Queen Mary University of London – School of History – 2011-12

HST 5112

Bedouin, fellahs and Sultans:History of the Islamic Countryside

The resources for this module are also available on www.history.qmul.ac.uk/ruralsocietyislam

Introduction

Pre-modern Islamic societies were overwhelmingly societies of peasants, and the achievements of Islamic civilization depended, first and foremost, on agricultural production. Even today, much of the world-wide Muslim population is still rural. Most current teaching on Muslim societies, however, neglects and marginalizes the countryside. Apart from Bedouin nomadic communities, which receive some interest from historians of early Islam and from anthropologists, the vast majority of past and present peasant communities remain unknown to undergraduate and even postgraduate students of Muslim societies. Basic questions, such as such as the social and religious identities of village communities, or the relationship of the peasant to the state – questions which are central to comparable courses on European history - are similarly crucial for our wider understanding of political and economic institutions in Muslim societies.

This is a unique introduction to the history of the majority of the population in the Muslim world, past and present: the peasantry. The readings for this module would bring together papers from the disciplines of history, archaeology, and anthropology. The module would proceed chronologically from the emergence of Islam up to the present day, and would also consider thematic issues, with focus on the peasantry and their relations with the state and transhumant communities.

Aims

Introduce students to the major themes of the history of the Islamic countryside

Draw links between the development of agriculture, irrigation, and land law and between broader aspects of political, social and intellectual history

Bring together multi-disciplinary perspectives, such as history, archaeology, anthropology, and geography.

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Familiarise students with the tools of economic history

Outcomes

By the end of the module, the students should:

Have knowledge and understanding of the development of agriculture, irrigation and land law in medieval Islamic history; and of the impact of colonialism and modernisation on the transformation of rural societies in the Islamic world.

Be able to engage critically with multi-disciplinary approaches to the study of rural society, including history, geography, and archaeology; and confidently use the tools of economic history, and in particular quantitative data.

Acquire the transferable skills of synthesizing different disciplinary approaches and a variety of primary sources to the given subject; view history in a truly global perspective, both spatially and inclusively.

Suggested course structure, coursework and reading

WEEK 1 - INTRODUCTIONS

Readings: 1. Humphreys, ‘Voiceless Classes – Peasantry and village Life’, in R. Stephen Humphreys, Islamic history : a framework for inquiry [Rev. ed.]. Princeton University Press, 1991. PP 284-308. 2. A. Watson,. "Rural Life and Economy until 1800" (pp. 290-305) in: M. Cook (ed.) The New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 4, Islamic Cultures and Societies to the End of the eighteenth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010: 290-305.

Primary source:Ayrout, Henry, H.. The Egyptian Peasant (trans. J.A. Williams). Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press. 2005 [original publication date: 1928], Chapter 1 (‘Changelessness’), pp. 1-6.

WEEK 2 – THE GREEN REVOLUTION

Readings:

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1. A. Watson, "A medieval green revolution" in: A. Udovitch (ed.). The Islamic Middle East, 700-1900. Princeton: The Darwin Press, 1981. pp. 29-58. 2. Michael Decker, "Plants and Progress: Rethinking the Islamic Agricultural Revolution", Journal of World History 20(2), 2009: 187-206.

Primary source:3. ‘Flax and Cotton’, in Translation of Kitāb al-Filāḥa ou Le Livre de la Culture: notice et extraits traduits par A. Cherbonneau, éclaircissements par Henri Pérès (1946), Algiers: Editions Carbonel, in ‘The Filāḥa Texts Project: The Arabic Books of Husbandry’ [http://www.filaha.org/khayr_final_translation_revised.html].

WEEK 3 - IRRIGATION

Readings: 1. T. Glick, ‘Hydraulic technology in al-Andalus’, in Salam Jayyusi (ed.), Legacy of Muslim Spain , Leiden: Brill, 1992. pp. 974-986; reproduced in M. Morony, Production and the exploitation of resources (Aldershot: Ashgate/Variorum, 2002.)2. Ahmed Y. Hassan and Donald R. Hill, ‘Water raising machines’, in Islamic Technology (Cambridge UP, 1986), , pp. 37-52.

Primary source: 3. Ma wardi , ‘Ali ibn Muhammad (died. 1058 CE), ‘section on water supply’ (in chapter 15, ‘on land reclamation and water supply’), in The ordinances of government : a translation of al-Ah ka m al-Sult a niyya wal-Wila yat al-Di niyya. Trans. W.H. Wahba (Reading : Garnet, 1996.), Ordinances of Government (trans. Wahba), , pp. 197-199.

WEEK 4 – LAND TENURE

Readings: 1. C. Cahen, ‘iktā‘’, The encyclopaedia of Islam, new edition, 11 vols. (Leiden, 1960 -) [also available online]. 2. Y. Frenkel, ‘Agriculture, Land Tenure and Peasants in Palestine during the Mamluk Period’, in U. vermeulen and J. van Steenbergen, Egypt and Syria in the Fatimid, Ayyubid and Mamluk eras. III, proceedings of the 6th, 7th and 8th International Colloquium organized at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven in May 1997, 1998 and 1999 (Leuven : Peeters, 2001), 193-208.

Primary source: 3. Abū ‘Uthmān al-Nābulsī, ‘The village of al-Qubarā’’, from the History of the Fayyum (Ta’rīkh al-Fayyum wa-bilādihi), trans. Y. Rapoport and I. Shahar, in ‘Rural Society in Medieval Islam’

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[http://www.history.qmul.ac.uk/ruralsocietyislam/translations/qubara/index.html]

WEEK 5 – THE OTTOMAN PEASANT

Readings:1. F. Adanir, ‘The Ottoman Peasantries’, in Tom Scott (ed.), The peasantries of Europe : from the fourteenth to the eighteenth centuries (London : Longman, 1998): PP. 268-310. 2. D. Quataert, ‘the 1858 land law’, in H. Inalcik, An economic and social history of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1914 (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1994 - 1997): vol. 2, pp. 856-61.3. Alan Mikhail, "An Irrigated Empire: The View from Ottoman Fayyum," International Journal of Middle East Studies 42 (2010): 569–590.

Primary source:4. Al-Shirbīnī, Yūsuf (fl. 1665-1687). Brains Confounded by the Ode of Abū Shādūf Expounded (Hazz al-Quḥūf bi-Sharḥ Qaṣīd Abī Shādūf). Vol II; English translation, introduction and notes by Humphrey Davis. Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 166 (Leuven: Peeters, 2007), PP. 9-13, 56-61.

WEEK 6 – TRIBES AND STATES

Readings: 1. Talal Asad, "The Bedouin as a Military Force: Notes on Some Aspects of Power Relations between Nomads and Sedentaries in Historical Perspective", in C. Nelson (ed.) The Desert and the Sown: Nomads in the Wider Society (Berkley and L.A.: University of California Press, 1973), 61-73.2. Richard Tapper, ‘Anthropologists, historians and tribespeople on tribe and state formation in the middle East’, in Khoury and Y. Kostiner (eds.), Tribes and state formation in the Middle East (London : Tauris, 1991), 48-73.

Primary source: Ibn Khaldun, ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad (d. 1406), ‘Bedouin civilizations, savage nations and tribes’, from The Muqaddimah (An introduction to history.) Translated by Franz Rosenthal. Abridged and edited by N. J. Dawood. (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul in association with Secker & Warburg, 1967): pp. 91-99

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WEEK 8 – MODERNITY, COTTON AND EGYPT

1. Roger Owen, ‘A Long Look at Nearly Two Centuries of long Staple Cotton’, in A.K. Bowman and E. Rogan (eds.), Agriculture in Egypt from Pharaonic to Modern Times (Proceedings of the British Academy, 96). Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, PP. 347-366. 2. R. Schultze, ‘Colonization and resistance: The Egyptian Peasant rebellion, 1919’ in F. Kazemi and J. Waterbury (eds.), Peasants and Politics in the Modern Middle East (Miami, Fl: Florida International University Press, 1991), PP. 171-202.

Primary Source:

3. C. Bardenstein, "Review of 'ABDEL RAHMAN AL-SHARQAWI, Egyptian Earth, trans. Desmond Stewart (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990)", International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 25 (1993): 705-6. 4. Egyptian Earth (dir. Youssef Chahine, 1969): http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AkQCUGAs73I – 5 minutes or so with

English translation;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wcEQlYd9viI&feature=related – There are

no English subtitles but almost no talking and very expressive

Week 9 – AGRARIAN REFORMS, 1950-2000 (IRAN)

1. Ahmad Ashraf, ‘State and Agrarian Relations before and after the Iranian Revolution’, in F. Kazemi and J. Waterbury (eds.), Peasants and Politics in the Modern Middle East (Miami, Fl: Florida International University Press, 1991). PP. 277-311 2. Amir Ismail Ajami, ‘From Peasant to Farmer: A study of Agrarian Transformation in an Iranian Village, 1967-2002’, International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 37 (2005): 327-349.

WEEK 10 – PALESTINE REMEMBERED

1. Ted, Swedenburg, "The Palestinian Peasant as National Signifier", Anthropological Quarterly 63/1 (1990): 18-30.2. Rochelle Davis, ‘Writing a History, Defining a Past’, in Palestinian Village Histories: Geographies of the Displaced (Stanford, 2011).PP. 94-121.

Primary source:

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3. ‘Welcome to Ayn ‘Haud, District of Haifa’, in ‘Palestine Remembered, al-Nakba 1948’ [http://www.palestineremembered.com/Haifa/Ayn-Hawd/]

WEEK 11 – NOMADIC PEOPLES IN CHANGING WORLD

1. Donald, P. Cole, "Where Have the Bedouin Gone?" Anthropological Quarterly 76/2 (2003): 235-267.2. Ugo Fabietti, ‘Facing Change in Arabia: The Bedouin Community and the Notion of Development’, in D. Chatty (ed.), Nomadic Societies in the Middle East and North Africa: Entering the 21st Century (Leiden: Brill, 2006). PP. 573-598.

Primary sources: Clinton Bailey, Bedouin Poetry from the Sinai and the Negev (oxford UP, 1991):1.1 ‘Longing for Home at Holiday time’ (pp. 24-28)1.8 ‘Disappointed expectations’ (44-45)7.6 ‘British agricultural taxes in the Negev’ (pp.357-360)7.11 ‘The High Cost of living under Israeli occupation’ (pp. 372-3)

WEEK 12- VILLAGE AND COMMUNITY

1. Amitav Ghosh, "The Relations of Envy in an Egyptian Village", Ethnology 22/3 (1983): 211-223.2. Leila Abu-Lughod, "The Romance of Resistance: Tracing Transformations of Power through Bedouin Women", American Ethnologist 17/1, (1990): 41-55.

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ASSESSEMENT

Two-hour examination (50%) 750-word short essay (10%) 500-word gobbet (10%) 2,000-word essay (30%)

EXAMINATION:

The Two-hour examination will take place at the end of the year. You will be required to answer two questions out of eight. In the examination you will need to demonstrate that you have achieved the outcomes of the course. Your answers should be argument-based, but grounded in historical facts. The examination questions will not repeat essay questions.

COURSEWORK:

1. Assignment 1 (10%)Length: 750 wordsDue: Week 4 (FRIDAY, 21 OCTOBER 2011)

Write a profile of one village in the Egyptian province of the Fayyum in 1243: where was it located? How was it irrigated? Who lived in it? What was cultivated in the village? What made this village unique compared to other villages in the province? Use the quantitative as well as the qualitative data presented in the 'Rural Society in Medieval Islam' website (http://www.history.qmul.ac.uk/ruralsocietyislam).For background, see the section ‘History of the Fayyum’ in the bibliography part of this booklet. This is a group assignment (teams of 2-3 students)

2. Assignment 2 (10%)Length: 500 wordsDue: Week 10 (FRIDAY, 2 DECEMBER 2011)

How have individual peasants and nomads cope with the changes brought by modernity to the Middle East in the 19th and 20th centuries? Write a short biography of one individual. You need to identify the social, economic or political changes that have affected the life of that particular individual, and the solutions he or she has devised in response to these challenges. Use any of the secondary sources in the section ‘Individuals and the community’ in the bibliography part of this booklet. Effectively, you are asked to write a short précis summary of a secondary source (article or a book), that links individual life story with the social and economic impact of modernity.

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In particular, I recommend the relevant chapters from Edmund Burke III and David N. Yaghoubian (eds.), Struggle and survival in the modern Middle East [2nd ed.] (Berkeley : University of California Press, 2006). These will available from Blackboard.

3. Assignment 3 (30%)Length: 2000 wordsDue: EITHER week 8 for pre-modern topics (FRIDAY, 18 NOVEMBER 2011); OR week 12 for modern topics (FRIDAY, 16 DECEMBER 2011)

Answer one of the following essay questions. You should NOT try to be comprehensive in your essay; rather, I expect you to answer the question with specific reference to one or two case-studies.

Pre-modern

1. Assess the ‘Nabatean’ agronomic literature: Is it a contribution of Islamic civilisation or a Hellenistic legacy?

2. How did medieval ornamental gardens reflect Islamic religious ideals?

3. Was there a specifically Islamic way to manage rights to water?

4. Assess the importance of slavery for the development of agriculture in medieval Islam.

5. Why did the Kharaj-payer die? Explain the argument by Baber Johansen, in relation to the development of taxation and land-tenure from the early Islamic conquests to the 16th century.

6. Why did al-Shirbini find peasants so funny? 7. Assess Ottoman agriculture in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Was it that bad? 8. Does the history of climate change explain Islamic history?

Modern

1. Did the Ottoman 1858 land law mark the birth of private landownership in the Middle East?

2. To what degree were Middle Eastern village communities egalitarian? Answer with specific reference to the mushā’ system.

3. Assess the relationship between customary law and Sharia in modern peasant communities, with special reference to Indonesia (Java).

4. What does Islam mean to Muslim peasants? Refer to religious practices in the 19th and 20th centuries.

5. Assess the importance of polygamous marriages in village and pastoral communities.

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6. Is it accurate to say that the status of women in Muslim rural societies is continuously improving? Refer in your answer to both textual sources and documentary films.

7. Do modern Middle Eastern states rely on Bedouin tribes, or do states invent the tribes? Answer with reference to the 20th century history of Saudi Arabia OR the Kingdom of Jordan.

8. What are the consequences of forced settlement of Bedouins? Discuss this issue with regard to Jordan, Saudi-Arabia or Israel.

9. Tourists and Bedouin: what happens when they meet?10. Discuss representations of the Fellahin in

cinematography and modern literature.11. What is the future for Egyptian peasantry after the

2011 revolution? Your answer should be based on current media reports, but should be grounded in the history of the Egyptian peasantry since 1950.

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BIBLIOGRAHPY

PRE-MODERN

General

Ashtor, Eliyahu. A Social and Economic History of the near East in the Middle Ages (Berkley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1976).

Bowman, Alan, K & Rogan, Eugene. "Agriculture in Egypt from Pharaonic to Modern Times" (pp. 1-32) in: A.K. Bauman and E. Rogan (eds.) Agriculture in Egypt (Proceedings of the British Academy 96) (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).

Bulliet, Richard, W. "Muslim Societies and the Natural world" (vol. 4, pp. 209-224) in: R. Irwin (ed.), New Cambridge History of Islam (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).

Eickleman, Dale, F. ‘Introduction’ (pp. 1-21), in his: The Middle East and Central Asia: An Anthropological Approach (N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2002 [4th edition]).

Gellner, Ernest. "Introduction to Nomadism" (pp. 1-10), in: C. Nelson (ed.) The Desert and the Sown: Nomads in the Wider Society (Berkley and L.A.: University of California Press, 1973).

Lancaster, William. People, land and water in the Arab Middle East: environments and landscapes in the Bilâd ash-Shâm (London: Routledge, 1999).

McQuitty, Alison. "The rural landscape of Jordan in the seventh-nineteenth Centuries AD: the Kerak Plateau", Antiquity 79 (2005), 327-

338.

The Green Revolution?

Ur, Jason A. and Alizadeh, Karim. "Formation and Destruction of Pastoral and Irrigation Landscapes on the Mughan Steppe, North-Western Iran" Antiquity 81, no. 311 (2007), 148-160.

Brett. Michael. "Review of A. Watson, Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World (Cambridge, 1983)", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 48 (1985), 126-128.

Bulliet, Richard, W. The Camel and the Wheel. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990).

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Butzer, Karl. "The Islamic Tradition of Agroeconomy: cross-cultural experience, ideas and innovations", Ecumene I (1994), 7-50.

Christiansen, Peter. The Decline of Iranshahr: Irrigation and Environment in the History of the Middle East 500 B.C. to A.D. 1500 (Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanom Press, 1993).

Frantz-Murphy, Gladys. "A New Interpretation of the Economic History of Medieval Egypt: The Role of the Textile Industry 254-567/868-1171", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 24 (1981, 3), 274-297.

Decker, M. "Plants and Progress: Rethinking the Islamic Agricultural Revolution", Journal of World History 20(2009, 2), 187-206.

Watson, A.M. "The Arab Agricultural Revolution and its Diffusion, 700-1100", Journal of Economic History 34(1974, 1), 8-35.

_____ "A medieval green revolution" (pp. 29-58), in: A. Udovitch (ed.). The Islamic Middle East, 700-1900: Studies in Economic and Social History. (Princeton: The Darwin Press, 1981).

_____ Agricultural innovation in the Early Islamic World. (Cambridge, London, New York, New Rochelle, Melbourne, Sydney: Cambridge University Press, 1983.

Waines, D. "Cereals, bread and society. An essay on the staff of life in medieval Iraq", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 30 (1981), 255-285.

The Arab Conquests and Agriculture

Hamarneh, Basemah. "Dynamics and Transformations of the Rural Settlements of Provincia Arabia and Palaestina Tertia in the Ommayad and Early Abbasid Periods, Archeological Evidence", ICAANE, Proceedings of the 6t h International Congress of the Archeology of the Ancient Near East, Vol. 3 (2010), 91-110.

Haiman, Mordechai. "Agriculture and Nomad-State Relations in the Negev Desert in the Byzantine and Early Islamic Periods", Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 297 (1995), 29-53.

Kennedy, Hugh. "The Impact of Muslim Rule on the Pattern of Rural Settlement in Syria" (pp. 291-298), in: P. Canivert and J.P. Rey Coquais (eds.), La Syrie de Byzance a l'Islam, VII-VIII Siecles. (Damas, 1991).

Kedar, B. "The Arab Conquests and Agriculture: a seventh-century apocalypse, satellite imagery and palynology", Asian and African Studies 19 (1985), 1-15.

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Lapidus, Ira, M. "Arab Settlement and Economic Development of Iraq & Iran in the Age of the Umayyad and Early Abbasid Caliphs" (pp. 177-208), in: A. Udovitch (ed.). The Islamic Middle East, 700-1900: Studies in Economic and Social History (Princeton, N.J.: The Darwin Press, 1981).

Lewin, Ariel, S. & Pellegrini, Pietrina (eds.). Settlement and Demography in the Near East in Late Antiquity: Proceedings of the Colloquium, Matera 27-29 October 2005 (Pisa and Roma:Instituti Editoriali e Poligrafici Internazionali, 2006).

Wilfong, Terry, G. "Agriculture among the Christian Population of Early Islamic Egypt: Practice and Theory" (pp. 217-236), in A.K. Bowman and E.Rogan (eds.), Agriculture in Egypt from Pharaonic to Modern Times (Proceedings of the British Academy, 96). (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).

Nabatean Agriculture and filāha (literary tradition)

Butzer, Karl. "The Islamic Tradition of Agroeconomy: cross-cultural experience, ideas and innovations", Ecumene I (1994), 7-50.

Carabaza Bravo, J.M. & García Sánchez, E. "Studies on the agronomy of Al- Andalus", Revue des Mondes Musulmans et de la Méditerranée (2009), 126. Available from: http://remmm.revues.org/index6465.html

Fahd, Toufic. "Manging a Farm According to Nabatean Agriculture" (pp. ==) in M.G. Morony (ed.), Production and the Exploitation of Resources (Formation of the Classical Islamic World, 11) , (London: Ashgate, Variorum, 2002).

_____"Calendar of Agricultural Tasks According to Nabataean Agriculture", (pp. ==), in: M.G. Morony (ed.), Production and the Exploitation of Resources (Formation of the Classical Islamic World, 11) , (London: Ashgate, Variorum, 2002).

Garcia-Sanchez, Expiracion. "Agriculture in Muslim Spain", in: M.G. Morony (ed.), Production and the Exploitation of Resources (Formation of the Classical Islamic World, 11) , (London: Ashgate, Variorum, 2002).

Glick, Thomas, F. "Agronomy" (pp. 10-13) in: T.F. Glick, S. J. Livesey & F. Wallis (eds.) Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: an Encyclopedia (New York – Oxon: Routledge, 2005).

Hämeen-Anttila, Jaakko. "Ibn Waḥshiyya and Magic", Anaquel des Estudios Árabes 10 (1999), 39-48.

_____"The Nabataean Agriculture: Authenticity, Textual History and Analysis", Zeitschrift für die Geschichte der Arabisch-Islamiscehn Wissenschaften 15 (2002-2003), 249-280.

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Rodgers, R.H. "Hail, frost, and pests in the vineyard: Anatolius of Berytus as a source for the Nabataean Agriculture", Journal of the American Oriental Society 100 (1980), 1-11.

Hamarneh, S.K. "Medicinal plants, therapy and ecology in Al-Ghazzi’s book on agriculture", Studies in the History of Medicine 2 (1978), 223–263.

Khan, M. A. "Ibn-al-Awwam’s Kitab al-Filahah", Islamic Culture 24 (1950), 200-217, 285-299.

_____1954–1956. "Further elucidation of technical matters in Ibn al-Awwam’s Kitab al- Filahah", Islamic Culture 28: 389-395; 29: 275-282; 30: 51–69.

Lord, P. A Moorish Calendar: from the Book of Agriculture of Ibn al-Awam (Wantage: The Black Swan Press, 1979).

Capuano, T.M. "The agricultural texts appended to the fourteenth-century Iberian translations of Palladius", Manuscripta 38(1994, 3), 253-263.

Darby, G.O.S. "Ibn Wahshiyya in medieval Spanish literature", Isis 33 (1951), 433-438.

http://www.filaha.org/ (The Filaha text project)

Gardens

Fairchild, Ruggles, D. Gardens, Landscape, and Vision in the Palaces of Islamic Spain (Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000).

Harvey, J.H. "Gardening books and plant lists of Moorish Spain", Garden History 3(1975, 2), 10-21.

____ "Garden Plants of Moorish Spain: A Fresh Look", Garden History 20 (1992, 1), 71-82.

Watson, Andrew, M. "Botanical gardens in the early Islamic world" (pp. 105-111), In: E. Robbins & S. Sandahl (eds.), Corolla Torontonensis. Studies in Honour of Ronald Morton Smith (Toronto: TSAR, 1994).

Hernández Bermejo, J.E. & Garcia Sànchez, E. "Economic botany and ethnobotany in al-Andalus (Iberian Peninsula: 10th-15th Centuries), an unknown heritage of mankind", Economic Botany 52 (1998, 1), 15-26.

____"Tulips: An Ornamental Crop in the Andalusian Middle Ages", Economic Botany 63 (2009, 1), 60-66.

Serjeant, R. B. "Agriculture and horticulture: some cultural interchanges of the medieval Arabs and Europe" (pp. 535-548), in: Oriente e Occidente nel Medioevo: Filosofia e Scienze. Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, Atti dei Convegni 13 (1971).

Slaves

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‘Abdul Jabbar, Muhammad. "Agriculture and Irrigation Labourers in Social and Economic Life of Irāq during the Umayyad and ‘Abbāsid Caliphates", Islamic Culture 47 (1973), 15-31.

____ "The 'Serfs' of Islamic Society under the ‘Abbāsid Regime", Islamic Culture 49 (1975), 107-118.

Popovic,Alexander. The Revolt of African Slaves in Iraq in the 3rd/9th Century (English trans. by L. King), (Princeton, N.J.: Markus Wiener Publisher, 1999).

Talbi, Muhammad. "Law and Economy in Ifrīqiya (Tunisia) in the Third Islamic Century: Agriculture and the Role of Slaves in the Country's Economy" (pp. 209-249), in: A. L. Udovitch (ed.), The Islamic Middle East, 700-1900:Studies in Economic and Social History (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981).

Irrigation

Butzer, Karl, W, Mateo, Joan, F., Butzer, Elisabeth, K. , Kraus, Pavel. "Irrigation Agrosystems in eastern Spain: Roman or Islamic origins", Annals of the Association of American Geographers 75(1985, 4), 579-509.

Christiansen, Peter. The Decline of Iranshahr: Irrigation and Environment in the History of the Middle East 500 B.C. to A.D. 1500 (Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanom Press, 1993).

‘Mā’, s.v. EI2, vol. v, pp. 859-889 (several authors). Encyclopaedia of Islam is available on-line from Queen Mary Library and from the Blackboard area.

Ur, Jason A. and Alizadeh, Karim. "Formation and Destruction of Pastoral and Irrigation Landscapes on the Mughan Steppe, North-Western Iran" Antiquity 81, no. 311 (2007), 148-160.

Glick, Thomas, F. Irrigation and Society in Medieval Valencia (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1970).

____"Hydraulic technology in al-Andalus" (pp. 974-986), in S. K. Jayyusi (ed.), The Legacy of Muslim Spain (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1992). Reprinted in Morony, Production.

____From Muslim Fortress to Christian Castle: Social and Cultural Change in Medieval Spain. (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995).

____Irrigation and hydraulic technology: Medieval Spain and its Legacy (London: Ashgate, Variorum, 1996).

Al-Hassan, Ahmad, Y. and Hill, Donald, R. Islamic Technology: An Illustrated History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986).

Mikhail, Alan. "An Irrigated Empire: The View from Ottoman Fayyum," International Journal of Middle East Studies 42 (2010), 569–590.

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Trillo San José, C. "A social analysis of irrigation in Al-Andalus: Nazari Granada (13th-15th centuries)", Journal of Medieval History 31 (2005), 163-183.

Varisco, Daniel, M. "Sayl and Ghayl: The Ecology of water allocation in Yemen", Human Ecology 11 (1983), 365-383, reprinted in his Medieval folk astronomy and agriculture in Arabia and the Yemen (London, Ashgate, Variorum, 1997).

Taxation and land tenure

Ben Shemesh, Aharon. Taxation in Islam (Translation of Yaḥyā ben Adam's Kitāb al-Kharāj). (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1958).

Brett, Michael. "The Way of the Peasant", BSOAS 47 (1984, 1), 44-56.

Frantz-Murhpy, Gladys. The agrarian administration of Egypt from the Arabs to the Ottomans. (Cairo: Institut Français d'Archeologie Orientale, 1986).

____ "Land tenure in Egypt in the First Five Centuries of Islamic Rule" (pp. 237-266), in: A.K. Bowman and E.Rogan (eds.), Agriculture in Egypt from Pharaonic to Modern Times (Proceedings of the British Academy, 96). (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).

Haque, Ziaul. Landlord and Peasant in Early Islam: A Study of the Legal Doctrine of Muzarā‘a or Share Cropping (Islamabad: The Islamic Research Institute, 1977).

Ibrahim, Bilal. "Beyond State and Peasant: The Egalitarian Import of Juristic Revisions of Agrarian and Administrative Contracts in the Early Mamlūk Period", Islamic Law and Society 16 (2009), 367-382.

Johansen, Baber. The Islamic Law on Land Tax and Rent: The Peasants Loss of Property Rights as Interpreted in the Hanefite Legal Literature of the Mamluk and Ottoman Periods. (London and New York: Croom Helm, 1988).

Løkkegaard, F. Islamic Taxation in the Classic Period, with Special Reference to Circumstances in Iraq. (Copenhagen: Branner and Korch, 1950).

Morimoto, Kosei. The Fiscal Administration of Egypt in the Early Islamic Period. (Kyoto: Dohosha publisher Inc, 1981).

Morony, Michael, G. "Landholding in Seventh Century Iraq: Late Sasanians and Early Islamic Patterns" (pp. 135-175), in: A. L. Udovitch (ed.) The Islamic Middle East, 700-1900. (Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1981).

_____ "Landholding and Social Change: Lower Iraq in the Early Islamic Period" (pp. 209-222) in: T. Khalidi (ed.) Land Tenure and Social Transformation in the Middle East. (Beirut: American University of Beirut Press, 1984).

Cooper, Richard, S. "Land Classification Terminology and the Assessment of the Kharāj Tax in Medieval Egypt", Journal of

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the Economic and Social History of the Orient 17 (1974, 1), 91-102.

_____ "The Assessment and Collection of Kharāj Tax in Medieval Egypt," Journal of the American Oriental Society 96 (1976, 3), 365-382.

Fuess, Albrecht. "Taxation and Armies", (vol. 2, pp. 607-631) in: M. Cook (ed.) The New Cambridge History of Islam, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).

Rabie, Hassanein. The financial system of Egypt A.D. 1169-1341. (London, N.Y. and Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1972).

_____ "Some Technical Aspects of Agriculture in Medieval Egypt", in: A. Udovitch (ed.), The Islamic Middle East, 700-1900. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981).

History of the Fayyum (FOR ASSIGNMENT 1)

Keenan, James, G. "Fayyum Agriculture at the End of the Ayyubid Era: Nabulsi's Survey" (pp. 287-99), in: Alan K. Bowman and Eugene Rogan (eds.), Agriculture in Egypt from Pharaonic to modern times (Proceedings of the British Academy 96). (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999).

_____ "Deserted Villages: From the Ancient to the Medieval Fayyum," BASP 40 (2003), 119–140.

____ "Landscape and Memory: al-Nabulsi's Ta'rikh al-Fayyum," BASP 42: (2005), 203–212.

Lapidus, Ira, M. "The Grain Economy of Mamluk Egypt", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 12 (1969, 1), 1-15.

Rapoport, Yossef. "Invisible Peasants, Marauding Nomads: Taxation, Tribalism and Revolt in Mamluk Egypt," Mamlūk Studies Review 8 (2004, 2), 1-22.

Sato, Tsugikata. State and Rural Society in Medieval Islam.( Leiden: Brill, 1997).

Medieval Yemen

Serjeant, R. B. "The Cultivation of Cereals in Medieval Yemen", Arabian Studies 1 (1974), 25-74.

Varisco, Daniel, M. "The Production of Sorghum (dhurah) in Highland Yemen", Arabian Studies 7 (1985), 53-88.

_____ "A Royal Crop Register from Rasulid Yemen", Journal of the Economic and Social history of the Orient 34 (1991), 1-22.

_____ "A Rasulid Agricultural Almanac for 808/1405-6", New Arabian Studies 1 (1993), 108-123.

_____ Medieval Agriculture and Islamic Science: The Almanac of a Yemeni Sultan. (Seattle and London: The University of Washington Press, 1994).

16

_____ "Agriculture in Rasulid Zabīd" (pp. 323-352), in: J.F. Healey and V. Porter (eds.), Studies of Arabia in Honour of G. Rex Smith (Journal of Semitic Studies Supplement 14). (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).

_____ "Agriculture in al-Hamdānī's Yemen: A survey from early Islamic geographical texts", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 52 (2009, 3): 382-412.

_____ "The Milh al-Malâha of al-Malik al-Ashraf ‘Umar (d. 696/1296): Situating the Ur-Text of the Rasulid Agricultural Corpus", Chroniques du manuscrit au Yémen 9 (2009). Available online at: http://www.anne.regourd.org/cmy/09/cmy09.02.Texte2.pdf

Nomads and sedentary in pre-modern Islam

Amitai, Reuven. "Turco-Mongolian Nomads and the Iqṭa‘ System in the Islamic Middle East (ca. 1000-1400 AD)", (pp. 152-171), in: A. M. Khazanov and A. Wink (eds.), Nomads in the Sedentary World (Richmond, Surrey: Routledge, 2001).

Asad, Talal. "The Bedouin as a Military Force: Notes on Some Aspects of Power Relations between Nomads and Sedentaries in Historical Perspective" (pp. 61-73), in: C. Nelson (ed.) The Desert and the Sown: Nomads in the Wider Society. (Berkley and L.A.: University of California Press, 1973).

Barth, Frederic. "General Perspective on Nomad-Sedentary Relations in the Middle East" (pp. 11-22), in: C. Nelson (ed.) The Desert and the Sown: Nomads in the Wider Society. (Berkley and L.A.: University of California Press, 1973).

Bradburd, Daniel. "The Influence of Pastoral Nomads Population on the Economy and Society of Post-Safavid Iran", (pp. 128-151) in: A. M. Khazanov and A. Wink (eds.), Nomads in the Sedentary World (Richmond, Surrey: Routledge, 2001).

Crone, Patricia. Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam. (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1986).

____" The tribe and the state" in J.A. Hall (ed.) States in History (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989).

Eickleman, Dale, F. "What is a tribe" (pp. 115 – 139), in his: The Middle East and Central Asia: An Anthropological Approach (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1992).

Glick, Thomas, F. "Peasants and the organization of ‘import agriculture’" (pp. 85-91), in: Islam and Catalonia. Barcelona: Lunwerg, 1998).

_____ "Tribal Landscapes of Islamic Spain: History and Archeology" (pp. 113-136), in: J. Howe and M. Wolfe (eds.) Inventing Medieval Landscape: Senses of Place in Western Europe. (Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2002).

Haiman, Mordechai. "Agriculture and Nomad-State Relations in the Negev Desert in the Byzantine and Early Islamic

17

Periods", Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 297 (1995), 29-53.

Khazanov, Anatoly, M. "Nomads in the History of the Sedentary World", (pp. 1-24) in: A. M. Khazanov and A. Wink (eds.), Nomads in the Sedentary World (Richmond, Surrey: Routledge, 2001).

Kennedy, Hue. "The City and the Nomad" (vol. 4, pp. 274-289), in: M. Cook (ed.) The New Cambridge History of Islam, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).

Lecker, Michael. People, Tribes and Society in Arabia around the Time of Muhammad. (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005).

____ "Pre-Islamic Arabia" (vol. 1, pp. 153-170), in M. Cook (ed.) The New Cambridge History of Islam, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).

Sharon, Moshe. "The Political Role of the Bedouins in Palestine in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries", in: M. Maoz (ed.), Studies on Palestine During the Ottoman Period. (Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1975).

Tapper, Richard. "Anthropologists, historians and tribespeople on tribe and state formation in the middle East", (pp. 48-73) in: P.S. Khoury and J. Kostiner (eds.), Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East (London: Tauris, 1991).

The Ottoman Peasant

Berktay, Halil. "The Search for the Peasant In Turkish History/Historiography", Journal of Peasant Studies 18 (1991), 109-184.

Berktay, Halil and Faroqhi, Suraiya (eds.) New Approaches to State and Peasant in Ottoman History (London: Frank Cass, 1992).

Chalcraft, John. "Engaging the state: Peasants and Petitions in Egypt on the Eve of Colonial Rule", IJMES 37 (2005, 3), 303-325.

Doumani, Beshara. Rediscovering Palestine: Merchants and Peasants in Jabal Nablus, 1700-1900. Berkley and Los Angeles: The University of California Press, 1995.

Faroqhi, Surayia. "Rural Society in Anatolia and the Balkans During the 16th Century", Turcica: Revue d'etudes turque 9 (1977), 161-195.

_____ "The Peasants of Saideli in the Late Sixteenth Century", Archivum Ottomanicum 8 (1983), 215-250.

_____"Agriculture and Rural Life in the Ottoman Empire (ca. 1500-1878): A Report on Scholarly Literature Published 1970-1985", New Perspective on Turkey 1 (1987): 3-34.

Hütteroth, W.D. "Ottoman Administration of the Desert Frontier in the Sixteenth Century", Asian and African Studies 19 (1985), 145-155.

18

Imber, Colin. "Feudal Tenure and Hanefi Doctrine: A Problem in Ottoman Land Law", (pp. 125-140), in: R. Motika, C. Herzog and M. Ursinus (eds.), Studies in Ottoman Social and Economic Life (Heidelberg: Heidelberger Orientverlag, 1999).

Inalcik, Halil. "Land Problems in Turkish History", The Islamic World 45(1955, 3), 221-228.

_____"Village, peasant and empire", (pp. 137-160) in his: The Middle East and the Balkans Under the Ottoman Empire: Selected Essays on the State, the Economy and Society (Bloomington: Indian University Turkish Studies, 1993).

Inalcik, Halil and Quataert, Donald (eds.). The Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Islamoglu-Inan, Huri. State and Peasant in the Ottoman Empire: Agrarian Power Relations and Regional Economic Development in Ottoman Anatolia during the Sixteenth Century. (Leiden, New York, koln: E.J. Brill, 1994).

Khouri, Dina, R. State and Provincial Society in the Ottoman Empire: Mosul, 1540-1834. (Cambridge, New York, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1997).

Makovsky, A. "Sixteenth Century Agricultural Production in the Liwā of Jerusalem", Archivum Ottomanicum 9 (1984), 91-127.

McGowan, Bruce. Economic Life in Ottoman Europe: Taxation, Trade and the Struggle for Land, 1600-1800. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).

Mikhail, Alan. "An Irrigated Empire: The View from Ottoman Fayyum," International Journal of Middle East Studies 42 (2010), 569–590.

_____Nature and Empire in Ottoman Egypt: An Environmental History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011).

Özel, Oktay. "Limits of the Almighty: Mehmed II's 'Land Reform' Revisited", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient.

42(1999, 2): 226-246. Singer, Amy. Palestinian Peasants and Ottoman Officials:

Rural Administration around Sixteen-Century Jerusalem. (Cambridge, New York and Melbourne: The University of Cambridge Press, 1994).

Seikaly, Samir, M. "Land Tenure in 17th Century Palestine: The Evidence from the al-Fatawa al-Khairiyya" (pp. 397-408), in: T. Khalidi (ed.), Land Tenure and Social Transformation in the Middle East, (Beirut: American University of Beirut, 1984).

The feudalism debate

19

Berktay, Halil. "The Feudalism Debate: The Turkish End – Is 'Tax Vs. Rent' Necessarily the Product and Sign of a Model Difference?", Journal of Peasant Studies 14 (1987), 291-333.

Brett, Michael. "The Way of the Peasant", BSOAS 47 (1984, 1), 44-56.

Scholech, Alexander. "Was there a Feudal System in Ottoman Lebanon and Palestine?" (pp. 130-145), In D. Kushner (ed), Palestine in the Late Ottoman Period. Political, Social and Economic Transformation, (Jerusalem and Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1986).

Poliak, A.N. Feudalism in Egypt, Syria, Palestine, and the Lebanon, 1250–1900. (Philadelphia: Porcupine Press, 1977).

Shirbini - Brains Confounded by the Ode of Abū Shādūf Expounded

Abd al-Reheim, A.A.R. "Hazzal-Quhuf: a New Source for the Study of the Fallahin of Egypt in the XviiTh and XviiiTh Centuries", Journal Of the economic and Social History of the Orient, 18(1975, 3), 245-270.

Baer, Gabriel. "Fellah and Townsman in Ottoman Egypt: A Study of Shirbini's Hazz al-Quhuf", Asian and African Studies 8 (1972), 221-256.

Goitein, S. D. "Townsman and fellah: A Geniza text from the seventeenth century", Asian and African Studies 8 (1972), 257-261.

Al-Shirbīnī, Yūsuf. Brains Confounded by the Ode of Abū Shādūf Expounded (Hazz al-Quḥūf bi-Sharḥ Qaṣīd Abī Shādūf). Vol II; English translation, introduction and notes by Humphrey Davis. Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 166, (Leuven: Peeters, 2007).

Pre-modern Iran

Amitai, Reuven. "Armies and their economic Basis in Iran and the Surrounding Lands, 1000-1500" (vol. 3, pp. 539-560) in M. Cook (ed.) The New Cambridge History of Islam, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).

Bradburd, Daniel. "The Influence of Pastoral Nomads Population on the Economy and Society of Post-Safavid Iran", (pp. 128-151) in: A. M. Khazanov and A. Wink (eds.), Nomads in the Sedentary World (Richmond, Surrey: Routledge, 2001).

Lambton, Ann K.S. Landlord and Peasant in Persia: A Study of Land Tenure and Land Revenue Administration. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1953).

____"Reflection on the Role of Agriculture in Medieval Persia", (pp. 283-312) in: A. Udovitch (ed.). The Islamic

20

Middle East, 700-1900: Studies in Economic and Social History (Princeton, N.J.: The Darwin Press, 1981).

Climate change

Albert, Jeff, Bernhardsson, Magnus and Kenna, Roger (eds.). Transformations of Middle Eastern Natural Environments: Legacies and Lessons (New Haven, CT: Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Sciences, 1998).

Bulliett, Richard, W. Cotton, climate, and camels in early Islamic Iran: a moment in world history (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009).

Elmusa, Sharif (ed.). Culture and the Natural Environment: Ancient and Modern Middle Eastern Texts (CAiron: American University in Cairo Press, 2005).

Griswold, William. "Climatic Change: A Possible Factor in the Social Unrest of Seventeenth Century Anatolia", (pp. 37-57), in: H. W. Lowry and D. Quataert (eds.) Humanist and Scholar: Essays in Honor of Andreas Tietze (Istanbul: Isis Press, 1993).

Mikhail, Alan. Nature and Empire in Ottoman Egypt: An Environmental History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).

Wagstaff, J. M. The Evolution of Middle Eastern Landscapes: An Outline to A.D. 1840 (London: Croon Helm, 1985).

Zachariadou, Elisabeth (ed.). Natural Disasters in the Ottoman Empire. (Rethymnon: Crete University Press, 1999).

21

MODERN

Modern – General

Ayrout, Henry, H. The Egyptian Peasant (trans. J.A. Williams) (Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 2005).

Baer, Gabriel. Fellah and Townsman in the Middle East: Studies in Social History (London and Totowa, N.J.: Frank Cass, 1982).

Beinin, Joel. Workers and Peasants in the Modern Middle East (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).

Richards, Alan. (ed.), Food, States, and Peasants: Analyses of the Agrarian Question in the Middle East (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1986).

The 1858 Land law

Abou-El-Haj, Rif'at, A. Formation of the Modern State: The Ottoman Empire, Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1991).

Attila Aytekin, E. "Agrarian Relations, Property and Law: An Analysis of the Land Code of 1858 in the Ottoman Empire", Middle Eastern Studies 45 (2009, 6), 935-951.

Baer, Gabriel. "The evolution of private landownership in Egypt and the Fertile Crescent", (pp. 80-90), in: C. Issawi (ed.), The Economic History of the Middle East, 1800-1914 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1966).

Cuno, Kenneth, M. "The Origins of private Ownership of Land In Egypt: A Reappraisal", International Journal Of Middle East Studies 12 (1980), 245-275.

Islamoglu, Huri. "Property as a Contested Domain: A Reevaluation of the Ottoman Land code of 1858", (pp. 3-62) in: R. Owen (ed.), New Perspectives on Property and Land in The Middle East (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2001).

Jorgen, Denise. "A Comparative Examination of the Provisions of the Ottoman Land Code and Khedive Sa‘īd's Land Law of 1858", (pp. 93-120) in: R. Owen (ed.), New Perspectives on Property and Land in The Middle East (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2001).

Karpat, Kemal, H. "Land Regime, Social Structure and Modernization in the Ottoman Empire", (pp. 69-90) in: W. R. Polk and R. L. Chambers (eds.), Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East: The Nineteenth Century (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1968).

___"The Transformation of the Ottoman State, 1789–1908", InternationalJournal of Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.3 (1972, 3), 243-281.

22

Mundy, Martha. "Village Authority and the Legal Order of Property (The Southern Hawran, 1876-1922)", (pp. 63-92) in: R. Owen (ed.), New Perspectives on Property and Land in The Middle East (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2001).

Quataert, Donald. "The 1858 land law" in: H. Inalcik and D. Quatert (eds.), An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), vol. 2, pp. 856-861.

Mundy, Martha and Saumarez-Smith, Richard. Governing Property, Making the Modern State: Law, Administration and Production in Ottoman Syria (New York: I. B. Tauris, 2007. (Especially chapter 4: "Legal Reform from the 1830s to the First World War" –pp. 40-52).

Mundy, Martha. "Village Land and Individual Title: Musha‘ and Ottoman Land Registration in the Ajlun District" (pp. 58-79), in: E. Rogan and T. Tell (eds), Village, Steppe and State: The Social Origins of Modern Jordan (London: British Academic Press, 1994).

Sluglett, Peter and Farouk-Sluglett, Marion. "The application of the 1858 LandCode in Greater Syria: Some preliminary observations" (pp.

409-421) in: T. Khalidi (ed.), Land Tenure and Social Transformation in the Middle East(Beirut:

American University in Beirut Press, 1984).

Village and community

Antoun, Richard T. Arab Village: a social structural study of a Transjordanian Peasant community (Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1972).

Bringa, Tone. Being Muslim the Bosnian Way: Identity and Community in a Central Bosnian Village (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995).

Eickleman, Dale. "village and community", (chapter 3, pp. 45-63), in his: The Middle East and Central Asia: An Anthropological Approach (N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2002 [4th edition]). [Very accessible].

Friedl, Erica. Children of Deh Koh: Young Life in an Iranian Village (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1997).

Geertz, Clifford. "Studies in Peasant Life: Community and Society", Biannual Review of Anthropology 2 (1968), 1-41.

Ghosh, Amitav. "The Relations of Envy in an Egyptian Village", Ethnology 22 (1983, 3): 211-223.

Gilsenan, Michael. Lords of the Lebanese Marches: Violence and Narrative in an Arab Society (Berkley: University of California Press, 1996).

23

Granqvist, Hilma. Muslim Death and Burial: Arab Customs and Traditions Studied in a Village in Jordan (Helsinki: Centraltryckeriet, 1965).

Peters, E. L. "Shifts in Power in a Lebanese Village" (pp. 165-197), in: R.T. Antoun and I.F. Harik (eds.), Rural Politics and Social Change in the Middle East (Bloomington: Indian University Press, 1972).

Pierce, Joe, E. Life in a Turkish Village (New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1964).

Starr, June. Dispute and Settlement in Rural Turkey: An Ethnography of Law (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1978).

Wilson, Charles, T. Peasant Life in the Holy Land (London: John Murray, 1906).

The musha’ – common lands

Atran, Scott. "Hamula Organization and Mush'a Tenure in Palestine", Man 21 (1986, 2): 271-295.

Firestone, Yaakov. "The Land-Equalizing Musha‘ Village: A Reassessment" (pp. 90-129), in: G. Gilbar (ed.), Ottoman Palestine, 1800-1914: Studies in Economic and Social History (Leiden : E.J. Brill, 1990).

Mundy, Martha. "Village Land and Individual Title: Musha‘ and Ottoman Land Registration in the Ajlun District" (pp. 58-79), in: E. Rogan and T. Tell (eds), Village, Steppe and State: The Social Origins of Modern Jordan (London: British Academic Press, 1994).

Nadan, Amos. "Colonial Misunderstanding of an Efficient Peasant Institution: Land Settlement and Mushā‘ Tenure in mandate Palestine, 1921-1947", Journal of the Economic and Social history of the Orient 46 (2003, 3): 320-354.

Schaebler, Birgit. "Practicing Musha‘: Common Lands and the Common Goods in Southern Syria Under the Ottoman and the French", (pp. 241-312) in: R. Owen (ed.), New Perspectives on Property and Land in The Middle East (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2001).

Individual biographies (FOR ASSIGNMENT 2)

Burke, Edmond, III and Yaghoubian, David, M. (eds.). Struggle and Survival in the Modern Middle East (Berkley and L. A.: The University of California Press, 2006).

Mitchel, Timothy. 1990. "The Invention and Reinvention of the Egyptian Peasant", International Journal Of Middle East Studies 22(2): 129-150.

Lois Beck, Nomad: a year in the life of a Qashqa'i tribesman in Iran. London: Tauris (1991).

24

L. Abu Lughod, Writing Women's Worlds: Bedouin Stories (Berkley and L.A.: California University Press, 2008 [2nd ed]).

Dale F. Eickelman, Knowledge and Power in Morocco: The Education of a Twentieth Century Notable (N.J: Princeton University Press, 1992 [2nd ed.])

Egypt & Cotton, 1800-1950

Alleaume, Ghislaine. "An Industrial Revolution in Agriculture? Some Observations on the Evolution of Rural Egypt in the Nineteenth Century" (pp. 331-346), in A.K. Bowman and E.Rogan (eds.), Agriculture in Egypt from Pharaonic to Modern Times (Proceedings of the British Academy, 96). (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).

Baer, Gabriel. A History of Land Ownership in Modern Egypt, 1800-1950 (London: Oxford University Press, 1969).

Brown, Nathan, J. Peasant Politics in Modern Egypt: The Struggle against the State (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990).

Cuno, Kenneth, M. "The Origins of private Ownership of Land In Egypt: A Reappraisal", International Journal Of Middle East Studies 12 (1980), 245-275.

_____ The Pasha's Peasants: Land, Society and Economy in Lower Egypt, 1740-1858 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).

_____ "A Tale of Two Villages: Family, Property and Economic Activity in Rural Egypt in the 1840s" (pp. 301-330), in: A.K. Bowman and E. Rogan (eds.), Agriculture in Egypt from Pharaonic to Modern Times (Proceedings of the British Academy, 96). (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).

Owen, Roger. "The Development of Agricultural production in Nineteenth Century Egypt: Capitalism of What Type?", (pp. 521-546), in: A. L. Udovitch (ed.), The Islamic Middle East, 700-1900:Studies in Economic and Social History (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981).

_____ "A Long Look at Nearly Two Centuries of long Staple Cotton" (pp. 347-366), in: A.K. Bowman and E. Rogan (eds.), Agriculture in Egypt from Pharaonic to Modern Times (Proceedings of the British Academy, 96). (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).

Caliskan, Koray. Market threads: How Cotton Farmers and Traders Create a Global Commodity (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2010).

Syria & Lebanon, 1800-1950

25

Buheiri, Marwan, R. "The Peasant Revolt of 1858 in Mount Lebanon: Rising Expectations, Economic Malaise and the Incentive to Arm", (pp. 291-301), in T. Khalidi (ed.) Land Tenure and Social Transformation in the Middle East (Beirut: American University in Beirut Press, 1984).

Gilsenan, Michael. "A Modern Feudality? Land and Labour in North Lebanon, 1858 – 1950", (pp. 449-463), in: T. Khalidi (ed.) Land Tenure and Social Transformation in the Middle East. (Beirut: American University in Beirut Press, 1984).

Porath, Yehoshu‘a. "The Peasant Revolt of 1858-61 in Kisrawān", Asian and African Studies 2 (1966), 77-157.

Rafeq, Abd al-Karim. "Land Tenure Problems and their Social Impact in Syria around the Middle of the Nineteenth Century" (pp. 371-396), in: T. Khalidi (ed.) Land Tenure and Social Transformation in the Middle East (Beirut: American University in Beirut Press, 1984).

Schatkowski-Schilcher, Linda. "Hauran Conflicts of the 1860s’: A Chapter in the Rural History of Modern Syria", International Journal of Middle Eastern studies 13 (1981), 159-179.

____ "Violence in rural Syria, 1880s and 1890s: State Centralization, Rural Integration and the World Market", (pp. 50-84), in: F. Kazemi and J. Waterbury (eds.), Peasants and Politics in the Modern Middle East (Miami, Fl: Florida International University Press, 1991).

North Africa

Saddon, David. Moroccan peasants: A century of change in the eastern Rif, 1870-1970 (Folkstone: Dawson, 1981).

Valensi, Lucette. "The Tunisian Fellaheen in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries", (pp. 709-724), in: : A. Udovitch (ed.). The Islamic Middle East, 700-1900: Studies in Economic and Social History (Princeton, N.J.: The Darwin Press, 1981).

Agrarian Reforms, 1950s and 1960s

Ababsa, Myriam, Khaddam, Munzer, El-Hindi, Atieh and Hinnebusch, Raymond, A. Agriculture and Reform in Syria (Lynne Rienner, 2010).

Ansari, Hamied. Egypt: The Stalled Society (Albany: SUNY Press, 1986).

Batatu, Hannah. The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movement in Iraq: A Study of Iraq's Old Landed and Commercial Classes and of its Communists, Ba‘thists and Free Officers (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1978).

26

______Syria’s Peasantry, the Descendants of Its Lesser Rural Notables, and Their Politics (Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1999).

Hinnebusch, Raymond, A. Peasant and Bureaucracy in Ba'athist Syria: The Political Economy of Rural Development (London: Westview Press, 1989).

Hopkins, Nicholas, S. and Westergaard, Kirsten, (eds.). Directions of Change in Rural Egypt (Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1998).

Kandiyoti, Deniz. "Rural livelihoods and social networks in Uzbekistan: perspectives from Andijan", Central Asian Survey 17 (1998), 561-78.

_____ "The Cry for Land: Agrarian Reform, Gender and Land Rights in Uzbekistan", Journal of Agrarian Change 3 (2003, 1-2): 225–256.

Lerner, Daniel. The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East (New York and London: The Free Press, 1958).

Majd, Mohammad, G. "Land Reform Policies in Iran", American Journal of Agricultural Economics 69 (1987, 4): 843-858.

Mitchell, Timothy. "The representation of rural violence in writings on political development in Nasserist Egypt", (pp. 222-251) in: F. Kazemi and J. Waterbury (eds.), Peasants and Politics in the Modern Middle East (Miami, Fl: Florida International University Press, 1991).

Radwan, Samir and Lee, Eddy. Agrarian Change in Egypt: An Anatomy of Rural Poverty (Kent, Surry Hills, Dover: Croom Helm, 1986).

Saad, Reem. "State, Landlord, Parliament and Peasant: The Story of the 1992 Tenancy Law in Egypt" (pp. 387-404), in: A.K. Bowman and E.Rogan (eds.), Agriculture in Egypt from Pharaonic to Modern Times (Proceedings of the British Academy, 96) (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).

Engelmann, Kurt, E. and Pavlakovic, Vjeran, (eds.). Rural development in Eurasia and the Middle East: Land Reform, Environmental Change and Demographic Constraints (Seatle: The University of Washington Press, 2001).

Stirling, Paul (ed.), Culture and Economy: Changes in Turkish Villages (Huntingdon: The Eothen Press, 1993).

Tahir, Sayyid. "Riba, Share-Tenancy and Agrarian Reforms", The Pakistan Development Review 35 (1996, 4): 2-13. Available online at: http://www.pide.org.pk/pdf/PDR/1996/Volume4/989-1000.pdf

Literary representations

27

Eickelman, Dale F. “Being Bedouin: Nomads and Tribes in the Social Imagination,” (pp. 38-49), in: J. Ginat and A. M. Khazanov, (eds.), Changing Nomads in a Changing World (Brighton and Portland: Sussex Academic Press, 1998).

Gasper, Michael, E. The Power of Representation: Publics, Peasants and Islam in Egypt (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2008).

Hawker, G. W. "Imagining a Bedouin Past: Stereotypes and Cultural Representation in the Contemporary United Arab Emirates" (Beirut: Beirut Institute for Media Art, 2002). Available at:

http://inhouse.lau.edu.lb/bima/papers/R_W_Hawker.pdf Jabbur, Jibrail, S. The Bedouins and the Desert: Aspects of

Nomadic Life in the Arab East (Albany: SUNY Press, 1995). Kemal, Yashar. Memed my Hawk (New York: NYRB, 1995

[1961]). ____ Iron Earth, Copper Sky (New York: Harvill Pr, 1997). ____They Burn the Thistles (New York: NYRB Classics, 2006). al-Sharqawi, ‘Abd al-Rahman. Egyptian Earth (London: Saqi

Books, 2006 [2nd ed.]) Egyptian Earth (dir. Youssef Chahine) is available in:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AkQCUGAs73I – 5 minutes or so withEnglish translation;

http://www.youtube.com/watch? v=wcEQlYd9viI&feature=related – There areno English subtitles but almost no talking and very

expressive! The entire movie in very good qulaity may be found here

(unfortunately, no English subtitles):

http://www.watcharabicmovies.net/classic_arabic_movies/Al_Ard.html

Remembering Palestine

Ben-Ze'ev, Efrat. "The Palestinian village of Ijzim during the 1948 war: Forming an anthropological history through villagers accounts and army documents", History and Anthropology 13 (2002, 1): 13-30.

_____ Remembering Palestine in 1948: Beyond National Narratives (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).

Canaan, Taufik. "Haunted Springs and Water Demons in Palestine" (1922). Available online at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Tawfiq_Canaan

_____ Mohammedan Saints and Sanctuaries in Palestine (London: Luzac and Co, 1923).

28

_____"Superstitions and Folklore about Bread", Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 167 (1966), 36-47.

Davis, Rochelle. Palestinian Village Histories: Geographies of the Displaced (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2011).

Grossman, David. Rural Arab Demography and Early Jewish Settlement in Palestine: Distribution and Population Density during the Late Ottoman and Early Mandate Period (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 2011).

Nadan, Amos. The Palestinian Peasant Economy under the Mandate: A Story of Colonial Bungling (Cambridge Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2006).

Reilly, James. "The Peasantry of Late Ottoman Palestine", Journal of Palestine Studies, 10 (1981, 4): 82-97.

Sayigh, Rosemary. Palestinians: From Peasants to Revolutionaries, A People's History (London: Zed Press, 1979).

Slymovics, Susan. The Object of Memory: Arab and Jew Narrate the Palestinian Village (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998).

Swedenburg, Ted. "The Palestinian Peasant as National Signifier", Anthropological Quarterly 63 (1990): 18-30.

http://www.palestineremembered.com/Maps/index.html (a website dedicated to remembrance of destroyed Palestinian villages).

The Bedouin and the tribes in the modern world

Abu Lughod, Lila. Veiled Sentiments: Honor and Poetry in a Bedouin Society (Berkley and Los Angeles: The University of California Press, 1986).

_____"The Romance of Resistance: Tracing Transformations of Power through Bedouin Women", American Ethnologist 17 (1990, 1): 41-55.

_____Writing Women's World: Bedouin Poetry (Berkley and L.A.: University of California Press, 1993).

_____ "Cassettes and the Shifting Politics of Awlad ‘Ali Love Poetry", (pp. 1013-1033) in: D. Chatty, (ed.). Nomadic Societies in the Middle East and North Africa: Entering the 21st Century (Leiden: Brill, 2006) .

Alon, Yoav. "The Tribal System in the Face of the State-Formation Process: Mandatory Transjordan, 1921-46," International Journal of Middle East Studies 37 (2005), 213-240.

Antoun, Richard, T. "Civil Society, Tribal Process, and Change in Jordan: An Anthropological View," International Journal of Middle East Studies 32 (2000), 441-463.

Avci, Yasmin. "The Application of the Tanzimat in the Desert: The Bedouins and the Creation of a New Town in Southern

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Palestine (1860-1914)", Middle Eastern Studies 45 (2009, 6), 969-983.

Bailey, Clinton. Bedouin Poetry from Sinai and the Negev: Mirror of a Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991).

Munson, Henry. "The Mountain People of Northern Morocco: Tribesmen or Peasants?", Middle Eastern Studies 17 (1981, 2), 249-255.

Bamia, Aida, A. The Graying of the Raven: Cultural and Sociopolitical Significance of Algerian Folk Poetry (Cairo: The American Universiy in Cairo Press, 2001).

Bates, Daniel, G. "The Role of the State in Peasant-Nomad Mutualism", Anthropological Quarterly 44 (1971, 3), 109-31.

Black, Jacob. "Tyranny as a Strategy for Survival in an Egalitarian Society: Luri Facts Versus an Anthropological Mystique", Man 7 (1972, 4), 614-634.

Chatty, Dawn. From Camel to Truck: The Bedouin in the Modern World (New York: Vantage Press, 1986).

____ (ed.). Nomadic Societies in the Middle East and North Africa: Entering the 21st Century (Leiden: Brill, 2006) [a huge collection of articles, almost all relevant and useful].

Cole, Donald, P. "Where Have the Bedouin Gone?" Anthropological Quarterly 76 (2003, 2), 235-267.

Eickleman, Dale, F. "Pastoral Nomadism", (chapter 4, pp. 64-83) in his: The Middle East and Central Asia: An Anthropological Approach (N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2002 [4th edition]).

Dana Declaration on Mobile Peoples and Conservation ,2002 (www.danadeclaration.org)

al-Ghadeer, Moneera. Desert Voices: Bedouin Women’s Poetry in Saudi Arabia (New York: I.B. Tauris, 2009).

Ghazi, Falah. The Role of the British Administration in the Sedentarization of the Bedouin Tribes in Northern Palestine: 1918 – 1948 (Durham: University of Durham, Centre for Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies, 1983).

Ginat, Joseph and Khazanov, Anatoly, M. (eds.). Changing Nomads in a Changing World (Brighton and Portland: Sussex Academic Press, 1998).

Lancaster, William. The Rwala Bedouin Today (Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland press, 1997 [1981]).

Layne, L.L. "The Dialogics of Tribal Self-Representation in Jordan, "American Ethnologist 16 (1989), 24-39.

Lewis, Norman, N. Nomads and Settlers in Syria and Jordan, 1800-1980 (Cambridge: CUP, 2009 [1987]).

Marx, Emanuel. "The Ecology and Politics of Nomadic Pastoralists in the Middle East", (pp. 41-74), in: W. Weissleder (ed.), The Nomadic Alternative: Modes and Models of Interaction in the African-Asian Deserts and Steppes (The Hague: Mouton, 1978).

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Marx, Emanuel and Shmueli, Avshalom. The Changing Bedouin (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1984).

Mundi, Martha and Musallam, Basim (eds.) The Transformation of Nomadic Society in the Arab East (Cambridge, New York, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 2000).

Peutz, Nathalie. "Bedouin 'Abjection': World Heritage, Worldliness and Worthiness at the Margins of Arabia", American Ethnologist 38 (2011, 2), 338-360.

Rogan, Eugene, L. Frontiers of the State in the Late Ottoman Empire: Transjordan 1850-1921 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).

Shryock, Andrew. Nationalism and the Genealogical Imagination: Oral History and Textual Authority in Tribal Jordan (Berkley and Los Angeles: The University of California Press, 1997).

Sowayan, Saad, A. Nabati Poetry: The Oral Poetry of Arabia (Berkeley and L. A.: University of California Press, 1985).

Sinai Sun, a film by Jessica Jacobs. Made with Alexa Firat (Temple,Philadelphia) and Hussein Abu Ahmed, (El Tur, Sinai) funded by a grantfrom the Arts and Humanities Research Council. The film is online onVimeo http://vimeo.com/21521292 [Explores the impact of tourism on local Bedouin communities]

Nomads in Afghanistan

Ferdinand, Klaus. Afghan Nomads: Caravans, Conflicts and Trade in Afghanistan and British India 1800–1980 (Copenhagen: Rhodos International Science and Art Publishers, 2006).

Roy, Olivier. "Ethnic Identity and Political Expression in Northern Afghanistan" (pp. 73-88), in: Jo-Ann Gross (ed.), Muslims in Central Asia: Expressions of Identity and Change (Durham and London: Duke University Press,1992 ).

Pedersen, Gorm and Nicolaisen, Ida.  Afghan Nomads in Transition:  A Century of Change among the Zala Khan Khel  (London: Thames & Hudson 1994).

Settlement of nomadic peoples

Abu-Sa’ad, Isma’el. "Forced Sedentarisation, Land Rights and Indigenous Resistance:The Palestinian Bedouin in the Negev", in: N. Masalha (ed.) Catastrophe Remembered: Palestine, Israel and the internal refugees – essays in memory of Edward W.Said (London: Zed Books, 2005).

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Bates, Daniel, G. "The Role of the State in Peasant-Nomad Mutualism", Anthropological Quarterly 44 (1971, 3), 109-131.

Falah, Ghazi. "How Israel Controls the Bedouin In Israel", Journal of Palestine Studies 14 (1985, 2), 35-51.

Khazanov, Anatoly, M. "Pastoral Nomads in the Past, Present and Future: A Comparative View", (pp. 81-99) in: P.A. Olson (ed.), The Struggle for the Land: Indigenous Insights and Industrial Empire in the Semiarid World (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1990).

Salzman, Philip, C. "National Integration of the Tribes in Modern Iran", Middle East Journal 25 (1971, 3), 325-336.

Peasant resistance

Abu Lughod. "The Romance of Resistance: Tracing Transformations of Power through Bedouin Women", American Ethnologist 17 (1990, 1): 41-55.

Adas, Michael “From Foot-dragging to Flight: The Evasive History of PeasantAvoidance Protest in South and South-East Asia” Journal of Peasant Studies 13 (1986, 2), 64–86.

Cronin, Stephanie. "Resisting the new state: peasants and pastoralists in Iran, 1921-41", Journal of Peasant Studies 32 (2005), 1-47.

____"Resisting the New State: The Rural Poor Land and Modernity in Iran, 1921-1941", in S. Cronin (ed.), Subaltern and Social Protest: History from Below in the Middle East and North Africa (London: Routledge, 2008).

Scott, James, C. The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellion and Subsistence in South East Asia (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976).

____ Weapons of the weak: Everyday forms of peasant resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985).

_____"Everyday Forms of peasant Resistance", Journal of Peasant Studies 13 (1986), 5-35.

_____ "Resistance Without Protest and Without Organization: Peasant Opposition to Islamic Zakat and the Christian Tithe", Comparative Studies in Society and History 29 (1987), 417-452.

Religion

Ahmed, Akbar, S. and Hart, David , M. Islam in tribal Societies from the Atlas to the Hindus (Hanley-on-Thames: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984).

Blackman, Winifred, S. The fellāḥīn of Upper Egypt: their religious, social and industrial life to-day with special

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Reference to Survivals from Ancient Times (London: George G. Harrap, 1927).

Lewis, I. M. "Sufism in Somaliland: A Study in Tribal Islam", (pp. 127-168), in: A. S. Akbar and D. M. Hart (eds.), Islam in tribal Societies from the Atlas to the Hindus (Hanley-on-Thames: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984).

Peters, Emrys. "The Paucity of Rituals among Middle Eastern Pastoralists", (pp. 187-219) in: A. S. Akbar and D. M. Hart (eds.), Islam in tribal Societies from the Atlas to the Hindus (Hanley-on-Thames: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984).

Poliakov, S. Everyday Islam: religion and tradition in rural Central Asia (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1992).

Tapper, Richard. "Holier than Thou: Islam in Three Tribal Societies", (pp. 244-265), in: A. S. Akbar and D. M. Hart (eds.), Islam in tribal Societies from the Atlas to the Hindus (Hanley-on-Thames: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984).

Women

Abu Lughod, Lila. Veiled Sentiments: Honor and Poetry in a Bedouin Society (Berkley and Los Angeles: The University of California Press, 1986).

_____ "The Romance of Resistance: Tracing Transformations of Power through Bedouin Women", American Ethnologist 17 (1990, 1): 41-55.

Antoun, Richard, T. "On the Modesty of Women in Arab Muslim Villages: A Study in the Accommodation of Traditions", American Anthropologist 70 (1968, 4), 671-697.

Blackwood, Evelyn. "Women, Land, and Labor: Negotiating Clientage and Kinship in a Minangkabau Peasant Community", Ethnology 36 (1997, 4): 277-293.

al-Ghadeer, Moneera. Desert Voices: Bedouin Women’s Poetry in Saudi Arabia (I.B. Tauris, 2009).

Ginat, Joseph. Women in Muslim Rural Society (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1982).

Ilcan, Suzan, M. "Peasant Struggles and Social Change: Migration, Households and Gender in a Rural Turkish Society", International Migration Review 28 (1994, 3): 554-579.

Jeffery, Patricia, Jeffery, Roger and Jeffery, Craig. "Islamization, Gentrification and Domestication: ‘A Girls’ Islamic Course’ and Rural Muslims in Western Uttar Pradesh", Modern Asian Studies 38 (2004, 1): 1-53.

Kandiyoti, Deniz. "Rural livelihoods and social networks in Uzbekistan: perspectives from Andijan", Central Asian Survey 17 (1998), 561-78.

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______ "The Cry for Land: Agrarian Reform, Gender and Land Rights in Uzbekistan", Journal of Agrarian Change 3 (2003, 1-2), 225–256.

Kandiyoti, Deniz and Azimova, Nadira. "The Communal and the Sacred: Women's Worlds of Ritual in Uzbekistan", Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 10 (2004, 2), 327-349.

Al-Krenawi, Alean amd Graham, John, R. "The story of bedouin-arab women in a polygamous marriage", Women's Studies International Forum 22 (1999, 5): 497-509.

Moghadam, Valentine, A. "Patriarchy in Transition: Women and the Changing Family in the Middle East", Journal of Comparative Family Studies 35 (2004), 137-162.

Werner, C.A. "Women and the art of household networking in rural Kazakhstan", Islamic Quarterly 41 (1997), 56-68.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zVUhNP0pfuA – a documentary film (74minutes, English subtitles) on a polygamous family in an

Iranian ruralcommunity.

http://www.youtube.com/watch? v=46UNlUKWPIU&feature=related – a documentary entitled "Women of the Sand", depicting nomad women in Mauritania. (10 minutes available out of 50).

India, South-East Asia

Breman, J. The village on Java and the early-colonial state (Rotterdam: Comparative Asian Studies Program, 1980).

Breman, J. Control of land and labour in colonial Java (Dordrecht: Foris Publications Holland, 1983).

Breman, J. Labour migration and rural transformation in colonial Asia (Amsterdam: Comparative Asian Studies, Free University Press, 1990).

Geertz, Cliford. Agricultural involution: the processes of ecological change in Indonesia (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1963).

Eaton, Richard, M. The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1760 (Berkley and L.A.: The University of California Press, 1993).

Hart, G., Turton, A. and White, B. (eds.). Agrarian Transformations: Local Processes and the State in Southeast Asia (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1989).

Khan, Zillur. "Caste and Muslim Peasantry in India and Pakistan", Man in India 48 (1968), 133-48.

Pincus, J. Class power and agrarian change: land and labour in rural West Java (London: MacMillan Press, 1996).

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Saumarez-Smith, Richard. Rule by Records: Land Registration and Village Custom in Early British Punjab (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996).

Peletz, Michael, G. A Share of the Harvest: Kinship, Property and Social History among the Malays of Rambau (Berkley and Los Angeles: The University of California Press, 1988).

Gulick, J.M. "Malay Rural Society: A Survey of Anthropological Studies", Asian Studies Review 7 (1983, 1):82-101.

Customary laws Bowen, John, R. "The Transformation of an Indonesian

Property System: ADAT, Islam, and Social Change in the Gayo Highlands", American Ethnologist 15 (1988, 2), 274-293.

_____ Islam, Law and Equality in Indonesia: An Anthropology of public Reasoning (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).

Donaldson, William J. Sharecropping in the Yemen: A Study of Islamic Theory, Custom and Pragmatism (Leiden: Brill, 2000).

_____ "Customary Law, Islamic Law and Yemeni Sharecropping" (pp. 47-66) in: J.F. Healy and V. Porter (eds.) Studies on Arabia in Honour of Professor G. Rex Smith (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).

Peters, Rudolph. "Sharecropping in the Dakhla Oasis: Sharī‘a and Customary Law in Ottoman Egypt" (pp. 79-91) in: P. Bearman et al. (eds.) The Law Applied: Contextualizing the Islamic Sharī‘a. (London and New York: I.B. Tauris, 2008).

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