Week 2b. ConstituentsWeek 2b. Constituents

3.1-3.43.1-3.4

CAS LX 522CAS LX 522Syntax ISyntax I

The structure of The structure of sentencessentences

You will give it to her.You will give it to her. You will give the book to your roommate.You will give the book to your roommate. You will give the book about syntax to your You will give the book about syntax to your roommate’s sister.roommate’s sister.

In each, we have:In each, we have: Someone doing the giving.Someone doing the giving.

YouYou Something changing hands.Something changing hands.

It, the book, the book about syntax.It, the book, the book about syntax. Someone receiving the thing.Someone receiving the thing.

Her, your roommate, your roommate’s sisterHer, your roommate, your roommate’s sister The bookThe book (together) represents the thing (together) represents the thing changing hands in a way that neither changing hands in a way that neither thethe nor nor bookbook does alone. does alone.

The structure of The structure of sentencessentences

You will give it to her.You will give it to her. You will give the book to your You will give the book to your roommate.roommate.

You will give the book about syntax to You will give the book about syntax to your roommate’s sister.your roommate’s sister.

It’s like there’s a “spot” for each It’s like there’s a “spot” for each of these players:of these players: __ will give __ to ____ will give __ to __

And it doesn’t matter whether the And it doesn’t matter whether the “player” is described with one word, “player” is described with one word, two words, or several words.two words, or several words.

The structure of The structure of sentencessentences

You will give it to her.You will give it to her. You will give the book to your roommate.You will give the book to your roommate. You will give the book about syntax to your You will give the book about syntax to your roommate’s sister.roommate’s sister.

Each “unit” of this sort is what we’ll call Each “unit” of this sort is what we’ll call a a constituentconstituent. We enclose them in brackets . We enclose them in brackets to indicate that the words form a unit:to indicate that the words form a unit: [You] will give [the book] to [your roommate][You] will give [the book] to [your roommate]

A significant property of language is that A significant property of language is that these units can be arbitrarily complicated:these units can be arbitrarily complicated: [You] will give [it] to [Ed’s roommate’s [You] will give [it] to [Ed’s roommate’s sister’s friend]sister’s friend]

Arbitrarily complicatedArbitrarily complicated [Ed’s roommate’s sister’s friend][Ed’s roommate’s sister’s friend]

Looking at just this unit, we can see Looking at just this unit, we can see that it actually has sub-units within that it actually has sub-units within it:it: [[Marge]’s friend][[Marge]’s friend] [[Ed’s roommate’s sister]’s friend][[Ed’s roommate’s sister]’s friend]

And within that:And within that: [[[Marge]’s sister]’s friend][[[Marge]’s sister]’s friend] [[[Ed’s roommate]’s sister]’s friend][[[Ed’s roommate]’s sister]’s friend] [[[[Ed]’s roommate]’s sister]’s friend][[[[Ed]’s roommate]’s sister]’s friend]

In general, it looks like wherever a In general, it looks like wherever a namename can go, so can [can go, so can [namename’s ’s nounnoun]. ].

[[namename’s ’s nounnoun]] Wherever a Wherever a namename can go, can go,so can [so can [namename’s ’s nounnoun].].

So, suppose we have So, suppose we have HomerHomer.. I gave the book to Homer.I gave the book to Homer.

Replace Replace HomerHomer with with Bart’s fatherBart’s father.. I gave the book to Bart’s father.I gave the book to Bart’s father.

But notice that there’s a name in our But notice that there’s a name in our replacement too. So, it’s also eligible for replacement too. So, it’s also eligible for replacement:replacement:

I gave the book to Lisa’s brother’s I gave the book to Lisa’s brother’s father.father.

This replacement rule is This replacement rule is recursiverecursive. The thing . The thing we are replacing is also contained in the thing we are replacing is also contained in the thing we replaced it with.we replaced it with.

Groups of groups of Groups of groups of groupsgroups

Sentences are made of Sentences are made of groupedgrouped words. words. These groups can be contained in These groups can be contained in other groups, arbitrarily deep. A other groups, arbitrarily deep. A group of this kind: a group of this kind: a constituentconstituent..

Constituents can contain Constituents can contain constituents that can contain constituents that can contain constituents, etc.—The structure of constituents, etc.—The structure of a sentence is a sentence is hierarchicalhierarchical..

Constituents behave as a unit…Constituents behave as a unit…

ConstituentsConstituents

Functioning as a unit…Functioning as a unit… The students did The students did their syntax their syntax assignmentassignment..

The students did The students did the crossword puzzlethe crossword puzzle.. JohnJohn did the crossword puzzle. did the crossword puzzle. The crossword puzzleThe crossword puzzle is what John did. is what John did. **Crossword puzzleCrossword puzzle is what John did is what John did thethe..

John John likeslikes the crossword puzzle. the crossword puzzle. John likes the John likes the jigsawjigsaw puzzle. puzzle. John likes the John likes the theatertheater..

Finding constituentsFinding constituents

How do we find constituents in a How do we find constituents in a sentence? For many of them, we sentence? For many of them, we can guess, but a guess isn’t can guess, but a guess isn’t evidence.evidence.

The The structurestructure of a sentence has of a sentence has consequences.consequences.

To find the constituents (to To find the constituents (to determine the structure) we test determine the structure) we test for the consequences.for the consequences.

Replacement testReplacement test A constituent is a group of words A constituent is a group of words which function as a unit. If you which function as a unit. If you can can replacereplace part of the sentence part of the sentence with another constituent (the with another constituent (the smallest constituent being a single smallest constituent being a single word), this tells us that the word), this tells us that the replaced section of the sentence is replaced section of the sentence is a constituent.a constituent.

This isn’t foolproof, but it This isn’t foolproof, but it usually works if you try to keep usually works if you try to keep the meaning as close as possible.the meaning as close as possible.

Replacement testReplacement test The students left.The students left. TheyThey left. left.

The studentsThe students is a constituent.is a constituent.

The students will eat the sandwiches.The students will eat the sandwiches. TheyThey will eat the sandwiches. will eat the sandwiches. The students will eat The students will eat themthem.. The students will The students will dinedine..

[The students] will [eat [the [The students] will [eat [the sandwiches]].sandwiches]].

Sentence fragment testSentence fragment test Generally, only constituents can be Generally, only constituents can be used in the fragmentary response to used in the fragmentary response to a question.a question. Who will eat the sandwiches?Who will eat the sandwiches?

The studentsThe students.. *Students will *Students will eat the.eat the.

What will the students do?What will the students do? Eat the sandwichesEat the sandwiches.. *Eat the.*Eat the.

What will the students eat?What will the students eat? The sandwichesThe sandwiches..

[The students] will [eat [the [The students] will [eat [the sandwiches]].sandwiches]].

Ellipsis testEllipsis test If you can If you can elideelide a string, it qualifies as a a string, it qualifies as a constituent.constituent. Ellipsis is really deletion of a string from a Ellipsis is really deletion of a string from a sentence. Sometimes this is “repaired” by using sentence. Sometimes this is “repaired” by using the verb the verb dodo, something which we will seek to , something which we will seek to explain at a later point.explain at a later point.

The professors will eat the sandwiches, and The professors will eat the sandwiches, and then..then..

The students will.The students will. But:But:

The students will eat the cookies, and then…The students will eat the cookies, and then… *The professors will sandwiches.*The professors will sandwiches.

WARNING: Passing a constituency test constitutes WARNING: Passing a constituency test constitutes evidence for a constituent. evidence for a constituent. Failing Failing a constituency test a constituency test tells you little—there may be other reasons for the tells you little—there may be other reasons for the ungrammaticality.ungrammaticality.

Movement Movement (topicalization) test(topicalization) test

Sometimes you can “move” a string of Sometimes you can “move” a string of words to the front of a sentence words to the front of a sentence (then generally interpreted as the (then generally interpreted as the topic of the sentence). When you topic of the sentence). When you can, you’ve found a constituent.can, you’ve found a constituent. The sandwiches, the students will eat _.The sandwiches, the students will eat _. Eat the sandwiches, the students will _.Eat the sandwiches, the students will _. The students, The students, theythey will eat the will eat the sandwiches.sandwiches.

*Students will, the eat the sandwiches.*Students will, the eat the sandwiches. *Students, the will eat the sandwiches*Students, the will eat the sandwiches

Again, failing a constituency test isn’t Again, failing a constituency test isn’t evidence against constituencyevidence against constituency!!

Clefting testClefting test Like the movement test, if you can fit your Like the movement test, if you can fit your string into the frame string into the frame it be X that Sit be X that S (where (where you move the string you move the string XX from inside from inside SS), ), XX is a is a constituent.constituent. It’s the sandwiches that the students will eat _.It’s the sandwiches that the students will eat _. It’s the students that _ will eat the sandwiches.It’s the students that _ will eat the sandwiches. It’s eat the sandwiches that the students will It’s eat the sandwiches that the students will (do) _.(do) _.

*It’s students eat that the _ will the sandwiches.*It’s students eat that the _ will the sandwiches. *It’s eat the that the students will _ sandwiches.*It’s eat the that the students will _ sandwiches.

Finding constituentsFinding constituents

Tests: Replacement, ellipsis, Tests: Replacement, ellipsis, movement, clefting, fragment.movement, clefting, fragment.

Some to try:Some to try: Two African swallows can carry a Two African swallows can carry a coconut.coconut.

A cat was walking down the street.A cat was walking down the street. A creature was stirring up trouble.A creature was stirring up trouble. Flying planes can be dangerous.Flying planes can be dangerous.

And all through the And all through the house…house…

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Trees, hierarchy, and Trees, hierarchy, and constituencyconstituency

[The students] [ate [the sandwiches]][The students] [ate [the sandwiches]]

studentsate

sandwichesthe

the

square bracketnotation

tree structure

Trees, hierarchy, and Trees, hierarchy, and constituencyconstituency

[The students] [ate [the sandwiches]][The students] [ate [the sandwiches]]

studentsate

sandwichesthe

the

constituentconstituent

Trees, hierarchy, and Trees, hierarchy, and constituencyconstituency

[The students] [ate [the sandwiches]][The students] [ate [the sandwiches]]

studentsate

sandwichesthe

the

constituent

The triangleThe triangle Sometimes, when the internal constituency Sometimes, when the internal constituency is unknown or unimportant to the current is unknown or unimportant to the current discussion, a triangle is used instead.discussion, a triangle is used instead.

the students ate

the sandwiches

TreesTrees

An abstract tree An abstract tree structure…structure…

A

B C

D E

TreesTrees

The “joints” of the The “joints” of the tree are tree are nodesnodes. The . The nodes here are nodes here are labeled (with labeled (with node node labelslabels).).

A

B C

D E

TreesTrees

The “joints” of the The “joints” of the tree are tree are nodesnodes. The . The nodes here are nodes here are labeled (with labeled (with node node labelslabels).).

Nodes are connected Nodes are connected by by branchesbranches..

A

B C

D E

TreesTrees

The “joints” of the The “joints” of the tree are tree are nodesnodes. The . The nodes here are labeled nodes here are labeled (with (with node labelsnode labels).).

Nodes are connected by Nodes are connected by branchesbranches..

The node at the top of The node at the top of the tree (with no the tree (with no branches above it) is branches above it) is called the called the root noderoot node. . AA is the root node. is the root node.

A

B C

D E

TreesTrees

Nodes with no Nodes with no branches beneath them branches beneath them are called are called terminal terminal nodesnodes..

BB, , DD, , EE are terminal are terminal nodes.nodes.

A

B C

D E

TreesTrees

Nodes with no branches Nodes with no branches beneath them are called beneath them are called terminal nodesterminal nodes..

BB, , DD, , EE are terminal are terminal nodes.nodes.

Nodes with branches Nodes with branches beneath them are called beneath them are called nonterminal nodesnonterminal nodes..

AA, , CC are nonterminal are nonterminal nodes.nodes.

A

B C

D E

Tree relationsTree relations

A node X A node X dominatesdominates nodes below it on the nodes below it on the tree; these are the tree; these are the nodes which would be nodes which would be pulled along if you pulled along if you grabbed the node X grabbed the node X and pulled it off of and pulled it off of the page.the page.

A

B C

D E

Tree relationsTree relations

A node X A node X dominatesdominates nodes below it on the nodes below it on the tree; these are the tree; these are the nodes which would be nodes which would be pulled along if you pulled along if you grabbed the node X grabbed the node X and pulled it off of and pulled it off of the page.the page.

CC dominates dominates DD and and EE..

A

B C

D E

C

D E

Tree relationsTree relations

Remind you of Remind you of anything?anything?To briefly reconnect To briefly reconnect with actual language with actual language data, it seems as if data, it seems as if you do something to C you do something to C (like pull it off the (like pull it off the page), it affects D page), it affects D and E as a unit.and E as a unit.

A

B C

D E

C

D E

Tree relationsTree relations

A set of terminal nodes A set of terminal nodes is a is a constituentconstituent if they if they are all dominated by the are all dominated by the same node and no other same node and no other terminal nodes are terminal nodes are dominated by that node.dominated by that node.

““D E” is a constituent.D E” is a constituent. ““B D” is not.B D” is not.

A

B C

D E

C

D E

Tree relationsTree relations

A node X A node X immediately immediately dominatesdominates a node Y if a node Y if X dominates Y and is X dominates Y and is connected by only one connected by only one branch.branch.

AA immediately immediately dominatesdominatesBB and and CC..

A

B C

D E

Tree relationsTree relations

A node X A node X immediately immediately dominatesdominates a node Y if X a node Y if X dominates Y and is dominates Y and is connected by only one connected by only one branch.branch.

AA immediately dominates immediately dominatesBB and and CC..

AA is also sometimes is also sometimes called the called the mother mother of of BB and and CC. .

A

B C

D E

Tree relationsTree relations

A node which shares A node which shares the same mother as a the same mother as a node X is sometimes node X is sometimes called the called the sistersister of of X.X.

BB is the sister of is the sister of CC.. CC is the sister of is the sister of BB.. DD is the sister of is the sister of EE..

A

B C

D E

SubstitutionSubstitution One of the ways we know a verb is a One of the ways we know a verb is a verb (category) is by observing that it verb (category) is by observing that it can substitute for other verbs.can substitute for other verbs. Pat likes to sing. Pat likes to drive.Pat likes to sing. Pat likes to drive. Pat bought a book. *Pat bought (a) sing.Pat bought a book. *Pat bought (a) sing. Pat likes to eat sandwiches.Pat likes to eat sandwiches. *Pat unpleasant to eat sandwiches.*Pat unpleasant to eat sandwiches.

So is So is eat sandwicheseat sandwiches a verb? a verb? Well, kind of, yes.Well, kind of, yes. It’s a constituent, a phrase, that has It’s a constituent, a phrase, that has the properties a verb does. A the properties a verb does. A verb verb phrasephrase..

The making of a phraseThe making of a phrase

We’re trying to characterize our We’re trying to characterize our knowledge of syntactic structure.knowledge of syntactic structure.

Our grammatical knowledge is a Our grammatical knowledge is a system (we can judge new system (we can judge new sentences).sentences).

All things being equal, a theory All things being equal, a theory in which the system is simpler in which the system is simpler (needed fewer assumptions) is to (needed fewer assumptions) is to be preferred over a theory that be preferred over a theory that entails more complex one.entails more complex one.

The making of a phraseThe making of a phrase In that spirit, we know that a phrase In that spirit, we know that a phrase differs from a word in that it differs from a word in that it containscontains words (or other phrases). words (or other phrases).

We’ve seen that when words are We’ve seen that when words are combined into a phrase, the phrase combined into a phrase, the phrase inherits the properties of one of the inherits the properties of one of the things we combined. (The phrase has a things we combined. (The phrase has a headhead).).

Suppose: a Suppose: a phrasephrase can arise from can arise from mergingmerging two words together, with one two words together, with one taking priority. In a way, attaching taking priority. In a way, attaching one word to another.one word to another.

The making of a phraseThe making of a phrase What will Pat do?What will Pat do?

singsing eat sandwicheseat sandwiches

What does Pat like?What does Pat like? to eat sandwichesto eat sandwiches to singto sing

[to [eat sandwiches]][to [eat sandwiches]] So, a phrase can also arise from So, a phrase can also arise from combining combining toto and a verb phrase, to and a verb phrase, to make a bigger phrase.make a bigger phrase.

MergeMerge

So, let’s go for the simplest theory of So, let’s go for the simplest theory of structure we can (and only move away structure we can (and only move away from it if the simplest theory won’t from it if the simplest theory won’t work).work).

A phrase is a syntactic object formed A phrase is a syntactic object formed by combining (by combining (mergingmerging) two syntactic ) two syntactic objects, with the properties inherited objects, with the properties inherited from one of them (the from one of them (the head head of the of the phrase).phrase).

A word is a syntactic object.A word is a syntactic object.

Merge, in the abstractMerge, in the abstract A good way to A good way to think about this think about this is that we have a is that we have a number of number of syntactic objects syntactic objects lying around on a lying around on a workbench of workbench of sorts.sorts.

We use the We use the operation Merge operation Merge to assemble them to assemble them together into one together into one syntactic object.syntactic object.

B

D E

Merge, in the abstractMerge, in the abstract We combine D and E We combine D and E using Merge to form a using Merge to form a combined syntactic combined syntactic object.object.

We need to call our new We need to call our new object something, so we object something, so we call it C.call it C.

C is now a syntactic C is now a syntactic object (containing D & object (containing D & E).E).

D and E are now “off D and E are now “off the table”—we can’t the table”—we can’t Merge D with anything Merge D with anything because it’s inside C. because it’s inside C. (“Merge only combines (“Merge only combines objects at their root objects at their root nodes”).nodes”).

B C

D E

Merge, in the abstractMerge, in the abstract Since C is now a Since C is now a syntactic syntactic object, we can object, we can combine C with combine C with the other the other syntactic syntactic object, B, to object, B, to form a new form a new syntactic object syntactic object we’ll call A.we’ll call A.

Now, all we’re Now, all we’re left with is the left with is the single syntactic single syntactic object A.object A.

A

B C

D E

Merge, in the abstractMerge, in the abstract When two objects When two objects are Merged, one of are Merged, one of them is the them is the headhead, , the most important the most important one.one.

The head determines The head determines the properties of the properties of the constituent— the constituent— that is, the that is, the features of the features of the head head projectproject to to become the features become the features of the whole of the whole combined object.combined object.

A

B C

D E

Trees and constituencyTrees and constituency Pat will eat lunch.Pat will eat lunch. Pat will dine.Pat will dine.

eat [V] lunch [N]

Trees and constituencyTrees and constituency Pat will eat lunch.Pat will eat lunch. Pat will dine.Pat will dine.

eat [V] lunch [N]

?

Trees and constituencyTrees and constituency Pat will eat lunch.Pat will eat lunch. Pat will dine.Pat will dine.

eat [V] lunch [N]

V

So how do we know which So how do we know which is the head?is the head?

When we Merge two things, one is When we Merge two things, one is the head, and determines the the head, and determines the properties of the resulting properties of the resulting syntactic object.syntactic object.

The next thing we’ll turn to is The next thing we’ll turn to is the question of how the the question of how the syntactic system knows which is syntactic system knows which is the head.the head.