welcome welcome to bio 204 anatomy & physiology ii mrs. wendy rappazzo associate professor,...
TRANSCRIPT
Welcome
Welcome to BIO 204 Anatomy & Physiology II
Mrs. Wendy RappazzoAssociate Professor, Biology
Textbook Features
Learning Outcomes Illustrations and
Photos Pronunciation
Guides Checkpoint
Questions The A&P Top 100 Tips & Tricks Clinical Notes Chain Link Icons
End-of-Chapter Study and Review Materials
Systems Overview Section
System in Perspective Summaries
Colored Tabs End-of-Book
Reference Sections
Important features of the textbook
Learning Supplements
Supplements The InterActive Physiology® (IP) CD HCC Portal for Mastering A and P Required &
Supplemental Material (very helpful) Get Ready for A&P! (available online) Atlas of the Human Body A&P Applications Manual Study Guide (optional)
Faculty website:
Class & Lab Supplies
● 2 – 3” 3 ring binder (recommended 1 binder per unit) with extra paper
● pencils, pens, colored pencils, highlighter
● index cards
● lab folder with prongs or binder
Anatomy & Physiology Review
Concepts from BIO 099/119 & BIO 203
(see also BIO 099/119 review from BIO 203 website)
Chemistry Review – Chapter 2
Chemistry Review
Elements of the Human Body
Elements of the Human Body
Elements of the Human Body
Elements of the Human Body
Chemistry Review
Inorganic Organic
Water CHO
Electrolytes Lipids
Acids/Bases Proteins
Nucleic Acids
pH and Homeostasis
pH The concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution
pH Scale: 0 - 14 A balance of H+ and OH—
Pure water = 7.0
< 7 = acidic
> 7 = alkaline
pH of human blood Ranges from 7.35 to 7.45
pH and Homeostasis
pH Scale
Has an inverse relationship with H+
concentration
More H+ ions mean lower pH, less H+ ions mean
higher pH
pH and Homeostasis
FIGURE 2–9 pH and Hydrogen Ion Concentration.
Carbohydrates
Important Concepts:We only burn glucose for fuel –
Glycogen is stored in the liver and skeletal musclesGlycogenesis: making glycogen from glucoseGlycogenolysis: breaking glycogen down into glucoseGluconeogenesis: making glucose from amino acids &
glycerol
Lipids
Important Concepts:
Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturatedUnsaturated can be omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acids – important health implications
Fatty acids & Glycerol are the preferred fuel source for many tissues.
Proteins
Proteins are the most abundant and
important organic molecules
Contain basic elements : C,H,O and N
Basic building blocks 20 amino acids: essential vs. nonessential
Proteins
Enzymes are catalysts Proteins that are not changed or used up in the
reaction– specific — will only work on limited types of substrates
– limited — by their saturation
– regulated — by other cellular chemicals
FIGURE 2–21 A Simplified View of Enzyme Structure and Function.
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are large organic molecules, found in the nucleus, which store and process information at the molecular levelDeoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
Codes for every protein
Double stranded
ATCG
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) Important for protein synthesis
Single stranded
AUCG
ATP
Nucleotides can be used to store energy
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)-Two phosphate groups; di- = 2
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) -Three phosphate groups; tri- = 3
ADP + P ↔ATP + E
ATPase : The enzyme that catalyzes phosphorylation (the addition of a high-energy phosphate group to a molecule)
A Review of Cells
Cell surrounded by a watery
medium known as the extracellular
fluid (interstitial fluid)
Plasma membrane separates
cytoplasm from the ECF
Cytoplasm - Cytosol = liquid
-contains organelles
BioFlix Tour of Animal Cell
Organelles and the Cytoplasm
Cytosol (fluid) Dissolved materials:
– nutrients, ions, proteins, and waste products
High potassium/low sodium High protein High carbohydrate/low amino acid and fat
Organelles Structures with specific functions
Organelles Review
Organelles Review
Mitochondria
Aerobic metabolism (cellular respiration)Mitochondria use O2 to break down food and produce ATPG + O2 + ADP CO2 + H2O + ATP
Glycolysis: glucose to pyruvic acidnet gain 2 ATP when anaerobic= lactic acid
Transition Reaction: pyruvic acid to acetyl Co-A
Mitochondria
Aerobic metabolism (cellular respiration)Mitochondria use O2 to break down food and produce ATPG + O2 + ADP CO2 + H2O + ATP
Tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA or Krebs cycle):–Acetyl CoA to CO2 (in matrix) & reduced
coenzymes
Electron transport chain–inner mitochondrial membraneH+ ions used to make ATP
The Nucleus
DNAInstructions for every protein in the body
GeneDNA instructions for one protein
Genetic codeThe chemical language of DNA instructions:–sequence of bases (A, T, C, G)
Triplet code:–3 bases = 1 amino acid
Cell Differentiation
All cells carry complete DNA instructions for all body functions
Cells specialize or differentiate To form tissues (liver cells, fat cells, and neurons) By turning off all genes not needed by that cell
All body cells, except sex cells, contain the same 46 chromosomes
Differentiation depends on which genes are active and which are inactive
Cell Division
Mitosis and Cancer
Mitosis and Cancer
Mitosis and Cancer
Protein Synthesis
The Role of Gene Activation in Protein
Synthesis
The nucleus contains chromosomes
Chromosomes contain DNA
DNA stores genetic instructions for proteins
Proteins determine cell structure and function
Protein Synthesis
Transcription
Copies instructions from DNA to mRNA (in nucleus)
Translation
Ribosome reads code from mRNA (in cytoplasm)
Assembles amino acids into polypeptide chain
Processing
By RER and Golgi apparatus produce protein
Functions of the Plasma Membrane
Physical Barrier
Regulates exchange Ions and nutrients enter
Wastes eliminated and cellular products released
Monitors the environment Extracellular fluid
composition
Chemical signals
Structural support Anchors cells and tissues
Membrane Transport
The plasma (cell) membrane is a barrier, but
Nutrients must get in
Products and wastes must get out
Permeability determines what moves in and out of a
cell, and a membrane that
Lets nothing in or out is impermeable
Lets anything pass is freely permeable
Restricts movement is selectively permeable
Membrane Transport
Plasma membrane is selectively permeable Allows some materials to move freely Restricts other materials
Selective permeability restricts materials based on Size Electrical charge Molecular shape Lipid solubility
Membrane permeability
Diffusion
Diffusion is a Function of the Concentration
Gradient & Kinetic Energy Solutes move down a concentration gradient until?
Factors Affecting Diffusion Distance the particle has to move
Molecule size
Temperature
Gradient size
Electrical forces
FiltrationMovement of molecules due to a pressure
gradient (net filtration pressure)
Osmotic Pressure: pressure which holds water (absorption): in blood mainly due to plasma proteins
Hydrostatic Pressure: pressure which pushes molecules out of blood (filtration)
Tonicity
A cell in a hypotonic solution:
Gains water Ruptures (hemolysis of red
blood cells)
A cell in a hypertonic solution:
Loses water Shrinks (crenation of red
blood cells)
Carriers and Vesicles
Carrier-Mediated Transport
Facilitated diffusion Specificity: Saturation limits: Regulation:
Carriers and Vesicles
Carrier-Mediated Transport
Cotransport
Two substances move in the same direction at the
same time
Countertransport
One substance moves in while another moves out
Carriers and Vesicles
Carrier-Mediated Transport Active transport
Active transport proteins:– move substrates against concentration gradient
– require energy, such as ATP
– ion pumps move ions (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+)
– exchange pump countertransports two ions at the same
time
Carriers and Vesicles
Active transportSodium-potassium exchange pump
sodium ions (Na+) out, potassium ions (K+) in
-1 ATP moves 3 Na+ and 2 K+
Carriers and Vesicles
Active transport-
Secondary active transport
-Na+ concentration gradient drives
glucose transport
–ATP energy pumps Na+ back out
Carriers and Vesicles
Vesicular Transport (or bulk transport)
Materials move into or out of cell in vesicles
Endocytosis (endo- = inside) is active transport using ATP:
– receptor mediated
– pinocytosis
– phagocytosis
Exocytosis (exo- = outside)
– Granules or droplets are released from the cell
Carriers and Vesicles
Endocytosis
Receptor-mediated endocytosis:
Receptors (glycoproteins) bind target molecules (ligands)
Coated vesicle (endosome) carries ligands and receptors
into the cell
Carriers and Vesicles
Endocytosis
Pinocytosis
Endosomes “drink” extracellular fluid
Phagocytosis
Pseudopodia (psuedo- = false, pod- = foot)
Engulf large objects in phagosomes
Carriers and Vesicles
Figure 3–22 Phagocytosis.
Carriers and Vesicles
Exocytosis
Is the reverse of endocytosis
Secretion
Transmembrane Potential
Interior of plasma membrane is slightly negative,
outside is slightly positive
Unequal charge across the plasma membrane is
transmembrane potential or RMP
Resting potential ranges from –10 mV to
–100 mV, depending on cell type
Transmembrane Potential
Determined mainly by the unequal distribution of Na+ & K+
The cell's interior has a greater concent. of K+ and the outside has a greater concent. of Na+
At rest the plasma membrane is relatively impermeable to Na+ and freely permeable to K+
Transmembrane Potential
The cell has 2 types of channels:
1.) Passive (leaky)
2.) Gated
RMP animation (NS I: membrane potential page 12/16)
Transmembrane Potential
More K diffuses out of the cell than Na diffuses into the cell
Results in a loss of + charges from the cell = negative RMPCell is polarized.
Transmembrane Potential
If too much K left the cell it would become too negative = hyperpolarize
If Na was allowed to accumulate inside the cell it would become less negative (more positive) or depolarize.
Also entrance of Na into the cell would change the tonicity of the cell
Transmembrane Potential
The Na-K pump functions to maintain the osmotic balance & membrane voltage
Transmembrane Potential
When stimulus applied:
Gated Na+ channels open = depolarization
Gated K+ channels open so K+ leaves = repolarization
Transmembrane Potential
How would changing blood/plasma Na+ & K+ levels change this process?
By changing diffusion gradient
Transmembrane Potential
K+ leaves for repolarization because?
Hypokalemia?
Hyperkalemia?
Muscle Review
Muscle Review
Neuron Review
Neurons need a constant supply of? Amitotic Conduct nerve impulses – control Blood-Brain barrier important to regulate
environment of CNSbarrier of astrocytes
CNS
Functions of? Cerebrum Cerebellum Hypothalamus Pons Medulla Oblongata
CNS
Cranial Nerves:
Glossopharyngeal #?, mixed or motor?
Vagus #?, mixed or motor?
ANS
Parasympathetic
Releases AcH at cholinergic receptors Nicotinic Muscarinic 75% of all parasym.
carried by?
Effects?
SympatheticReleases NE at adrenergic receptors β1, β2, β3
α1, α2,
Information carried via ganglia & adrenal medulla
Effects?
Hormones - Yikes
Pituitary Gland
Anterior Posterior
GH CHO SparingAnabolic Hormone
ADH ↓ urine output
TSH Release of T4/T3 Oxytocin Uterine contractions
ACTH Release of Aldosterone & Cortisol
Thyroid & Parathyroid Glands
Thyroid Parathyroid
T4/T3 ● Metabolic Hormones● Calorigenic● Stimulates adrenergic receptors
PTH ↑ plasma Ca++ levels
Calcitonin ↓ plasma Ca++ levels
Pancreas
Beta Cells Alpha Cells
Insulin ↓plasma glucose levels▪ hypoglycemic ▪ glycogenesis▪ lipogenesis▪ protein synthesis
Glucagon ↑ plasma glucose levels▪ hyperglycemic ▪ glycogenolysis▪ gluconeogenesis▪ lipolysis
Adrenal Gland
Adrenal Cortex Adrenal Medulla
Aldosterone ↓plasma K+, ↑ plasma Na+ levels
▪ ↓Na+ (& H2O) loss in urine
▪ ↑BV & BP
Epi & NE ↑ plasma glucose & FA levels▪ hyperglycemic ▪ glycogenolysis▪ gluconeogenesis▪ lipolysis▪ fight or flight▪ bind to adrenergic receptors
Cortisol “stress hormone”↑ plasma glucose & FA levels▪ immune suppressant
Gonads
Ovaries Testes
Estrogen ▪ secondary sex characteristics▪ maintains bone density▪ ↑HDL cholesterol
Testosterone ▪ anabolic ▪ ↑ hematocrit▪ secondary sex characteristics
Progesterone ▪ mainly targets uterus
Other Hormones from Non-Endocrine Organs
Stomach Small Intestine
Gastrin ▪ enhances digestion ▪ stimulates production of gastric juice
CCK ▪ enhances digestion ▪ stimulates release of enzyme-rich pancreatic juice
Ghrelin ▪ stimulates appetite▪ lipogenesis
Secretin ▪ stimulates release of HCO3-rich pancreatic juice
Other Hormones from Non-Endocrine Organs
Heart Kidney
ANF (ANP) ▪ ↑ Na+ excretion at kidneys▪ ↑ urine output▪ ↓ BV & BP
EPO ▪ stimulates production of RBCs
Calcitriol ▪ enhances absorption of Ca++
Adipocytes
Leptin ↑ use of fat for fuelsuppresses appetite
Homeostasis Review
Negative Feedback Positive Feedback
▪ reverses change
○ intrinsic (autoregulation)○ extrinsic – nervous/endocrine systems
▪ examples?
▪ enhances change
▪ examples?