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Chinchilla Notes 2018

Y2 Geography Notes 2018FYE EDITION

Chapter 4: Transport

Contents Page No.Introduction 2Part A: The Overview (Characteristics of Urban Transport)

Characteristics of Urban Transport Examples of Urban Transport Modes Density of Transport Networks Quality of Transport Infrastructure CASE STUDY: The Good and the Bad

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Part B: The Issue (Traffic Congestion) Characteristics of Traffic Congestion Causes of Traffic Congestion Effects of Traffic Congestion The CBD

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Part C: The Solution Creating Alternatives: Making public

Transport a Choice Mode Controlling Consumption: Managing Road

Usage Others

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INTRODUCTION

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Introduction to the Urban Transport Situation Rapidly-increasing populations in cities due to increase

in birth rates urban and rural migration measures have to be taken to prevent traffic congestion to allow people and goods to be moved quickly and efficiently, and to facilitate economic activities

Poorly-managed traffic environmental pollution as people stay in transport for a longer period and economic loss, as goods are inefficiently transported and people waste time in traffic instead of working

Thus, mobility is required to move people and goods from place to place, in a reasonable amount of time and at an acceptable cost

PART A

Characteristics of Urban Transport Cities have a wider variety of transport modes, higher

density of transport networks and better quality of transport infrastructure than in rural areas, as it is required to serve the needs of a higher population density

Modes of Transportation Types of transport used to facilitate the movement of

people or goods from place to placePrivate Transport

Transport owned by individuals

E.g. Motorcycles, cars

Public Transport Transport provided by

private companies/government

E.g. Buses, trains, taxis More effective than

private transport as it can serve more individuals at a lower cost

Examples of Urban Transport Modes

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As the transport situation varies among cities, those governing different areas must adapt to provide a variety of transport modes to serve the public

Location Effects and Reasons

Examples

Cities To provide a variety of transport modes and cater to different groups of people

Taxis provide a customised, speedy journey at a higher price, while buses provide a cheaper alternativeShuttle services involve private companies deploying their fleets of buses to shuttle members of the public, providing convenient transport to more remote areas

Bangkok To adapt to the transport situation and effectively suit public’s needs

Tuk-tuks are able to weave in and out of congested traffic

Singapore(Urban RedevelopmentAuthority)

To provide a cheaper, more environmentally friendly transport mode and capitalises on Singapore’s compact size and inter-connected urban areas

More than 700km of cycling paths, with round island routes, inter-town and intra-town cycling networks, allowing for and integrated, convenient and comprehensive mode of transport

Japan (Shinkansen)

To provide quick transport between cities

Shinkansen that operate at over 300km/h are used for inter-city transport, allowing passengers to travel relatively far distances in a much shorter amount of time

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Density of Transport Networks

Transport Network A system of transport routes connecting a set of

nodesRoutes

Paths that connect two or more nodes

Nodes Places where lines of a

network cross or join These junctions need

not comprise of only one mode of transportation. For example, a bus interchange at an MRT station can also be a node

The greater the number of routes and nodes, the greater the network density

The denser a transport network, the more developed and well-connected it is people can get around more efficiently and conveniently, as there is a greater likelihood that a node is nearby any given location someone might be

For example, the bustling city of Seoul requires a dense transport network to keep the city running, compared to more rural areas where the population itself is more sparse

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Quality of Transport Infrastructure

Transport Infrastructure Facilities that allow for the flow of transport

networks, such as roads, railway tracks and bus terminals

Capacity (the essence of volume)

Ability to move large numbers of people at any one time

Seoul’s subway network seamlessly serves almost 7 million passengers a day, across 9 lines

Efficiency (the essence of speed)

Frequent services to move people quickly Trains in Hong Kong arrive every 10

minutes

Reliability (the essence of consistency)

Dependable to move people constantly, with few interruptions or delays

Comfort (the essence of luxury)

Clean travelling environment and other facilities for a comfortable commute

Safety (the essence of, well, safety 😊)

Low risk of accidents and safety measures like train emergency buttons and railway track barriers on platforms

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CASE STUDY: The Good and Bad of Transport Infrastructure

We examine two vastly different transport infrastructures, which can be referenced to as contrasting examples when answering questions.

Japan (Shinkansen) Mumbai (Metro System)

Capacity Nearly 350 departures every day, with over 1300 passengers on each train

While serving over 7.5 million passengers daily, trains experience severe overcrowding, with people resorting to hanging off sides and roofs of trains

Reliability

Average of 0.9 minutes per shinkansen train in Tokyo, Japan with hardly any delays

Trains are regularly disrupted by fog, up to once every three days, cancelling and affecting nearly 100 trains and delaying them up to 40 minutes at a time.

Efficiency

With a top speed of 300km/h, shinkansen can cruise between cities quickly and efficiently, able to travel 500km from Tokyo to Osaka in under 2.5 hours

Inter-city trains travel at about 60km/h, which means a 750km trip between Goa and Mumbai would take 12 hours

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Comfort Stations constantly update their facilities to ensure a pleasant commute, regularly installing new elevators, escalators and smoking rooms, even adding features like noise suppression in train cabins

Stations are often dirty and trains can be stuffy, cramped and uncomfortable due to constant overcrowding

Safety Japanese high-speed railways have not suffered a casualty since it opened in 1964, and boasts strengthened infrastructure and anti-earthquake measures to ward off natural disasters

Between 2002 and 2012, there were a total of 35000 killed and injured each on trains, most of which derived from falling off trains or getting electrocuted by the wires over the roofs of trains

PART B

Characteristics of Traffic Congestion

Where there are more vehicles than the road can handle

Characteristics: (Useful when labelling sketches)o Slow travelling speeds (10 km/h compared to usual

80km/h)o Vehicular queues caused by build-up of large

number of vehicles travelling at slow speeds (more than 15 minutes)

o Can stretch anywhere from a few hundred metres to several kilometres

o Motorcycles weaving in and out of traffico Buses and trucks take up more space on the road

and do not follow specific laneso Vehicles do not abide by traffic rules and create

their own lanes, resulting in disorder and a change in the intended layout of the road

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Causes:

Separation of work and residential areaso Places of work are usually separated from

residential areas people need to commute to work

o Commute refers to travelling some distance between one’s residence and his place of work on a regular basis

o Travelling refers to moving from place to place irregularly, as and when it is required

o Average daily traffic volume entering the CBD in Singapore was nearly 300000 in 2013

o Due to the increasing affluence of people and the flexibility of private transport, massive numbers of cars are used to commute to work every day, causing high traffic volumes

Movement to provide or obtain goods and serviceso Specialised facilities that meet specific needs can

be found in different areas of cities and rural areas, resulting in the need for people to travel from place to place to provide and obtain goods

Inadequate transport infrastructure and poor provision of transport services

When transport infrastructure is inadequate, it is unable to support the traffic volume and the needs of travelling people

Problem EffectInsufficient lanes on roads (40%)

Causes bottlenecks where the road narrows, causing traffic to slow and pile-up of vehicles. Too many cars try to filter into smaller roads beyond their capacity, causing a jam

Lack of alternative routes

Causes traffic to pile up, as every vehicle would have to travel through a singular route to reach a destination – other options would split traffic and ease congestion

Public transport

Causes pile up of commuters and inefficient transport of these people/cannot support

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does not arrive frequently or on time

population of commuters public transport may become crowded and inhospitable people try to avoid public transport and turn to private transport, further causing vehicles on the road to increase in number

OthersTraffic Incidents (25%): Mainly consisting of car accidents, they cause congestion when damaged cars block the roads and prevent other cars from passing, also creating potential bottlenecks

Bad Weather (15%): Rain or snow can cause vehicles to move slower to avoid hazards like slippery surfaces under poor visibility, causing traffic to slow down and pile up of vehicles. Also increases likelihood of traffic incidents

E.g. In Mumbai, trains are often packed to their full capacity and buses are caught in traffic congestion and are full of passengers, making public transport an unappealing option many people turn cars and motorcycles for a more pleasant commute car population grew by 51% from 2007 to 2013, while few roads were added roads are packed and perpetually congested, with private vehicles outnumbering public ones 9 to 1

Effects:

Effect Description ExamplesReduced Productivity

The rate at which goods or services are produced.

Reduced mobility More inconvenient and time-consuming for people to move around and to deliver goods decreased productivity economic loss as time that could be spent doing

Average of nearly 950 hours wasted in traffic in London annually, which has a high concentration of economic

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productive work is wasted stuck in traffic

activities and people more vehicles on the road

Over $121 billion wasted through traffic congestion throughout US in 2011

Stress on Health

Physical

The general condition of a person’s body.

Long travelling times lead to fatigue drivers prone to losing concentration potential accidents or deaths

Toxic exhaust fumes from stationary vehicles like carbon monoxide can penetrate lung tissue inflammation long term exposure can cause asthma and lung diseases

Mental A person’s psychological state indicated by one’s emotions or behaviour

Drivers experience frustration and stress when stuck in traffic or disturbed by constant horning potential accidents and fights with other drivers

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Pollution Sound Harmful and excessive noise caused by honking disrupts human and animal life, including affecting sleep and reducing performance

In Kolkata, India, drivers honk cars at an average of 1 in 5 seconds, with each honk above the lawful limit of 55 decibels, resulting in heart disease and high blood pressure

Air Exhaust fumes from cars include greenhouse gases which cause global warming and other pollutants poor air quality like smog causes damage and diseases in lungs and eye irritation and low visibility potential accidents

Particles can enter soil and water bodies enters food chain and poisons animals

Greater emission of these fumes due to longer time spent with engine running and constantly accelerating and braking in stop-start traffic

United States Environmental Protection Agency states that more than half of air pollution in US is caused by cars

British Medical Journal stated in 2014 that exposure to smog can reduce life expectancy by as much as 15 years

CBD Central business district

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Commercial centre where business like financial institutions and concentrated in a city

Made up of tall skyscrapers which house many people working in different businesses high population density CBD needs to be readily accessible to everyone to serve the high density of businessmen and customers in the CBD, and to ensure that goods can be delivered efficiently

Well-connected to cater to high pedestrian and vehicular flow

High flow of traffic on roads due to the large population of businessmen and customers the CBD serves high volume of buses, taxis and private cars often cause traffic congestion in CBD, especially during peak hours

E.g. Manhattan, the CBD of New York, nearly doubles in population on working days, from 1.6 million to 3.1 million more businessmen commute to CBD to work and customers travel there to purchase services

Peak hour is the part of the day when traffic volume is the highest o Often due to people travelling to and from school

or work at the same time period, as businesses and education institutions start and end at similar times

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PART C

*Most important thing is to take note of PROS and CONS

Creating Alternatives: Making public Transport a Choice Mode

1. Integrated Transport System The primary goal is to create an integrated public

transport system – a public transport system that is seen as a whole, regardless of the modes of transportation.

E.g. Singapore, which has construction of transport hubs which allow bus interchanges to be integrated with rail and retail areas, with linking platforms and escalators for easily movement between routes

Use of EZ-link ticketing system is utilised across transport modes in Singapore convenience

Pros ConsGreater convenience, accessibility and efficiency is achieved by allowing people to travel quickly using different interconnected transportation modes

Requires extensive planning and costs, especially in highly developed cities where much infrastructure is already present as transport infrastructure would have to be built around it

2. Bus Lane Schemes Lanes are specially set aside for private and public buses

at specific days or periods (especially peak hours) buses can enter and leave bus stops smoothly and quickly without have to weave in and out of traffic buses can arrive on schedule more often due to less obstruction faster and uninterrupted journeys for commuters transport by bus becomes more reliable and attractive

Pros ConsAllows buses to move quickly and not be held up in traffic congestion

Success depends on cooperation of drivers

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Buses arrive on schedule more often even during peak hours more appealing

Removes precious road capacity for other drivers more severe traffic congestion in other lanes

3. Expansion of rail networks Expansion of rail networks increases transport network

density trains can reach more locations This can be done through more tracks (routes) to cover a

greater area or more stations (nodes) to give more locations access to trains

E.g. The Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) that operates between Dallas and Texas has expanded tremendously since its opening in 1996 through both methods stated above, with 14 stations and 17km of rail in 1996 to 61 stations and 137km of rail in 2004

Singapore’s Land Transport Master Plan aims to increase the number of lines and stations by 2030, adding lines like the Cross-Island Line, doubling rail network from about 180km to 360km

Pros ConsTrains have high capacity and can transport many people at a time

Building rail networks is expensive

People have access to new locations by train, previously only reached by cars or buses

Lines may cut through existing infrastructure and buildings, causing disturbance in residents and businesses who may have to make way for construction inconvenience

4. Increasing capacity and frequency of buses and rails By increasing capacity and frequency of bus and rail, people

can be transported efficiently, preventing pile-up of commuters and congestion

The Bus Service Enhancement Programme was established in Singapore in 2012 to reduce waiting time for buses, which includes a scheme to add 806 buses to the main fleet

To increase capacity of buses, Singapore introduced the articulated bus (split into 2 sections) and the double decker bus to ferry more commuters at a time

To increase frequency of trains, 28 trains were added to the North-South line in 2016 and a new signalling system was

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implemented to allow trains to arrive safely every 100 seconds, allowing a 20% greater capacity to transport passengers

Recently, trains have been fitted with flip seats, which are lifted during peak hours to allow 100 passengers to board the train (6% increase)

Pros ConsMore people can be transported to places within a short period of time

Replacing or upgrading buses or trains can be costly

Controlling Consumption: Managing Road Usage

1. Road Pricing This strategy involves managing traffic by charging drivers

when they use certain roads (often those with high vehicular traffic)

Road prices are adjusted between time periods and are highest during peak hours

This discourages drivers from using busier roads at busier times people turn to public transport during these periods reduces number of vehicles on these particular routes prevents pile up of vehicles eases congestion

Singapore utilises the ERP (Electronic Road Pricing System), particularly around the CBD to discourage taking private transport into the densely-populated vicinity which is very prone to congestion

To date, there has been a 15% reduction in traffic volume during peak hours, average expressway speeds increased from 35km/h to 55km/h and traffic volume to the CBD remained stable even though the ownership of cars rose

Pros ConsHigher costs discourage driving during peak hours, causing people to take public transport during these periods, reducing number of vehicles on the road and easing congestion

Traffic is diverted to other roads as drivers try to avoid ERP, possibly resulting in congestion elsewhere

More affluent drivers may neglect the price and

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continue to drive on these roads during peak hours for convenience (I bought this car for a hundred thousand dollars, what for a few dollars to drive it?)Transport in CBD is required for transportation and delivering goods by companies this cost is also transferred to consumers

2. Increased Parking Fees Increased parking fees would drastically increase cost of

driving, especially in CBD, helping to discourage driving people turn to public transport during these periods reduces number of vehicles on these particular routes prevents pile up of vehicles eases congestion

This would also encourage people to carpool to their respective destinations and share the cost

This scheme is complemented by the Park and Ride Scheme:o Introduced in 1975, Park and Ride carparks outside CBD

only charged $30 a dayo People would then take bus or carpool to the CBDo However, due to the affluence of Singaporeans (same

rationale as ERP), this plan was ineffective and closed in 2016

Pros ConsHigh parking fees add to the cost of owning a car private car ownership is discouraged

Drivers may resort to illegal parking to avoid paying high fees, which can block traffic or pose danger to driversMay be negated by affluence of drivers (same as ERP)

3. Enhanced Traffic Monitoring Utilising technology to monitor traffic Helps to alert drivers of traffic congestion so they can avoid

travelling on a particular road or seek alternative destinations

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One such system is the Expressway Monitoring and Advisory System (EMAS)

If there is a vehicle breakdown or accident, live information will be shown to drivers on the rods about the current situation, which can prevent further congestion to an already vulnerable area as drivers may seek alternative routes

This is also implemented in the form of parking availability updates, especially in the CBD drivers are better advised on the congestion in various areas of CBD plan alternative routes diverting away from congested areas and distributing traffic easing congestion

Pros ConsDrivers can avoid places with traffic congestion (just follow the chain above for comprehensive answer)

Only encourages drivers to drive elsewhere and does not reduce the number of vehicles on the road. In easily congested areas like CBD, this could be even worse as if there are too many vehicles, the whole area may be congested and immobilised

4. Managing Car Ownership By directly restricting the number of vehicles on the

road, congestion can be reduced drastically This has been imposed via the Vehicle Quota System

(VQS)o This scheme was put in place in 1990 to regulate

the growth of the vehicle population in Singaporeo With Singapore’s rapidly growing economy and

increasing affluent population, there came a need to manage the number of vehicles on the road

o The system relies on a Certificate of Entitlement (COE), which represents the right to ownership of a car for 10 years

o By implementing a bidding method to allocate quotas for vehicle owners and segregating categories for vehicles, every type of vehicle can be closely regulated in number, reducing vehicles on the road and easing congestion

o This method has drastically decreased vehicle population growth from 12% per annum in 1975 to 0.5% in 2013

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Pros ConsThe number of vehicles on the road can be closely monitored and controlled, restricting number of vehicles on the road and easing congestion

The affluence of Singaporeans means that increase in price for vehicles may not be effective, as people would seek vehicle ownership as a status symbol and a milestone all the more

When COE quotas are reduced, COE prices will increase drivers will be less able to afford higher price for cars decrease in vehicle ownership

Due to the nature of bidding for COEs, prices for vehicles may drastically inflate as demand increases, leading to overpriced goods and affecting the motorist industry

*Think about this: If Managing Vehicular Ownership restricts quantity, Road Pricing and Increasing Parking Fees diverts that quantity and Enhanced Traffic Monitoring distributes it equally, each method covers for one another’s weaknesses. However, the affluence of Singaporeans has been a plaguing factor to all the above and is now the main issue when tackling congestion

Other Measures

1. Telecommuting A work arrangement where employees work from home at

a location near their home and thus do not have to travel to the office

Viable due to accessibility of technology such as the Internet

People can contact colleagues or clients even when not physically in the office

Eliminates the need for people to commute to and from their workplaces reduces vehicles on the road eases congestion

Pros ConsReduces vehicles on the road Does not apply for people who

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and number of drivers and public transport passengers during peak hours

do not work or work in manufacturing industries like building or assembly companies and factories as they have to be physically present

2. Encouraging Cycling Cycling is an environmentally friendly and convenient

mode of transport because of its flexibility and mobility Infrastructure is being implemented to provide a cheaper,

more environmentally friendly transport mode and capitalises on Singapore’s compact size and inter-connected urban areas

More than 700km of cycling paths, with round island routes, inter-town and intra-town cycling networks, allowing for and integrated, convenient and comprehensive mode of transport planned by the government (taken from Pg. 3)

E.g. In Copenhagen, about 52% of people commute by bicycle to work or school daily

Pros -Provides affordability, flexibility and mobility as routes are not restricted to roads

Potential danger as cycling paths are very near to vehicles on the road

Environmentally friendly and sustainable as there are no carbon emissions

Some cities are not suited to cycling because of layout or topography (like San Francisco with steep hills)

Chapter 3: Housing

Contents Page No.

Introduction 19Part A: The Issue (Housing Shortage)

Characteristics of Housing Shortage CASE STUDY: Dharavi Slum in Mumbai Causes of Housing Shortage

19192223

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Effects of Housing Shortage 25Part B: The Solution

Solving Housing Shortage: Surviving Inclusive Housing: Thriving

292931

INTRODUCTION

Housing shortage is a global issue, with more than half of the world population living in cities and causing cities to be unable to cope with the rapid population growth

It is thus a challenge to provide adequate housing in cities

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This results in a lack of housing, which is defined as insufficient housing to accommodate the population in an area, when the supply of houses cannot meet the demand

PART A

Characteristics of Housing Shortage

Signs of housing shortage include:o Supply of houses being unable to meet the

demando Available houses are unaffordable for those who

need ito The presence of homeless people and slums and

squatter settlements

Slums and Squatter Settlements

Slums and squatter settlements are urban areas which are heavily populated, and the residents have poor quality housing and access to basic services (like food, water, shelter, sanitation, electricity etc.) (poor, but not completely absent)

Here are the common characteristics of slum and squatter settlements:

Lack of Safe Shelter

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Insufficient Basic ServicesSituational DifficultiesBackground/Status Physical (useful for

labelling sketches)May have been developed without permission

Made of scrap materials like wood, zinc and makeshift canvas which are flimsy and do not provide much protection from harsh weather

Neglected and inadequate provision of basic services

Houses are stacked on top of one another to save space

Residents face threat of eviction

Homes are built very close together and cramped, increasing threat of fireLack of proper electricity seen by dangling wiresStagnant water leading to unhygienic conditions and spread of water borne diseases or dengueRubbish and litter strewn everywhere due to lack of waste disposal facilitiesPipes drain water out of the homes and onto the street or water bodies due to lack of proper sewage

Living conditions in slums

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Houses are built on unsuitable sites which have been neglected by the government but are thus prone to landslides and floods

Flammable building materials increase risk of fire and fires can spread quickly as houses are closely packed together

Due to the lack of electricity, some of these people illegally tap into the city’s electricity supply danger of electrocution and further risk of fire (E.g. Rocinha, Rio de Janeiro)

Lack of sanitation in toilets, with 1300 people sharing 1 in the Kibera slum, Nairobi

Access to water is inconsistent as water is often diverted by individual residents or private companies that sell water for profit

As slums are illegal, the government can evict the occupants as they have the right to build projects in the occupied land

Some slums utilise makeshift transport such as push-carts on train tracks

*Slums refer to the quality of a living area, but squatter settlements refer to the illegal development of an area

Distribution of Slums

Generally, most cities that experience housing shortage have large populations (E.g. Los Angeles, USA) or are in less developed countries (E.g. Mumbai, India has over 62% of population living in slums)

Slums are often situated at the edge of cities, adjacent to industrial areas or along major transport routes (for easier transport from slum to workplace in the city)

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*Learning Points: Slums are not always formed because of poverty, but can also be due to other factors. For example, the government could have turned a blind eye to prior planning, resulting in subsequent disorganization. Also, slums are not necessarily a liability – the large population in this slum has the

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potential to be a huge industrial asset with high production of goodsCauses of Housing Shortage

Population Growth (Demand) With the global population booming from 2.5 billion

1950 to a projected 8.4 in 2030, so does the population of people living in cities

For example, while only a third of the global population lived in cities in 1950, over half, 5 billion, are expected to live in urban areas by 2030

The largest urban population increase is expected in Asia and Africa, which are already densely populated or relatively undeveloped regions, placing greater stress on the housing supply

Due to population growth, the demand for housing also increases, putting pressure on the supply of it

Generally, there are two factors causing urban population growth – rural-urban migration and high birth rates in cities:

1. Migration Rural-urban migration refers to the movement of people

from rural areas to cities to live and work There are several factors for urban-rural migration (back

to HACA…):

Push Factors Pull FactorsLack of job opportunities Promise of jobsPoor educational facilities Better educationLack of medical attention Better healthcare with more

hospitals and doctorsFamine Perception of exciting city

lifeWar Political stability

E.g. People in rural areas of Brazil are attracted to job prospects in the city of Sao Paulo; however, they may lack skills or education or there may not be an adequate

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supply of jobs unable to get jobs cannot afford housing have to move into slums

Cities may also be unable to build sufficient houses quickly enough to house migrants migrants forced to live in slums may find jobs like selling goods or basic services

2. High Birth Rates Due to high birth rates (measured per 1000 people)

and declining death rate, there is a natural population increase

Cities have a large proportion of people who are 20-30 years old as they want to pursue career prospects and are likely to start families above average fertility rate

Due to healthcare and technology in cities, as well as sanitation and education on healthy living, people tend to have higher life expectancies declining death rate

Both of these factors result in a high natural population increase

Limited Land Supply (Supply)

With many uses for land such as residential, commercial, industrial and recreational purposes and infrastructure like roads and hospitals, there is always stiff competition for land government has to balance these uses decreased or potentially insufficient space for housing

The supply of the land can also be scarce due to physical features like mountains or rivers that are unsuitable for building infrastructure

The remaining land is under stuff competition for land use this is why most slums are built in unsuitable areas, which are unused for any development

Interestingly, the top 10 cities in terms of population density are all from Asia and every one of them have to pack at least 24000 people into a single square kilometre

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Effects of Housing Shortage

1. Homelessness Homelessness refers to the lack of shelter in which

to sleep and carry out basic activities such as bathing

It can be of a cyclical nature, with homeless people wandering between different places of temporary residence

The extent of homelessness can be widespread, with the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development estimating around 610000 homeless people in USA on a single night in January 2013

The government may choose to set up temporary homes to accommodate the homeless and provide healthcare services

However, as the name suggests, it can only be effective for a certain period of time with the large population to administer to

Physical Impacts: Poor Immune System

o Weakened from exposure to disease, battling the elements, especially in cold seasons

Skin and Respiratory Issueso Due to constant exposure to polluted areas as

a result of lack of shelter General Poor Health

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o Due to constant stress, lack of sleep, lack of nutrition

Psychological Impacts: Stress Disorders

o Having to battle difficult conditions is mentally taxing, and lack of security or other threats might result in perpetual fear

2. Environmental Pollution Pollution is the introduction of substances into the

natural environment that results in unpleasant or damaging effects to the environment and human health

Inadequate provision of basic services in slums and squatter settlements can result in improper disposal of waste, in turn polluting the environment

Water Pollution Water bodies near slums may be used for

convenient washing, garbage and sewage disposal due to the lack of proper facilities

This destroys the surrounding ecosystem and severely pollutes the water, making it hazardous to wildlife

Contaminated water may also seep into groundwater and pollute nearby water sources like wells or kill crops, destroying their very livelihoods like farming or fishing

Land Pollution Lack of garbage disposal system results in

dumping of garbage into drains and other areas, causing a pile up in waste

This generates a foul smell, becomes an eyesore and may attract pests like cockroaches or rats

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Example Guanabara Bay in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, used to

have pristine conditions with thriving wildlife However, improper disposal of untreated sewage

into the bay by nearby slum and squatter settlements have polluted the vicinity

The sewage not only destroys the land, but also the marine ecosystem, killing wildlife and killing a possible tourist attraction

3. Vulnerability (Each aspect may be used as a point)

Vulnerability to Disease Due to lack of basic services like clean water and

proper sanitation, people in slums and squatter are more vulnerable to diseases

Lack of access to safe drinking water causes them to resort to drawing from contaminated rivers or wells, which may contain bacteria causing water-borne diseases like cholera and dysentery

Stagnant water caused by clogging up of drains can be breeding grounds for mosquitoes, leading to malaria and dengue fever

Improper disposal of waste results in attraction of pests like rats, which may also transmit disease

This is all made worse by the close vicinity of houses and many people sharing small houses, causing disease to spread quickly

Generally, health is poorer in the slums, with death rates of children less then 5 years old being 2.5 higher in Nairobi slums compared to the city

Vulnerability to Fires Due to the houses being closely spaced and being

made of flammable materials, fires can spread quickly

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This threat is increased by possible electrical fires from loosely hanging power lines or cooking over a naked flame

For example, the 100-150 houses destroyed in Mumbai slums could have been caused by loosely hanging electrical wires

Vulnerability to Landslides Slums are often found in mountainous areas or areas

with soil erosion, which has deterred the government from developing the area, reducing the chance of eviction

However, this makes these slums vulnerable to soil landslides, especially after heavy rain, which can bury and damage slums

For examples, a favela in Rio de Janeiro killed over 250 people and occurred after heavy rain

Vulnerability to Eviction Slums and squatter settlements may be built on land

without permission from authorities, resulting in the perpetual threat of eviction

This results in a lack of sense of security and constant fear and social tension between residents and authorities, potentially sparking riots or protests

Some slums have people affluent enough to build sturdy houses, but prefer not to lest they are forced to leave so as not to lose as many assets

For example, about 40000 people living in Korail slum in Dhaka, Bangladesh, were evicted by court order in 2012

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PART B

Solving Housing Shortage: Surviving

1. Slum Upgrading Slum upgrading is a measure taken to improve slum

conditions themselves in housing and basic services like water, electricity and sewerage

Can be accomplished several ways, such as relocating residents while infrastructure is improved, but self-help schemes may prove more effective

Self-help schemes involve the participation of low-income households to improve conditions of existing housing

In this process, the governments do not develop the slums directly, but aid by providing construction materials or basic services

For example, the Rocinha project in Rio de Janeiro managed to significantly improve housing in the slums:

o Wooden houses were replaced with concrete oneso Electricity access in homes rose from 30% to 75%o Other services like rooftop water tanks and piped water

systems added to houseso Proper sanitation facilities like toilets and sewers built

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Pros ConsReduction of construction costs as less external manpower is needed

Training is required to equip residents with skills to build houses properly and to the designated plan

Residents can build at a feasible pace, in their free time

Construction might be slower due to the residents possibly only being free on weekends, with day jobs

Removes the need to move large numbers of people to relocate while construction is underway

Mixed responses from public, with some embracing the opportunity to improve living conditions while others are uncertain about the success Some residents may be unable to pay for cost of upgraded housingResidents may be unfamiliar and incapable of maintaining the new houses

2. Provision of Public Housing Public housing refers to government efforts to provide

housing units with basic services, especially for low-income households and other persons in need such as the elderly and disabled

Reasonably priced compared to private housing, may be subsidised by government

Adaptation of current setup is also an option, such as renting old flats or converting abandoned buildings into residential units

For example, the Bairro Carioca Project in Rio de Janeiro plans to construct over 2000 apartments for 10000 peopleo With widespread projects such as these, the

government may choose to partner with the private sector to undertake the large project, especially in larger countries

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o The private sector is made up of companies and organisations that are not part of the government

o In this instance, such companies were engaged to:

Build infrastructure like roads, sewerage and means for water supply

Design and build housing units

Pros ConsProvides affordable housing for those in need

Residents may not be convinced to leave their current place of residence

Is a widespread initiative with the potential to largely solve housing shortage

An extremely complicated and widespread task, especially for larger countries, with extensive planning required

Different types of public housing can be modified to suit different needs of the people (E.g. studio apartments, 2-room flats etc.)

It is difficult to keep the many companies in check and ensure that they are adhering to guidelines

Subsidising the housing for residents may be expensive

Inclusive Housing: Thriving

For most cities, just providing residents with a proper place to live in is not enough – a house needs to be made a home

Inclusive housing not only ensures that the residents are provided for materially, but also given emotional ties to their houses

Inclusive housing ensures that housing is available to everyone, and is tailored to the specific needs of different groups of people

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Here are some characteristics of inclusive housing, zooming into Singapore’s multicultural public housing scene:

1. Affordable Housing Affordable housing refers to housing priced at a

reasonable cost such that residents still have enough money for other basic needs like food

In Singapore, there are a variety of housing types to cater to different income groups, with private properties and condominiums and public housing

Even the types of public housing have increased:o The integration of studio flats, which are much

cheaper and suitable for elderly, as there is also less space to maintain

o Three-room flats have been included to cater to smaller families

Financial schemes are utilised to subsidise costs of flats, with schemes like the Additional CPF Housing Grant (AHG) introduced to help low-income families buy first flato Families just starting out life with a low salary of

under $5000 a month can qualify for a grant up to $40000 to pay for the flat

2. Facilities and Amenities for All Groups “3-Generation” facilities have been integrated into

housing estates, which can include playgrounds, adult fitness corners and senior wellness stations, helping to cater to the needs of residents across different generations

Kindergartens can be found in void decks to cater to younger residents, while Seniors Activity Centres can

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serve the needs of the seniors, providing them with a space to interact with one another

The facilities do not only consider different generations, but also different racial groups. The void deck, for example, is extremely versatile, and can accommodate different functions such as weddings of different cultures

The Ethnic Integration Policy, introduced in 1989, promotes racial integration and harmony, specifying a quota of residents of specific races in each blocko This opens up opportunities for residents to

interact with different people of different cultures and backgrounds

The disabled are also taken into consideration, with regulation stating that corridors must be 1.5m or wider to accommodate people using mobility aids like wheelchairs

3. Strong Sense of Belonging Subtle but distinct elements are integrated into

housing estates which evoke a sense of place in residents

This sense of place is the value people attach to a place as a result of unique characteristics or vivid experiences there

For example, the “dragon slide” in playgrounds evoke childhood memories, making it an iconic element to the neighbourhood

Distinctive physical features and landmarks give areas distinctive visual qualities, character and identity, such as spiral staircases in Tiong Bahru

Chapter 5: Floods

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Contents Page No.

Introduction 34Part A: The Issue (Flooding)

Characteristics of Floods Causes of Floods CASE STUDY: Bedok and Orchard Road

Floods Effects of Floods

3434364243

Part B: The Solution Prevention: Mitigation Methods Adaptation: Disaster Preparedness

454547

INTRODUCTION

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Floods can bring about both positive and negative impacts:o Floods in Asia help support cultivation of rice

cropso However, floods that are too severe or at the

wrong places can damage property and cause loss of lives

Especially in cities, floods are a threat to the high concentration of people, buildings, businesses and infrastructure

With climate change making floods more frequent and irregular, cities must adequately prepare for floods

PART A

Characteristics of Floods

Floods are overflows of large amounts of water onto land that is normally dry

There are three types:o Coastal Floods

Commonly occur in low-lying coastal areas, where water can accumulate easily

Caused by intense storms like tropical storms and tropical cyclones/typhoons/hurricanes

Strong winds during storms generate large waves called storm surges

Cause higher water levels coastal floods

Also caused by tsunamis Huge ocean waves that can reach over

30 metres in height E.g. The Great Tohoku Earthquake and

Tsunami hit Japan in January 2011, causing mass destruction in coastal towns like Miyako City

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o River Floods Commonly occur in rivers with low banks when

water rises and overflows its banks After the flood, the water recedes and drops

sediment on both sides of the river, forming raised banks called levees

These floods could occur due to snowmelt, heavy rainfall and dam failure, causing a significant increase of water flowing through the river

E.g. Mississippi River flood in USA in 2011 was caused by heavy rain and snowmelt upstream, causing the river to swell several times in volume, resulting in floods

This affected 600 nearby houses and businesses in the city of Memphis, rising to a record 14.6m

o Flash Floods Commonly occurs in areas with poor or

insufficient drainage, which results in rapid accumulation of water and rising of water levels

Flash floods occur suddenly and last for a short period of time, making it very dangerous as it

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may catch people of guard and they may be unable to prepare adequately

These floods could occur due to heavy rainfall, or as a result of coastal and river floods

E.g. Flash floods in Orchard Road in June 2010 caused massive property damage (further elaboration in CASE STUDY)

Causes of Floods

Natural Causes

1. High Levels of Rainfall Rainfall refers to droplets of water that fall to the ground

(duhhhh) There are three aspects of rainfall to consider that play

a part in accumulation of water;o Intensity

Rate at which rain falls, measured in ml/h Higher intensity, higher chance of floods As a guide, here are the intensities of different

rain phenomena in ascending order: Drizzle, Shower, Thunderstorm, Tropical

Storm, Tropical Cycloneo Duration

Duration of rain event Longer duration, higher chance of drainage

being unable to keep up with rainfall intensity, higher chance of flooding

o An event combining high duration and intensity of rainfall was Hurricane Sandy in New Jersey, USA, which lasted 12 days and bombarded the area with heavy rain, devastating the area

o Frequency Probability of occurrence of a certain amount

of rain falling within a certain period of time An area which frequently experiences intense

rainfall may struggle to cope with constant flood threats

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Likewise, an area which experiences a freak event will struggle to adapt to the sudden occurrence as it is unlikely sufficient mitigation measures had implemented prior

E.g. In June 2012, a freak 1-in-50-year storm hit England, bringing heavy rain and causing widespread flooding across the country

2. Snowmelt Surface runoff the results in melting snow Common in temperate countries during spring when:

o Temperatures increaseo Ice and snow that had frozen during the winter

like in places like on mountaintops start to melto The melted snow flows into streams and

eventually join rivers Volcanic eruptions causing sudden rise in temperature

can also cause snowmelt All this snowmelt increases amount of water in the

river and may cause the river to overflow banks and flood vicinityo E.g. A flash flood in July 2011 in Minot, North

Dakota, USA, was caused by a combination of heavy spring snowmelt and rain

3. Storm Surge A sudden rise of the sea level in which water is piled

up against a coastline beyond normal high-tide conditions (refer to coastal floods above)

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*Illustration of the water level during a storm surge, which is clearly higher than the regular high tide

Human Causes

1. Failure or Inadequacy of Man-made Structures The failure of infrastructure can cause floods, such as:

o Dams Barriers built across rivers to retain and store

water, helping to regulate amount of river flow of water

The failure or collapse of these dams will release all this stored water at once, causing an almost instant surge of extra water entering the river, exponentially increasing the volume of water in the river

This can cause major damage to people living downstream, where this water will flow towards

E.g. Banqiao Dam in August 1975 in Henan Province, China resulted in about 26000 casualties directly from the flood, an around another 204000 from the resulting famine and diseases caused

This shows how even after the actual event, the effects of floods can be devastating, even depriving people of their food source

o Levees and Floodwalls Man-made levees and floodwalls (similar to the

natural levees mentioned in river floods) can be used to increase the capacity of the river before it floods (essentially raising the banks)

Damage to these structures may prove deadly, with the additional water contained by them during high rainfall conditions now allowed to pour out of the river and flood the surrounding areas, which are probably of a lower elevation compared to the levees

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E.g. The failure of levees and floodwalls protecting New Orleans due to Hurricane Katrina in 2005 caused major flooding in the vicinity – 100000 homes and businesses destroyed

Certain areas may have inadequate infrastructure like these levees and dams in the first place to adapt to floods, resulting in them being unable to cope with floods when they happen

This will be elaborated on under the factors that can make cities prone to floods

Other Factors that Increase Risk of Flooding

Locational factors

1. Land Height Below Sea level Key Term: Mean Sea Level, the average height of the

sea surface at a given site over a long period of timeo Midpoint between mean low tide and mean high

tide In low-lying lands, especially those below sea level,

there is a higher chance of flooding when phenomena like storm surges breach the coastal area even slightly, as it will collect in these low lands

o E.g. Cities in the Netherlands like Rotterdam (Ohhh Robin van Persie) are particularly vulnerable to floods as most areas are below sea level, with

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some other areas The Hague being up to 12m below sea level

2. Close Proximity to Water Bodies Significant accumulations of water ltacike oceans, seas,

lakes, rivers and reservoirs Areas near these water bodies, like coastal cities or

cities built around rivers are prone to floods as any overflow of these water bodies can directly damage property

Fluctuating water levels due to snowmelt or rainfall can cause these floods to come suddenly and rapidly

o E.g. Manila, Philippines, at the mouth of the Pasig River, is located in a position that makes it vulnerable to flooding, with the river flowing through the heart of the city

*If you have time, you might want to look up on monsoons, another locational factor Infrastructural Factors

1. Low Permeability of Surface Cover The ease with which water can infiltrate or seep into

the ground Different surfaces have different levels of permeability

o Vegetated surfaces are more permeable as the water can directly seep into the soil, lower surface runoff

The level of compaction of the soil is also important (how close the soil particles are together)

o Concrete surfaces are impermeable as the concrete covers the soil completely, greater surface runoff

To combat this, other drainage systems like drains or canals must be built

As cities expand, natural vegetation can be removed and replaced with concrete for building infrastructureo Increased surface runoff in event of rain, water

accumulates at a faster rate if there is insufficient drainage increased probability of flooding

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However, if there is proper drainage, the high surface runoff can be directed into canals and drains, which directly transport water to water bodies o This results in water draining even faster than

with vegetation, as the water will take time to seep into the soil and eventually reach the water

bodies

2. Low Channel Capacity The volume of water held in a river or canal without

overflowing in important to reducing the risk of flooding

Especially in cities, with concrete surfaces in built up surfaces causing large amounts of surface run-off, the city’s ability to drain water quickly is very important

Apart from capacity, the presence of debris and width of the canal may obstruct the flow of water, resulting in slower drainage (find out more under mitigation measures)o E.g. Sungei Pandan Kechil canal, along the Ayer

Rajah Expressway in Singapore, could not cope with the runoff of heavy rainfall in September 2013, resulting in a flash flood

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To improve the condition, cities can have a better network of canals and rivers to divert water away from high-risk locations

CASE STUDY: Bedok and Orchard Road Floods

The Bedok and Orchard Road floods were flash floods in Singapore that occurred as a result of major anomalies, which made them extremely devastating

o The Orchard Road flood came as a huge shock as there was the Stamford Canal draining the area, having been stated to be the reason why the vicinity would never flood in an article in 1999

However, the clogging up of one of the two branches of the canal effectively halved the canal’s ability to drain water and this, compounded with half the average rain in the whole month of June, caused the flooding

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The flood resulted in the damage of several shops and many vehicles in the CBD

This reinforces the importance of keeping our drainage system well-maintained and being vigilant at all times

o oThe Bedok flood came as a result of abnormally

heavy rain caused by a combination of weather phenomena – the usual Northwest Monsoon and an unexpected Sumatran squall, which usually happens during the Southeast Monsoon

o The combination of these two occurrences resulted in over 100mm of rainfall per hour across nine locations, resulting in high property damage, especially residential homes

o This shows how floods can occur suddenly and unexpectedly, which increases the importance of disaster preparedness when floods inevitably occur

Effects of Floods

Social Impacts (Affecting wellbeing of people)

1. Threatening of Life Injuries may occur due to fast-moving debris in the water and

collapse of infrastructure Long period caught in floods may lead to hypothermia

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o Flash floods tend to result in more casualties as they are more sudden, leaving people less time to retreat to higher ground

E.g. in 2013, 85 casualties from flash floods compared to 30 from river floods in USA

After the flood, diseases may spread to the population who were not directly involved in the flood

o Contaminated water supply by chemical spills and sewage leading to cholera and dysentery

o Stagnant pools of floodwater collected in depressions may breed mosquitoes even after water levels subside, causing malaria and dengue fever

Psychological distress from loss of property and loss of loved ones may also affect the health of people

2. Deprivation of Basic Necessities Lack of housing

o During floods, houses may be swept away, resulting in many people becoming homeless

o These people may have to stay in emergency shelters for long periods of time while trying to rebuild their homes

o More severe in areas with high population densities E.g. Almost 1.5 million people displace from homes

by Hurricane Katrina, with emergency shelters and trailer parks built to accommodate victims

Lack of clean water supply, food and sanitationo Spillage of chemicals or sewage into water due to

damage of industrial infrastructure and pipes respectively can cause widespread disease and disrupt the clean water supply

o In areas used to cultivate crops, the destruction of these crops due to floods can cut off the whole food supply for the year

o Damaged pipes and sanitation facilities may lead to rapid spread of disease

E.g. Severe floods in Pakistan from June to September 2010 affected more than 20 million people, incurring over $38 million worth of damages, destroying water pumps, sanitation facilities, pipes and farmland

Economic Impacts (Affecting production and trading of goods and services)

1. Damage of Infrastructure Damage to machinery and equipment

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o Submerging of machinery and equipment like computers and cranes during floods may cause damage to motors and electrical components

o Entire industrial parks may be flooded, especially due to their low-lying structure, affecting multiple businesses

o Factories unable to operate at full capacity, suffer economic losses and require money to replace equipment – lower profits

Damage to transport infrastructureo Submerged or damaged roads and railway tracks can

become impassable, restricting movement of goods and people

o May take long time and large amount of money to repair

o People are unable to travel to work, tourists are discouraged from visiting and goods cannot be transported reliably reduction in productivity, employment and profits

o May also hamper rescue efforts as it is harder to access affected sites

E.g. Floods in Serbia and Bosnia in 2014 destroyed many roads and bridges, along with other infrastructure, hampering rescue efforts and amounting to billions of euros worth of damages

2. Disruption to energy supply Due to the lack of transportation, energy cannot be

transportedo Gasoline trucks cannot transport fuel from terminals

to gas stations due to flooded road conditionso Disruption of electricity may also affect ability of

factories and companies to produce goods and services, and may hamper their ability to recover and rebuild infrastructure by powering machines like cranes

o Loss of employment and income for companieso The lack of energy can also hamper rescue efforts, as

rescue vehicles like boats, ambulances and fire engines cannot function

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PART B: The Solution

Prevention: Mitigation Methods (Preventing floods altogether)

Investment in Infrastructure

1. Levees and floodwalls Help to increase capacity of channels without wasting

money raising the whole surrounding land by raising height water needs to reach before flooding

o E.g. Floodwalls along River Wye in Herefordshire, UK, built in 2008 to prevent flooding of residential houses along the river

Pros ConsCheaper to build than raising the entire height of surrounding land

Regular maintenance is required to ensure levees and floodwalls are strong enough to hold back floodwater, which may be challenging along long riversCannot prevent floods beyond its structural capacity can allow

2. Channel Improvement Increases capacity or flow rate of water in rivers or canals

o Capacity can be increased by deepening and widening the channel

o Flow rate of water can be increased by straightening the river so that the water can be carried away directly and quickly

Removal of sediment or debris like fallen branches removes obstacles that would slow down river flow

Rivers can also be lined with concrete to:o Prevent infiltration, resulting in faster discharge and

removal of sediment and deposits that would obstruct the river

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o Faster river flow due to smoother surface instead of boulders and rocks obstructing flow of water

o Prevent soil erosion which would further obstruct water flow

However, making these changes to rivers may affect the ecosystem

E.g. Widening and deepening of Bukit Timah Canal to increase capacity

Pros ConsAllows higher-value developments to be built near channels as there is a reduced risk of flooding (E.g. Singapore River)

Lack of coordination between different areas may cause issues downstream as the faster water may slow down suddenly in undeveloped channels and overflow

Developing channels may make them cleaner and more aesthetically pleasing

Intensive planning is required to connect the different drains and canals seamlessly to avoid higher-risk locationsDeveloping rivers may destroy the surrounding ecosystem (e.g. crabs living along river banks)

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Adaptation: Disaster Preparedness (reducing impacts of floods when they inevitably occur)

Regulation

1. Zoning The manner in which the government plans the

physical development of land and its useo Specifies areas for residential, industrial,

commercial or recreational purposes Managed by URA in Singapore

Flood prone areas are usually zoned as low-value developments like parkso Do not cost much to develop and lower-income

activitieso Fewer economic losses in event of floods

E.g. In Eagan City, Minnesota, Areas near the Minnesota River which

are prone to floods are used for low-value developments like the Minnesota Valley National Wildlife Refuge

Areas beyond are used for industrial areas

Residential areas are furthest away to protect homes from flooding

Pros ConsMinimises economic loss due to floods while still utilising flood-prone areas

May limit development of available land as only certain land uses are allowed

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(opportunity cost)Also reduces casualties as there is lower population density in low-value areas

Hard to implement due to competing land use – people also may not abide by rules Hard to maximise profits as some areas will inevitably be “wasted” with low-profit developments

2. Elevated Properties Elevating properties increases the level water levels must

reach before damaging them, reducing damage to shops, malls and houses when floods occur

o E.g. Minimum Platform Level (MPL) in Singapore In areas with no flood history, 300mm above

ground level In areas with flood history, 600mm above highest-

recorded flood levelo Can be added to existing developments by adding

steps

Pros ConsReduces the likelihood of damage by floods based on history

Depends on cooperation of residents or businesses, who may be reluctant to develop due to increased costHard to implement and reinforce in large countries

Disaster Preparedness

1. Forecasting and warning system Monitoring features that may lead to floods like water levels

in canals, drains and river channels, tide levels and weather conditions can help to make accurate predictions on flood occurrences

o This allows cities to notify residents to evacuate beforehand or minimally reduce property damage by

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raising valuable items to higher ground (particularly useful with flash floods, providing people with time to prepare that is normally unavailable)

This data can be collected by satellite, monitoring cameras or water level sensors

Pros ConsGives people time to take action to minimise flood damage

Cities may not have expertise and technology to collect accurate data and make accurate forecasts

Reduces casualties, especially by forecasting flash floods as it affords more reaction time

Cannot prevent damage of permanent infrastructure like buildings which cannot be moved quicklyDifficult to implement in large countries (hard to track so much land and process so much data)

2. Evacuation drills With high population densities, cities have to plan to

evacuate large numbers of people in the shortest possible time

Drills are sometimes used to promote familiarity and reduce panic during real flood events

Involve moving to safe locations, following instructions from trained personnel and performing first aid

o E.g. PUB has provided a public advisory for different groups of people, including pedestrians, motorists, residents and business owners on what to do in the case of a flood, making for a comprehensive guide for different scenarios

Pros ConsPeople are educated on what to do during floods or when they receive flood warnings, reducing potential casualties and panic

Effectiveness limited to participation and cooperation during the drill

Observing the drill procedures allows cities to improve on existing plans

True accuracy of the procedure can only be determined when the flood actually occurs (real case

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scenario is hard to simulate as anomalies could occur)Hard to implement intricate, accurate routes in large countries

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