I. Atmospheric PropertiesA. Temperature: the measure of the average vibrational kinetic nrg of a substance.

1. 3 Temperature (To

) scales:• Fahrenheit• Celsius (centigrade)• ________________

2. Cyclical To

Changesa) daily: cool @ night, warmer during the dayb) Seasonal: ___________________, warmer summersc) Short term factors:• Cloud cover:

- reflect sun’s nrg during the day= cooler nights

- @ night the clouds trap the heat= _______________________

B. _________________________________ the pressure exerted by the wt. of air; average pressure @ sea level is 15 psi (Pounds per Square Inch).

1. The instrument used to measure atmospheric (Barometric) pressure is the Barometer.2. 2 types of Barometers a) Mercury (Hg) Barometers: the change in_______ pressure cause the Hg to rise & fall in a closed cylinder.

b) Aneroid Barometer: is a closed metal container that expands & contract as the pressure changes; the units are in __________________.

3. Factors that Affect Pressure

a) To

: as _____ increases, the pressure will decrease

b) Altitude: as the altitude increases, the pressure will ___________________

c) ___________________: as the amount of H2

O vapor in the air increases, the pressure decreases. WHY???

What % of the atmosphere is Nitrogen (N)? ____ H

2O vapor weighs < N, so when the H

2O vapor increases, it displaces the heavier N causing the pressure

to decrease

C. Air Humidity: amount of ________________ in the air.

1. Absolute humidity: amt of H2

O vapor in the sir compared to the max amt of _____ vapor the air could hold @

that To

______________air can hold more H

2O vapor than cold air.

D. Dew Point: T @ which moisture in the sir will condense.

1. Determined by using a sling psychrometer & the ESRT• ____________ psychrometer: 2 thermometers: 1 w/a piece of material which has to be wet.

2. Condensation: the change from gas to liquid.

3. Sublimation: change in phase from solid to gas w/o going thru the liquid phase.

4. ______________________________: will always be lower than the air To.

*** sling psychrometer will give you the a wet bulb To & a dry To bulb.

• The __________ axis on the ESRT is the difference between the 2 which is determined by subtracting the 2.

The dry bulb is the actual air To.

******

I. Clouds-tiny droplets of __________ (not vapor)or ice crystals.

A. Clouds will form when air rises because the temperature decreases=adiabatic cooling1. as an air mass rises the ___________________________ which will result in a decrease in temperature -if

an air mass sinks the pressure will increase and the temperature will increase.2. If the temperature drops below the dew point temperature condensation will occur.

B. Reasons air masses will rise:1. Orographic lifting: __________is forced up when it encounters a mountain range.

2. Frontal wedging: an air mass is forced up by a different type of air mass.

3. Converging winds forces air upward.

4. Localized convective lifting- warmer air will rise as colder air will sink.

C. In order for clouds to form there has to be a surface for condensation to form on = ________________________________

examples-salt spray, dust, ash and exhaust from burning fossil fuels

D. It takes thousands of cloud droplets to make a rain drop

when the rain falls to the Earth it takes that nuclei with it which cleans the atmosphere

E. Cloud Classification: based on their form and ____________________

1. Three basic forms

________________: thin wispy feathery appearance found at high altitudes.

• Cumulus-round individual cloud masses, described as having a cauliflower structure.

• Stratus-__________________ like clouds that cover large areas of the sky.

2. Height

-High clouds= _____________: cirrostratus,

and cirrocumulus

• Middle clouds-have the prefix alto: altocumulus, altostratus

• ___________________________________: stratocumulus, and nimbo stratus

3. Rain clouds: will have the word nimbus added to them: example nimbostratus

• Cumulonimbus

III. ________________: movement of air caused by differential heating of the Earth's surface.

A. Movement of air from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure.• The difference in pressure is a result of the differential heating of the Earth's surface.

B. Measuring wind

1. ______________________________: magnitude and direction scalar field=only magnitude

2. Wind speed is measured by an anemometer -looks like ice cream scoopers that spin

3. Wind direction is determined by a wind vane

**** a. winds are named by the direction from which they ______________________.

C. Sea Breeze: name for the cool breeze that blows off the ocean during the day.• during the day the sun heats the land faster than the water because water has a higher specific heat. • the ________ air ___________ causing a lower pressure• the air over the ocean is still cold resulting in a higher pressure • winds blow from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure; from the ocean to the land.

D. ______________ opposite of a sea breeze• at night the land cools off faster than the water causing the pressure to increase resulting in warm

winds blowing off the land over the ocean.

E. Global wind patterns-the general direction the wind blows for a specific location. ESRT p.14

1. The global wind patterns are a result of convection currents in the atmosphere and the rotation of the Earth. • if the Earth did not rotate there would be one large ______________________current.

2. The air at the ____________ is warmer and will rise, the air at the poles is colder and sinks.

3. Because the Earth rotates there are multiple convection current and winds do not blow in a straight line = __________________.

• Winds in the Northern Hemisphere will curve to the right and in the Southern Hemisphere they will curve to the left.

4. The global wind patterns are responsible for the Ocean Currents.

Coriolis Effect

Global Wind Patterns

F. Movement around high and low pressure centers. 1. Low Pressure Center

The air is a low pressure center is rising and curving to the right= counter clockwise, the winds are converging, moving toward the center and called a cyclone.

Rising is associated with _________________________________________

2. High Pressure Center • The air in a high pressure center is sinking and curving to the right=___________________, the

winds are diverging, moving away from the center and called an anticyclone.• Sinking air is associated with low humidity and clear skies.

IV. Precipitation: occurs when cloud droplets join together and become heavy enough to fall=accretion

A. Rain-forms as snow high in the _____________________________

-measured by a rain gauge in inches

B. Snow-crystals of ice that are also measured in inches

C.______________________-small rain drops that fall slowly

D. Sleet- tiny pellets of ice formed from cloud ice crystals.

E. ______________: larger pellets of ice that form is violent thunderstorms• snow falls and starts to melt• updrafts in a storm cloud blow them back up into the colder air where they freeze and grow.• This happened repeatedly until they are too big to be blown back up and fall to the Earth as

_______________________• The hail stones will have concentric rings measuring the number of times it was blown upward and

gained moisture

F. Glaze: also called freezing rain• when rain falls to the Earth and freezes on contact.

_________________: body of air with uniform characteristics

A. Air mass characteristics are determined by the location of origin.

1. ESRT codes p. 13

a. c = continental = dry

b. m = maritime = humid

c. T = tropical = warm

d. P = polar = ____________

e. A = arctic = cold

Front: leading edge of an air mass• usually accompanied by precipitation

A. Four Types of Fronts

1.____________________symbol in the ESRT

a. more dense cold air moves through rapidly pushing warm air upward

b. resulting in heavy rain for a short period of time, behind the front.

2. Warm fronts

a. warm air moves in and slowly replaces the retreating _______________ air.• as it pushes the cold air it rises up the cold air mass and results in rain ahead of the front lasting for

long period of time.

3. Occluded Front:

a. occurs when a cold front pushes an entire warm air mass completely above the ground.

-results in rainy and _________________weather

4. Stationary Front:

a. occurs when winds blow in opposite directions along the boundary.• called stationary because the air is moving but the _________________________ is not.

I. Synoptic weather map: a weather map that shows a variety of ______________ quantities.

A. Temperature, pressure, precipitation, cloud cover, wind speed and direction and dew point temp.• Isotherms: connect points of equal temperature • ___________________ connect points of equal pressure

B. Interpreting the station model E.S.R.T. p.13

1. All the information should be written in the same location as it is shown in the ESRT

2. The pressure is written in an abbreviated form.• If the first number is less than 5 place a 10 in front of it and put a decimal before the last number. 112 =

1011.2• If the first number is 5 or greater place a 9 in front of it and put the decimal before the last number. 996 =

999.6IV. Electromagnetic Spectrum: the energy given off by a star (____________________) ESRT p.14

A. Characterized by differences in their wavelength

1. Wavelength: the distance from one crest to another.

2. The_____________________ the wavelength the more intense the energy.

B. The atmosphere filters out most of the ___________________rays

1. Ionosphere, ozone layer and water vapor

2. Most of the energy to reach the Earth's surface is in the range of visible light.

V. Specific Heat: energy required to heat one gram of a substance by one degree.• the unit for energy is a calorie

A. Specific ____________ of liquid water is 1 cal/g/0

C

each phase of water has a different specific heat. E.S.R.T. Front Page

B. As water goes through a change in phase it requires added energy but there is not an increase in temperature. E.S.R.T. Front Page

• heat of melting = 80 calories/gram• heat of vaporization=540 cal/gram

C. Energy in the Atmosphere

1. ____________________ and freezing _______________ energy

2. melting and evaporation absorb energy

3. Evaporation increases-the temp. ________________, the surface area increases and the wind is blowing.

The amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of any object can be figured using this relationship.

Heat in calories = mass in gram x temperature change oC x specific heat [cal / gram oC]

The formula has four terms in it. You can calculate any of them if you have the other three.

Example:

How many calories are needed to heat a cup of 200 grams of water from room temperature at 20oC to 100oC? The specific heat for water is 1 calorie / g oC.

Answer:

Determine what you are supposed to figure. The question asks for the “heat”.

Identify the quantities given in the question.

Mass = 200 grams

Temperature change in degrees oC = T final - T initial = 100oC - 20oC = 80oC

Specific heat = 1 cal / g oC

Heat = ( 200 g ) ( 80oC ) ( 1 cal / g oC) = 16000 calories

The grams and degrees C cancel.

Practice Questions

1.How much energy does it take to heat up 3 grams of water 4 0

C?

2.How much energy does it take to heat up 6 grams of ice 2 0

C?

3.How much energy does it take to melt 4 g of ice?

4.How much energy does it take to vaporize 3 grams of water?

5. How much energy does it take to heat up 3 grams of ice form -5 0

C to 3 0

C?

6. How much energy does it take to heat up 10 g of water from 85 0C to vapor at 110 0C?

7. How much energy does it take to heat up 3 grams of ice from -7 0

C to vapor at 104 0

C?

8. How much energy does it take to heat up 5 grams of ice from -1 0

C to 101 0

C?

Human Contributions to Climate Change and Global Warming

I. Human industrial activities are believed to be adding to the amount of "greenhouse gases" naturally present in the atmosphere.

1. There are mounting proofs that following the industrial revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries leading to increased the amounts of carbon dioxide, methane and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere .

2. This leaves room for the suspicion that humans could have been contributing to Global Warming. However, the question that remains is: how much of the warming is caused by man?

II. Human activities that lead to production of Green House Gases (GHGs) are:

1. Agriculture: During agricultural practices, methane gas (a GHG) is produced when bacteria decomposes organic matter. Other farming methods (cattle, fertilizers, etc) also add to it.

2. Deforestation: with deforestation, the number of trees available to take in CO2 from the atmosphere has greatly reduced, leading to more available CO2 and increased greenhouse effect. When forests are cleared, most of the carbon in the burned or decomposing trees escape back into the atmosphere

3. Fossil Fuels: Fossil fuels is widely used to power our modern day engines and locomotives. It is believed that CO2 generated from the burning of fossil fuel accounts for about three-quarters of the total CO2 emissions from human activities.

4. Refrigeration/Fire Suppression/Manufacturing: Establishments and Industries used to use chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in refrigeration systems, and CFCs and halons in fire suppression systems and manufacturing processes.

• Other human factors leading to release of GHGs (particularly methane) to the atmosphere include pipeline losses, landfill emissions and septic systems that enhance and target the fermentation process also are major sources of atmospheric methane;

III. Heat Island Effect

• The term "heat island" describes built up areas that are hotter than nearby rural areas.

• The annual mean air temperature of a city with 1 million people or more can be 1.8–5.4°F (1–3°C) warmer than its surroundings.

• In the evening, the difference can be as high as 22°F (12°C).

• Heat islands can affect communities by increasing summertime peak energy demand, air conditioning costs, air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, heat-related illness and mortality, and water quality.