshhistory”.[44]

In the later 19th century virtually all teaching in theschools of Wales was in English, even in areas where

6 3 CURRENT STATUS

Welsh language as the medium of instruction

the pupils barely understood English. Some schools usedthe Welsh Not, a piece of wood, often bearing the let-ters “WN”, which was hung around the neck of any pupilcaught speaking Welsh. The pupil could pass it on to anyschoolmate heard speakingWelsh, with the pupil wearingit at the end of the day being given a beating. One of themost famous Welsh-born pioneers of higher education inWales was Sir Hugh Owen. Hemade great progress in thecause of education and more especially, the UniversityCollege of Wales at Aberystwyth, of which he was chieffounder. He has been credited with the Welsh Interme-diate Education Act 1889, following which several newWelsh schools were built. The first was completed in1894 and named Ysgol Syr Hugh Owen.Towards the beginning of the 20th century this policyslowly began to change, partly owing to the efforts ofOwen Morgan Edwards when he became chief inspectorof schools for Wales in 1907.The Aberystwyth Welsh School (Ysgol GymraegAberystwyth) was founded in 1939 by Sir Ifan ap OwenEdwards, the son of O.M. Edwards, as the first WelshPrimary School. The headteacher was Norah Isaac.Ysgol Gymraeg is still a very successful school, and nowthere are Welsh language primary schools all over thecountry. Ysgol Glan Clwyd was established in Rhyl in1955 as the first Welsh language school to teach at thesecondary level.Welsh is now widely used in education, with 20%of all pupils in Wales being taught at Welsh-mediumschools.[45] Under the National Curriculum, it is compul-sory that all students should study Welsh up to the ageof 16, either as a first language or a second language.[46]Some students choose to continue with their studiesthrough the medium of Welsh for the completion of theirA-levels as well as during their college years. All localeducation authorities in Wales have schools providingbilingual or Welsh-medium education.[47] The remain-der study Welsh as a second language in English-mediumschools. Specialist teachers of Welsh called AthrawonBro support the teaching of Welsh in the National Cur-

Sign promoting the learning of Welsh

riculum. Welsh is also taught in adult education classes.The Welsh Government has recently set up six centresof excellence in the teaching of Welsh for Adults, withcentres in North Wales (learncymraeg.org), Mid Wales,South West, Glamorgan, Gwent. and Cardiff.The ability to speak Welsh or to have Welsh as a quali-fication is desirable for certain career choices in Wales,such as teaching or customer service.[48] All universitiesin Wales teach courses in Welsh. Aberystwyth, Cardiff,Bangor, and Swansea have all had chairs in Welsh sincetheir virtual establishment, and all their schools of Welshare successful centres for the study of the Welsh lan-guage and its literature, offering a BA in Welsh as well aspost-graduate courses. Following a commitment made inthe OneWales coalition government between Labour andPlaid Cymru, the Coleg Cymraeg Cenedlaethol (WelshLanguage National College) was established. The pur-pose of the federal structured college, spread out betweenall the universities of Wales, is to provide and also ad-vance Welsh medium courses and Welsh medium schol-arship and research in Welsh universities. Over the nextfew years, it is expected that there will be at least 100 lec-turers who teach through the medium of Welsh in sub-jects ranging from law, modern languages, social sci-ences, and also other sciences such as biological sciences.There is also a Welsh-medium academic journal calledGwerddon, which is a platform for academic research inWelsh and is published quarterly. There have been callsfor more teaching of Welsh in English-medium schools.

3.3 Welsh in information technology

Further information: List of Celtic-language media

As with many of the world’s languages, the Welsh lan-guage has seen an increased use and presence on theinternet, ranging from formal lists of terminology ina variety of fields[49] to Welsh language interfaces forWindows 7, Microsoft Windows XP, Vista, MicrosoftOffice, LibreOffice, OpenOffice.org, Mozilla Firefox anda variety of Linux distributions, and on-line services to

7

blogs kept in Welsh.[50] A variety of websites are alsoavailable in Welsh: the social networking site Facebookhas offered a Welsh version since 2009, and Wikipediasince July 2003.[51]

3.4 Mobile phone technology

In 2006 the Welsh Language Board launched a free soft-ware pack which enabled the use of SMS predictive textin Welsh.[52] At the National Eisteddfod of Wales 2009,a further announcement was made by the Welsh Lan-guage Board that the mobile phone company Samsungwas to work with the network provider Orange to pro-vide the first mobile phone in the Welsh language,[53]with the interface and the T9 dictionary on the SamsungS5600 available in theWelsh language. The model, avail-able with the Welsh language interface, has been avail-able since 1 September 2009, with plans to introduce iton other networks.[54]

On Android devices, user-created keyboards can beused.[55] iOS devices have fully supported the Welsh lan-guage since the release of iOS 8 in September 2014.Users can switch their device to Welsh to access appsthat are available in Welsh. Date and time on iOS isalso localized, as shown by the built-in Calendar appli-cation, as well as certain third party apps that have beenlocalized.[56]

3.5 Welsh in warfare

Secure communications are often difficult to achieve inwartime. Cryptography can be used to protect messages,but codes can be broken. Therefore, lesser-known lan-guages are sometimes encoded, so that even if the codeis broken, the message is still in a language few peopleknow. For example, Navajo code talkers were used bythe United States military during World War II. Simi-larly, the Royal Welch Fusiliers, a Welsh regiment serv-ing in Bosnia, usedWelsh for emergency communicationsthat needed to be secure.[57] Welsh was not used in theFalklands War because of the Welsh-speaking Argentinepopulation in Patagonia.

3.6 Use of Welsh at the European Union

In November 2008, the Welsh language was used at ameeting of the European Union’s Council of Ministersfor the first time. The HeritageMinister Alun Ffred Jonesaddressed his audience in Welsh and his words were in-terpreted into the EU’s 23 official languages. The offi-cial use of the language followed years of campaigning.Jones said “In the UK we have one of the world’s majorlanguages, English, as the mother tongue of many. Butthere is a diversity of languages within our islands. I amproud to be speaking to you in one of the oldest of these,

Welsh, the language of Wales.” He described the break-through as “more than [merely] symbolic” saying “Welshmight be one of the oldest languages to be used in theUK, but it remains one of the most vibrant. Our litera-ture, our arts, our festivals, our great tradition of song allfind expression through our language. And this is a pow-erful demonstration of how our culture, the very essenceof who we are, is expressed through language.”[58]

4 Vocabulary

Welsh vocabulary draws mainly from original Brittonicwords (wy “egg”, carreg “stone”), with some loans fromLatin (ffenestr “window” < Latin fenestra, gwin “wine” <Latin vinum), and English (silff “shelf”, giat “gate”).

5 Phonology

Main article: Welsh phonology

The phonology of Welsh is characterised by a number ofsounds that do not occur in English and are typologicallyrare in European languages, specifically the voicelessalveolar lateral fricative [ɬ], voiceless nasal stops [m̥], [n̥],and [ŋ̊], and voiceless rhotic [r̥]. Stress usually falls onthe penultimate syllable in polysyllabic words, while theword-final unstressed syllable receives a higher pitch thanthe stressed syllable.

6 Orthography

Main article: Welsh orthography

Welsh is written in a Latin alphabet traditionally consist-ing of 28 letters, of which eight are digraphs treated assingle letters for collation:

a, b, c, ch, d, dd, e, f, ff, g, ng, h, i, l, ll, m, n,o, p, ph, r, rh, s, t, th, u, w, y

In contrast to English practice, “w” and “y” are consideredvowel letters inWelsh alongwith “a”, “e”, “i”, “o” and “u”.The letter “j” is used in many everyday words borrowedfrom English, like jam, jôc “joke” and garej “garage”.The letters “k”, “q”, “v”, “x”, and “z” are used in sometechnical terms, like kilogram, volt and zero, but in allcases can be, and often are, replaced by Welsh letters:cilogram, folt and sero.[59] The letter “k” was in commonuse until the sixteenth century, but was dropped at thetime of the publication of the New Testament in Welsh,as William Salesbury explained: “C for K, because the

8 8 COUNTING SYSTEM

printers have not so many as the Welsh requireth”. Thischange was not popular at the time.[60]

The most common diacritic is the circumflex, which dis-ambiguates long vowels, most often in the case of homo-graphs, where the vowel is short in one word and long inthe other: e.g. man “place” vs mân “fine”, “small”.

7 Grammar

7.1 Morphology

Main articles: ColloquialWelsh morphology and LiteraryWelsh morphology

Welsh morphology has much in common with that of theother modern Insular Celtic languages, such as the useof initial consonant mutations, and the use of so-called"conjugated prepositions" (prepositions that fuse with thepersonal pronouns that are their object). Welsh nouns be-long to one of two grammatical genders, masculine andfeminine, but are not inflected for case. Welsh has a va-riety of different endings to indicate the plural, and twoendings to indicate the singular of some nouns. In spokenWelsh, verb inflection is indicated primarily by the use ofauxiliary verbs, rather than by the inflection of the mainverb. In literary Welsh, on the other hand, inflection ofthe main verb is usual.

7.2 Syntax

Main article: Welsh syntax

The canonical word order in Welsh is verb–subject–object.ColloquialWelsh inclines very strongly towards the use ofauxiliaries with its verbs. The present tense is constructedwith bod (“to be”) as an auxiliary verb, with the main verbappearing as a verbnoun (used in a way loosely equivalentto an infinitive) after the particle yn:

Mae Siân yn mynd i Lanelli

Siân is going to Llanelli.

Here mae is the third-person present form of bod, andmynd is the verbnoun meaning “to go”. The imperfect isconstructed in a similar manner, as are the periphrasticforms of the future and conditional tenses.In the preterite, future, and conditional tenses, there areinflected forms of all verbs (which are invariably usedin the written language). However, it is more commonnowadays in speech to use the verbnoun together with theinflected form of gwneud (“to do”), so “I went” can beMi

es i or Mi wnes i fynd. Mi is an example of a preverbalparticle; such particles are common in Welsh.Welsh lacks separate pronouns for constructing subordi-nate clauses; instead, special verb forms or relative pro-nouns which appear identical to some preverbal particlesare used.

7.3 Other features of Welsh grammar

7.3.1 Possessives as direct objects of verbnouns

TheWelsh for “I like Rhodri” isDw i'n hoffiRhodri (wordfor word, “am I in [the] liking [of] Rhodri”), where Rho-dri is in a possessive relationship with hoffi. With per-sonal pronouns, the possessive form of the personal pro-noun is used, as in “I like him": Dw i'n ei hoffi – literally,“am I in his liking” – “I like you" is Dw i'n dy hoffi (“amI in your liking”).

7.3.2 Pronoun doubling

In colloquial Welsh, possessive pronouns—whether usedto mean “my”, “your”, etc., or to indicate the direct ob-ject of a verbnoun—are commonly reinforced by the useof the corresponding personal pronoun after the nounor verbnoun: ei dŷ e “his house” (literally “his house ofhim"), Dw i'n dy hoffi di “I like you” (“I am [engaged inthe action of] your liking of you"), etc. It should be notedthat this “reinforcement” (or, simply, “redoubling”) addsno emphasis in the colloquial register. While the posses-sive pronoun alone may be used (as is especially commonin more formal registers, as shown above), it is consideredincorrect to use only the personal pronoun; such usage isnevertheless sometimes heard in very colloquial speech,mainly among young speakers: Ble 'dyn ni'n mynd? Tŷti neu dŷ fi? (“Where are we going? Your house or myhouse?").

8 Counting system

Main article: Welsh numerals

The traditional counting system used by the Welsh lan-guage is vigesimal, which is to say it is based on twen-ties, as in standard French numbers 70 (soixante-dix, lit-erally “sixty-ten”) to 99 (quatre-vingt-dix-neuf, literally“four twenties nineteen”). Welsh numbers from 11 to 14are "x on ten”, 16 to 19 are "x on fifteen” (though 18 isdeunaw, “two nines”); numbers from 21 to 39 are “1–19on twenty”, 40 is “two twenties”, 60 is “three twenties”,etc. This form continues to be used, especially by olderpeople, and it is obligatory in certain circumstances (suchas telling the time).[61]

9

There is also a decimal counting system, which has be-come relatively widely used, though less so in giving thetime, ages, and dates (it features no ordinal numbers).This system is in especially common use in schools dueto its simplicity, and in Patagonian Welsh. Whereas 39in the vigesimal system would be pedwar ar bymtheg arhugain (“four on fifteen on twenty”), in the decimal sys-tem it would be tri deg naw (“three tens nine”).Although there is only one word for “one” (un), it triggersthe soft mutation (treiglad meddal) of feminine nouns,other than those beginning with “ll” and “rh”. Thereare separate masculine and feminine forms of the num-bers “two” (dau and dwy), “three” (tri and tair) and“four” (pedwar and pedair), which must agree with thegrammatical gender of the objects being counted.

9 Dialects

There is no standard or definitive form of the Welsh lan-guage. Although Northern and Southern Welsh are thetwo commonly supposed main dialects, in reality addi-tional significant variations exist between areas. Theperhaps more useful traditional classification is of fourmain dialects - Y Wyndodeg, the language of Gwynedd;Y Bowyseg, the language of Powys; Y Ddyfedeg, thelanguage of Dyfed; and Y Wenhwyseg, the languageof Gwent and Morgannwg.[62] Fine-grained classifica-tions exist beyond those four: the book Cymraeg, Cym-râg, Cymrêg: Cyflwyno'r Tafodieithoedd (“Welsh, Welsh,Welsh: Introducing the Dialects”)[63] about Welsh di-alects was accompanied by a cassette containing record-ings of fourteen different speakers demonstrating aspectsof different area dialects. The book also refers to theearlier Linguistic Geography of Wales[64] as describingsix different regions which could be identified as havingwords specific to those regions.Another dialect is Patagonian Welsh, which has devel-oped since the start of Y Wladfa (the Welsh settlementin Argentina) in 1865; it includes Spanish loanwords andterms for local features, but a survey in the 1970s showedthat the language in Patagonia is consistent throughout thelower Chubut valley and in the Andes.The differences in dialect are marked in pronunciationand vocabulary but also in minor points of grammar. Forexample: consider the question “Do you want a cuppa [acup of tea]?" In Gwynedd this would typically be Dachchi isio panad? while in Glamorgan one would be morelikely to hear Ych chi'n moyn dishgled? (though in otherparts of the South one would not be surprised to hear Ychchi isie paned? as well, among other possibilities). Anexample of a pronunciation difference between Northernand Southern Welsh is the tendency in southern dialectsto palatalise the letter “s”, e.g. mis (month), would tendto be pronounced [miːs] in the north, and [miːʃ] in thesouth. This normally occurs next to a high front vowel

like /i/, although exceptions include the pronunciation ofsut “how” as [ʃʊd] in the south (compared with northern[sɨt]).In the 1970s, there was an attempt to standardise the lan-guage by teaching 'Cymraeg Byw' - a colloquially-basedgeneric form of Welsh.[65] But the attempt largely failedbecause it did not encompass the regional differencesused by native speakers of Welsh.

10 Registers

Modern Welsh can be considered to fall broadly into twomain registers—Colloquial Welsh (Cymraeg llafar) andLiterary Welsh (Cymraeg llenyddol). The grammar de-scribed on this page is that of Colloquial Welsh, which isused in most speech and informal writing. LiteraryWelshis closer to the form of Welsh standardised by the 1588translation of the Bible and is found in official documentsand other formal registers, including much literature. Asa standardised form, literary Welsh shows little if any ofthe dialectal variation found in colloquial Welsh. Somedifferences include:Amongst the characteristics of the literary, as against thespoken, language are a higher dependence on inflectedverb forms, different usage of some of the tenses, lessfrequent use of pronouns (since the information is usuallyconveyed in the verb/preposition inflections) and a muchlesser tendency to substitute English loanwords for nativeWelsh words. In addition, more archaic pronouns andforms of mutation may be observed in Literary Welsh.

10.1 Examples of sentences in literary andcolloquial Welsh

In fact, the differences between dialects of modern spo-ken Welsh pale into insignificance compared to the dif-ference between some forms of the spoken language andthe most formal constructions of the literary. The lat-ter is considerably more conservative and is the languageused in Welsh translations of the Bible, amongst otherthings (although the 2004 Beibl Cymraeg Newydd – NewWelsh Bible – is significantly less formal than the tra-ditional 1588 Bible). Gareth King, author of a popularWelsh grammar, observes that “The difference betweenthese two is much greater than between the virtually iden-tical colloquial and literary forms of English”.[67] Agram-mar of Literary Welsh can be found in A Grammar ofWelsh (1980) by Stephen J. Williams[68] or more com-pletely in Gramadeg y Gymraeg (1996) by Peter WynnThomas.[69] (No comprehensive grammar of formal liter-ary Welsh exists in English.) An English-language guideto Welsh colloquial forms and register and dialect dif-ferences is “Dweud Eich Dweud” (2001, 2013) by CeriWilliams.[70]

10 12 NOTES

The labels colloquial and literary are in fact convenientapproximations: literary constructions occur in formalwriting and speech, while the majority of Welsh writ-ing found on the Internet or in magazines is closer tocolloquial usage. This has also become more commonin artistic literature, as in English.

11 See also• Association of Welsh Translators and Interpreters

• English and Welsh

• Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion

• Languages in the United Kingdom

• List of Welsh-language media

• List of Welsh films

• List of Welsh-language authors

• List of Welsh-language poets (6th century to c.1600)

• List of Welsh people

• List of Welsh principal areas by percentage Welshlanguage

• Welsh literature

• Welsh Language Board

• Dal Ati

• Welsh placenames

• Welsh Tract

• Welsh (surname)

12 Notes[1] “Office for National Statistics 2014”. Ons.gov.uk. 2014-

12-11. Retrieved 2014-02-27.

[2] The Welsh Language Use Surveys of 2004-06 (PDF)

[3] United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.“Refworld | World Directory of Minorities and Indige-nous Peoples - United Kingdom : Welsh”. UNHCR.Retrieved 2010-05-23.

[4] “Wales and Argentina”. Wales.com website. Welsh As-sembly Government. 2008. Retrieved 23 January 2012.

[5] “Welsh Language Commissioner”. Wales.gov.uk. Re-trieved 2014-02-27.

[6] Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel,Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). “Welsh”.Glottolog. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolution-ary Anthropology.

[7] “Taking Tea and Tortes With the Welsh In Distant Ar-gentina”. The New York Times. 3 April 2005. Retrieved6 April 2010.

[8] Roberts, Peter (1998), “Wales and the British Inheri-tance”, in Bradshaw, Brendan; Roberts, Peter, BritishConsciousness and Identity: The Making of Britain, 1533-1707, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 24

[9] Nolan, Edward Henry. Great Britain As It Is (1859). p.47

[10] Jackson,John. Chronological Antiquities (1752). p.143

[11] D.Walter Thomas, Edward Hughes. The Cymric language(1879)

[12] “Office for National Statistics 2012 report”. Ons.gov.uk.2012-12-11. Retrieved 2014-02-27.

[13] Census 2001, Report on the Welsh language (PDF)

[14] The Welsh Language Surveys of 2004-06 (PDF)

[15] “Greetings to the Universe in 55 Different Languages”.NASA. Retrieved 2009-05-10.

[16] “Welsh greetings”. NASA. Retrieved 2009-05-10.

[17] Walesonline.co.uk The Welsh message hurtling throughspace

[18] “Welsh LanguageMeasure receives Royal Assent”. WelshAssembly Government. Retrieved 2011-01-13.

[19] Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic Culture: A Historical Ency-clopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 1757.

[20] Koch, pp. 291–292.

[21] Koch, p. 1757.

[22] BBC.

[23] “The Industrial Revolution”. Wales History. BBC. Re-trieved 30 December 2011.

[24] “2004 Welsh Language Use Survey: the report” (PDF).Retrieved 5 June 2012.

[25] “2011 Census: Key Statistics for Wales, March 2011”.ONS. Retrieved 12 December 2012.

[26] “2011 Census: Number of Welsh speakers falling”. BBC.Retrieved 12 December 2012.

[27] “Nigel Callaghan (1993). ''More Welsh Speakers thanPreviously Believed'' (on-line). Accessed 21 March2010”. Retrieved 2010-05-23.

[28] “Estimation of the number of Welsh speakers in England”(PDF). Retrieved 2014-02-27.

[29] Transactions Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club, 1887,page 173

[30] Janet Davies, University ofWales Press, Bath (1993). TheWelsh Language, page 34

11

[31] Williams, Colin H. (1990), “The Anglicisation of Wales”,in Coupland, Nikolas, English in Wales: Diversity, Con-flict, and Change, Clevedon, Avon: Multilingual Matters,pp. 38–41

[32]

[33] 'Historic' assembly vote for newWelsh language law, BBCNews Online, 7 December 2010

[34] ProposedWelsh Language (Wales)MeasureAccessed: 13February 2011]

[35] Welsh Government | Welsh Measure received Royal As-sent Accessed: 13 February 2011]

[36] Royal Assent for official status of Welsh language - WalesNews - News -WalesOnline Accessed: 13 February 2011]

[37] BBC News - Language board chief Meri Huws is Welshcommissioner (accessed 5 October 2011)

[38] “List of declarationsmadewith respect to treaty No. 148”.Conventions.coe.int. Retrieved 2010-05-23.

[39] Welsh language provision at S4C Analogue

[40] BBC website (Real Media).

[41] Daily Welsh newspaper abandoned, BBC News Online, 15February 2008

[42] “UK Border Agency, ''Knowledge of language and life inthe UK''". Ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk. Retrieved 2014-02-27.

[43] 'Treacherous’ Blue Books online

[44] John Davies, Hanes Cymru (1993) (also in English trans-lation as A History of Wales, Penguin, 1994, ISBN 0-14-014581-8)

[45] “Local UK languages 'taking off'", BBC News Online

[46] “Citizens Advice Bureau Adevice Guide”. Ad-viceguide.org.uk. Retrieved 2014-02-27.

[47] Welsh medium or bilingual provision, Welsh LanguageBoard

[48] More information can be found at Welsh for Adults.org

[49] The Welsh National Database of Standardised Terminol-ogy was released in March 2006.

[50] Selections of Welsh-language blogs are listed on the sitesY Rhithfro and Blogiadur.

[51] Welsh Wikipedia on Wikipedia.org

[52] “Celular News webpage”. Cellular-news.com. 2006-08-11. Retrieved 2014-02-27.

[53] World’s firstWelsh languagemobile phone launched (pub-lish date: 25 August 2009)

[54] “BBC”. BBC News. 2009-08-04. Retrieved 2010-05-23.

[55] “LiterIM external keyboard for Android”. Troi.org. Re-trieved 2014-02-27.

[56] “Free Welsh Localization for iOS Developers”. Applin-gua. 2015-03-06. Retrieved 2010-05-23.

[57] Heath, Tony (1996-08-26). “Welsh speak up for their an-cient tongue”. The Independent. p. 6.

[58] David Williamson. “Walesonline.co.uk”. Waleson-line.co.uk. Retrieved 2010-05-23.

[59] Thomas, Peter Wynn (1996) Gramadeg y Gymraeg.Cardiff: University of Wales Press: 757.

[60] English and Welsh, an essay by J. R. R. Tolkien

[61] King, G. Modern Welsh: A Comprehensive Grammar,published by Routledge, ISBN 0-415-09269-8 p. 114

[62] “Index to Welsh dialects”. Kimkat.org. 2006-04-20. Re-trieved 2014-02-27.

[63] Thomas, B. and Thomas, P. W. Cymraeg, Cymrâg, Cym-rêg: Cyflwyno'r Tafodieithoedd, published by Gwasg Taf,ISBN 0-948469-14-5. Out of print

[64] Thomas, A. R. 1973 Linguistic Geography of Wales

[65] “Teach Yourself Welsh”. Cymdeithas Madog. 15 March2000. Retrieved 25 March 2014.

[66] Klingebiel, Kathryn. 234 Welsh Verbs: Standard LiteraryForms. Belmont, Massachusetts: Ford & Bailie. p. 223.ISBN 0-926689-04-5.

[67] King, G. Modern Welsh: A Comprehensive Grammar,published by Routledge, ISBN 0-415-09269-8 p3

[68] Williams, SJ (1980) “A Welsh Grammar”, University ofWales Press, Cardiff, ISBN 0-7083-0735-3

[69] Thomas PW (1996), “Gramadeg y Gymraeg”, Gwasg Pri-fysgol Cymru, Caerdydd, ISBN 978-0-7083-1345-9

[70] Jones, C (2001, 2013), “Dweud Eich Dweud”, GwasgGomer, Llandysul, ISBN 978-1-84851-748-6

13 References

• J.W. Aitchison and H. Carter. Language, Economyand Society. The changing fortunes of the WelshLanguage in the Twentieth Century. Cardiff. Uni-versity of Wales Press. 2000.

• J.W. Aitchison and H. Carter. Spreading the Word.The Welsh Language 2001. Y Lolfa. 2004

14 External links

• Welsh Language (Wales) Measure 2011: availablein Welsh and English.

• Welsh Language Commissioner

• Welsh language at Omniglot

12 14 EXTERNAL LINKS

• BBC Cymru, The history of the Welsh language

Statistical data

• Jones, H. (2011). A statistical overview of the Welshlanguage. Welsh Language Board. (Accessed 19April 2013)

• Welsh Language Board: The Vitality of Welsh: AStatistical Balance Sheet, August 2010

• Link for Welsh language statistics from the WelshAssembly Government (accessed 10 January 2009)

• Example knowledge of Welsh (KS25) data(Newport) from the Office for National Statistics

Dictionaries

• Welsh Phrasebook at Wikivoyage

• Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru: University of WalesDictionary of the Welsh Language, a historical dic-tionary of Welsh (with a second edition in progress,including an embryonic on-line version)

• Welsh Lexicon, an online Welsh-English andEnglish-Welsh resource

Conversational groups

• Mwydro Ynfyd Dedwydd Conversational Society

• Cymdeithas y Dysgwyr Conversational Society

Courses

• Say Something in Welsh, an online beginningWelshlanguage course

• Learning resources on the BBC website (includesseveral beginner’s courses and a Colloquial Welshgrammar guide)

• Welsh Grammar (Lessons in Welsh with audio)

• A grammar of theWelsh language (by Thomas Row-land, 1853) (Literary Welsh)

• A guide to Welsh (by Thomas Jones, 1900): Part 1,Part 2 (Literary Welsh)

13

15 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

15.1 Text

• Welsh language Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_language?oldid=673474239 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Carey Evans,Vicki Rosenzweig, Robert Merkel, Zundark, Magnus~enwiki, Ffaker, Andre Engels, XJaM, PierreAbbat, Deb, SimonP, Heron, Fonzy,Olivier, Leandrod, JohnOwens, Llywrch, DopefishJustin, Dante Alighieri, MartinHarper, Gabbe, Jketola, Menchi, Ixfd64, Zanimum,Sannse, Arpingstone, Mkweise, Ams80, Ahoerstemeier, Jimfbleak, Arwel Parry, Angela, Julesd, Andres, Kaihsu, Ruhrjung, Tobias Con-radi, Trainspotter~enwiki, Lfh, Dysprosia, Daniel Quinlan, Hywel, Tpbradbury, Morwen, Lewisdg2000, Traroth, Nickshanks, Joy, Rls,Optim, Secretlondon, Jerzy, Denelson83, Donarreiskoffer, Robbot, Dale Arnett, Astronautics~enwiki, Owain, Asta2500, Naddy, Merovin-gian, Pingveno, JB82, Saforrest, Wereon, BovineBeast, Cutler, Rik G., Alan Liefting, Decumanus, Jacoplane, Marnanel, Seabhcan, Fer-kelparade, Marcika, Everyking, Indygwyn, Gareth Wyn, AlistairMcMillan, ArinArin, Darrien, Pne, Bobblewik, Tagishsimon, AlanCox,Telsa, Ilikeverin, 159753, Beland, Joeblakesley, McDonald1985, OverlordQ, Evertype, AlexanderWinston, Mzajac, OwenBlacker, Grin-ner, Vbs, Zfr, Defenestrate, Sam Hocevar, Gurkha, Mschlindwein, Picapica, Demiurge, Kjspahis, Kate, Mike Rosoft, Jayjg, An Siarach,A-giau, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, AxSkov, Cnyborg, YUL89YYZ, Moochocoogle, LindsayH, Quiensabe, Dbachmann, Martpol,Bender235, Flapdragon, Kjoonlee, CanisRufus, El C, Kwamikagami, QuartierLatin1968, Sietse Snel, RoyBoy, Spoon!, Circeus, Small-jim, Holgate, Dpaajones, Wisdom89, BarkingFish, Geocachernemesis~enwiki, Kappa, Man vyi, Boredzo, Wytukaze, Ranunculus~enwiki,Jumbuck, Zachlipton, Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Gwyddno, Ronline, Hippophaë~enwiki, Zyqqh, Malo, Snowolf, Ross Burgess, Mar-ianocecowski, SidP, Rebroad, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Suruena, Pappa, Garzo, Randy Johnston, Sciurinæ, Inge-Lyubov, Dave.Dunford,Sagitario, Scott Gall, Alai, Forteblast, TShilo12, Nuker~enwiki, AlexTiefling, Feezo, Bobrayner, Thryduulf, Angr, Vashti, Woohookitty,TigerShark, StradivariusTV, TomTheHand, Pbhj, Eyreland, Hughcharlesparker, Doric Loon, Caoimhin, Stevey7788, Graham87, Cuchul-lain, Yurik, Drachenfyre, Mana Excalibur, Shortenfs, VermillionBird, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Coemgenus, Koavf, Twrist, Enzedbrit,Jake Wartenberg, Amire80, The wub, Dave63, Cassowary, Fish and karate, Wobble, Titoxd, Miskin, JonnyR, Salim, MacRusgail, Hot-tentot, HaroldRex, RexNL, Mark J, Pricey3000, Chobot, DTOx, Digitalme, Gwernol, UkPaolo, JPD, YurikBot, RobotE, JWB, HairyDude, Reidca, RussBot, Jtkiefer, Anonymous editor, Witan, Pigman, DanMS, Gaius Cornelius, Pseudomonas, Terra Green, Daniel563,Edinborgarstefan, Aeusoes1, Grafen, Ptcamn, ExRat, CecilWard, PhilipC, Nathew, Number 57, XGustaX, Zwobot, Caerwine, Nlu, Zzu-uzz, Thnidu, Theda, Closedmouth, Nentuaby, Rms125a@hotmail.com, Josh3580, GraemeL, Mais oui!, Ybbor, Kungfuadam, Rhion,Benandorsqueaks, Philip Stevens, SmackBot, Ganesha1, RedDrag0n, Dangherous~enwiki, Grivantian, Aetheling1125, JulianL, Eskim-bot, Boris Barowski, Sam Pointon, Mauls, Alex earlier account, Sebesta, Lakhim, Peter Isotalo, Gilliam, Chris the speller, Bluebot,IMacThere4iAm, Hongooi, Iago4096, GoodDay, Claudious, JREL, New World Man, Bardsandwarriors, Phaedriel, Cameron Nedland,Boothman, Nakon, TedE, Normalmouth, RandomP, Doogie2K, Cymro, Lawsonrob, Darren Wyn Rees, Springnuts, Vina-iwbot~enwiki,SlayerX326, NotMuchToSay, Nigel45, JorisvS, Adam7davies, Chris2214, LorD, Glynhughes, Aleenf1, HADRIANVS, A. Parrot, AxG,Mets501, CharlesMartel, Jvlm.123, Hogyn Lleol, MTSbot~enwiki, Jrt989, Jose77, Ejsp, Norm mit, RobinLlywelyn~enwiki, Pobbie Rarr,Iridescent, Geaugagrrl, Maelor, Anger22, Bruinfan12, Redtitan, Chovain, Filelakeshoe, RaviC, Ghaly, GarethRhys, Insolectual, Edricson,JForget, Rsieger, CRGreathouse, Hedd gwynfor, WeggeBot, Davidh.jones, Welshrich, FilipeS, Rudjek, Cydebot, Daiyounger, Aristo-phanes68, Peterdjones, Dreamweaver7, Dusty relic, Tkynerd, Odie5533, DumbBOT, Clydog, Optimist on the run, Sirmylesnagopaleen-theda, Garik, Lo2u, Rosser1954, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Biruitorul, Jobber, AdamRoach, SilasW, Macwii, Sobreira, The Wednesday Island,Rheino, GregMinton, Dgies, CharlotteWebb, EJPyatt, AntiVandalBot, Aprogressivist, Robinrhys, NYkid420, Thomasthetaff, Storkk, Qw-erty Binary, Bjenks, Jaseman125, Ghmyrtle, TomRawlinson, JAnDbot, Mazito, GSTQ, MER-C, Matthew Fennell, Frederick Street Link,Rothorpe, Bencherlite, Unoffensive text or character, ArthurianLegend, Magioladitis, Pharillon, Puellanivis, VoABot II, Murph3325, Avi-cennasis, Thunderhead~enwiki, Snowded, Giggy, KazSmurf, Tensesareuseless01, Humdrum101, Dan Pelleg, Newsnet, Fabrice Ferrer,Sion glyn, Enaidmawr, Jez9999, Ratherhaveaheart, Dan Dean, MartinBot, Rob Lindsey, Keith D, LinguisticDemographer, Francis Tyers,J.delanoy, Gfnb, 12dstring, Bot-Schafter, FruitMonkey, Mjb1981, Danoldham, Cymro93, Belovedfreak, Gelasius, Juliancolton, Geiriadur,Maxburgoyne, Mahth, Alan012, Jbitkill, Spellcast, Hugo999, VolkovBot, Rhyswynne, AlnoktaBOT, Iakd87, Pjrobertson, Barneca, PhilipTrueman, Martinevans123, TXiKiBoT, Erik the Red 2, Asarlaí, Dendodge, PDFbot, Ilyushka88, Ms13272, Lou Costello, Cnilep, Crazy-graham, Munci, CConnla77, Ryanpicton, SieBot, Bedelato, ToePeu.bot, Fantastic fred, Roidhrigh, Charles Smith 1942, SweetCarmen,Tofts, Eithin, Cymru33338, Johnanth, Arthana, Lafuzion, Ali Beadle, Jza84, Cymraes-magic, Denisarona, Richard David Ramsey, Llywe-lyn2000, Martarius, Sfan00 IMG, Rhyshuw1~enwiki, ClueBot, Ioloroberts, Yes3456, Timeineurope, Rodhullandemu, Shadyron, Aaiden24,Polyamorph, Richerman, Crafanc, RafaAzevedo, Bbb2007, Excirial, Eeekster, Dirt Tyrant, Tnxman307, Ali islam90, SchreiberBike,Muro Bot, 4njones, ICTFC, Mikhailov Kusserow, Geo0910, Error −128, 7, Versus22, Tezero, Cookiehead, Apparition11, DumZi-BoT, Prof Wrong, Rokus2000, Rokus10, SilvonenBot, Badgernet, Cywiro, Alansplodge, MystBot, Mestredocaralho, MatthewVanitas,Sionees, Binary TSO, Oxyphenbutazone, Fieldday-sunday, Laurinavicius, Leszek Jańczuk, Douglas the Comeback Kid, Daicaregos, Li-haas, Chzz, LinkFA-Bot, Тиверополник, Ehrenkater, Erutuon, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Jobytones, Contributor777, Leovizza, TheBushranger, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, EdwardLane, Les boys, IIMusLiMHyBRiD II, Nallimbot, QueenCake, KamikazeBot, EoinBach,AnakngAraw, Jean.julius, Taffymand, P00bez, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, IRP, Galoubet, Danielt998, Lightning Red, Jabalong, LlywelynII,Jo3sampl, Mahmudmasri, Llusiduonbach, Citation bot, Lewisk2008, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Bopo100, BritishWatcher, Animalgal808, Sionk,C+C, GrouchoBot, Deadclever23, RibotBOT, Molare, Amaury, Dafhuw, RossW92, Doulos Christos, Fluxweed yum, A. di M., Jerrie32,Carolynt, Haldraper, FrescoBot, Lundgren8, DJTJ14, Sanpitch, Kwiki, HamburgerRadio, Xxglennxx, Welshentag, Gwybedyn, Pinethicket,I dream of horses, Sneakyap, Moonraker, RedBot, Tszyn, Timtranslates, Kibi78704, Jeppiz, CrossOfDalriada, Thrissel, TobeBot, Scot-tishbasturd, Vouliagmeni, Lotje, Cagwinn, Breckenheimer, Reaper Eternal, Innotata, Derild4921, Alun Williamson, Glodrydd, Chiltern-Giant, Maghetti2050, DASHBot, EmausBot, Abrawak, Snow storm in Eastern Asia, Robinwilliamsbiology, John Cline, Vanished usersdjei4o346jowe3, PotatoBot, Dataentryservice, Confession0791, Sdupland2, Neddy1234, Seattle, F. F. Fjodor, OsianLlwyd1, 2tuntony,Mentibot, ChuispastonBot, AndyTheGrump, Shropshire70, ClueBot NG, SaviorofKeys, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Areapeas444, Owen4004,Михаил Марчук, Kasirbot, Fluclo, Jorgenev, Jrobin08, Helpful Pixie Bot, Zyztem2000, BG19bot, FictionalCharacterGuy, Interchange-able, Gethinrulez, JSWHU, Hybrid2712, Klilidiplomus, Shaun, Cooling tower train walrus, BattyBot, Hghyux, IkbenFrank, John Stevens20, Khazar2, Megasean0, Paxti, C1KILL, Dexbot, SimplePeopleDoIt, Cymru123, Malthus the Cat, Zaldax, Gengar889, Brough87, Dan-thefierce, Caradog Llywelyn, JustAMuggle, Spipotchi, Lfdder, Abrahamic Faiths, Llwydbach, Benscreen123, The Master Beef, Cloddiwr,K9re11, Miller3030, Abarnsley89, SkateTier, Your Local Friend!, Why should I have a User Name?, JosefVanJaffa, Selefe, Hotteacof-feetea, Casualwikipedian, SalopianTank01, Eeeeeeek, TD712, DarkPlace49, DarkPlace928, Jason.nlw, KasparBot, Knife-in-the-drawerand Anonymous: 702

14 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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cense: CC0 Contributors:This digital image can be seen in its original context hereOriginal artist: William Morgan (1545-1604)

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• File:Estación_Gaiman_(2).JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Estaci%C3%B3n_Gaiman_%282%29.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gastón Cuello

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