INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATIONS UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES

Research Methodology

An assignment submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master’s Degree in Development Studies

Assignment No. 01

Student details: Nathan Gilbert Simbaya

SIN No. 1903316857

Lecturer’s Name Kabubi Marvin

Year 2019

SECTION A: Concepts

1. Briefly, Define the following concepts

a) Null Hypothesis

The hypothesis predicting that no difference exists between the groups being compared.

b) Alternative Hypothesis

As the name suggests it’s the hypothesis that the researcher wants to support, predicting

that a significant difference exists between the groups being compared

c) Type-I Error

An error in hypothesis testing in which the null hypothesis is rejected when it is true

d) Type-II Error

An error in hypothesis testing in which there is a failure to reject the null hypothesis

when it is false

e) Deductive vs Inductive reasoning

Deductive reasoning involves a process of reasoning from the general to the specific. For

example, all men are mortal (general); John is a man and therefore, he is mortal

(specific)

While

Inductive reasoning involves a process of reasoning from specific to the general. For

example, John is mortal; all men are mortal.

f) Level of significance

Denoted as alpha, it is a measure of the strength of the evidence that must be present in a

sample before rejecting the null.

g) Power of the test

Refers to the probability of correctly rejecting a false null hypothesis

h) Critical region

The critical region is the region of values that corresponds to the rejection of the null

hypothesis at some chosen probability level. The shaded area under the Student's t

distribution curve is equal to the level of significance.

i) Empiricism

It is knowledge derived from our senses indirectly or directly (what we see, feel)

j) Reliability vs Validity

Reliability and validity are concepts used to evaluate the quality of research. They

indicate how well a method, technique or test measures something.

Reliability is about the consistency of a measure.

While

Validity is about the accuracy of a measure

2. With appropriate examples where necessary, briefly explain the following types of

research designs and show how they are organized

a) Case study

A Case Study is an in depth analysis study of a problem in its context.Example [In the guidance of a child who is displaying anti-social behaviour] a team, consisting of the school psychologists, teachers, guidance workers, social workers, and other interested persons, pools its information and insights in order to gain an understanding of the case. Eventually a diagnosis is reached and remedial steps are prescribedThe following are the steps in the case study

Step 1 : Status of the Situation or Unit of Attention.

Step 2 : Collection of Data, Examination and History.

Step 3 : Diagnosis and Identification of Casual Factors.

Step 4 : Adjustment, Treatment and Therapy.

Step 5 : Follow up Programme.

b) Longitudinal study design (Panel, Cohort, and Trend Designs)

Longitudinal study design studies the same people over multiple data collection

periods. Longitudinal studies focus on the group at two or more points in time.

Example: A researcher who is studying drug treatment can monitor changes over

time to assess the effectiveness of a drug therapy

Panel Design: describe information about the same cases at two or more points in

time. We compare the same cases over time [keep capturing data from same

respondents]

Cohort Design: Study of people with the same demography. Cohort studies follow one

or more cohorts (usually at least two) over a period of time

Trend Design: we compare sample surveys describing the same population at two or

more points in time

c) Experimental designs (Experimental, Quasi and None Experimental designs)

Experimental design: is when a researcher is able to manipulate the predictor

variable and subjects to identify a cause-and-effect relationship. This typically

requires the research to be conducted in a lab, with one group being placed in an

experimental group, or the ones being manipulated, while the other is placed in a

placebo group.

Before After

Experiment group ROA1 X OA2 = diff OA2 - OA1

Control group ROA3 OA4 = diff OA4 - OA3

Quasi Experimental Design: involves the manipulation of an independent variable

without the random assignment of participants to conditions or orders of conditions

Before After

Experiment group ROA1 X OA2 = diff OA2 - OA1

No Control group

OA1 X OA2 = diff OA2 - OA1

OA3 OA4 = diff OA4 - OA3

Non experimental Design: when a researcher cannot control, manipulate or alter the

predictor variable or subjects, but instead, relies on interpretation, observation or

interactions to come to a conclusion

Before After

ROA1 OA2 = diff OA2 - OA1

ROA3 OA4 = diff OA4 - OA3

d) Cross sectional design

Is a type of observational study Design. In a cross-sectional study, the investigator

measures the outcome and the exposures in the study participants at the same time.

Cross-sectional studies focus on a group at one point in time

Example: A medical study looking at the prevalence of cancer amongst a certain

population. The researcher can evaluate people from different ages, ethnicities,

geographical location and social backgrounds.

e) Descriptive vs Analytical

Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds.

The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it

exists at present

While

Analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information

already available, and analyse these to make a critical evaluation of the material.

3.

a) With appropriate examples, briefly explain the difference between probability and

none- probability samples

Probability sampling: is a sampling technique in which sample from a larger

population are chosen using a method based on the theory of probability. For a

participant to be considered as a probability sample, he/she must be selected using a

random selection. Probability sampling uses random sampling techniques to create a

sample. Example, if you had a population of 100 people, each person would have

odds of 1 out of 100 of being chosen.

Non - probability sampling: is a sampling technique where the samples are gathered in

a process that does not give all the individuals in the population equal chances of

being selected. Non-probability sampling techniques use non-random processes.

Example, this type of sampling can be used to conduct research involving a particular

illness in patients or a rare disease. Researchers can seek help from subjects to refer

other subjects suffering from the same ailment to form a subjective sample to carry

out the study.

b) Explain the key determinants of sample size when sampling elements from a

population

Purposive sample: This technique involve deliberate selection of sample with

adequate knowledge on the subject. However, it does not represent the whole

universe.

Simple random sampling: As this sample is controlled by probability, there is every

equal chance for all the items of the universe to get selected.

Systematic sampling: This is most simple and practical way of sampling. It is covered

under the techniques of probability sampling.

Stratified sampling: This is also a technique of probability sampling, which is used

for the population not having homogeneous group.

Quota sampling: This is an important from non-probability technique of sampling

quota sampling is considered as judgment sampling.

Cluster sampling: This is a probability sampling technique cluster refers to a group

and in this sampling technique first the population is grouped, then specific group is

selected for the study.

Cluster Multi stage sampling: The area sampling is just like a cluster sampling when

geographical area under the investigation is very large than the total area is divided

into non-overlapping small area.

c) Briefly explain how a random sample of 100 students can be obtained from a

population of 5000 students, and what are the implications of such sample

Step 1: Make a list of all the 5000 students.

Step 2: Assign a sequential number to each students faculty (1,2,3…n). (Sampling

frame)

Step 3: Use a random number generator to select the sample, using the sampling

frame (population size) from Step 2 and the sample size 100. For example, the sample

size is 100 and the population is 5000, generate 100 random numbers between 1 and

5000

4.

Critique the following research questions, point out what’s wrong with them and Revise

as needed:

a) Why should evil rulers like Saddam Hussein be removed from office?

It’s a yahoo, Taboo and threatening questions, it’s a leading question [forces an

impression on the respondent that Saddam Hussen is Evil. Evil is a word used in

philosophy. Threatens respondent on their beliefs]

Correct phrase: Why should dictators be removed from office?

b) Do you think IT should be a required component for every college major?

Question is Technical and Jargon [Puts the respondent off, by giving them a technical

question which is not defined. Forcing the respondent to answer what they don’t

understand].

Correct phrase: Do you think Information Technology (IT) should be a required

component for every college major?

c) Are you a regular contributor to non-profits?

Question is Technical and Jargon [Does not explain what non-profits are, hence puts the

respondent off].

Correct Phrase: Non-profits are…… Are you a regular contributor to non-profits?

d) How much money do you spend each year on highway tolls?

Taboo Question [make assumptions for the respondent] and also a leading question

[forces one to give a false answer if they don’t drive]

Correct Phrase: If you drive or own a vehicle, how much money do you spend each year

on highway tolls?

5. Briefly

a) Discuss the pitfalls to avoid when developing a questionnaire

Ambiguous Questions: Question success table to different interpretations and hence

different responses. For example, do you smoke marijuana because you are always

thirsty? Thus, standardize questions to deal with this problem.

Leading Questions: Questions whose content, structure and wording have a tendency

to lead a respondent in certain direction. For example, you do not like smoking, do

you?

They have a tendency to compel or influence the respondent.

Technical and Jargon Questions: Questions that whose language cannot be

understood easily by the respondent. For example, how often do you use tetracycline?

Have you ever taken LSD?

Questions should be simplified.

Emotional and Value –laden Questions: Questions that are subjective and by nature

biased. For example, don’t you think smokers are rather weird? Are you in support of

the undemocratic ways of Movement for Multi-party Democracy (MMD)

administration?

There is need for neutrality.

Double Barreled Questions: Questions that include too or more questions in one. For

example, do you smoke cigarettes, drink beer and go to church?

Always split questions up.

Threatening and Taboo Questions: Questions are sensitive and may be embarrassing

and thus difficult for the respondent to answer, and may generate hostility on part of

the respondent. For example, it your father a smoker?

Care and prudence have to be exercised.

b) Discuss the major data collection methods used in social sciences

Closed-ended Surveys and Questionnaires: Closed-ended surveys are based on

questions which give respondents predefined answer options to opt for. There are two

main types of closed-ended surveys – those based on categorical and those based on

interval/ratio questions.

Categorical survey questions can be further classified into dichotomous (‘yes/no’),

multiple-choice questions, or checkbox questions and can be answered with a simple

“yes” or “no” or a specific piece of predefined information.

Interval/ratio questions, on the other hand, can consist of rating-scale, Likert-scale,

or matrix questions and involve a set of predefined values to choose from on a fixed

scale.

Open-Ended Surveys and Questionnaires: Opposite to closed-ended are open-ended

surveys and questionnaires. The main difference between the two is the fact that

closed-ended surveys offer predefined answer options the respondent must choose

from, whereas open-ended surveys allow the respondents much more freedom and

flexibility when providing their answers.

1-on-1 Interviews: One-on-one (or face-to-face) interviews are one of the most

common types of data collection methods in qualitative research. Here, the

interviewer collects data directly from the interviewee. Due to it being a very

personal approach, this data collection technique is perfect when you need to gather

highly-personalized data.

Focus groups: The focus groups data collection method is essentially an interview

method, but instead of being done 1-on-1, here we have a group discussion.

Whenever the resources for 1-on-1 interviews are limited (whether in terms of people,

money, or time) or you need to recreate a particular social situation in order to

gather data on people’s attitudes and behaviors, focus groups can come in very

handy.

Direct observation: Direct observation is one of the most passive qualitative data

collection methods. Here, the data collector takes a participatory stance, observing

the setting in which the subjects of their observation are while taking down notes,

video/audio recordings, photos, and so on.

6. Researchers at World Health Organization (WHO) claims that the Living conditions in

Kanyama constituency is influenced by households’ level of: Income, Consumption,

housing conditions, accessibility to Healthcare, Sanitation and Employment status.

a) Develop any two objectives based on the variables above to verify the claim made by

the researchers at WHO

To verify the influence level of household Income in kanyama constituency

To verify the influence level of household Consumption in kanyama constituency

b) Develop any two research hypothesis based on the research issue above

“Residents who have accessibility to Healthcare will be more likely to have improved

Living Conditions than Residents who do not have accessibility to Healthcare”

“Residents with Higher Income will most likely have good Living conditions than

Residents who have lower Income”

c) Develop a conceptual framework for the research issue above

d) How would you present your literature review on the research issue above? (must

address the objectives of literature review)

Other studies also support the conclusion that hold Income levels have an influence

on Living Conditions. Economic-online UK entails that increases in income

encourage households to shift spending from goods with a low income elasticity of

demand, like food, to those with high income elasticity of demand, like holidays

(Economic-online

2017)https://www.economicsonline.co.uk/Managing_the_economy/Household_spendi

ng.html

7. Classify the following variables, and determine their respective appropriate scale of

measurements. Variables; Place of birth, Gender, Types of sports, Class, Grades,

Weight, Height, Time, Distance, Marital status, Preferences, Temperature on

Fahrenheit/Celsius thermometer, Attitude, Calendar years, Political orientation

Nominal Scale Place of birth, Gender, Types of sports, Marital status, Political

orientation

Ordinal Scale Class, Grades, Preferences, Calendar years

Interval Scale Time, Temperature on Fahrenheit/Celsius thermometer, Attitude

Ratio Scale Weight, Height, Distance

SECTION B: Analytical; Answer any four questions in this section

1.

2. A researcher at CSO computed some statistics on age of Given the data below, compute

the confidence limit

= 75.94 = 1.23 / √14 = 0.3279, A table gives the t0.025,13 value of 2.160

Confidence limit = ӯ ± Za/2 * σ/√(n)

Confidence limit = 75.94 ± 2.160 x 0.3279

Confidence limit = 75.94 + 0.708264, 75.94 - 0.708264

Confidence limit = (76.65, 75.23)

3. UTH uses thousands of florescent light bulbs each year, the brand of bulb it currently

uses has a mean life of 900 hours. A manufacturer claims that its new brand of bulbs,

which costs the same as the brand that the University uses has a mean life of more than

900 hours. Researchers at the University purchased the new brand if, when tested, the test

evidence supports the manufacturer’s claim at α= 0.05. Suppose sixty-four bulbs were

tested with the following results:

= 930 and s = 80, Will UTH purchase the new brand of florescent bulbs?

Conduct your hypothesis Test

µ = 900 Manufacturer = 930

s = 80

α= 0.05

n = 64

HO: µ = 900

x

Ha: µ > 900

Z obs = - µ

s/√n

Z obs = 930 – 900 80/√64

Z obs = 3.00

Conclusion: Based on our test we can “reject” the null Hypothesis and accept the

alternative hypothesis. We now have evidence that the manufacturer new bulbs have a

mean life of more than 900 hours

4. A new tax law is expected to benefit “middle income” families, those with incomes

between $20,000 and $30,000. If Family income ~ N($25000, $100002), what percentage

of the population will benefit from the law?

= 20000

Z = - µ SZ = 20000 – 25000 100002

Z = -0.05

= 30000

Z = - µ sZ =30000 – 25000 100002

Z = 0.05

P($20,000 < x < $30,000)

= P(-0.05 < Z < 0.05)

= P(Z < 0.05) – P(Z < -0.05)

= 1.645 - - 1.645

= 3.29 x 100

= 32.9%

5. The average mean live weight of a farmers steers prior to slaughter was 380 pounds in the

past years. This year his steers were feed on a new diet. Suppose we consider these 51

steers on the new diet as a random sample taken from a population of all possible steers

that may be feed the diet now and in the future. Use the sample data given below and α=

0.05 to test the research hypothesis that the mean live weight for the steers on the new

diet is greater than 380.

= 390 and s = 35.2

What conclusion should researchers draw from the research issue above?

*According to statistical standards, since α and n are given, a Ztest and not Ttest will be

used

µ = 380 Manufacturer = 390

s = 35.2

α= 0.05

n = 51

HO: µ = 380

Ha: µ > 380

Z obs = - µ

s/√n

Z obs = 390 – 380 35.2/√51

x

Z obs = 2.02

Conclusion: Based on our test we can “reject” the null Hypothesis and accept the

alternative hypothesis. We can accept that the mean live weight for the steers on the new

diet is greater than 380

SECTION C: Philosophy of research

Answer all questions (short answers, be very brief, precise and to the point)

1. Explain the following concepts

a) Qualitative vs. quantitative research

Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an

understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It provides insights into

the problem or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative research.

While

Quantitative Research is used to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical

data or data that can be transformed into usable statistics. It is used to quantify attitudes,

opinions, behaviours, and other defined variables – and generalize results from a larger

sample population

b) Positivism

In Western philosophy, generally, any system that confines itself to the data of experience

and excludes a priori or metaphysical speculations.

c) Critical research

Is a loosely defined genre of social inquiry whose central theme involves the

problematization of knowledge.

d) Theory

A theory is a set of accepted beliefs or organized principles that explain and guide

analysis and one of the ways that theory is defined is that it is different from practice,

when certain principles are tested.

e) Action research

Is a philosophy and methodology of research generally applied in the social sciences. It

seeks transformative change through the simultaneous process of taking action and doing

research, which are linked together by critical reflection

f) Case study

A Case Study is an in depth analysis study of a problem in its context.g) Ethnography

It is a qualitative research method predicated on the diversity of culture

h) Grounded theory

Is a method in naturalistic research that is used primarily to generate theory.

i) Epistemology

The philosophical study of the nature, origin, and limits of human knowledge

j) Ontology

The philosophical study of being in general, or of what applies neutrally to everything

that is real

k) Triangulation

Is a technique that facilitates validation of data through cross verification from two or

more sources.

l) Control group

Is a group separated from the rest of the experiment such that the independent variable

being tested cannot influence the results.

m) Experimental group

The experimental group includes the participants that receive the treatment in a

psychology experiment

n) Manipulation

Is a type of social influence that aims to change the behaviour or perception of others

through indirect, deceptive, or underhanded tactics.

o) Randomisation

Is the process of assigning clinical trial participants to treatment groups such that each

participation has a known (usually equal) chance of being assigned to any of the groups.

2. In 1959, a Senate subcommittee investigated routine practices by pharmaceutical companies in

their testing of new drugs. Drug companies would provide physicians with samples of

experimental drugs not yet established as safe and pay the physicians to collect data on their

unwitting patients. In 1963, the director of the National Institutes of Health exposed some

troubling federally funded research being conducted by physicians at the Sloan-Kettering Cancer

Research Institute. The physicians had injected live cancer cells into indigent elderly patients

without their consent. (Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments, Final Report;

http://tis.eh.doe.gov/ohre/roadmap/achre/chap3.html

Question: Briefly State the negative use or abuse of research (you may refer to the case

study above where necessary)

Abuse of Research comes in when value on research is conditionally, listening only when it tell

us what we want to hear, like the 1959 case.

Excessive reliance: Respect for research ought to include a recognition of its limits. While there

are certainly people who refuse to concede that water is wet until this fact has been established

by controlled studies, significant at p < .01, as seen in the 1963 case were limits of research

were not put in to place.

Myopic reliance: How we make use of data also matters. It’s important to distinguish well-

conducted from poorly conducted research, and to understand the outcome variables in a given

investigation. In the case of the 1959 we see that results shown of research were not taken

seriously.

Pseudo-reliance: Research makes a difference only if we know it exists, understand it correctly,

and take it seriously. Unlike the 1959 case when the power of research was purely ignored

because it did not yield wanted results.

References

Phi Delta Kappan (Spetember 2006) : Abusing Research

{https://www.alfiekohn.org/article/abusing-research/?print=pdf }

Janet M. Ruane (2005): Essentials of Research Methods

Sherri L. Jackson (2009): Research methods and statistics. Third edition

Mark NK Saunders (2009): Understanding research philosophy and approaches