Tom Sawyer GlossaryCompiled 9/08 by Clark Kirby

Reference material: The American Heritage Dictionary

For the Study of the Novel:

The Adventures of Tom Sawyer

By Mark Twain

Illustration from the Frontispiece of the 1st edition (1876)

[1]

Tom Sawyer GlossaryArchaic – something that is no longer commonly used, such as certain words;

Colloquialism - word, phrase, or expression that is characteristic of writing that seeks the effect of the spoken language;

Euphemism – a word or phrase substituting a mild, indirect, or vague term for a word or phrase that would be considered harsh, blunt, or offensive;

Idiom - A style of expression characteristic of a particular individual or period in history; an expression of a language that is peculiar to itself grammatically or cannot be understood from the individual meanings of the individual words;

Metaphor – literary device to describe a person or thing with words usually unrelated to the subject at hand;

Chapter I: Tom Plays, Fights, and Hides

Roundabout – a short, close fitting, jacket popular for boys of the nineteenth century;

Truck – worthless junk, rubbish;

Lick/Licks – a blow; or to beat;

“Spile” – colloquialism for the word: “spoil” meaning to give in to a child;

Good Book – the Holy Bible;

Old Scratch – archaic name for the devil;

“Obleeged” – colloquialism for the words: “obliged” or “obligated”;

Kindlings – firewood cut into small, thin pieces used to start a fire in kitchen stove or in the fireplace;

Middling – colloquialism for the word “medium” (as in the answer to how are you: “fair to middling”);

Pumped – archaic colloquialism meaning that the person pumped the well head handle to force water up and through the spout; Tom pumped water over his head in order to cool off;

Sagacity – wisdom, discerning understanding;

“Geeminy” – archaic oath (swear word) originating from the word “Jesus”;

Natty – archaic colloquialism meaning neat or well-dressed;

Pantaloons – archaic term for men’s or boy’s trousers;

‘Low/’Lowed – archaic colloquialism for the words: “allow” or “allowed”;

Suck Eggs – archaic idiomatic insult; dogs and other low creatures “suck eggs”;

Jingo – archaic idiomatic oath (swear word) used for emphasis; originating from the name “Jesus”;

‘Nuff! – colloquialism for the word: “enough”, indicating that the combatant has had “enough” punishment;

[2]

High Feather – archaic idiomatic term for “with pride”;

Lay – archaic colloquial term for delaying punishment or waiting until later to punish someone;

Ambuscade – archaic term for an ambush;

Adamantine – inflexible; unyielding;

Chapter II: The Glorious Whitewasher

Whitewash – a mixture of powdered lime, water, glue, and other substances used as a type of white paint; commonly used on homes and fences in the nineteenth century;

Whitewasher – a painter using whitewash;

Melancholy – reflective (thinking) sadness;

Mulatto – archaic term for a person of mixed race, usually of white and black parents;

Skylarking – frolicking; playing;

Mars – colloquialism for the word “Master”, used as a sign of respect;

Ole Missis/Missus –colloquialism for “Old Miss”, a middle-aged or older unmarried woman;

“Spec’” – colloquialism for the word “expect” or “suspects”;

“Gwine” – v colloquialism for the word: “going”;

“Ax” – colloquialism for the word: “ask”;

“Tar de head off’n me” – colloquialism used by Jim, meaning “to tear my head off” (punish him);

Thimble – a small metal cup when fitted on the end of a finger, used in sewing, to push the needle through fabric;

Marvel – a wonderful thing;

Alley – a large marble used in shooting, during a game of marbles;

Bully – archaic term for splendid or wonderful;

Taw – the name of a game of marbles; also, another word for an “alley”, defined above;

Gay – in the 19th century, the word meant “cheerful” or “happy”;

Straitened – archaic term for “confined” or “imprisoned”; as in the term for “strait jacket” used for the mentally ill;

Means – term for property;

Hove – nautical (naval) term for “appeared”, as in “the ship hove into sight [of us]”;

Pomp & Circumstance – term meaning a great deal of fuss and ceremony;

[The] Big Missouri – name for a riverboat, in this case a side-wheel paddleboat;[3]

Drawing nine feet of water – a nautical phrase for the draft of the riverboat, the minimum water under the boat’s waterline that the boat needs to keep from hitting the bottom of the river; Phrase could indicate that the riverboat was fully loaded (heavy), making it settle into the water nine feet deep at that time;

Engine-Bells – the system of signals, in this case mechanical bells, that the boat’s captain would use to communicate with a remote space in the boat, such as the engine room, telling the engineer how to use the engines; the “ting-a-ling-ling” the author uses to describe the sound of the engine bells; Bells are easier to hear over the loud noises made by steam engines;

Hurricane Deck – the uppermost (highest) deck or level of a riverboat; the captain would usually be in a small shelter, called the “pilot house”, set atop the hurricane deck from which the boat was steered;

Headway – ship’s or boat’s movement through the water after the engines have stopped; the residual speed, as in coasting to a stop (there are no brakes on a boat/ship);

Stabbord – nautical colloquialism for the starboard or right side of a ship or boat;

Wheel – the boat’s forty-foot diameter paddle wheel used for propulsion (movement); in this case, one of two, one being on each side of the riverboat;

Labbord – nautical colloquialism for “larboard” or the left side of a ship/boat; archaic naval term, replaced by the word “port” in the mid- 19th century navies;

Head-Line – nautical term for a mooring (tying up) rope at the bow (front) of the boat;

Spring-Line – nautical term for a mooring rope at the stern (rear) of the boat;

Bight – nautical term for a loop in a rope (line);

S’h’t! Sh’t! – the author’s attempt with words to recreate the sound of live steam escaping from the steam monitoring gauges in a riverboat;

Up a stump – archaic idiom used to indicate that the person is being punished, such as when forced to stand “up on a stump” for hours;

Wheeled – term for turning around;

Druther – colloquialism for the word: “rather”;

Altered – changed; as used in the words from the novel: “but he altered his mind:”;

Afeared – colloquialism for the word: “fearful”;

Alacrity – eagerness;

Fagged out – archaic idiom meaning to be tired or exhausted; same as the term “played out”;

Played out – archaic idiom meaning tired or exhausted; same as the term “fagged out”;

Jew’s Harp – small musical instrument popular with boys in the 10th century; played by placing the metal device on the lips and humming while strumming (moving) the movable spring;

[4]

Rolling Tenpins – archaic colloquialism for the game of bowling;

Head-quarters – military term for the main office; in this chapter, the term is used as a metaphor for his home;

Chapter III: Busy at War and Love

Intrepid – fearless

Tan – archaic idiomatic term for spank/spanking, a common form of childhood punishment during the 19 th century;

Hooked – archaic idiomatic euphemism for stealing something;

Clods – term used to describe chunks of soil or dirt, just the right size for throwing at someone despised;

Condescend – dealing with another person as if they are inferior;

Eminence – a high spot, such as a hill where a person may see more;

Aides-de-camp – French military term commonly used to denote lesser-ranked officers who work as secretaries or messengers for a higher-ranking officer;

Evanescent – vaporous;

Furtive – secretive;

Furtive Eye – an archaic idiomatic expression meaning that one person looks secretively at another person, so as the one being examined will not notice;

Tarry – archaic idiom for delay;

Pansy – type of plant commonly seen in home flower beds;

Pliant – flexible;

Anatomy – the study of the human body (its various parts, organ locations and their functions);

Strode – archaic idiom meaning walked;

Visions – thoughts; images in one’s mind;

Spirits – in this chapter (3), the meaning is Tom’s mood;

Rapped – struck;

Whack – hit;

Torment – painful action;

Immunity – resistance to something’s effect, in this chapter: Sid reaches for the forbidden sugar bowl knowing that he will not be punished;

Glorying over – an archaic idiomatic term meaning “triumphant rejoicing”;

[5]

Well-nigh – archaic idiomatic expression for “almost”;

Pet model – archaic idiomatic expression for a “favorite”, perhaps bragged about;

“Catch it” – archaic idiomatic expression for “receiving punishment”;

Brim full – a brim is the top edge of a vessel such as a cup; this expression means full almost to overflowing;

Amiss – usually means “wrong”; in this chapter (3), the term means “mistakenly”;

Reckon – archaic term for think, as in “I reckon that I will walk to town.”;

Audacious – bold;

Reproached – criticized;

Construed – interpreted or understood;

Troubled heart – idiomatic term for someone feeling distressed;

Sulked – silent protest;

Exalted – inflated;

Woes – misfortunes;

Morosely gratified – gloomily satisfied;

Consciousness – moral awareness;

Hang out no signals – idiomatic expression meaning “to fail to display his emotions”;

Yearning – heartfelt desire;

Film of tears – metaphor for sadness;

Beseeching – requesting;

Sore heart – archaic idiomatic expression for “hurt feelings”.

Pathos – sorrow;

Petting of his sorrows – archaic idiomatic expression for self-soothing of his feelings;

Grating delight – archaic idiomatic expression for lesser happiness;

Clouds and darkness – archaic idiomatic expression for sadness and hopelessness;

Song and sunshine – archaic idiomatic expression for happiness and hope;

Haunts – places frequented by Tom;

Desolate – deserted;

[6]

“Uncomfortable routine devised by nature.” – a painful, unnatural death, such as drowning, that Tom was contemplating;

Felicity – happiness;

New and varied lights – archaic expression meaning “different ways”;

Threadbare – literal expression meaning worn out fabric; in this case, it is an idiomatic expression meaning “wore it out”;

Adored Unknown – metaphor for Becky Thatcher, her name at this time being unknown to Tom; the expression means “the unknown loved one”;

Sacred Presence – metaphor for Becky Thatcher, her name at this time being unknown to Tom; the expression means “Holy image (in his mind)”;

Stealthy – quietly, unobserved;

Breast – in this chapter in describing Tom’s placement of his hands on his “breast”, it means his chest;

Death-damps – archaic phrase for death that damps out (puts out) a persons fire of life;

Great agony – metaphor for Tom’s image of his own death;

Blighted – destroyed of hope;

“Untimely cut down” – Tom’s image of his youthful death;

Discordant – harsh;

“Profaned the holy calm” – metaphor for the maid-servant’s noise; means that the servant abused the great peace and quiet;

Water – euphemism for liquid body waste (urine) suggested by Tom’s subsequent violent actions after being doused; however, due to Tom’s aversion (hatred) for washing, the author could also just mean “water”;

HISTORICAL NOTE: it was common in the period when there was no indoor plumbing, for a servant to dispose of the “night soil” by emptying the contents of the “chamber pot” (bedside toilet) out the window; Instead of the longed-for tears from Becky, he received something much worse;

“Prone martyr’s remains” – metaphor for the image that Tom had of his dead body lying on the ground outside Becky’s window; literal meaning of the phrase: the fallen body of the one who died for a great cause;

Tallow dip – an oil lamp; animal fat (tallow) was saved by the matron of the house to use for such purposes as lighting the home; A fabric wick would be placed in a shallow bowl of tallow or other oil and lit, causing a dim yellow glow;

“Danger in Tom’s eye” – metaphor for the anger and humiliation felt by Tom after his drenching and discovered by Sid, later; the danger in Tom was for anyone who asked questions;

Vexation – annoyance;

Omission – neglect;

[7]

HISTORICAL NOTE: it was customary in the period for people, before they got into bed, to kneel beside their bed, clasp their hands together, and say their prayer out loud; Sid took notice of Tom’s “omission” of his daily prayers;

Chapter IV: Showing Off in Sunday School

Benediction - blessing;

Mosaic Law – archaic term for Moses’ Ten Commandments;

“Girded up his loins” – a biblical idiomatic expression for preparing for battle or something else;

“Get his verses” – archaic idiomatic expression meaning to learn his Bible verses; it was the custom of the period for children to spend a great deal of time memorizing the Bible at Sunday School;

Vague – unclear;

Traversing – traveling in the sense of crossing something; in this case it is used as a metaphor describing Tom’s wandering mind, as if it is literally traveling;

Recreations – fun activities;

“Find his way through the fog” – metaphor for the difficult time Tom has in being “lost” in the fog of the verses he is supposed to be memorizing;

“Tackle it again” – idiomatic expression meaning to try it again;

Prospective gain – likely acquisition (property);

Barlow Knife – a two-bladed pocketknife made by a company in England, owned by two brothers named Barlow; during the 19th century, a Barlow was prized for its quality;

Convulsion – violent turmoil;

Foundations – deepest feelings;

Inconceivable grandeur – Tom’s thoughts about receiving the Barlow knife: he thought unlikely to ever have such a magnificent thing;

Counterfeited – illegal copies made of an object; the author seems to be alluding (suggesting) that this type of knife was being made in the Western United States, perhaps illegally by calling a “Barlow”;

Contrived – to plan with cleverness;

Scarify – to make cuts into something, in this case, Aunt Polly’s kitchen cupboard (cabinets);

Bureau – archaic term for a type of bedroom furniture, a dresser, or more likely, a chest of drawers (without an attached mirror);

Trifle disconcerted – slightly embarrassed; what Tom felt when Mary discovered that Tom failed to use the soap and water properly;

Resolution – determination; resolve;

[8]

“Honorable testimony of suds and water” – literally means that there was truthful evidence that soap and water was used; metaphor for Tom’s proper washing;

Clean territory – metaphor for Tom’s face, specifically the area of cleanliness;

Unirrigated soil – literal meaning is dry dirt; metaphor for Tom’s dirty face;

“A man and a brother” – metaphor for Tom becoming a different boy when clean;

Effeminate – term used for men who are lady-like (excessively refined) in their manner;

Galled – an archaic term for exasperation;

HISTORICAL NOTE: it was the custom in the 19th century to rub leather shoes/boots with bacon grease in order to make them shine; There are period caricatures/drawings of a multitude of dogs following the shoe wearer in public places and licking off the grease;

Snarling – growling; grumbling;

Edifice – building;

Accosted – to aggressively approach;

“Yaller” – colloquialism for the color “yellow”;

“Lickrish” – colloquialism for licorice, a black anise-flavored type of stick candy;

Interfered – came between two people;

Reprimand – scolding; verbal correction;

“Of a pattern” – idiomatic military supply term for “all the same type”;

Pupil – archaic term for a student;

Dore’ Bible – name of an elaborately-bound expensive Holy Bible, with religious lithographs (printed pictures) reproduced from the artistry of Frenchman, Gustave Dore’ (1832-1883);

“Little better than an idiot” – humorous metaphor used to describe the negative effect to a boy who recited 3,000 Bible verses; this was possibly an unfair conclusion by someone like Tom who hated anything that was proper;

Superintendent – a person with the authority to direct the work of others;

“Spread himself” – archaic idiomatic term for showing off his talent;

Conspicuous – attracting attention by being unusual;

E’clat – conspicuous (obvious) success;

Leaves – used in this instance to refer to pages in a Bible;

Customary – usual;

[9]

Sufferer – humorous metaphor for those who are making Tom uncomfortable in church; Tom would be the “sufferee” in this case;

Sandy - light yellowish brown, referring to hair color;

Goatee – a man’s style of beard, one that is on the chin, only; this style was popular during the mid-19 th century;

A fence –humorous metaphor for a man’s large shirt collar that keeps him confined;

Spreading cravat – archaic term for the large necktie worn by the church superintendent, Mr. Walters;

Earnest of mien – seriousness of his appearance;

Intonation – pitch or melodious sound of a person’s voice;

Fidgetings – squirming;

Incorruptible rocks – metaphor for Sid and Mary in church; means that they are unspoiled masses of stability and dependability, unlike Tom;

Subsidence – sinking; in the case of Mr. Walters, his voice was trailing off at the end of his speech;

Repinings – depression; feelings of unworthiness;

Smitten – deeply affected;

Brook – tolerate;

Exaltation – intense happiness;

Alloy – mixture; in this case a metaphor for the mixed feelings that Tom had from the humiliation he experienced when he was doused under Becky Thatcher’s window;

“Record in sand” – a metaphor for Tom’s memory of a particular incident; footprints in sand are temporary until the waves wash them away forever;

“Fast washing out, under the waves of happiness” – metaphor using tide/waves/water to describe the fact that Tom’s humiliating memory is disappearing;

Prodigious – large in the sense of importance;

August – majestic;

Attested – proven; certified;

Jings – idiomatic oath (swear word) used for emphasis; originating from the name “Jesus”; same as “Jingo”;

Bustlings – busy work; work that seems important but may not be so;

Insect authority – metaphor for small amount of authority over others;

Boxed – hit;

[10]

Judicial – judge-like;

“Warmed himself in the sun of his own grandeur” – metaphor for the egotism (inflated sense of his own importance) shown by Judge Thatcher;

Prodigy – a person with exceptional talent or skill;

Certified checks – metaphor using a banking term to describe the tickets, alluding to their great value;

Face – as in “face value”, the obvious worth of something;

Pangs – pains; hurts;

Hated splendor – metaphor for the realization that all the boys felt when it was clear that Tom was profiting from others labor (work);

Dupes – person that is easily fooled or cheated;

“Guileful snake in the grass” – metaphor comparing a snake that hides his true identity until it is too late for his victim, with Tom’s deceit (dishonesty) in cheating the boys;

Effusion – outpouring of excitement;

Gush – excessive display of excitement;

“Could not bear the light” – metaphor for someone, in this case, Tom, who could not withstand the scrutiny (light shining on him) of how he earned his yellow tickets;

Preposterous – absurd; extremely unlikely;

Grain – a very small unit of dry measure: a grain is only 454ths of a pound; in this case, Amy Lawrence is only slightly troubled by Tom’s predicament;

Hung fire (also called Hang fire) – a firearm term meaning the gun failed to fire when the trigger was pulled; in this case, a metaphor for Tom’s inability to name the first two disciples;

“Draw the curtain of charity” – metaphor using a theatrical term (draw the curtain: to end the act) to describe to the reader that Tom’s humiliation need not be further exploited;

Chapter V: The Pinch-Bug and His Prey

Seductive – enticing; hard to resist;

Notable – important person; literal meaning: someone to whom one should take note (pay attention);

Belle of the village – most desirable unmarried woman in town;

Lawn-clad – describes the clothing, usually stiffly pressed, that the young ladies wore at church;

HISTORICAL NOTE: lawn is a light-weight (sometimes gauzy), very finely-woven linen fabric generally used for women’s summer-season clothing; the term “lawn” is an Anglicized (English) interpretation of the name of the French city, Laon (pronounced “laay-on”), that was made famous for the manufacture of this type of fabric;

[11]

Heartbreakers – euphemistic term for certain beautiful young ladies that broke the hearts of any young man who saw them;

Vestibule – a small entrance hall between the outer door of a building and the interior, commonly found in churches;

“Sucking their cane heads” – an archaic idiomatic expression for waiting around until something happens;

HISTORICAL NOTE: the custom of the period was for a well-to-do (prosperous) man to carry a walking cane as a fashion accessory;

Oiled – referencing the hair oil commonly used by men during the period;

Simpering – silly, self-conscious smile;

Gantlet – a railroad term for two pairs of tracks being squeezed into a tight space; in this case, a metaphor comparing the two pairs of tracks to the parallel lines of “simpering” young men, through which the “heartbreakers” were forced to pass through on their way into the church;

NOTE: it is possible that the text shows a misprint. Either word works but the term “gauntlet” would be more appropriate and more in keeping with Twain’s free use of descriptive metaphors. (i.e.: “till the last girl had run their gantlet”) A gauntlet is a pair of parallel lines of antagonists through the middle of which the victim runs, forced to accept the punishment of those in the lines.

Model Boy – term used by the author to describe Willie Mufferson as the perfect boy and son, used as a model (example) by the various mothers, for their own sons;

Cut glass – an expensive type of glassware where the glass is cut by hand with special cutting tools, adding great value to the glass; in this case, the author uses the term as a metaphor for how carefully and thoughtfully Willie treated his mother;

Matrons – married women or widows who are mothers, of a mature age, and with an established social position in the town;

“Thrown up to them” – an idiomatic expression meaning that Willie had been used as an example by which all the other boys were judged;

Congregation – church members;

Laggards and stragglers – term used to describe those people who are always late to a meeting or those who shirk (ignore) their duty; both words have about the same meaning;

Gallery – narrow balcony;

Ill-bred – archaic term used to describe someone who is not of the best human stock;

Relish – a strong affinity (liking);

Sociables – social gatherings;

Bulletin–board – metaphor comparing a place on the wall where announcements are posted to the person who is reading the announcements;

[12]

Societies – archaic term for a club;

Crack of doom – literal meaning: to the end of time prophesied (foretold) in the Bible; author uses this term as a metaphor for how long it seemed to take Rev. Sprague to read all the announcements;

Queer – strange; unusual;

Tidings – Biblical word for news; as in good tidings (good news);

“Have not eyes to see nor ears to hear” – an idiomatic expression for those people who live in a land where their governments keep them “in the dark”, without a say in how things are run;

Withal – archaic word for “besides”; in addition to;

Heathen – any non-believer, especially in regard to being a non-Christian;

Supplication – humble words;

“Seed sown in fertile ground” – idiomatic phrase for being effective; used in this instance as a metaphor comparing the hope that the minister’s words would be effective with a farmer who plants seeds hoping for a good crop;

“The boy whose history this book relates” – the author referring to his subject, Tom Sawyer;

Interlarded – inserted;

Scoundrelly – villainous; referring to the actions of a scoundrel (villain);

Toilet – archaic colloquialism for grooming and/or dressing;

Prisoner of war – a military term for someone captured by the other military force and is imprisoned; in this case, the author uses it as a metaphor comparing a captured soldier with a captured fly;

Droned – boring style of speech;

Monotonously – tediously repetitive;

Prosy – dull;

By and by – archaic idiomatic phrase meaning “in a little while”;

Brimstone – literally molten sulphur as from a volcano; in this case, it means “hell fire”, the punishment that awaits a sinner in Hell;

Discourse – conversation;

Hosts – Biblical term for a multitude, usually an army;

Millennium – Biblical term for the 1,000 years that Jesus rules the earth after his ultimate resurrection;

Spectacle – as in this case, something that happens that is impressive;

Dry argument – the plain, severe message of damnation which Tom thinks will never end;

[13]

Bethought – to reflect or consider;

Percussion cap box – a container, usually made of leather, that was used to hold the small percussion (explosive) caps used to discharge (fire) a firearm of that period;

Fillip – a snap or light blow;

Floundering – to make clumsy attempts to regain ones balance;

Vagrant – homeless;

Idling – to pass time without working;

Gingerly snatch – to suddenly grab something with care, as did the dog with the beetle;

Diversion – pastime; activity;

“Subsided to his stomach” – meaning that the dog lay down on his abdomen (stomach);

Experiments – metaphor used to compare a scientist’s work with the experiments of a dog with a beetle;

Indifferent – no bias; lack of partiality;

“Faces went behind fans and handkerchiefs” – a phrase the author uses to describe the actions of the church members, hiding their amusement behind fans (ladies) and handkerchiefs (men);

Craving – an urgent desire;

Wary – watchful;

House – in this case, meaning the assembled congregation (for everyone to see);

Clamored – a loud sustained noise;

Wooly comet – a metaphor comparing a speeding meteor (comet) with the speed of the furry poodle-dog after being bitten by the beetle;

Frantic – frenzied; rapid and disordered or nervous activity;

“Sheered from its course” – nautical term for a quick, almost perpendicular turn from its former direction;

Suppressed – reduced; forcibly ended;

Gravest sentiments – most serious words;

Unholy mirth – inappropriate laughter or gaiety, such as that in the church after the dog got bitten;

Parson – archaic term for the minister of a church;

Facetious - humorous;

Divine Service – archaic term for church service;

Marring – spoil;[14]

Chapter VI: Tom Meets Becky

Intervening – comes between to prevent something;

Fetters – author uses this prison term as a metaphor for Tom’s reluctance to go to school; literal meaning is to have metal devices, called shackles, locked on the prisoner’s ankles sort of like handcuffs for hands, to restrict his movement, such as an escape;

Odious – something that causes strong dislike or intense displeasure;

Canvassed – to examine carefully and discuss thoroughly;

Colicky – pseudo (false) medical term for the illness “colic”; Colic is a bowel (intestines, colon) illness whose symptoms include diarrhea with abdominal pain;

HISTORICAL NOTE: in the 19th century, colic was the term used for a variety of illnesses involving the bowels; due to the lack of refrigeration and the lack of knowledge about “germs”, an illness we now know as food poisoning, called colic in those days, was a frequent medical complaint;

Feeble – term used for someone who lacks strength; in this case, Tom refers to his feeble hopes of detecting “colicky symptoms”, something which would get him out of school;

“Came into court” – a metaphor comparing a person who takes a case in front of a judge with Tom’s interest in taking his false illness to Aunt Polly, for her to judge;

Reserve – to hold back until later, for a special purpose;

Exertions – strenuous (difficult) effort;

Joggle – archaic term meaning to shake or to “jar” something slightly;

“Yes’m” – colloquial expression for “yes, ma’am (madam);

HISTORICAL NOTE: in the past, children were taught by their parents to always use formal, polite words when addressing an adult;

Rubbage – an archaic form of the English expression “rubbish”, meaning worthless stuff, in this case, worthless claims of illness by Tom;

Mortified – this term has two meanings, one meaning expresses a person’s feelings of humiliation, but in this case, Tom uses the word to express the medical condition of his sore toe – that it is seriously infected;

Chunk of fire (out of the kitchen) – a hot coal or ember from a fire;

HISTORICAL NOTE: in the 19th century, there was no electricity or natural gas service; lighting was done with oil lamps and/or candles; all heating and cooking was done with the heat from a wood fire; people had to build a wood fire in the kitchen stove in order to cook food; therefore, it was common to keep a small fire going in the stove, to be built up when needed to cook; similar small fires called “banked coals” were kept in fireplaces at night so as to facilitate making a fire to heat the room in the morning; having these “banked coals” ready allowed Aunt Polly to ask Sid to go get a “chunk of fire out of the kitchen”;

[15]

Trials – a word used to express the state of pain that Tom experienced by having his tooth pulled out;

Compensations – something received as a payment, in this case the payment for the pain was the tooth that Tom used as a prize possession;

Wended – to proceed; make progress towards something;

Expectorate – medical term meaning to spit, which is apparently a prized talent for Tom Sawyer;

Admirable – a feeling of pleasure;

Exhibition – a public showing of something, in this case the exhibition is the spitting displayed by Tom;

Homage – ceremonial acknowledgement; Twain is using colorful, humorous words to paint an image of Tom being honored for his spitting prowess (talent);

Adherent – a supporter;

Shorn – the past participle of “shorn”, meaning to remove, usually by means of cutting;

Disdain – to despise or to treat with disrespect;

“Sour grapes!” – euphemistic idiom meaning that the referenced person is just angry because they are jealous;

Dismantled – taken apart, in this case, referring to the boy (the dismantled hero) with a cut finger whose glory was taken away by Tom’s talent for spitting;

Juvenile – a minor; a child;

Pariah – a social outcast; in the period studied, one who is not allowed in “polite society”;

Drunkard – a person that is always drunk (under the influence of alcohol);

Cordially – warmly, sincerely, friendly;

Dreaded – anticipated with fear, distaste, or reluctance;

Idle – lazy; avoiding work or employment;

Vulgar – common; lacking in personal refinement bordering on indecency;

“Forbidden society” – an archaic term meaning that the parents of the “respectable boys” forbade them (warned them) NOT to be friends with Huckleberry;

Gaudy – showy in a tasteless of vulgar way;

“Outcast condition” – means that the person’s (Huckleberry’s) condition is that he is excluded from the “respectable people; (see “pariah”, above);

Cast-off clothes – used clothing; those clothes “cast-off” or thrown away by others;

Perennial bloom – meaning to always (perennially) be too big (bloom) for the wearer;

[16]

Fluttering with rags – description of the patched and poor condition of Huckleberry’s clothing;

Ruin – total destruction or disintegration;

Lopped – trimmed; in this case Huckleberry’s hat had a crescent (semicircle) cut out of the brim of his hat;

Brim – the edge of the horizontal part of a hat;

“But one suspender” – only one suspender, instead of the customary pair, one for each side;

HISTORICAL NOTE: up through the early 20th century, men’s trousers (pants) did not have belt loops for the use of a belt; suspenders, made from leather or fabric, were buttoned to the affixed buttons on the waistband of the trousers and the suspenders looped over the shoulders; there were military belts during this time period but they were worn on the outside of soldiers’ coats and carried the implements (tools) of war, such as a bayonet, a cartridge box, and a percussion cap box.

Fine weather – term for fair weather – no rain;

Hogshead – a large storage/shipping barrel, in the 19th century made of wood, that held 63–140 gallons of product; when turned on its side, served as a sad home for Huckleberry Finn when it rained;

Wet – term for rain;

“Resume leather” – term used to describe the process of starting to wear (leather) shoes when the weather turned colder in the fall;

Swear – to cuss; to use profanity;

Bladder – the organ in an animal that holds urine, the liquid bodily waste; Tom had one of these when he offered it to Huckleberry for his dead cat;

Slaughter-house – the business that killed and butchered (cut up) animals used for human food;

Hoop-stick – the stick used to push and guide a hoop, a common pastime of children in the period;

Spunk-water – the stagnant rainwater that is caught in holes or depressions in wood, especially dead trees or tree stumps;

“Dern” – archaic colloquial euphemism for “darn/darned”, as substituted for the more offensive “damned”;

“Hain’t” – archaic colloquialism for “have not”;

“Blame-fool” – archaic colloquial euphemism for “dadblamed fool” or the more offensive term: “damned fool”;

Charm – an action thought to have magical powers; in this case, Huck told Tom that if he spoke during the ‘charm” it would be busted (fail);

“Becuz” – colloquialism for the word “because”;

“Knowed” – colloquialism for the word “knew”;

Fetch – to go get something and bring it back;

[17]

“‘Long” – colloquialism for the word “along” in this case meaning “just”; Huck tells Tom that he has to be in the graveyard just about midnight;

Pap – archaic term for “Pappy” which is much less formal than “Dad” or “Father”;

A-witching – to “witch” meaning to cast a “spell” (curse) on someone, in this case Mother Hopkins was suspected of putting a curse on Pap;

“Stiddy” – colloquialism for the word: “Steady”;

“Bacards” – colloquialism for the word: “backwards”;

Hove – colloquialism used here by Twain, not as “in appeared” (nautical term), but rather to heave or throw a brick;

“Less” – colloquialism for the word “let’s”, as in “Let us see it”;

“Genuwyne” – colloquialism for the word “genuine” meaning authentic;

Vacancy – an opening, usually used to denote a room that is open for rental; in this case, the vacancy refers to the empty space in Tom’s jaw where the now-pulled tooth once sat;

“Hung his hat” – expression meaning that he placed his hat upon something, usually a peg mounted in a wall of a building, such as a home;

HISTORICAL NOTE: it was the custom in those days for all males to wear hats, even if the hat was in bad condition, like Huck’s; even male slaves had hats, though they were often cast-off hats from their master, who had bought a new one; it was the custom for all males to remove his hat or cap when entering any building or when meeting a lady in public outdoors; a man always removed his hat/cap whenever he was speaking to a lady or an elder, as a sign of respect; All women, including girls, wore hats or caps (called bonnets) whenever they were outside, in order to protect their skin from tanning; only females wore their hats or bonnets inside a building, including a church; up until the mid-20 th century, a tan on either a man or a woman indicated a life of manual labor and its resulting poverty; today, it is usually the reverse, meaning that the person who is tan has the relative wealth to lounge about a swimming pool or to be able to afford vacations;

Alacrity – cheerful willingness; eagerness;

“Take refuge in a lie” – an idiomatic expression meaning to take the safety that results from telling someone a lie, rather than open yourself to punishment for telling the truth;

Electric – rather than referring to the transmission of electrons, the word is used in a phrase (electric sympathy of love) which is a metaphor for Tom’s feelings when he sees Becky Thatcher at school; in this case, “electric” means thrilling or emotionally exciting;

Foolhardy – rash; unwisely bold;

“No mere ferule” – a “ferule” is a device such as a cane, plank of wood (called a paddle), or other device used to spank a bad child; in this case, the schoolmaster told Tom, who was to be punished for tardiness, that Tom would not be spanked by a paddle but with something else;

[18]

“The master’s arm performed” – an idiomatic expression used as a metaphor for the act of the schoolmaster spanking Tom for tardiness;

Switches – a slender, flexible rod or a twig from a tree or bush, used to punish children by hitting them with it (the switch), usually upon the buttocks of the child;

HISTORICAL NOTE: it was common up until the late 20th century for school teachers to use what is now called “corporal punishment” (whippings, spankings) on unruly or otherwise disruptive or disobedient students; it is customary today for teachers to simply send the offending students to a counselor or principal for forms of punishment that do NOT include corporal punishment; some education experts believe that the abolishment (removal) of corporal punishment has resulted in the decline of order in today’s schools evidenced by a police presence in our schools;

Abash – to make ashamed or uneasy;

“Unknown idol” – a metaphor for Becky Thatcher, since up to this point he had seen her but did not yet know her name; an idol is a figure you worship;

“Dread pleasure” – this phrase literally means to anticipate something, usually good, with fear or alarm; in this case, Tom’s happy but upsetting look at Becky;

Hitched – to move by jerking, referring to the way Becky moved away from Tom;

By and by – an archaic term for “soon”;

Accustomed – usual, normal; being in the habit of; used to;

“Made a mouth” – the term the author uses to describe the ugly “face” that Becky used against Tom;

“Gave him the back of her head” – term used to describe the fact that Becky turned away from Tom to face in another direction, which was a sign of disrespect;

HISTORICAL NOTE: customs of the period dictated that women turn to face away from anyone that offended them or something of which they disapproved. This is evidenced by reports in the U.S. Archives of the actions of women in the Confederate States when the Union Army marched through their streets during America’s Civil War (1861-1865).

Animosity – active hatred;

Manifest – two meanings: (1) clearly apparent; but, the word is used by the author as: (2) prove or be evidence of;

Perceptible – something that is capable of being detected by the senses or by the mind; the author uses the phrase “hardly perceptible” when describing the barely detectable signs that Becky gave of her curiosity in Tom;

Unconscious – being in a state where you are not aware of anything that is going on around you, such as when you are deeply asleep or in a coma; the author uses this word to describe Tom’s inability to understand Becky’s changing mood;

Non-committal – means to not reveal what you feel or think; the author uses a hyphen to separate the words, something that is not accepted today;

Dismal – two meanings: (1) dreary; but in this case, when describing Tom’s poor artistic skills, means (2) ineptitude or lack of skill;

[19]

Caricature – a picture that is a poor imitation of the real object;

“Fasten itself upon the work” – phrase the author uses to describe Becky’s interest in Tom’s drawing;

“The artist” – a humorous mislabeling of Tom’s artistic skill;

Derrick – a tall structure usually built of metal or wood that serves to aid the drilling for oil or water; this is what the author describes Tom’s attempt to draw a man;

Hypercritical – “hyper” means an excess of something, so hypercritical means for someone who is excessively judgmental;

Hour-glass – literally, a device used to keep (or tell) the time, like a sandial that uses the trickle of sand to tell the passage of time; in this case, the use of the word describes the shape Tom used to depict (draw) a female form which is narrow at the waist;

HISTORICAL NOTE: in the period, women’s apparel (clothing) was designed to emphasize the “hourglass” female figure; women’s clothing was wide at the shoulders, narrowed severely at the waist (by the use of the corset under tightly-fitted blouses), and widened at the hips by the use of a large horizontal hoop at the bottom and under the skirt;

Full moon – in this case, the full moon shape is used to indicate the round face of a woman;

Straw limbs – the description the author uses to show the stick-shape of the arms and legs of the drawn woman;

HITORICAL NOTE: customs of the period prohibited the use of “vulgar” words such as arms and legs; the word “limbs” was the word used in polite society;

Portentous – this word has two meanings: (1) foreboding but in this case, the author uses (2) full of unspecific significance, meaning that the fan Tom drew in the picture of the woman was much larger than it should have been;

HISTORICAL NOTE: the fashion of the period was for women to carry and use hand-held fans, not always just for cooling themselves but devices used to send unspoken messages, sort of like body-language is used today; there were fan positions that a female could use to politely refuse to dance with an approaching male at a ball (dance);

Learn – an idiom for the word “teach”;

Dinner – the noonday meal;

HISTORICAL NOTE: in the period, lunch was called dinner when it was the main meal of the day, such as would be served to a farmer who had been working long hours in the fields; the evening meal was then called supper;

Scrawl – to write hastily (quickly), usually illegibly (cannot be read) or nearly so;

Degrees – a progression; one of a series of steps in an act; in this case, Tom, with his hand covering the “I love you” he had written on the slate board, uncovered the words a small bit at a time; this process creates anticipation in Becky;

Reddened – to instantly turn red; in this case, when Becky read the loving words Tom had written, it embarrassed her evidenced by her face turning red (blushing);

Juncture – in this case, the word means a point in time, as when the schoolmaster grabs Tom by the ear, interrupting Tom and Becky;

[20]

Vise – a device used to hold a part or parts tightly in order to work on them; in this case, it is a metaphor for the clamping action the schoolmaster used to force Tom away from Becky;

Borne – past participle of bear, meaning to carry or otherwise transport something;

House – in this case, the term is for the entire school room and students;

Peppering fire – archaic military term for showering someone or thing with projectiles such as bullets; in this case, it is used as a metaphor to describe the humiliation Tom felt when the students laughed at his punishment;

Throne – a metaphor for the school master’s seat, drawing a parallel to a throne, due to its importance;

Jubilant – a celebration of joy, the word used by the author to describe Tom’s feelings for Becky even though he had just been punished by the school master;

“Botch of it” – botch means to ruin something through clumsiness; the author uses this phrase to describe Tom’s failure to do well in his studies THAT DAY, most likely due to his new-found love of Becky;

“Till chaos was come again” – great disorder or confusion; the author uses this euphemism to describe the mess that Tom made when he failed to get his lessons right;

“Turned down” – euphemism for the fact that Tom lost the spelling competition, a competition that he apparently had won at some earlier time since he had to forfeit (give up) his pewter medal;

“Baby words” – euphemism for small, easy to spell words that Tom could not master since he was still distracted by Becky;

“Brought up at the foot” – archaic euphemism for the fact that Tom was asked to come forward, to the “foot” of the school master, in order to hand over his medal;

Pewter – a silver-gray allow (mixture) of the metals: tin and copper, and in the 19 th century, lead and antimony;

HISTORICAL NOTE: lead and antimony are poisonous metals, especially for children; before modern times, poisonous metals were commonly used in the home; pewter tableware (plates, cups, and eating implements) were used in the homes of the wealthy (the poor could not afford pewter); as a result, it was common for wealthy families to experience a loss of mental function in their children due to the lead exposure; rainwater was collected with the use of lead roofing; city water pipes were often made of lead; during the 1970s, the United States banned lead from gasoline, paints, and anything that could be used by children;

Ostentation – boastful showiness; Tom had worn the pewter medal with open pride;

Chapter VII: Tick-Running and a Heartbreak

Recess – a pause from the customary activities at an event; in this case, recess is the period away from school at noontime;

“Air was utterly dead” – a phrase used to describe the weather conditions as being without any wind;

“Not a breath stirring” – another phrase reinforcing the fact that there was no movement in the air;

[21]

HISTORICAL NOTE: air conditioning is a 20th century invention and was unknown in Mark Twain’s day; it was common to “live in one’s sweat” during hot and/or humid days and nights unless there was a wind blowing; in the days before electricity for fans or air conditioning units, the common method for cooling was to “catch a breeze” by sitting, even sleeping, outside on a porch;

Murmur – a low, indistinct, continuous sound; in this case, the sound of Tom’s classroom full of students quietly reciting their lessons;

“Five and twenty” – archaic phrase for the number “25”;

Premature – unexpectedly early;

“Sworn friends” – expression used by the author to describe Tom and Joe Harper as best friends;

HISTORICAL NOTE: it was common in the period for boys to swear an oath of allegiance to each other, such as to declare that they will be each other’s best friend for life, usually with some ceremony ending with spitting (yes, spitting!) and/or cutting themselves in order to share blood (“blood brothers”) and an assignment of some horrible punishment for the one to first break the bond;

“Crossed the equator” – a humorous idiomatic phrase used to describe the action of the tick, crossing the chalk line on the slate, this line being compared to something very important, such as the equator;

Abide – archaic term meaning: (1) to wait patiently for someone or for something to happen or (2) to comply with or to conform (adjust) to something; in this case, the word is used to show that luck in the “tick speed trials” went with Joe;

Deftly – quick and skillful;

Contemplated – to think about a subject;

Bonnet – a type of cap worn by females in earlier times, now out of fashion;

“The slip” – an archaic idiom meaning to get away, intentionally unnoticed;

Pencil – in the 19th century, the term meant a chalk stick, with which to make marks on the slate; a lead (graphite) pencil would not show on a slate; there were pencils in the 19 th century but they were sharpened by a knife, not a mechanical pencil sharpener and the pencil had no eraser, paint, or manufacturer’s markings; pencils of that time were generally not used by students due to their high price;

Wane – to decrease gradually in size, volume, etc.

Bliss – extreme happiness;

“Turn about” – to share by taking turns, in this case Tom and Becky shared the chewing gum;

HISTORICAL NOTE: until the late 19th century, the concept of germs was not common knowledge except by scientists; this was the age when disease was thought to be caused by bad odors, not germs, so to share chewing gum with your sweetheart was common and acceptable;

“All spotted up” – an idiom used to describe the unusually spotted clothing that clowns of the 19 th century wore;

Slathers – lavish; a great amount, in this case, pay, that clowns earn, according to Tom;

[22]

“Took silence for consent” – a description of the fact that Tom took Becky’s failure to reject his proposal as a sign that she was in agreement;

“Little white apron” – Becky wore a white apron in front of her knee-length dress;

HISTORICAL NOTE: it was the custom in the 19 th century for women to wear white cloth aprons in the front of their dresses when they were working around the home, or at school in the case of Becky; the apron protected the clothing from soiling or otherwise ruining; women did not wear trousers or shorts until modern times because to do so would have caused ridicule and criticism;

Blunder – a serious mistake usually caused by ignorance or confusion;

Repulsed – two meanings: (1) to repel or drive back or (2) to reject with coldness which is the meaning when Becky fails to accept Tom’s comforting words of explanation;

“Pride was up” – archaic euphemistic phrase meaning that Tom could no longer accept Becky’s rejection, being too proud of his try to solve the situation;

Repent – to feel sorry for your actions and to make corrections;

Advances – there are six definitions but the one that fits the scenario where Tom hopes that Becky will repent is that advances means to suggest something;

Nerved – to cause courage;

Smote – biblical word meaning to strike; in this instance, Tom’s heart smote him, means that he became heartbroken;

Chiefest – improper word meaning best;

Jewel – usually a precious stone such as a diamond, but here the author is referring to Tom’s best (chiefest) keepsake, a brass knob;

Andiron – one of a pair of iron devices used in a fireplace to hold logs up and off the floor of the firebox;

HISTORICAL NOTE: an andiron with brass knobs on top would be costly, so for Tom to have a brass knob from an andiron set would be a “treasure”, indeed;

Intently – giving something all your attention;

Upbraid – to scold harshly;

“Take up the cross” – an idiom with a biblical reference to someone who suffers as did Jesus carrying his cross to his ultimate scene of death;

Chapter VIII: A Pirate Bold to Be

“Hither and thither” – literal meaning is “here and there”; an archaic idiomatic phrase to express various places Tom visited;

Branch – a small stream, such as a creek with shallow water in spots;

Baffled - to frustrate and confuse;[23]

Pursuit – to chase someone or something;

Zephyr – in this case, the word means a gentle breeze;

Stilled – stopped;

Pervading – to be present throughout something;

Steeped – to soak in liquid in order to extract a substance; used in the phrase “steeped in melancholy” as a metaphor to express Tom’s serious sadness;

Accord – agreement;

Meditating – to think, usually in a spiritual nature;

Envied – the feeling of wanting something that belongs to another person; in this case, Tom envies Jimmy Hodges, who has recently died and no longer must deal with lost love;

Slumber – to sleep;

Caressing – to touch gently, usually lovingly;

Elastic – flexible in expanding and contracting; in this case, the author uses the phrase “…the elastic heart of youth…” to describe the fact that a child’s heart can seemingly heal all wounds;

Compressed – to make something smaller in order to fit into a tight container, as in a cylinder of compressed air; the author is using this word to express something unique about a child’s heart;

Constrained – to compel (force) something to stay in place without movement;

Insensibly – very small or a gradual change in something;

Recurred – to show up again; in this case, a clown again appeared in Tom’s thoughts;

Frivolity – to react to something with an inappropriate remark or action;

“Spotted tights” – a reference to the spotted clothing worn by circus clowns;

August – majestic; inspiring awe (wonder);

Realm – a kingdom;

Illustrious – well-known and very distinguished;

Warpath – literally, the path or road to war; this is a term used to describe native Americans (Indians) who were waging war on others;

Trackless – unmarked by trails or paths, much less roads; sometimes denotes a wilderness where no man has laid down footprints;

Bristling – covered; in this case, wearing feathers;

Hideous – ugly, usually in the visual sense;

[24]

Prance – to move forward like a horse;

War-whoop – a battle cry originally used by native Americans (Indians) when attacking their enemy;

“Sear the eyeballs” – idiomatic phrase used to describe the expected way viewers’ eyes would react to the sight of Tom, just returned as an Indian, painted face, feathers, and all;

Unappeasable – impossible to satisfy;

Gaudier – showy in a tasteless or vulgar (common) way;

Splendor – magnificent appearance or display;

Shudder – to shiver from fear;

Plowing – to cut through something, in this case, Tom’s pirate ship would cut through the waves;

“Dancing seas” – a metaphor for the way the waves seem to dance when they move over the surface;

Racer – a ship that is built for and achieves great speed; Tom’s vision of his racer is named “Spirit of the Storm”;

“Grisly flag” – grisly means gruesome or shocking; the grisly flag would be a metaphor for a pirate’s “skull and crossbones” flag;

Fore – an idiomatic term for a prominent position, as in “forefront”; Tom’s pirate flag would fly in the most visible spot;

Zenith – at the peak, in this case the author is writing about the height of Tom’s imaginary fame as a pirate;

Doublet – a close fitting jacket (waist-length coat) with or without sleeves (similar to a vest) popular for menswear in the 15th through 17th centuries, when pirates were most prevalent;

Trunks – baggy short trousers worn over stockings by men during from the 15 th to the 17th centuries, during the time when pirates were most prevalent;

Jack-boots – a stout military boot that extends to above the knee, popular from the 15 th to the 17th centuries, during the time when pirates were most prevalent;

Sash – a long fabric strip of cloth, long enough to wrap many times about the waist of a man;

Horse-pistols – a type of black powder muzzle-loading pistols that were designed for carry by a horseman/cavalryman; this type of pistol had such a long barrel that they would not be able to be carried on a belt of a man who is walking;

Crime-rusted – a euphemism for the imagined sword Tom as a pirate would carry, rusted from the blood of his many victims;

Cutlass – a type of short, heavy, curved, single-bladed sword once carried by sailors…and pirates!;

Slouch hat – a type of men’s hat that has a soft body and a large flexible brim;

Plumes – a large showy feather, in this case on the slouch hat that Tom imagines a pirate would wear;

Black flag – same as a “grisly flag”, defined above;

[25]

Unfurled – to spread or open something, in this case a flag that is blowing in the wind;

Ecstasy – intense joy or delight;

Black – evil; wicked;

Avenger – a person who inflicts punishment on others for revenge;

Spanish Main – name given to a geographical area of the Caribbean Sea through which Spanish ships sailed between the Spanish colonies in Central America and Spain; the seas where pirates attacked Spanish ships, laden with silver and gold destined for Spain;

“Near at hand” – an archaic term for nearby;

Incantation – ritual recitation of words in order to produce a magical effect;

Pine shingle – a rectangular thinly-cut piece of wood, in this case pinewood, used to roof a building;

Treasure-house – a small box used to hold a child’s “treasure”, in this case, a marble apparently buried by another boy;

Pettishly – ill-tempered;

Cogitating – thinking with great care;

Superstition – an irrational belief or practice that the person believes will change the outcome of something;

Infallible – unfailing;

Fortnight – a period of two weeks (fourteen days); an archaic alteration of the original term: “fourteen nights”;

Doodle-bug – an insect, scientifically known as an “ant lion” that waits at the bottom of an upended cone of dirt for another insect to fall in;

Futility – uselessness;

Contend – struggle;

Lath – a thin strip of wood used as a structure of interior walls to hold plaster; Tom’s sword was apparently a discarded lath;

Warily – the adverb of wary: to be watchful;

Blow – to blow into something, in this case, Tom tells his imaginary followers to stay hidden until he blows his horn;

Airily clad – partially undressed;

Elaborately armed – a humorous term for the way Joe and Tom are “armed” with toy weapons and other gear;

Caitiff – a despicable coward;

Carcass – the dead body of an animal; the author uses this word as a metaphor for he that would tangle with Robin Hood;

[26]

“Have at thee”- an archaic challenge to initiate a fight, in this case a lath swordfight between Robin Hood (Tom) and his enemy;

Traps – archaic term for personal possessions, usually carried in some sort of bag;

“Fencing attitude” – term used to describe the positions that Tom and Joe take to initiate the sword fight-facing each other and holding their “weapons” with the tips up;

Slew – past tense form of “slay” meaning: killed;

“Lam” – colloquialism for slam;

Quarter-staff – a long wooden stick used in ancient combat;

Treacherous – untrustworthy;

Nun – a female who is an esteemed member of certain religions and sometimes takes an oath of chastity, servitude, and poverty;

Nettle – a plant that when touched, causes a burning sensation on skin;

Corpse – dead body of a human;

Accoutrements – the French term for “accouterments” that describes military equipment other than uniforms, such as weapons;

Compensate – to make satisfactory payment or reimbursement;

Chapter IX: Tragedy in the Graveyard

Dismally – the adverb for gloomy or dreary;

“Scarcely perceptible” – barely able to hear;

Emphasize – to stress or give more weight to something;

Spirits – ghosts;

Abroad – moving around;

Ingenuity – cleverness;

Ghastly – something that causes shock, revulsion, or horror;

Death-watch – the watch, by one or more people, over someone who is dying; the author uses this term as a metaphor for the slow passage of time;

“Bed’s head” – the end of the bed where the person lays his head;

Caterwauling – a shrill cry from a cat, the type that would wake you at night;

“Ell” – the part of a building that is perpendicular to the rest of the building; when viewed from above, forms half of the letter “L”;

[27]

Woodshed – a small building that holds firewood, in order to keep it dry during wet weather, for use in the home;

Gloom – dimness; partial or total darkness;

Rank – in this case, in describing the graveyard weeds, the word means to grow in excess;

“Leaning for support and finding none” – a humorous phrase used by the author when describing the headboards on the graves that are leaning and falling down;

HISTORICAL NOTE: only wealthy people could afford headstones (tombstones) and the necessary engraving on them; the average person had a simple wooden headboard that would decay over a short period of time and need replacing;

Moaned – a low, constant cry of sorrow or pain; used as a metaphor for the wind’s mournful sound in the cemetery;

“Under their breath” – to speak in a very low voice, almost like whispering;

Pervading – something that is present throughout;

Solemnity – seriousness in the sense of respect for the dead;

Oppressed – something that is prevented by the use of force;

“Sharp new heap” – idiomatic phrase for a newly filled grave;

Ensconced – to place or conceal in a secure place;

“Dead stillness” – term used to describe a condition of no sound, as if everything is dead;

Oppressive – difficult to withstand;

“Sperrit” – colloquialism for “spirit;

“These yer dead people” – colloquialistic phrase that hinges around the word “yer”; “yer” is pronounced “year” and is the spoken form for “here”;

Damper – something that puts a restriction on an act; when Huck refers to dead people, this causes a damper or restriction on the conversation;

“Dono” – colloquialism for the words “don’t know”;

“I’m all of a shiver” – idiomatic phrase denoting Huck’s expressed feeling of fear and horror;

Bent – past tense and past participle of “bend” meaning to move something into another configuration; Tom and Huck moved (bent) their heads closer together;

Tin lantern – a (usually) rectangular box made out of tin metal, with many holes punched into the sides in order to allow the light from the candle to shine outside; this type of lantern was a “pierced tin lantern” because of the multitude of pierced holes;

HISTORICAL NOTE: in the days before flashlights, a lantern allowed a candle to be taken outside because the lantern protected the candle from going out if it was rainy or windy outside; by the mid-19 th century, pierced tin lanterns had been replaced with candle lanterns that used glass plates on the sides in order to allow light to pass more freely;

[28]

“Freckled the ground” – the pattern of dots of light that was produced by the pierced tin candle lantern;

Spangles – a small sparkling object;

Goners – a person that is doomed; what Huck told Tom when Huck thought that they were going to be discovered;

“Now I lay me down to sleep…” – a common children’s prayer;

“Blamed old rip” – archaic term for alcohol, but specifically whiskey;

“Half-breed” – archaic insulting term for a person of mixed parentage; in this case, Huck calls Injun Joe a half-breed because Injun Joe is apparently half white and half Indian;

Handbarrow – usually a flat structure (a bier) of planks with poles at either end with which two persons could carry a load; a handbarrow is not the same thing as a wheelbarrow;

“Discharging their freight” – an idiomatic phrase used as a metaphor for the actions of the shovels moving dirt from the grave;

Mold – archaic term for soil;

Monotonous – tediously (boringly) repetitive;

Pallid – pale, lifeless color such as that seen on a dead body;

Spring-knife – a type of knife with a blade that is attached to a spring with which keeps it closed when not in use; a Barlow knife is also a spring-knife but not all spring-knives are Barlows;

Sawbones – a euphemism for a medical doctor, one who saws bones (performs amputations of limbs) for a living;

“Another five” – five dollars in pay;

Vagrant – a hobo; someone who is homeless and travels from place to place;

Ruffian – a thug; a tough guy;

“Robbed the body” – phrase denoting that the doctor was robbed of his valuables after he had died;

Muddle – to confuse the mind, as when someone is intoxicated (drunk);

“Fetched you another awful clip” – idiomatic colloquialism for “struck you another hard blow;

“Dead as a wedge” – archaic idiom for a person who is lifeless as a metal log splitter (wedge);

“Weepon” – colloquialism for the word: “weapon”;

Yonder - an indicated distance within visual range (sight);

“Fuddled with the rum” – fuddled means confused; the phrase is an archaic idiom for someone who is incapacitated by alcohol, in this case rum, though earlier in the chapter whiskey was mentioned;

Chapter X: Dire Prophecy of the Howling Dog

[29]

“Give wings to their feet” – idiomatic expression meaning that they ran so fast that it was if they were flying;

Tannery – most towns of the period had a tannery, a building that transformed animal hides into leather objects; this was done with certain chemicals to preserve (tan) the skins;

Hanging – the term used to describe capital (death penalty) punishment, this punishment consisting of tying the criminal’s hands, placing a tightened noose of rope around the criminal’s neck, and dropping him a proscribed distance in order to break his neck and causing death;

HISTORICAL NOTE: during the 19th century, it was still common for capital punishment, usually in the form of hangings, to be carried out in the courthouse square for all to see; the public, including children, were allowed to witness this punishment until the practice was outlawed in the early 20th century;

“By hokey” – a euphemism, used as an oath (swear words);

Dead sober – term used to describe someone that had absolutely NOT been drinking alcohol;

“Dono” – colloquialism for “don’t know”, as spoken by Huck;

“Drownding us than a couple of cats” – (drowning is misspelled) metaphor used to convey the fact that Tom and Huck would be killed, “if they talked”, as easily as drowning a pair of cats;

HISTORICAL NOTE: up until the mid-20th century, it was common to rid oneself of stray cats by placing them in a feed sack, tying it closed, and throwing the sack into the river, drowning the cats; today, this practice would be considered inhumane and could cost a perpetrator a fine and/or jail time;

“Orter” – colloquialism for “aught to”, meaning that they “should do” something;

“Got the moon on his work” – archaic phrase for Tom turning so that the moon’s glow would be at his back, therefore illuminating his writing;

Sublimity – of high spiritual, moral, or intellectual worth;

Verdigrease – colloquialism for “verdigris”, a green-colored coating of corrosion on copper, brass, or bronze;

HISTORICAL NOTE: in the novel, Tom tells Huck not to use a brass pin to stick his finger, that brass may have “verdigrease” (verdigris) on it. Tom tells Huck that the verdigris is “p’ison” (poison). Of course, this is not correct. In these times before the discovery of germs, all sorts of things were thought to poison a person;

“Swaller” – colloquialism for swallow;

Incantations – ritual recitation of verbal charms or spells in order to produce a magic effect;

Lugubrious – mournful;

“Dad fetch it” – archaic colloquialism for “dad blame it”, a common swear phrase of the period;

“Waller” – colloquialism for the word “wallow”, to lie down in the dirt;

“Consound it” – archaic oath (swearing); substitute for “Confound it!”;

“Just old pie” – archaic idiomatic phrase Huck used to describe Tom as being no worse than a day old (stale) pie;

[30]

Quailed – to cower; to shrink back in fear;

“Take to their heels” – idiomatic phrase for running away;

Weather-boarding – the wooden boards used to wall up a building, usually nailed to the frame in a vertical manner;

“exchange a parting word” – phrase to describe that Tom and Huck said goodbye to each other;

Whippoorwill – a small nocturnal (night) terrestrial (ground) bird that makes a mating call that sounds like it’s name;

Escapade – an adventurous or unusual act;

Persecuted – to treat someone badly as to discriminate against them;

Bodings – an omen of evil;

Rebuke – reprimand; to sharply criticize;

Averted eyes – the way Aunt Polly treated Tom the morning after his graveyard trip with Huck; describes that Aunt Polly did not look directly at Tom, trying to avoid doing it;

“A chill to the culprit’s heart – author’s description of how Tom felt when he was treated to averted eyes and silence;

Flogged – naval term for a beating, a severe form of corporal punishment;

Trifles – small matters;

“This final feather broke the camel’s back” – idiom for something that happens that is the final thing that causes a result to take place;

Chapter XI: Conscience Racks Tom

Telegraphic speed – the speed of light which is the transmission speed of a telegraph message;

HISTORICAL NOTE: in the days before telephones, television, and other 20 th century communications devices, the telegraph was the marvel of the day, transmitting messages over cables for great distances, even over oceans, once the telegraph cables were laid between the two points;

Ransacked – pillage; to go through someone’s belongings in a rough manner in order to take from them;

Horsemen – the term literally means men on horseback but actually means a posse, a group of men deputized by the county sheriff to hunt for the accused murderer;

“His hand is here” – metaphor describing that God’s will has been done;

Stolid – impassive; having or showing very little emotion, if any;

Infernal –of or relating to Hell;

Haggard – appearance of worn or exhausted;

Palsy – archaic term for a medical condition that causes the victim to make uncontrollable body movements;

[31]

Vanquished – to defeat as in battle;

Miscreant – villain; someone who does evil;

Inquest – a judicial court proceeding examining the evidence in a case usually involving an unnatural death;

Balefully – ominous; something that is evil or harmful in intent or effect;

“His dread master” – term for the Devil, the evil that was thought to own the soul of the accused murderer, Muff Potter;

“Tied up his jaws” – phrase used to describe a common practice at the time - to wrap a cloth, used as a bandage and a sling to support a sore jaw, as when there is a bad tooth;

Disjointed – lacking order or coherence;

“Holding inquests on dead cats” – phrase used to describe the play Tom engaged in, that of holding make-believe formal, courtroom proceedings with dead cats substituting as the victims of murder;

Vogue – the current fashion, practice, or style;

Tar and feather – a severe form of unofficial punishment performed on bad people; the process is one where a bad person was forcibly tied up by the townspeople, coated in hot tar, and then had chicken feathers applied so that they stuck to the tar; then the person was run out of town, burned in the process and made to live with the tar and feathers for a considerable amount of time;

“Ride him on a rail” – another form of unofficial punishment for bad people, but this time the bad person was tied up, placed on a fence rail (the horizontal wooden fence piece) with the rail between his legs, and forcibly taken for a “ride” out of town, all the time suffering the pain associated with the rail up against his, well, you know;

Body-snatching – to steal dead bodies, digging them up from their grave, usually but not always for their jewelry; some doctors of the 19th century practiced this in order to experiment on the bodies;

Chapter XII: The Cat and the Pain-Killer

Hoop – a large circle (hoop) of wood, pushed along the ground by children of the period, for fun;

Infatuated – to have an unreasonable fascination with something;

Patent medicines – term for trade-patented remedies used for various ailments (sickness), usually having a considerable alcohol or narcotic content;

HISTORIC NOTE: Coca-Cola was originally developed as a “patent medicine” in the late 19 th century; At the time, it contained cocaine, a narcotic; Another popular patent medicine was “bitters”, a bitter-tasting concoction (mixture) of herbs in alcohol; patent medicines were outlawed in the early 20th century due to the harm that they caused;

Inveterate – long established;

Phrenological – the medical practice, now discredited, that was used to determine a person’s intelligence based upon the shape and bumps on a person’s head;

[32]

“Breath to her nostrils” – a metaphor used by the author to compare Aunt Polly’s fascination with fad medical practices and patent medicines with something (her breath) that was important to life;

Gospel – an idea or principle that is accepted without question, as a person would accept the Bible as the word of God;

Quack – a person who is unqualified but passes himself off as a trained professional, such as a medical doctor;

“Pale horse” – a biblical reference to Revelation 6:8; "And I looked, and behold a pale horse; and his name that sat on him was Death, and Hell followed with him." The author is describing Aunt Polly as a death merchant rather than an angel of mercy for her patient, Tom;

“Balm of Gilead” – another biblical reference, this time to Genesis 37 to describe a healing mixture (a balm); the phrase "balm in Gilead", referring to the balm or balsam carried from Gilead by the caravan of merchants to whom Joseph was sold by his brothers;

Water treatment – a medical treatment in the 19th century that claimed to cure all kinds of serious diseases just by drinking huge amounts of water, taking multiple baths, and wrapping the body so as to sweat out the sickness;

Windfall – unexpectedly sudden good luck;

Sitz baths – a type of bathtub that allows the bather to sit up, as in a chair, with the water covering everything below the hips, as used for certain medical therapy;

Plunges – therapeutic total body immersion into water;

Hearse – a movable device used to carry a casket; in the days before motor cars, a horse drawn carriage served as a hearse;

Blister-plasters – a now-discredited medical treatment whereby a paste-like caustic (irritating) mixture is applied to certain parts of the body in order to blister the skin;

Consternation – a state of paralyzing dismay (lack of enthusiasm);

Pain-killer – a patent medicine (see above) that apparently was used to kill pain; for this “medicine” to work, it would have had to include alcohol or some opiate;

Clandestinely – kept or done in secret, in order to hide an illegal or improper action;

“Dosing the crack” – humorous term for Tom’s pouring the dose of “Pain-killer” between the boards of the flooring;

Avariciously – greedy;

Unappeasable – impossible to satisfy;

Somersets – colloquialism for the word “somersaults”, to tumble as in gymnastics;

Petrified – a metaphor comparing Aunt Polly’s standing still in astonishment over Peter’s antics to wood that has been turned to stone over the ages;

“Expiring with laughter” – archaic term for being breathless with laughter; Tom was laughing so hard he could hardly breathe;

[33]

Bed-valance – a decorative strip of fabric used to cover the mattress and/or bed frame, now called a bed skirt;

Numskull – a stupid person; literally someone’s whose brain (skull) is numb;

Aggravate – to provoke;

Latterly – archaic term for the word “lately”;

Giddy – in this case, when describing Jeff: frivolous and lighthearted;

Frisking frock – literally, a girl’s dress moving playfully but in this case, describing any girl that came within Tom’s sight;

“Tom’s cheeks burned” – description of Tom blushing;

Crestfallen – dispirited and depressed;

Chapter XIII: The Pirate Crew Set Sail

“Bell for school” – the schoolbell rang, calling students to take their places in class;

HISTORICAL NOTE: in the 19th century, it was common for schools to have a bell tower, with a bell. The bell was rung either by the teacher(s) or by an appointed student, by which to call the students to school.

“Take up” – the meaning of the ringing of the school bell: for the students to grab their stack of textbooks and go to school;

Transpired – to happen, to occur;

Succumb – to give up or to give in to something or someone;

Hermit – a recluse, someone who lives alone, away from the rest of the civilization;

“Living on crusts” – literally surviving by eating just the cast-off crusts of loaves of bread;

“Dying…of…want” – to die due to the lack of something you need to survive;

Abreast – side by side with something;

Side of bacon – the side or belly of a pig from which bacon is cut during the slaughtering process;

Half-cured leaf tobacco – incompletely dried full-leaves of tobacco, the kind stolen from a curing shed;

“Corn-cob pipes” – corn-cobs, without the corn kernels, were used at one time to make cheap, pipes; the cob was hollowed out in the center and a stem, usually made of a reed, fitted into the side at the bottom;

Black Avenger of the Spanish Main – the pirate name that Tom takes for himself;

Spree – overindulgence in an activity;

Shoved off – nautical colloquialism for leaving; literally means to shove the boat away from the dock in order to leave;

“Courses, tops’ls, and flying jib” – courses are the lowest sails and topsails are the next to the lowest sails on a sailing ship; a flying jib is a triangular sail at the front of a sailing ship;

[34]

“R’yals up!” – literally, “royals up” referring to the nautical term to raise the royals, a type of sail;

“Lay out aloft” – nautical command for the sailors to take their positions on the yardarms up on the mast;

Foretop-mastsuns’l” – literally, “foretop-mast and sails”, referring to the sails on the mast above the foremast;

“Aye-Aye” – nautical term for “understood and will do”;

“Maintogalans’l” – colloquialism for “main top gallants”, a type of sail at the very top of the tallest mast;

Sheets and braces – a sheet is a line (rope) that trims (controls) a sail; a brace is a line (rope) that controls a yardarm;

“Wild sea” – the fanciful term given to the river by Tom;

“Looking their last” – taking a last look at something, in this case, his town;

“Made shift to avert it” – made adjustments to prevent the raft from missing the island;

Grounded – nautical term meaning for a ship, or in this case, Tom’s raft, to strike its bottom in shallow water;

“Landed their freight” – nautical words used to describe the boys unloading their gear onto the shoreline;

Corn “pone” – archaic term for corn bread;

Gen’ally – colloquialism for the word “generally”;

Bullyrag – to mistreat by bullying;

Sackcloth – biblical reference to a rough cloth, made from camel or goat hair, used to make clothing worn to indicate mourning or penitence;

“Ashes on his head” – biblical reference to the practice of putting a smudge of wood ashes upon the forehead, as a sign of mourning or penitence;

“Pressing a coal to the charge” – military term used in artillery, but here the author uses it as a metaphor to describe the action of Huck lighting his pipe with a glowing coal from the fire;

“This majestic vice” – the term the author gives to smoking tobacco with a pipe;

Forlornly – sadness or loneliness due to being deserted or abandoned;

Waifs – homeless or orphaned children;

Verge – the extreme edge or margin;

“The stolen meat” – the “boiled ham” that Tom took and the “side of bacon” that Joe took; either was worth a considerable amount of money, a day’s pay for a working man;

Purloined – stolen in such a way as to violate trust;

Sweetmeats – crystallized (sugar) fruit;

Chapter XIV: Happy Camp of the Free-Booters

[35]

Repose – the act of being at rest;

Musing – to be absorbed in one’s thoughts;

“He was measuring” – Tom’s description of the movements of a “measuring worm”, seemingly mimicking the motions of humans by measuring fabric;

Tumble-bug – also called a “dung beetle, which gathers up a ball of manure and rolls it to its burrow using it to feed its young;

Catbird – a species of songbird, similar to a Mockingbird, common in the Midwestern United States, with a cat-like “mewing” call;

Ravenous – extremely hungry;

Nook – a small corner or spot in something larger;

Provisions – a stock of necessary supplies, especially of food;

“Monarchs of the forest” – lyrical description of the large trees;

“Regalia of the forest” – the emblems and symbols of royalty, in this case used as a metaphor comparing the vine-draped trees to elaborately costumed kings;

Sumptuously – of a size or splendor suggesting great cost; lavish;

Skiffs – a small flat-bottomed open boat with a pointed bow and a square stern;

“Great jet of white smoke” – the author’s description of cannon fire; in the mid-19 th century, cannon fire was thought to cause dead bodies to rise to the surface of the water so that they could be found;

Quicksilver – term for mercury; literally, a “silver” that flows like it is quick (alive);

Gravity – seriousness;

Notoriety – being famous for bad deeds;

Withered – in regard to the effect Tom had on Joe, to render speechless or incapable of action;

Derision – ridicule;

Mutiny – nautical term for the process of the crew overthrowing the captain of the ship; in this case, the term is used as a metaphor for the children’s homesickness;

Chapter XV: Tom’s Stealthy Visit Home

Quartering – term for the way Tom swims, aiming for a point on the riverbank upstream from where he will actually land, due to the swift current of the river;

“Skiff that did yawl duty” – a small boat being used instead of a larger boat, manned by a team of men to row;

Thwarts – the plank-like seats in a small boat;

[36]

“Cracked bell tapped” – apparently, the ferryboat’s bell was cracked (damaged); the captain would strike (tap) the bell, signaling to the crew and passengers such events as when the boat is leaving shore, etc.;

“What makes the candle blow so?” – Aunt Polly’s question when the candle flame acted as if there was a wind blowing upon it; In fact, Aunt Polly did not know that Tom had opened the door, causing the flame to almost blow out since it was not in a lantern;

Harum-scarum – archaic term for reckless;

Cretur – colloquialism for the word “creature”, referring to the cat, Peter;

Bereaved – person who has suffered the loss (death) of another;

“Beyond her wont” – wont means usual or customary, so when the author uses this phrase to describe Aunt Polly he is telling the reader that Aunt Polly is being tender (considerate and protective) more than usual;

Ejaculations – a sudden, short exclamation, in this case, made by Aunt Polly in her sleep;

“Sycamore scroll” – the piece of sycamore bark upon which Tom wrote: “We ain’t dead-we are only off being pirates”;

Tenantless – without tenants, or in this case, paying passengers for the ferryboat;

Graven image – a metaphor used to describe the way the night watchman slept, like an graven (engraved) image (picture) on a page;

“Pulled a mile” – nautical term for rowing (pulling on oars) so that the boat travels for a mile;

Revelations – something discovered in a dramatic way;

Gilding – metaphor the author uses to describe the golden color that the sun gave to the water, as if the river was covered in gold;

True-blue – archaic term for someone who is truthful and faithful;

Recounted – to tell of the way something happened;

Chapter XVI: “I’ve Lost My Knife”

Shoal water – shallow water that is dangerous to boats/ships;

“Best man” – the strongest in a game where Tom, Joe, and Huck are playing in the river;

“Knucks”…”ring-taw”…”keeps” – the names for three games of marbles;

Cramp – archaic term for what we now call heat cramps; until the mid-20 th century, it was thought that ‘the cramps”, a common cause of drowning, was caused by swimming right after eating a meal;

Resurrection – bringing back to life;

Hendering – colloquialism for the word “hindering”, to prevent something;

Dainty – delicately beautiful;

[37]

“Cigars made of grapevine” – a section of cut grapevine was once used by children to imitate cigar smoking;

“Bit” the tongue – term used to describe the 1st degree burns on the tongue, received from the hot pipe smoke (by inexperienced pipe smokers);

Charily – very cautious; wary;

Bleeve – colloquialism for the word “believe”;

“Keel over” – archaic term for death;

“Two draws” – two puffs on a pipe;

Tobacker – colloquialism for the word “tobacco”;

Ca’m – colloquialism for the word “calm”;

“Flag a trifle” – to decline in strength a bit;

Expectoration – medical term for spitting;

“Bail out the cellars” – metaphor comparing a flooded basement with the amount of saliva in the boys’ mouths;

Inundation – overflow as in this case, saliva (spit);

Retchings – vomiting;

Fountains – metaphor comparing a water fountain with the “fountains” of vomit coming from Joe and Tom, after smoking the pipe;

Brooding – to be deep in thought;

Bode – foretell the future;

Peal – usually the sound of bells ringing but in this case, a metaphor for thunder sounding like the pealing of bells;

Rend – to tear apart violently;

“Rising hurricane” – an exaggeration the author uses for the windstorm that came with the thunder and lightning;

“Company in misery” – there is an old saying that misery loves company; that if you are miserable and everyone else is also miserable, the misery is better tolerated;

Blast – term the author uses to describe the sudden strong wind that took the sail away;

Conflagration – a large, destructive fire;

Heedless – failing to pay attention;

“no provision against rain – in this case, the word means the boys made no “plans” in case of rain;

Wrought – created; made; past tense and past participle of “work”;

[38]

Scalped – word used to describe the taking of another person’s scalp (skin and hair on top of the head); The boys certainly did NOT take scalps any more than they robbed and killed anyone, it was just a game to them;

HISTORICAL NOTE: the practice of “taking scalps” was established by the European colonial powers. Scalps of enemies were exchanged by the Indians to their European allies for money or other valuables. The reasoning followed that only an incapacitated (dead or unconscious) victim could be scalped. While a scalp was accepted as proof of the death of an enemy, in actuality, a small percentage of scalping victims survived, albeit with terrible scarring and loss of hair. Scalps were taken well after the colonial period as a way to measure an Indian’s war prowess.

“Took their whiff” – term for smoking tobacco in their corn-cob pipes;

HISTORICAL NOTE: it was the practice of Native Americans to pass a “peace pipe” around the circle of antagonists, thereby setting their differences aside; Each person, in turn, would take a breathe of tobacco smoke from the pipe and then pass it to the next one, etc.

Six Nations – the Iroquois Confederacy made up of the original five American Indian tribes of northeastern North America, when America was discovered: Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas. The sixth nation, the Tuscaroras, migrated into Iroquois country in the early eighteenth century.

Chapter XVII: The Pirates at Their Own Funeral

Tranquil – calm;

Mourning – a period of time when the death of a person affected the lives of the living;

HISTORICAL NOTE: During the Victorian Period (setting of the novel), “mourning” had two stages: deep (or full) mourning and half-mourning. Each stage had its own rules and customs of decorum. When someone died, all the members of the household (including the servants) would adopt deep mourning. Curtains were drawn and clocks were stopped at the time of death. Mirrors were covered because of a lingering superstition that the spirit of the deceased could become trapped in the reflective glass. Deep mourning demanded that women adopt a wardrobe made entirely of black crepe, a dull fabric without any sheen with which to reflect light. Men wore plain black clothing with black armbands. Specific periods of time were considered appropriate for mourning. A widow was expected to mourn her husband for at least two years. Deep mourning lasted one year, and required not only the all-black wardrobe with no jewelry, but also an extremely diminished social life. After one year of deep mourning, a widow progressed to half-mourning, and could trade her black crepe dress for a black silk (shiny) one. After a year of half-mourning, a widow could freely wear any color, although many widows remained in black for the rest of their lives.

Soliloquized – a literary form of speaking where the speaker reveals his/her thoughts when alone or unaware of others being within hearing;

“Pregnant with awful prophecy” – literally means: a terrible, significant telling of the future

Dismal – depressing;

Departed – the person who died;

Grandeur – magnificence;

Loitered – to stand around doing nothing;

[39]

Toll – in this case, the act of ringing one bell in a distinctly slow and regular interval used in mourning a death;

Sabbath – Sunday, the day of worship for Christians;

“Expectant dumbness” – silence with the archaic use of “dumb” meaning unable to speak;

“Communing silence” – term the author uses to describe the silence of all those at the funeral;

Graces – charms;

Rascalities – things a rascal does, such as being dishonest;

“Deserving of the cowhide” – idiomatic expression for someone who needs a spanking since belts were made of cowhide and children were spanked with belts;

Thanksgivings – prayers of thanks;

“Shook the rafters” – metaphor for the seeming result of loud singing;

Cuffs – to slap with the open hand, in this case playful slaps, perhaps on the back;

“Old Hundred” - a hymn, one of the best known melodies in all Christian musical traditions;

Chapter XVIII: Tom Reveals His Dream Secret

“Invalided benches” – humorous term the author uses to describe church benches that have become “invalids” (lame) through the loss of their legs;

Repentant – being remorseful (sorry) for your previous actions in regard to religion;

Woodbox – the metal or wooden container, near the fireplace where a ready supply of firewood was kept;

Recollect – remember;

“Milum apple” – colloquialism for Milam apple, a common green apple popular in the 19 th century;

Swagger – strut; to walk in an arrogant manner;

“The drummer at the head of a procession” – in the 19th century, it was common for circuses to have a man or boy beating a drum in front of a parade (procession) in order to get everyone’s attention;

Menagerie – a traveling zoo;

“Stuck-up” – conceited, egotistical; too good for everyone else;

Sham – false;

Vivacity – liveliness; full of animation and spirit;

Flinders – bits; fragments; splinters;

Vindictive – revengeful;

[40]

“Falling of his mercury” – metaphor used to describe the coolness he felt when seeing Becky; mercury is used in thermometers and are used to measure heat or the absence of it;

Reconciliation – to settle or resolve a conflict in order to be friends again;

Assent – to agree;

Nooning – the noon hour between 12:00 and 1:00pm;

Chapter XIX: The Cruelty of “I Didn’t Think”

“Tremor in her voice” – Aunt Polly was speaking to Tom with such emotion that it caused her to “choke up” on her words”;

Chapter XX: Tom Takes Becky’s Punishment

Trounce – to defeat decisively;

Breach – a tear in something, in this case, in Tom and Becky’s relationship;

Urchin – a playful child;

Conned – duped; to win someone’s trust in order to cheat them later;

Perplexity – the state of being puzzled;

Folly – an act of foolishness;

“Dismembered faculties” – broken up abilities;

Chapter XXI: And the Master’s Gilded Dome

Rod and ferule - types of corporal punishment devices; a rod would be round and a ferule would be flattened;

Retribution – a reaction, usually in the form of punishment, for an action;

“Vengeful success” – the schoolboys’ successful pranks done against the headmaster;

Boarded – paying for meals, such as in a “boarding house” (or in the case of a horse, in a stable);

Dominie – an archaic term for a schoolmaster;

Festoons – to decorate with garlands (strings) of pine boughs, lights (modern times), or leaves/vines, hanging the garlands in such a way as to have them sag attractively in the middle;

“Ladies…conspicuously conscious of their bare arms” – female fashion of the period required that no skin show, not even the neck and arms during the day; for evening wear, necklines plunged and bare arms were acceptable; the young female students were rarely seen in public during the evening, hence their nervousness when wearing evening dress;

Spasmodic – fitful; intermittent;

Curtsy – a form of bowing for women, placing one foot forward, bending at the knees, lowering the body in the process;

[41]

Meed – an earned gift;

Declamatory – pretentiously rhetorical (unjustified extravagant words);

Filial – word used to refer to the children of the older generation;

Edification – intellectual, spiritual, or moral understanding;

Homely – plain or simple, sometimes used to describe a person, but in this case, to describe the essays of some female students;

Unpalatable – unpleasant or disagreeable;

Votary – a person who is enthusiastic about something;

Elysian – referring to the Elysian Fields, the place where the Greeks thought the dead went to be eternally happy;

Tete – French for “head’

Garret – attic;

Scuttle – nautical term for an opening in the ship through which something, such as seawater, may flow off the ship; in this case, the scuttle was a small opening (perhaps a trap door) in the room (garret) above where the headmaster was standing;

Pate – the top of a person’s head;

Gilded – to cover in gold, usually by using “gold leaf”, an extremely thin layer of gold;

Chapter XXII: Huck Finn Quotes Scripture

Temperance – the restriction or banishment of intoxicating drink;

Shackles – refer to “fetters” (Chapter VI);

“Late member” – meaning former member when referring to Tom, who gave up his membership in the Cadets of Temperance”;

Minstrel shows – a popular form of entertainment in the mid and late 19 th century; the shows were staged by a group of traveling entertainers, usually singing and performing humorous plays; During the period, white entertainers would paint their faces black to imitate black entertainers who were also very popular; In the 20 th century, the use of “blackface” became more and more offensive to African-Americans;

Phrenologist – a “medical professional” of the 19th century who told a person’s mental faculties by the shape of the head and by the “reading” of any bumps;

Mesmerizer – a 19th century medical professional who used hypnosis to treat diseases or conditions;

HISTORICAL NOTE: mesmerizers, many times entertainers, were named after Dr. Franz Mesmer, an Austrian doctor who treated diseases with the use of “animal magnetism”, an early form of hypnosis;

“Dead to the world” – an idiomatic expression meaning that the person had no communication with the outside;

[42]

Revival – a meeting, sometimes held in large tents, meant to reawaken religious faith and characterized by impassioned preaching and public testimony;

Tracts – In this case, a tract is a leaflet or pamphlet containing religious encouragement, handed out free to the public;

HISTORICAL NOTE: huge numbers of tracts were printed by religious organizations and handed out to the Union soldiers during the Civil War (1861-1865); They were meant to bring religion to the men who lived in the field, far from their home churches and the guidance of their pastors; Tracts were not as common for the Southern soldiers due to the scarcity of printing paper in the South, later in the Civil War;

Bedclothes – the linens on a bed, the sheets, pillow cases, and the blankets/quilts;

Hubbub – loud noise;

Incongruous – not in agreement, as in principles;

Tempest – a violent windstorm, usually with rain, snow, or hail;

Relapsed – to be sick again after appearing to recover;

Chapter XXIII: The Salvation of Muff Potter

Feelers – something, usually a hint or question, designed to obtain a certain attitude of the recipient(s);

Mum – silent;

Som’ers – colloquialism for “somewhere”;

Lynch – to execute a person without due process of the law (a fair trial) especially when a mob of citizens hangs a person suspected of committing a serious crime;

“Swing for it” – euphemistic term for the act of being hung, the execution method of choice in the period;

Litter – colloquialism for “little”;

Furder – colloquialism for “further”;

Idlers – people who have nothing better to do than, in this case, attend the trial of Muff Potter;

Deposed – to give testimony as evidence in a trial;

Reproof – a rebuke; an act or statement from one showing disagreement with another;

Bated breath – as in abating their breath, to lessen their breathing, usually due to anticipation;

Chapter XXIV: Splendid Days and Fearsome Nights

Omniscient – knowing all things; having total knowledge, as does God;

Clew – colloquialism for “clue”, a hint at something;

Chapter XXV: Seeking the buried Treasure

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Sallied – a military term meaning to leave a defensive position in order to attack an enemy, but in this case, the author uses the term to denote Tom setting out on a trip to find Joe Harper;

Ha’nted – colloquialism for “haunted”;

Hy’roglyphics – colloquialism for the word: “hieroglyphs”, a system of ancient writing using pictures to denote words or phrases;

Sepulchral note – a sound suggestive of a cemetery or a grave, in this case used to denote the sound of the owl;

Shadder – colloquialism for “shadow”;

Chapter XXVI: Real Robbers Seize the Box of Gold

Brick – an archaic, informal term for a helpful, reliable person;

Yew – an Old World (European) tree the wood of which was used for cabinetry and archery bows;

Athwart – a nautical term used to denote side to side, or crosswise, as “athwart ship” (to go across to the other side);

Softly – quietly;

Blanching – removal of color from something, usually by bleaching or cooking; in this case, describing Huck growing pale due to fright;

Serape – a long, blanket-like shawl, often brightly colored and fringed at the ends, traditionally worn by Mexican men during the 19th century;

Sombrero – a large straw or felt hat with a broad brim and tall crown, traditionally worn by Mexican men;

Milksop – term for a man who lacks courage;

“Then for Texas” – a term for “leaving for Texas”;

HISTORICAL NOTE: it was common in the 19th century for Americans to write in their letters that they had “Gone to Texas” for the life on the frontier; Texas was the only state of the Union from 1845 to 1880 (period in which the author lived) that had hostile Indian attacks against civilians along the frontier;

“leg it” – colloquial term for walking, usually for long distances;

Swag – archaic slang for stolen property; loot;

“In silver” – meaning in valuable silver coins, hard currency;

Bowie-knife – a large, single-edged steel hunting knife popularized in the early 19 th century by Jim Bowie who later became a martyr to Texas independence from Mexico at the Alamo;

Sachem – a chief of the Algonquian tribe of native Americans who was respected for his wisdom;

Chinks – narrow openings between logs in a log building through which Tom and Huck watched Injun Joe and his accomplice leave;

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HISTORICAL NOTE: During the 19th century, it was common for homes to be built of solid logs (timbers) due to the fact that planks were too expensive, planks being laboriously cut from logs by hand; due to the imperfections in the natural logs (sometimes they were not straight), narrow openings, called chinks, were left between the horizontal logs; To keep the winter wind out of the home, these chinks had to be “chinked”, usually with mud or better, mud mixed with straw;

Chapter XXVII: Trembling on the Trail

Gunwale – nautical term (pronounced “gunnel”) for the edge of a ship where the deck meets the sides; So called because this edge was where the cannon were mounted;

Flatboat – a boat with a flat bottom and square (not pointed) ends used for transporting freight on inland waterways such as rivers; a flatboat can be nudged up onto the bank to ease loading/unloading;

Ostentatious - boastful showiness;

“Foller” – colloquialism for the word: “follow”;

Chapter XXVIII: In the Lair of Injun Joe

Tavern – a traveler’s inn, usually selling food, alcohol, and beds;

“Making thirty of forty miles an hour” – a man can only run about ten miles per hour, so this is an exaggeration by the author of Huck’s speed; the purpose of this exaggeration is to show that Huck was scared for his life;

Hayloft – an upper room of a barn, used to store hay in order to keep it dry;

Chapter XXIX: Huck Saves the Widow

Hi-Spy - a type of children’s game similar to but not the same as hide and go seek;

Gully-keeper – a children’s game involving running;

Throng – a large group of people gathered closely together;

“she’ll have ice cream” – an indication of wealth, for the Widow Douglas to have ice cream;

HISTORICAL NOTE: until the 20th century, only wealthy people had the resources to make and keep ice cream in the summer months; To make and store ice cream required a brine solution of salt and ice, the ice being very expensive; Only during modern times, with electric freezers in the home, can we store ice cream year ‘round;

Icehouse – a business that makes, stores, and sells ice;

Romping – to play or frolic boisterously;

Went filing – went in single file;

Labyrinth – an intricate structure of interconnecting passages through which it is difficult to find one’s way back; a maze;

Tallow drippings – referring to the melted candle wax, made of tallow (animal fat);

Clanging bell – the signal the ferryboat captain used to call the picnickers back to the boat for the return trip home;

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Wild freight – metaphor for the excited picnickers, comparing them to a shipment (freight) of wild animals;

Sixpence – a metal coin, used in England, of little value;

Wharf – pier or dock where boats and ships may tie up and load/unload;

Vehicles – a device for transporting people, in the case of the 19 th century well before the motorcar was common, this meant a buggy or wagon pulled by horses or mules;

Wake – a nautical term for the disturbed water behind a ship or boat;

Communing – to be in a heightened state of sensitivity with one’s surroundings;

Sumach – colloquialism for sumac, a large bush grown for its attractive flowers;

Agues – diseases now known as malaria because of the alternating symptoms of chills/shaking and fever/sweating;

Stile – a set of steps that are used to cross over a fence;

Horsewhipped – term describing the striking of a human with a whip meant for striking an animal; this punishment was reserved for slaves and Indians who misbehaved;

Row – a boisterous disturbance or quarrel (fight);

Bowlder – colloquialism for the word “boulder”, a large rock;

Chapter XXX: Tom and Becky in the Cave

Vagabond – a homeless person who travels from place to place; a hobo;

Constables – a peace officer with less authority than a sheriff;

Posse – see “Horsemen” (Capter XI)

Follered – colloquialism for the word: “followed”;

“Blowed on them” – colloquialism for “told on them”;

Agin – colloquialism for the word: “again”;

Widder’s – colloquialism for the word “widow’s”;

Embellishment - fictitious (untrue) details;

Jaded – worn out; tired;

Countenance – appearance, especially of the facial expressions;

Swooned – fainted; passed out;

Highroad – the quickest or the easiest of more than one road to a particular place;

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HISTORICAL NOTE: in many towns during the 19th century, the high road was actually at an elevation high enough to prevent it being flooded when the river rose to flood stage and the low road, the river road, was flooded;

Forenoon – the period of the day between sunrise and Noon; morning;

Relic – something cherished for its association with someone; in this case, it was Becky’s hair ribbon that became a relic to Mrs. Thatcher when Becky was lost in the cave;

Stupor – a state of mental numbness caused by shock;

Lucid –mentally sound; sane or rational;

Pow-wow – a native American term for a meeting;

Chapter XXXI: Found and Lost Again

Zeal – enthusiastic devotion to a cause, an ideal, or a goal, combined with a tireless diligence in its furtherance;

Sinuous – winding;

Frescoed – to “fresco” is to paint on fresh, moist plaster but in this case, the author uses this term to describe the candle-smoke writing on the cavern walls;

Candle-smoke – the smoke emitted from candles is made up of a black substance, mostly carbon, called soot; the soot adheres (sticks) to most surfaces if the candle is held close to the object in question;

Niagara – a large internationally known waterfall in Northwestern New York State;

Gratification – satisfaction;

Inclosed – archaic spelling of the word “enclosed”: surrounded on all sides;

Novelties – something new and unusual;

Stalactites – scientific name for the cave formations that grow downward from the ceiling;

Pillars – scientific name for the cave formations that result of a stalactite and a stalagmite meeting and forming a column;

Stalagmites – scientific name for the cave formations that grow upwards from the floor;

Subterranean – underground;

Diverging – branching out from a point;

Horrid – dreadful; causing horror;

Sarcasms – a cutting, often ironic remark intended to cause distress;

Moiety – a part, portion, or a share of something;

Whetted – stimulated;

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Apathy – lack of interest, especially in matters of general importance;

Chapter XXXII: Turn Out! They’re Found!

Petitioner’s – someone who makes a solemn request to a higher authority, in this case, to God;

Vocations – a regular occupation, especially one where the person is particularly suited or qualified;

Huzzah – archaic colloquialism for a shout for joy or triumph;

Famished – starvation;

Chapter XXXIII: The Fate of Injun Joe

Abounding – great in number or amount;

Faculties - see “Dismembered faculties (Chapter XX)

Hapless – unfortunate; without luck;

Sappy – excessively sentimental;

“Trample his duty under foot” – an ironic statement made by the author when relating that some citizens would ask the governor to pardon Injun Joe;

“Leaky waterworks” – a metaphor comparing a defective public water system with the eyes/tears of certain citizens who would be too eager to forgive a multiple murderer;

Holt – Colloquialism for the word “hold”;

Blaze – to mark a trail where, otherwise, it would be difficult to find your way back;

“It’s a whiz” – archaic statement similar to “(easy as eating) a piece of cake”;

Pins – archaic term for “legs”;

Lucifer matches – originally a brand of English matches, later copied and popular in the 19 th century, called “Lucifers”, named after the Devil (Lucifer) due to the sulphur content of the matches;

Hive – to store up; accumulate;

Precipice – an overhanging or steep mass of rock, such as found on the face of a cliff;

Mystic – of religious mysteries or occult rites and ceremonies;

“Pallet of blankets” – a temporary bed situated on the floor, made of many blankets;

Fowls – certain birds, including chickens;

Chasm – a deep, steep-sided opening in the earth;

Powder-keg – a wooden barrel-shaped container used to store gunpowder (an explosive);

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Orgies – uncontrolled or immoderate indulgence in activites;

Foundry – a business where metal is melted and/or formed into useful objects;

“The place was grandly lighted” – well illuminated;

HISTORICAL NOTE: in the 19th century, before electric or even gas lighting, candles and oil lamps were used for illumination; for a home to be “grandly lighted”, would require a large number of candles or oil lamps, costing a large sum of money;

“Dressed in their best” – term for citizens who wore their best clothing for the occasion;

Slicked up – archaic term for making someone neat, trim, and clean;

Chapter XXXIV: Floods of Gold

Slope – in this case, to climb down from the upstairs using a rope;

Sunday clothes – term for the best clothing a person owns;

HISTORICAL NOTE: traditionally, citizens always wear their best clothes to church on Sunday; In modern times, this practice has declined;

Side-tables – term for the small tables, set up away from the main table, used for children;

HISTORICAL NOTE: Until modern times, children were not allowed to sit at a main table for a celebratory meal due to their poor table manners; children were seated at side-tables in order to preserve the decorum at a formal dinner party;

Clamorous – a loud outcry or sustained din;

Effusive – unrestrained or excessive in emotional expression;

Laudations – deserved praise;

“Sing mighty small” – an archaic idiomatic expression the author has Mr. Jones use denoting that the what he had planned is now insignificant;

Chapter XXXV: Respectable Huck Joins the Gang

Gloated – to feel or express great, often malicious (harmful) pleasure or self-satisfaction;

Dissected – a metaphor comparing the ransacking of abandoned houses by treasure-seekers to the medical practice of cutting apart a body of an animal for anatomical study;

Biographical sketches – a brief, informal literary composition stating the biography (life history) of someone;

“Put Huck’s money out at six percent” – Huck’s $6,000+ (half-share of the $12,000 loot), when put into a bank earning 6% interest would yield $360+ per year income;

Board – see “boarded” (Chapter XXI);

Lodge – short for “lodging”; housing;

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Magnanimous – generous in forgiving;

“Truth about the hatchet” – during the period, every schoolchild learned the story of young George Washington, when accosted for cutting down a cherry tree, told the truth;

National Military Academy – the United States established this college to train future Army officers in 1802 in West Point, New York; also called simply “West Point”;

Insipid – dull;

Whithersoever – archaic adverb meaning: to whatever place;

“Bars and shackles of civilization” – a metaphor comparing imprisonment to the fact that Huck must now conform to decent, polite society;

Refugee – a metaphor comparing someone who flees persecution to Huck, who has fled the Widow Douglas’ home;

Unkempt – disorderly; untidy;

Picturesque – striking or interesting in an unusual way;

Ornery – mean-spirited; disagreeable; in this use of the word by Huck, to sermons in church, it relates his distaste for such things;

Chaw – colloquialism for the word “chew” as in chew tobacco and spitting the juice on the floor/ground;

“Eats by a bell” – referencing that the Widow Douglas does everything in a strict manner, as if everything is announced by a signal;

HISTORICAL NOTE: During the period, it was common for a bell to be rung to announce the serving of meals in a large house of the rich, preventing loud shouting “to come to the table”;

Grub – slang word for food;

Vittles – shortened form of victuals (food supplies);

Gape – to stare stupidly, with the mouth open, as in astonishment;

Bar’l – colloquialism for the word “barrel”, Huck’s chosen “home”;

“Shake ‘em” – colloquialism for “get rid of them”;

Sheer – colloquialism for the word “share”;

Ten-center – slang for a dime;

High-toned – pretensiously elegant or fashionable;

Shet – colloquialism for the word “shut”;

Low characters – second class citizens, such as criminals, vagrants, and idlers;

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