HEREO OR HERETIC: THE LIFE, WRITING, AND THEOLOGY OF ORIGEN OF ALEXANDRIA

JOE VALENTI

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 1

A Word on Sources 1

THE LIFE OF ORIGEN 2

Birth and Early Life 2

Adulthood 3

Lifestyle 6

Reflections 6

WRITING 7

The Breadth of Origen's Writing 7

Hexapla 9

Against Celsus 10

On First Principles 11

Reflections 12

THEOLOGY 12

Allegorical Interpretation 13

Preexistence of Souls 14

Ransom to Satan Theory 15

The Trinity 16

CONCLUSION 17

BIBLIOGRAPHY i

INTRODUCTION

In the conversation of early church theologians and thinkers, Origen can often be

put into his own unique category due to some of the flaws in his theology, specifically his

thoughts on creation and the Trinity. Though some of his views were deemed heretical

and should not be held to, they do not make the whole of the man that was Origen. He

studied the Bible with furious passion, accomplished incredible feats in Christian writing,

and overcame incredible trials in his life as a Christian. Though a few of his ideas may

not be the best theology to maintain, Origen deserves our respect and attention in the

modern evangelical church. He even, perhaps, deserves to be called a hero. 

A Word on Sources

Though there are several volumes about the life of Origen, most trace back to the

writings of the early church historian, Eusebius. Much of the sixth book of his

Ecclesiastical History is devoted to the life of Origen, because, as Eusebius says, "The

life of Origen, indeed, appears to me worthy of being recorded."1 Eusebius mentions that

he used letters and other short writings, that had been passed on to him upon Origen's

death, to compile his history of the man. Additional information on the teaching and

theology of Origen can be found in a work by Origen's student, Gregory Thaumaturgus

called Address to Origen.  Only a select few of the works of Origen, including Contra

Celsum, On Prayer, Exhortation to Martyrdom, Dialogue with Heracleides, portions of

his commentaries on Matthew and John, and a handful of homilies are still available in

either Greek or Latin.  Considering the fact that St. Epiphanius notes the volume of 1 Eusebius Of Caesarea, An Ecclesiastical History to the Twentieth Year of the Reign of

Constantine, the Fourth Edition, Carefully Revised, trans. The Rev. C. F. Cruse D. D. (London: Samuel Bagster And Sons, 1847), 232.

1

Origen's works somewhere around six thousand, the documents that remain in translation

are but a few pixels of the vast picture that is Origen's work. Eusebius notes that to

organize all of Origen's labors in writing "would require a separate and distinct work."2

THE LIFE OF ORIGEN

Birth and Early Life

The Romans were the rulers of the world, and the freedom, or lack thereof, that

Christians received was based largely on who the Emperor was at the time. In

Alexandria, around 185, Origen was born to Christian parents under the rule of Emperor

Commodus. Though Commodus is not recorded as having orchestrated persecutions

against the Christians, the world into which Origen was born was not the world in which

he would live his life.3  

Alexandria was the intellectual hub of the known world. Though Rome trumped

Alexandria in importance, Alexandria reigned supreme when it came to thinking. As

such, Origen's father, Leonides, was sure to educate his son well. Origen was schooled by

his father in both the secular and the sacred. Early in life Origen developed a love for the

Bible and memorized large passages of Scripture that his father would have him recite

every day.4 Leonides was a very proud father and glad that his son had such a passion to

learn about and delve into the teaching held within the sacred Scriptures. Often times at

2 Eusebius, 263.

3 A. J. Schmidt, How Christianity Changed the World (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2004), 44.

4 Eusebius, 232.

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night his father would come into the room while Origen was sleeping, undo his shirt, and

kiss his chest as a way to consecrate his son's heart to the Holy Spirit. 

All of this would soon change for Origen and his family when Septimius Severus

came to power in 193. In 202 an edict was enforced that made it illegal to convert to

Christianity. Origen's father was arrested and suffered martyrdom that same year. Before

the death of his father, Origen wrote to him, encouraging him not to apostatize, saying,

“Take heed not to change thy mind on account of us.”5 Origen was impassioned to join

his father in martyrdom so deeply that his mother hid all of his clothing so that he could

not leave the house. The school that Origen was attending was broken up as many of the

teachers, including Origen's mentor Clement,  fled as a result of the persecutions. Origen

and his family were left with very little due to the fact that most of what his father had

owned was confiscated by the Roman government.

Adulthood

Though faced with poverty, Origen was enabled to continue his education due to

the graciousness of a "certain lady of great wealth and distinction."6 In order to provide

for his large family in the wake of his father's death, at the age of eighteen, Origen began

to take on students; he became a tutor of sorts. Additionally, due to his knowledge in the

sacred, Origen was given the role of teaching the basics of the Christian faith to those

who had recently converted since many of the teachers in the school had fled.7 Origen's

5 Ibid., 232

6 Ibid., 233.

7 Bryan M. Litfin, Getting to Know the Church Fathers: An Evangelical Introduction (Grand Rapids: Brazos Press, 2007), 146.

3

popularity as a teacher spread so widely that the mother of Emperor Alexander Severus

called on him to come and teach her privately.8  

Origen taught his students science, philosophy, and math, along with other

disciplines. But his desire was that they use their learning in all of these areas as a means

to interpret scripture and advance their spiritual growth.9 The relationships that he built

with his students would, for many of them, end the same way as did the relationship with

his father. Persecution was still rampant throughout the Roman empire and many of

Origen's students were led off to be killed. In the face of great danger, Origen often

showed his camaraderie with them by giving them the kiss of peace as they were

marched off to death, often making that walk alongside them. The pagan crowds were so

violent during these moments that he was almost stoned on several occasions. Origen

brought so many to faith and was so passionate about the truth of the Scriptures that mobs

would form outside his home. Origen often had to move from house to house to escape

the pagan crowds.10 Origen had a passion to make God central no matter the cost, and this

desire affected every aspect of his life.

Alexandria was his home, but Origen was not welcome. The bishop of

Alexandria, Demetrius, and he did not get along well. Origen thought Demetrius was

too caught up in himself to truly minister to people. Demetrius, on the other hand, felt

8 Everett Ferguson, Church History, Volume 1: From Christ to Pre-Reformation (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2005), 133.

9 W. Metcalfe and B. D, Translations of Christian Literature, ed. W. J. Sparrow-simpson et al, vol. 1, Gregory Thaumaturgus Address to Origen, (London: Society For Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1920), 89.

10 Eusebius, 235.

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like Origen was against his efforts to unite the Egyptian church.11 Origen was later

ordained by the bishop of Caesarea in 229 and this was cause for more disputes between

he and Demetrius. Demetrius responded by condemning Origen in Alexandria which

caused Origen to flee to Caesarea where he ministered until the end of his life. Origen

spoke of these events as his, "deliverance from Egypt."12

It is only appropriate that the end of this resilient man's life is met with torture

that could not break him. He was arrested under Emperor Decius and was tortured in an

effort to make him renounce his faith. Origen endured the torture but would not break. He

would have eventually died as a result, but he was kept alive purposefully so that he

might apostatize. Fortunately, the Emperor died before Origen could recant his faith. The

torture had taken its toll on Origen however, and he died soon thereafter in 254.13

\

Lifestyle

In order to pursue God fully and deny the pleasures of the flesh, Origen kept to a

very rigid lifestyle. M. Galli and T. Olsen sum up his lifestyle very well, "This third

century “religious fanatic” gave up his job, slept on the floor, ate no meat, drank no wine,

fasted twice a week, owned no shoes, and reportedly castrated himself for the faith."14

As to his castration, Eusebius reports that Origen did, indeed, perform this most painful

act.15 In Matthew, Jesus is talking to the Pharisees and his disciples about guidelines for 11 Bruce L. Shelley, Church History in Plain Language (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2008), 84.

12 Joseph W. Trigg, Origen, ed. Carol Harrison (Lond And New York: Routledge, 1998), 16.

13 M. Galli and T. Olsen, 131 Christians Everyone Should Know (Nashville: Christianity Today, 2000), 334.

14 M. Galli and T. Olsen, 332.

15 Eusebius, 239.

5

marriage. When the disciples ask Jesus if it is best not to marry, Jesus responds by

saying, "For there are eunuchs who have been so from birth, and there are eunuchs who

have been made eunuchs by men, and there are eunuchs who have made themselves

eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom of heaven" (Matt. 19:12, ESV). Origen took this

passage literally and chose to physically dismember himself so as to stay pure and escape

the snares of lust. It is easy to think that Origen's actions were extreme, but Eusebius

reports that as people took notice of Origen's life, and the zeal with which he pursued

God, many were added to the faith. 

Reflections

As one ponders whether Origen should be labeled a hero or a heretic, his life of

faithfulness must be considered. It is no small or weak faith that enables a seventeen year

old boy to encourage his father to endure the tortures of martyrdom. Additionally, I

would call it an exemplary faith, that would go a step further and desire death for himself

in order to prove the passion with which he held his views of God. It is true that many

during this time period gave themselves over to death for the sake of the Gospel, and

each of them are indeed heroes.  Were it not for his mother's rebuffs, Origen may well

have quickly joined his father in death. As a big brother and a responsible son, Origen

handled the financial responsibility for his family and did so by teaching and advancing

the faith. In the face of great danger he walked with and cared for his students and the

other martyrs in his community right up to their tragic deaths. 

Christ has called all who follow him to do so with all of their heart, soul, mind,

and strength. To love Christ with one of these areas only is not love at all. A great

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theologian who is only focused on the life of the mind is not a hero. We must always look

at the whole of the parts that make up a person. Though, as we will see, Origen did have

some theological chinks in his armor, his life and eagerness to love God with all of his

heart, soul, mind, and strength, no matter the cost, is to be commended. 

WRITING

The Breadth of the Writing of Origen

As mentioned previously in the introduction, most of the original copies of the

writing of Origen have sadly been lost, so we do not have the fullness of what we might

learn from this great mind.  There are modern translations, some in Greek and some in

Latin, of a handful of his works today. However, when attempting to determine whether

or not this man is to be held up as a hero or degraded as a heretic, it is important to note

the sheer vastness of his writing.

The total number of letters, commentaries, and other books of theological

importance that Origen penned is unknown. Estimates range from two thousand to six

thousand. What we do know is that Origen was able to record at such great length due to

the fact that he dictated to his many secretaries almost non-stop. Ambrose, a wealthy

supporter of Origen, paid all of the expenses for at least seven copyists to be by Origen's

side to dictate his words. They would rotate on a schedule so as to always have someone

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available.16 From the information available, it is known that Origen wrote commentaries

on Genesis, Psalms, Lamentations, Matthew, John, Song of Solomon, Paul's letters,

Isaiah, and Ezekiel.17 If this were not enough, late in Origen's life he allowed his sermons

to be taken down in shorthand. His homilies covered Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, Joshua,

Judges, Ruth, 1 Samuel, Song of Songs, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Luke.18 

  Origen was also known as a great protector of the faith and wrote much in its

support. Dialodue with Candidus, for instance, was an argument between Origen and the

latter over the nature of Jesus. Origen wrote pieces on prayer, the resurrection,

and martyrdom, among others. Eusebius also briefly mentions that his epistles included

communication to many of the bishops, as well as many others, numbering around 100.

Apparently a more complete list existed in the sixth book of his Apology for Origen,

but neither this section of the Apology nor a translation of it still exists.19 In response to

the writing of Origen, M. Galli and  T. Olsen write "it's clear why he was reputed to have

kept seven secretaries busy and caused Jerome (c.354–420) to say in frustrated

admiration, “Has anyone read everything that Origen wrote?”.20 When considering the

immense amount of time, energy, and thought that must have gone into the

aforementioned materials, it is hard to believe that Origen's most lengthy and most

recognized works still need to be addressed. 

16 Eusebius, 256.

17 Trigg, 36-52.

18 A. Cabaniss, "Origen," in Who's Who in Christian History, ed. J. D. Douglas and Philip W. Comfort (Wheaton: Tyndale House, 1992), 522.

19 Eusebius, 265.

20 M. Galli and T. Olsen, 333.

8

Hexapla

Between 230 and 240, Origen began work on one of the greatest works of his life,

the Hexapla.  The Hexapla was an enormous parallel version of the Old Testament which

included the Hebrew text (which he had studied and knew very well), a Greek

transliteration of the Hebrew text,  the Septuagint, and translations by Aquila,

Symmachus, and Theodotion.21 He tediously matched all of the versions together word

for word, all the way to the punctuation, in an effort to more affectively study the Bible.

Origen added 3 additional translations to this volume in Psalms, one of which Origen

claims to have found in a jar at Jericho.22 He was able to take the massive volume with

him when he left Alexandria, but it was, unfortunately, never copied. It is thought that it

was probably destroyed permanently when the Muslims burned Caesarea in 638.23 

Against Celsus

In addition to the many accolades of Origen, he was also a brilliant apologist,

defending the faith with great zeal. His most notable apologetic work is his response to

the pagan critic, Celsus. Celsus, in his work, The True Word, attacked Christians on many

fronts. He purported that Christianity was full of women and weaklings and that

21 W. S. Vorster, "The Jewish Literary Background Of The New Testament:," in Guide to the New Testament: The New Testament Milieu, vol II ed, ed. A. B. Du Toit (Halfway House: Orion Publishers, 1998), C.15.6.

22 Eusebius, 250.

23 Norman L. Geisler and William E. Nix, A General Introduction to the Bible, revised and Expanded (Chicago: Moody Press, 1986), 513.

9

Christians had traded reason and thought for faith. Celsus also attacked the validity of the

miracles of Jesus and the incarnation itself, among other things.24 

Origen's response, Contra Celsus, or Against Celsus was an apology encouraged

by Ambrosius. In the preface Origen mentions that he was more prone to allow the facts

to simply speak for themselves and that writing a defense would only "weaken that

defense (of Christianity) which rests on facts[.]"25 Origen did, however, provide a

wonderful defense of the Christian faith, in eight books, with the purpose of assisting

those who were unfamiliar with Christian beliefs and those who were weak in the faith.

Origen met Celsus on common ground, explaining Christianity

in philosophical terms. He explained how the Old Testament prophesies had predicted

much of what happened in the person and work of Jesus Christ. He noted how the

resurrection was not simply a myth believed by foolhardy people, but was a real event

that was confirmed by skeptical people like Thomas. Against Celsus is lauded as "one of

the finest defenses of Christianity produced in the early church."26

On First Principles

In 229, while in his forties, Origen wrote one of his most influential works, Peri

Archon,  or On First Principles.27 Origen begins by stating the fact that, "there are many

24 Everett Ferguson, Church History, Volume 1: From Christ to Pre-Reformation (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2005), 68.

25 Oirgen, "Contra Celsus Book I," Kevin Knight, accessed October 1, 2012, http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/04161.htm, 1.3.

26 M. Galli and T. Olsen, 334.

27 Trigg, 18.

10

who think they hold the opinions of Christ, and yet some of these think differently from

their predecessors."28 Origen was explaining that the Apostles had been very clear about

how to live the Christian life, yet many who claimed Christianity were not following the

doctrines that they had laid out. This was his attempt to gather all who claimed Christ

under the common teaching of the Apostles in areas of the oneness of God, the Trinity,

the supernatural, and the authority of the Scriptures. Origen was obsessed with the Bible

and about how it was to be understood. He spent a good portion of Peri Archon dealing

with how he thought Scripture ought to be interpreted, which will be dealt with below. 

Reflections

In 2008 the New York Times published an article about the self-proclaimed "most

published author in the history of the planet."29 Phillip Parker is the author of more than

200,000 books, however, Parker has used computer-generated algorithms that compile

information which he simply publishes. One might think that similar methods were

necessary to complete all of the writing of Origen. Moreover, Origen not only delivered

in quantity but also in quality as has been mentioned above. It is a great need in the

church today for men, women, and children to love and cherish the Word of God with the

same fervor as Origen. It is a sad reality that only a small portion of this great man's

writing remains for the edification of the church.

28 Origen, "De Principiis," Kevin Knight, accessed October 1, 2012, http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/04120.htm, Preface.2.

29 Noam Cohen, "He Wrote 200,000 Books (but Computers Did Some Of The Work)," The New York Times Company, accessed April 14, 2008, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/14/business/media/14link.html?_r=3&pagewanted=all&.

11

THEOLOGY  

Origen was involved in the initial development of Christian theology that has

shaped Christian thought through time. Origen did not have the benefit of the minds of

thousands of men over hundreds of years when he was developing On First

Principals. Much of the thought and understanding of God and the Bible has changed,

but Origen put in the hard work to lay a solid foundation from which theologians through

time have been able to work. Origen was a fierce fighter for the inerrancy of scripture30

and believed and taught the doctrines of general and special revelation.31 Though there

are a significant amount of ideas that modern evangelicals do not agree with, the heart of

Origen must be considered. It is easy to see, from his writing, that Origen set out to seek

God, know Him, and understand His Word as completely as possible. His goal was not to

deceive the flock nor to speak incorrectly about God. Origen poured over scripture and

thought vigorously in order to attempt to discern what God was saying through the Bible

and how it should affect the way in which we live. In his desire to do this very thing, he

developed many doctrines, some which are great truths still filling textbooks today. He

also had many ideas that have not made their way into orthodoxy. Unfortunately, the

latter ideas have made the greatest waves in the study of Church history; ideas that led to

him being declared a heretic at the Second Council of Constantinople in 553.

30 Origen, "Contra Celsus Book I," Kevin Knight, accessed October 1, 2012, http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/04161.htm, 2.15.

31 Origen, "De Principiis," Kevin Knight, accessed October 1, 2012, http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/04120.htm, 1.3.1.

12

Allegorical Interpretation

Before delving into the theology of Origen, it is necessary to first look at the way

in which he interpreted Scripture because his model of Biblical exegesis is reflected in his

theological thought. Bryan Litfin offers an excellent example of the way that the thought

process of Origen worked in regard to allegorical interpretation. Using the example of C.

S. Lewis' The Chronicles of Narnia, he explains that "young children can read

the Chronicles of Narnia and enjoy them as simple stories. But those who are more

mature, who have greater wisdom, can read them on another level."32 This is exactly the

way that Origen viewed the revelation available in scripture. He believed that on the

surface, the Bible can be understood in its entirety by anyone. It can simply be read as a

piece of literature. However, more important to Origen and many others in the

Alexandrian school, were the deeper meanings hidden in the Scripture, revealed by the

Holy Spirit only to those worthy of a new level of understanding. Origen is notorious for

Christ-centeredness in all of his exegesis as well. Origen believed that every verse of the

Bible, in one way or another, was connected back to Jesus. Origen wanted all believers to

"move beyond the Bible's 'body' to discover it's inner 'soul'."33

Preexistence of Souls

Origen thought that in order for God to be omnipotent, God had to have always

had something over which to have power; He must have beings over which He was ruler. 32 Litfin, 142.

33 Ibid., 150.

13

Otherwise there would be no way to prove God's all-powerful nature. What would He

have power over if there was nothing? If He had nothing to have power over, He ceased

to be all-powerful. Therefore, Origen believed that soul's existed, before creation, in some

other state. Meaning, therefore, that there were two creations, the initial creation of all

soul's and the second creation of the cosmos. Soul's, having sinned in that other existence,

were then sentenced to life in a body connected with pain and sin in the material world.

This doctrine never gained much ground. C. Hodge says of this idea that it had, "begun

and ended with Origen, as it was rejected both by the Greeks and Latins, and has only

been advocated by individual writers from that day to this. It does not pretend to be a

Scriptural doctrine, and therefore cannot be an object of faith."34

Ransom to Satan Theory

Matthew 20:28 clearly states that Jesus came to give his life as a ransom for

many. As Origen thought about the idea of Christ being a ransom, he focused in on the

question, 'who is the ransom being paid to?'. Origen's notion was that when Adam and

Eve sinned, Satan took ownership of man from God. We were not only slaves to sin, but

slaves to Satan himself. Furthermore, he believed that Satan had demanded a price, from

God, to regain the ownership of man. The price that he demanded was the blood of Jesus.

So God paid the ransom, with the blood of Jesus, to Satan. The problem was that Satan

was not able to contain or keep control of Jesus; Jesus overcame him. So, not only did

Satan lose his slaves, the human race, but he also lost the ransom that had been paid to

34 Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology (Oak Harbor: Logos Research Systems, 1997), 267.

14

him for their freedom.35 The thought process makes sense, but has not stood the test of

time nor the scrutiny of theologians. Augustine would later develop extensive thoughts

on all that Christ's death accomplished and pave the way for the current evangelical view

of substitutionary atonement. 

The Trinity

The views on the Trinity that Origen held were central in his condemnation. The

issue centered around how, exactly, Jesus and the Holy Spirit related to God. First,

Origen did maintain that there were three hypostases and that they were all divine, a

belief which Arius would change, claiming that Christ was not divine. Arius's ideas

would later be cause for the Council at Nicaea. Origen believed that the Son and Holy

Spirit were subordinate to the Father, an idea which he based on their obedience to the

Father found throughout the New Testament.36 Origen spoke clearly about Christ’s

inferior status to the Father when he said, “Grant that there may be some individuals

among the multitudes of believers who are not in entire agreement with us, and who

incautiously assert that the Savior is the Most High God; however, we do not hold with

them, but rather believe Him when He says, ‘The Father who sent Me is greater than I.’

We would not therefore make Him whom we call Father inferior—as Celsus accuses us

of doing—to the Son of God.”37 

35 G. R. Allison, Historical Theology: An Introduction to Christian Doctrine (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2011), 392.

36 Trigg, 23.

37Contra Celsus, 8.14.

15

He also claimed that Jesus and the Holy Spirit were not created, in the way that

physical creation came into being, by God the Father, but existed in eternity with Him.

He affirmed that there was never a time when Jesus and the Holy Spirit did not exist, but

also pointed out the fact that Jesus was begotten of the Father and that the Holy Spirit

proceeds from the Father, that is, they were generated by the Father.38 E. Ferguson

explains this idea quite clearly, 

“The problem, as others would make explicit, was that human beings think of a father as

existing before a son and that would introduce a time element into eternity. For Origen

and Platonic thinkers, there was no before and after in eternity, and the language of

generation had the advantage of securing the same essence for the Son as the Father.

Thus Origen could affirm an eternal generation.”39

Attempting to understand, with the human mind, how the persons of the Trinity

came into being, how they function as three in one, and their relationships to one another

are difficult mazes to navigate. Origen worked hard to try to help us understand those

relationships and men who came after him were able to further develop his thoughts into

the treasured doctrines of the Trinity held by modern evangelicals today.

CONCLUSION

38 G. R. Allison, Historical Theology: An Introduction to Christian Doctrine (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2011), 237.

39 Ferguson, 135.

16

The Church has had many heroes. Paul, once a killer of Christians, was

transformed by grace into perhaps the most influential man on earth since Jesus Christ.

Augustine was rescued from a life of debauchery to become one of the most prolific

writers and theologians that the world has ever known. Martin Luther made his famous

stand against the Catholic Church that sparked the Reformation. Hudson Taylor laid no

claim to any worldly pleasures and selflessly spread the love of Christ through China, and

Jim Elliot gave his life in order to reach the Auca Indians. Entire book series' have been

dedicated to the men and women who have carried the torch of faith and who have lost

their lives in the pursuit of making God's name great. Origen is one of these heroes.

In a world torn by politics and persecution, Origen stood in the gap and would not

relent in his confession of faith. When his students were faced with martyrdom, he stood

with them at great danger to himself. In the face of brilliant philosophers Origen

defended the Bible with great passion and eloquence. He was the first to attempt a

Systematic Theology. Origen desired to know the Bible so deeply that he built a six-

columned parallel Bible with which to study. The fact that Origen, in his desire to know

God deeper through extensive study of the Bible, developed some incorrect doctrines,

does not speak to the heart of man nor should it cause the Church to primarily identify

him as a heretic. When one thinks of Origen, the thoughts should be of zeal for the faith,

fervor for the Bible, and deep love for the body of Christ. Origen should be remembered

for the myriad of positive influences that he made for the advancement of the Kingdom

of God. He should be remembered as a hero.

17

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allison, G. R.. Historical Theology: An Introduction to Christian Doctrine. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2011.

Cabaniss, A.. "Origen." In Who's Who in Christian History. Edited by J. D. Douglas and Philip W. Comfort. Wheaton: Tyndale House, 1992.

Cohen, Noam. "He Wrote 200,000 Books (but Computers Did Some Of The Work)." The New York Times Company. Accessed April 14, 2008. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/14/business/media/14link.html?_r=3&pagewanted=all&.

Eusebius Of Caesarea. An Ecclesiastical History to the Twentieth Year of the Reign of Constantine, the Fourth Edition, Carefully Revised, trans. The Rev. C. F. Cruse D. D. (London: Samuel Bagster And Sons, 1847).

Ferguson, Everett. Church History, Volume 1: From Christ to Pre-Reformation. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2005.

Galli, M., and T. Olsen. 131 Christians Everyone Should Know. Nashville: Christianity Today, 2000.

Geisler, Norman L., and William E. Nix. A General Introduction to the Bible. Revised and Expanded. Chicago: Moody Press, 1986.

Hodge, Charles. Systematic Theology. Oak Harbor: Logos Research Systems, 1997.

Litfin, Bryan M.. Getting to Know the Church Fathers: An Evangelical Introduction. Grand Rapids: Brazos Press, 2007.

Metcalfe, W., and B. D. Translations of Christian Literature. Edited by W. J. Sparrow-Simpson, D. D., W. K. Lowther Clarke, and B. D. Vol. 1, Gregory Thaumaturgus Address to Origen. London: Society For Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1920.

Origen, "Contra Celsus Book I," Kevin Knight, accessed October 1, 2012, http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/04161.htm.

Origen, "De Principiis," Kevin Knight, accessed October 1, 2012, http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/04120.htm.

Schmidt, A. J.. How Christianity Changed the World. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2004.

Shelley, Bruce L.. Church History in Plain Language. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2008.

Trigg, Joseph W.. Origen. Edited by Carol Harrison. Lond And New York: Routledge, 1998.

i

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ii