Walking While Muslim: Discrimination Against Muslim Women in

Contemporary American Society: A Qualitative Study

Angela Chavez

University of La Verne

A senior thesis submitted to the faculty of the University of La Verne in the

Sociology Department in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of

Bachelor of Science in Sociology

Fall 2011

Advisor: Dr. Glenn A. Goodwin

1

Discrimination Against Muslim Women in Contemporary American SocietyAbstract

Since September 11th the manifestation of discrimination and intolerance toward

Muslims has increased dramatically. Resurgence, especially after September 11, 2001,

of racist tendencies challenge the exercise of fundamental human rights and freedoms

of Muslims in the United States today (Orhun 2009). This qualitative study seeks to

answer the primary research questions: (A) Are Muslim women discriminated against

in contemporary American society? This question prompts the secondary research

questions:(1) How do Muslim women respond to discrimination? (2) What role does

the mass media play in the discrimination against Muslim Women? (3) What are the

misconceptions of Islam and Muslims? (4) Do misconceptions portrayed in the mass

media play a role in discrimination against Islam and Muslims? In this study two

research methods were used. The first was a field experiment utilizing participant

observation. The researcher wore an abaya and a hijab in a variety of public settings.

When out in public, the researcher was accompanied by another person who

independently observed and recorded data. The second research method consisted of

field interviews that elicited information about Muslim females in America. They were

conducted with twenty Muslim women at local Mosques in Southern California. Non

random convenient and Snowball sampling was used. Participants ranged in age from

18-44 with a majority falling between 20-30 years of age. The ethnicities of participants

included Malaysian, African American, Indian, Iraqi, Pakastani, Lebanese, Syrian, Saudi,

and Latino. A majority of the participants have some college, and are currently students

who are unemployed. Findings indicated that 95% of participants have experienced

various forms of discrimination including verbal harassment (90%), physical assault

(10%), denial of service (15%) and disapproving looks (95%).

2

Introduction

Over the past century, world population has grown exponentially and the earth is

getting stretched to the limit. Our obsession with materialism has clearly affected our

behavior–some may believe that as individuals we are merely adapting to our

environment. The United States faced a barrage of socio-cultural forces in the 1960s such

as the civil rights and feminist movements. The myriad of minorities, women, and civil

rights activists fought for equality, while others resisted these countercultural movements.

I suggest the idea, that as a society we are constantly being divided by racial markers and

minorities are consistently being marginalized. However, found deep beneath the color of

one’s skin is the individual’s ability to function in society equally without the collective

oppression of groups. The brutality faced by minorities and civil rights activists in the

1960s and the 1970s has left scars on the untold history of many individuals. From

Freedom Riders to Freedom Summer, there were individuals who devoted their lives to

help perpetuate equality among Americans in our “land of the free.” As foreigners

aspired to live within the United States, to find opportunity, and move away from

oppression, many were naïve to the history that was taking place.

American society has had a history of discrimination and injustices that have yet

to fade in contemporary society. Essentially, humans must be capable of anticipating the

response of and to others. However, our failed response to articulate the truth about the

Islamic faith and Muslims after September 11, 2001 has left the latter an easy target for

discrimination. Subsequently, the portrayal of Muslims in America often reflects a

misunderstanding of Islam and its followers. The aftermath of September 11, 2001 has

3

brought a great deal of attention to the Islamic faith and particularly to Muslim women in

the United States.

Women are typically identified as Muslim by their religious garments, and

because their appearance is easily distinguishable they have become an informal target to

be victimized as scapegoats. American society continues to synthesize the complexity of

true Islam, leading them with erroneous beliefs about the nature and customs of Islam

and Muslim Americans. The purpose of this paper is to attempt to understand the

discrimination Muslim women endure in contemporary American society because such

acts have become all too familiar in our daily lives.

Accordingly, this paper highlights the ethnic, religious and gender discrimination

that has permeated American history and which has helped to simultaneously perpetuate

modern day injustices. I do so by examining the discrimination Muslim women endure in

contemporary American society, and finally, I conclude with a discussion of the

misconceptions of the Islamic faith and Muslim Americans, while addressing a critically

important first step toward a proper understanding of the principles of Islam and its

followers in a broader perspective.

Ethnic Discrimination in Contemporary American Society

Flown proudly outside the houses of many citizens in the United States is an

American flag that holds not only value but also represents sacrifice. The American flag

is a representation of the trials and tribulations America has undergone to become the

nation we are today. However, living in the United States has not always been easy for

some Americans, and at times even dangerous. There have been groups who have been

oppressed and discriminated against based on their race, religion, and ethnicity. As a

4

nation that prides itself on the terms “United we stand,” we have been anything but

united. Before we hang our flag proudly, it is helpful to remind us of various groups who

have traveled through the times of sacrifice in America.

These groups have endured times of suffering, discrimination, and hatred. I first

discuss the suffering of Native Americans, and the injustices faced by the Mexican

American community. In addition, I then highlight the discrimination African Americans

endured and are continuing to endure. In order to truly understand the discriminatory acts

these groups experienced, we must first conceptualize what it was like to be an American

through their eyes.

Discrimination Against Native Americans

Native Americans, known to be a group consisting of nomadic tribes, used their

wisdom in agriculture to cultivate their richly soiled land. As a collectivity, many

embraced the life style of hunter-gathers. While men pursued conquests for food by

hunting and traveling, women tended to the needs of their children and community. The

land the Native Americans settled was perceived as something very sacred; the crops fed

the people, the herbs healed the wounded, and the water quenched their thirst. As a

culture enriched with knowledge and wisdom, Native Americans had a systematic way of

living. Unfortunately, the misunderstanding of Native Americans has helped perpetuate

discrimination toward this indigenous culture. Having been labeled as foreign savages,

Native Americans have fallen victim to various forms of political, social, and economic

discrimination.

One of the most dehumanizing events in the history of Native Americans was

displacing their tribes to relocation centers. These relocation centers, which advocated a

5

cultural cleansing, stripped many Native American tribes of their systematic way of life.

Tribal members were no longer allowed to speak in their native language. In essence,

their sense of identity–language, customs, traditions, values –were denounced and

attacked, thus losing a viable piece of their culture (Marshal 2007). The United States

leaders reasoned that whole ethnic groups were inferior to their own and committed

atrocities of genocide and mass cultural murder.

The Dawes Act created boundaries for Native Americans to live within, and the

freedom to move past them was prohibited. The Dawes act made it permissible for the

United States to survey the land of the Native Americans (Marshall 2007). They were no

longer allowed to take part in any activity equated to their culture. Essentially, Native

Americans were stripped of their rights and forced to assimilate to behavior in

accordance with expectations of the “white man’s” society, which deteriorated that of

human civilization.

Discrimination Against Mexican Americans

Among some of the earliest settlers in the United States, the Mexican American

population has grown substantially. Unfortunately, many have fallen victim to various

forms of discrimination. Long-held stereotypes have acted as contributors in adding to

the perception and classification of Mexican Americans, i.e, labeling them as “wet backs”

and “taco benders” (Massy and Denton 2003). Such negative connotations have promoted

acts of discrimination against this ethnic minority group. Mexican immigrants who fail to

assimilate into the dominant society’s identity are deemed alien, subhuman, and even

inferior. However, for Mexican Americans, their language and culture are major elements

of their heritage. Through acts of assimilation, they had to abandon their culture, and

6

language. Regrettably, Mexican Americans faced severe overt discrimination through

actions such as segregated housing practices, segregated schools, and subordinate labor

positions.

Owning a house for many meant the ability to build equity and live comfortably.

However, banks and realtors made the ability to own a house very difficult for Mexican

Americans due to the enforcement of residential segregation. Over the years, these

practices have included real estate agents steering ethnic groups away from certain

neighborhoods, unequal access to mortgage credit, exclusionary zoning (in which groups

are restricted to particular neighborhoods), and neighborhood hostility (Greenfield and

Kates 1975). Discriminatory housing practices toward the Mexican community propelled

segregation in neighborhoods causing urban ghettos, which undermined their long-term

social and economic well-being. In the United States, racial and ethnic residential

segregation is thought to affect the range of opportunities available to minority group

members such as the access to a quality education (Massey and Denton 2003).

Thus, schooling segregation denied Mexican Americans the ability to an equal

education. This form of institutional discrimination was an attempt to handicap Mexican

Americans. The pedagogical rationale was that the limited, or non-English speaking

Mexican children, would impede the academic progress of Anglo Saxon Children

(Menchaca 1990). Mexican American children were not allowed to speak Spanish and

public school teachers were able to punish students for speaking Spanish (Menchaca

1990). These segregated schools were poorly funded and equipped with under staffed

faculty. Concurrently, the attainment of poor education had serious implications on future

mobility opportunities, particularly in the labor force.

7

With the inability to obtain an adequate education, this subordinate group

inherited unequal treatment and discriminatory practices in the work place.

Unfortunately, Mexican Americans were thought to be unintelligent, dirty, unwilling to

learn English, and unwilling to work as hard as natives (Charles 2003). Instead, they

compromised their civil liberties to work in the fields, accepted low wages, harsh

working environments, long hours and no breaks. In essence, Mexican Americans were

being exploited for cheap labor with the implication that as an ethnic minority they were

of no value to society.

Discrimination Against African Americans

American society is perpetually in a state of evolution. The emancipation of

slaves did not stop the discrimination blacks would endure; instead it established the

foundation for social, and economic injustices. African Americans were denied the ability

to live in a society that viewed them as anything more than just a skin color. Hung above

bathrooms and water fountains were signs that read, “Whites only.” Unable to escape the

prejudices and discrimination of society, many blacks lived below the poverty line and

had limited resources to survive. Due to the color of their skin, African Americans were

denied the fundamental rights America has so proudly upheld–life, liberty and the pursuit

of happiness.

The “separate but equal” school systems that assumed African Americans

would receive an equal education was but a mere illusion perpetuated in American

society. Instead, the schools were under-funded and lacked the essential resources to

educate at an advanced or equal level. Connolly (2004) argues that black schools in the

South were marked by lower teacher salaries, higher student to teacher ratios, shorter

8

terms, and lower educational levels of teachers. Essentially, without the resource of an

adequate education, African Americans were deprived of the ability to function equally in

society.

It is readily apparent that we have yet to conquer the injustices of

discrimination. The disturbing portraits of 1870’s lynchings of African Americans have

been etched into the consciousness of American society. The shackles that were once

worn by slaves now act as a ball and chain imprisoning African Americans from entering

professional, and managerial jobs. According to Wise, (2010) African American workers

alone lose over $120 billion in wages each year because of labor market discrimination.

It has been argued that as a society we no longer discriminate against African Americans

and that many profess pleasure in living in an equal society. However, according to Wise

(2010:49):

White males with a criminal record are more likely than black males without one

to be called back for a job interview, even when credentials, experience,

demeanor, and communication and dress style are the same. In addition, at least

one third of all employers in the nation are racially biased and discriminate

against job applicants of color.

Such practices preserve the discrimination African Americans have endured throughout

the history of America.

Religious Discrimination In Contemporary American Society

As Americans, we take pride in being part of a democracy. We value our

freedom, liberty, and even individuality. Indeed, the American Constitution embraces

freedom of religion as a major right, thus giving individuals the ability to freely practice

9

their religion without being chastised. One can argue that religion is merely a mechanism

which answers the eternal questions humans are incapable of answering. However,

certain religious groups have been scrutinized for their beliefs, and consequently become

the target of discrimination. It is often hard to escape the reality that we live among

extremely culturally diverse people. As noted earlier, particular religious groups such as

Islam have been subjected to discrimination in a variety of social settings and in the

media.

Muslims oftentimes face challenges that reflect a lack of acceptance of their

religious identity. Islam is one of the fastest growing religions in the United States, and in

that respect, it is important to recognize the various aspects of discrimination against the

Islamic religion, and particularly against Muslims.

As suggested earlier, since September 11, 2001 the manifestation of

discrimination and intolerance toward Muslims has grown to epidemic proportions in

America, and has yet to subside. Human rights and fundamental freedoms need to be

recognized as essential safeguards of tolerance and non-discrimination, which are

indispensible elements of stability, security and cooperation (Orhun 2009). When an

individual is discriminated against based on religious prejudice it creates conflict and

deteriorates possibilities for growth in a healthy environment. The resurgence, especially

after September 11, 2001 of racist tendencies and islamphobia challenge the exercise of

fundamental human rights and freedoms of Muslims (Orhun 2009). Promoted by the

media, “Islamphobia” has created a plague of severe hostility and discrimination toward

Muslim Americans and Islam.

10

The media has acted as a key player in the widespread influence of discrimination

against Muslims in America, and the Islamic faith. Thus, Abdulla (2005:6) states:

Islamic terrorist, Muslim fundamentalist, Islamic Jihadi, Arab killer, Islamic

suicide bomber – while used extensively in American media, since September 11,

2001, these relatively new terms have entered the popular vocabulary of both the

print and broadcast media. Almost every religious community has produced its

own terrorists, violence mongers, hate speech promoters, and extremists.

However, American media rarely used terms such as Hindu terrorist, Catholic

killers, Protestant violence mongers or Jewish extremists to report events that

involved the followers of these religions.

Consequently, stereotypical images denounce and demonize Islamic practices,

subsequently leading Americans to distrust and discriminate against this religion and

their followers.

The derogatory terms used by the media to describe Muslims and Islamic ideals

have allowed many to naively adopt the term, “Islamophobia.” The specific nature of

Islamophobia seems to be a strategic insinuation by the mass media to have the public

fear and discredit Muslims and Islamic practices. Islamophobia is a term used to refer to

an irrational distrust, fear, and rejection of the Islamic religion and those who are

perceived as Muslims (Greges 2003). This term has created a hostile environment for

those who practice the Islamic faith. Social issues surrounding Islamophobia have given

individuals justification for discriminating against the followers of Islam. A persistent

human problem of the growing fear and intolerance of Islamic practices and Muslims in

America has undeniably been attributed to the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001.

11

Briefly, after September 11, 2001 the American government implemented a

policy called the Patriot Act, stripping Muslim Americans of their civil liberties. The

Patriot Act was created to prevent terrorism and combat the war on terror. However, the

war on terror became a war on Muslims. The policy allows for the FBI and the

Department of Energy to conduct secret and possibly extralegal monitoring of American

Muslim sites, including mosques and private homes (Bruffee 2002). In addition, federal

law enforcement may enter your home when you are not there, monitor all internet

traffic, and wiretap your telephone calls. Under the Patriot Act, Muslims have been

targeted for particularly onerous treatment, including arrest, dubious searches and

seizures, and physical detention, without access to legal assistance (McCloud 2005).

However, the Patriot Act has allowed the government to harass and synonymously

discriminate against Muslim Americans.

The importance of recognizing governmental policies impeding on

Muslim American’s civil liberties demonstrates the presence of the expansion of

discrimination against Muslim Americans. Accordingly, mosques have been the target of

violence and a scapegoat for intolerance toward the Muslim community. Reporter Gill

Donovan (2002:38) wrote, “An Ohio mosque was severely damaged during the night of

December 29, 2002 when vandals ripped out water pipes and light fixtures and shredded

copies of the Quran. In addition, in September a driver rammed his car into the Greater

Cleveland Islamic Center, damaging the lower floor.”

Gender Discrimination in Contemporary American Society

As problematic as ethnic discrimination and religious discrimination, gender

discrimination has affected the position of women’s access to equal opportunities in a

12

man’s world. Many of our notions about the biological differences regarding masculinity

and femininity have been interconnected with society’s expectations for women. These

gender differences are merely social creations embedded in American culture. The

subordination of the female species has allowed for the persistence of gender

discrimination. Throughout the history of the United States women have had to endure

epochs of injustice and gender-based discrimination. Discrimination toward women is not

static; it changes with the society and the times to fit present-day morals and values.

In a democratic society, voting is a fundamental human right. However, for

decades women were restricted from participating in establishing any political decisions.

In such respect, eradicating women’s participation in political decisions excluded them

from the public sphere of politic–women were unable to vote, or hold any position in

public office. The belief was that women’s involvement in politics posed a threat to the

"sanctity of the home" and would overburden women, which would cause discord

between husband and wife, and violate the natural and biological differences between

women and men (Kay 1982). Nonetheless, after years of silencing women from political

participation their contributions during the first world war helped the suffragists win

voting rights (McCammon, Cambell, Granberg, Mowery 2001).

However, we are a long way from a society that is no longer affected by sexual

markers. The latent belief that women were to conform to the motherhood norm and tend

to domestic work discouraged females from seeking an education. Widespread prejudice

against women created numerous instances in which women were denied admission to

graduate school (Mogull 1972). Before The Women’s Educations Equity Act females

were experiencing gender discrimination by educational institutions which was willfully

13

derailing women’s ability to a fair education. At one time girls who became pregnant

were expelled from school or required to join special programs and classes away from

their peers (Stromquist 1993).

Inequality between women and men in educational attainment affected a women’s

ability to enter the labor force and earn a fair salary. They were paid lower salaries than

men for the same work and encountered barriers to promotions (Mogull 1972). As

women made strides toward equality, they faced an unbreakable “glass ceiling.”

Although employment may no longer be denied to women based on sex alone, the glass

ceiling is a form of discrimination that continues to prevent women from moving into

supervisory and management positions (Naff 1994). The term glass ceiling was coined to

describe the subtle barriers that block women’s ability to mobilize or make advances

(Naff 1994). In today’s economy women get paid 75 cents to a man’s dollar, which

illustrates that women are still victims of discriminatory treatment.

Gender equality in the labor force and education was tainted by the belief that

women must conform to a “motherhood” norm. According to Drago (2007), the

motherhood norm is a society-wide belief that women should be mothers, and perform

unpaid family care and low-paid care for others in need. Thus, women who deviated from

this “motherhood norm” face discrimination in labor and education as a consequence.

The nuclear family has helped define the social and cultural norms about

motherhood and femininity throughout the decades and although women are still

pressured to fulfill the role of a stay-at-home mom, a new transformation has been seen in

the nuclear family to fit the current times. Now, not only must a woman be educated and

maintain a professional career, she must also maintain her old role of the “stay-at-home

14

mom.” For many women, these roles represent a conflict and force them to choose

between motherhood and their careers.

Discrimination Against Muslim Women in Contemporary American Society

There is an abundance of evidence indicating discrimination based on ethnicity

and gender. However, as time has progressed we have been able to view progress in

gender equality, particularly in America. From women’s suffrage to the first serious

female contender for President, gender inequality has improved in America and is

continuing to do so. But if America looks a little deeper, gender inequality, particularly

for Muslim women, is readily apparent. It is little more than ignorance that leads people

to oppress and discriminate against Muslim women.

For Muslim women, wearing a hijab is part of their culture. The cloth (hijab) is

worn on their head; however, its name is not just referring to a piece of cloth. Rather, a

hijab refers to the behavior of walking, talking, being modest, and holding yourself in a

manner that is respectable (Namou 2010). Many Americans view the hijab as a sign of

subservience and repression. However, that is not the opinion of Muslim women who see

the hijab as a sign of independence and religious pride (Jackson 2007). Wearing a head

scarf (hijab) allows a Muslim woman to show her religious identity and it enables her to

command respect from her male counterparts. Even in light of this, American society has

continued to alienate Muslim women for wearing a hijab. Unfortunately, Americans have

made inequitable policies to force Muslim women to conform to “American society” and

to assimilate into “American culture.” Muslim Americans have been the target of cultural

cruelty through the media, which perpetuates stereotypes, such as referring to all Muslims

15

as terrorists, dangerous, and foreign (Barret 2007). It is this stereotype that makes Muslim

women particularly vulnerable to discrimination.

By wearing the hijab, Muslim women are essentially exercising their right to

religious freedom. However, the continuous act of wearing religious garments by Muslim

Americans, especially Muslim women, has been seen by the dominant culture as the

inability to accept and assimilate to American norms, thus justifying discriminatory acts

and policies against Muslim women wearing religious garments.

For example, in California, a Muslim woman was sent home from her job as a

Pinkerton Security & Investigation Services security guard when her supervisor claimed

that her headscarf was not part of her uniform and that she must remove it (Barrett 2007).

In another instance in Northern Virginia, JC Penney fired a Muslim teenage girl when she

refused to take off her scarf to begin work after her initial job orientation (Egendorf

2005). If a Muslim woman unveils in a public place she is deviating from the sacred

principles upheld by her religion. Hence, American society disregards Muslim women’s

ability to exercise their right to religious freedom.

In addition, law enforcement has been anything but culturally sensitive toward

Muslim women. In St. Paul, Minnesota police arrested a Muslim woman because of her

purdah. Although charges were subsequently dropped, she was charged with violating a

city ordinance that prohibited face coverings (Egendorf 2005). In one final example, a

12-year-old girl, Emilie Ouimet, a recent convert to Islam, was sent home for not

complying with the request to remove her hijab. The principal was reported as saying that

the wearing of a distinctive sign, like the hijab or neo-Nazi insignias could polarize

16

aggressive students (Bruffee 2002). The inability of schools, and educational institutions

to allow Muslim women to veil is essentially impeding their fundamental rights.

The Misconceptions of Islam and Muslims

Often misunderstood, Muslims and the Islamic faith have been wrongfully

illustrated while consequently being subjected to intense scrutiny. Many Americans

thoughtlessly harbor deep misconceptions about this religion and its collective members.

As Trevino (2010:6) notes, “Much misrepresentation about Islam and its followers are

still heavily present in American society due to media portrayal, cultural and language

barriers, and a lack of understanding of the Islamic religion.”

As noted, Muslim Americans have been subjected to frequent oppressive and

discriminatory actions and this is due to the misconceptions about their religion.

Events in the Middle East have been a reoccurring headline in the US news, prompted by

a number of historical incidents. Infamous events, such as the 1993 World Trade Center

bombing, the attacks on September 11, 2001 and, most recently, the wars in Iraq and

Afghanistan have pushed the US media to consistently highlight Islamic terrorism

(Trevino 2010). Accordingly, I will address several misconceptions of Islam and

Muslims that has permeated the minds of many individuals.

The first misconception and possibly the most misunderstood is that all Muslims

are Islamic terrorists who practice acts of jihad. The second misconception is that Islam

oppresses women by giving them few rights and forcing them to veil. The third

misconception is that all Muslims are Arab or of Middle Eastern descent. And finally, I

have attempted to clarify some of the most destructive misrepresentations of Muslim

Americans and the misunderstandings of Islam.

17

The aftermath of September 11th, 2001 has repeatedly left Islam and Muslims to

be negatively depicted and frequently vilified. Popular media uses terms such as Islamic

militants or Islamic terrorists to equate Islamic fundamentalism with terrorism, and thus

portray Muslims as villains. Moreover, Muslims have been given superficial portraits at

best, and downright harmful depictions at worst. Syed (2008) notes, the association of

Islam and Muslims with violence and militancy on one hand and with intolerance and

tyranny on the other, is now a powerful image by which Islamic societies are understood

and judged in the Western hemisphere. According to a survey conducted by the National

US Conferences in 2004, forty-two percent of the 3000 Americans interviewed believe

that Muslims belong to a religion that condones or supports terrorism (Abdula 2005).

However, the religion of Islam strongly prohibits violence, terrorism, and harming of

other civilians and encourages peace, respect, and equality.

The Islamic word Jihad has been frequently misused, misinterpreted, and

commonly been affiliated with the expression, “holy war” –which many associate with

violence or the waging of war. Greges (2003) points out that suicide bombing is not a

Jihad nor is the killing of innocent people; in fact suicide is prohibited by Islam. Rather,

Jihad refers to both the inner struggle and fight for the good of all society. However, the

term is often equated with terrorism, terrorists, extremists, fundamentalists, and all other

stereotypes of the narrative of political and fundamentalist Islam (Jackson 2007). The

misrepresentation of Jihad has repeatedly mirrored a serious misunderstanding of the

Islamic faith and Muslims. Insinuations about Islamic militants, Islamic terrorists, and

“holy war” have become a strategy to discredit Islam, and subsequently blindly mislead

many Americans.

18

Muslim women have been portrayed as oppressed and belittled by Muslim men;

however, this phenomenon as fed by the mass media has clearly presented a

misunderstanding of Islam. According to Syed (2008:247):

A grave misconception about the oppression towards women remains the most

controversial in the Western world. However, Islam provides equity for males and

females, although their social roles are different. This does not imply superiority

of male over female but acknowledges that both have to play different roles in the

social system. In reality, Islam offers women the right to make their own choices

in the areas of education, business, and property, to name a few. This

misconception is partly due to the Western stereotypes of Muslim women as

being ignorant and submissive.

A common misunderstanding of why Muslim women veil themselves has circulated

across various societies. When a woman veils herself it is not to degrade or oppress her,

but rather to achieve respect from her male counterparts. Thus, Muslim women veil

themselves as an act of modesty.

The properties that distinguish equality among genders in Islam have been

inaccessible through the popular media. However, beyond the aesthetic

misunderstandings of women in Islam, the Muslim faith does not tolerate any violence or

imbalance toward women. However, some Muslim countries have laws that oppress

women. It is imperative to note that this does not come from the Islamic faith directly, but

rather from a governmental institutional directive. In Islam, marriage is based on mutual

love, compassion, respect, and peace; the Qur’an urges husbands to be kind to and

considerate of their wives (Syed 2008). In Islam, females are not to be forced into

19

marriage, rather they have the right to accept or reject any marriage proposal. The

emphasis on equality in social roles among men and women is a major attribute of Islam.

Muslim Americans are an exceptionally diverse group of people, contrary to the

belief that most Muslims are strictly Arab or of Middle Eastern descent. This has clearly

been the case with the dominant perceptions of Islam among Americans. (Phelps 2010).

In fact, most Muslims are not Arabs. Actually, most Arab Americans are in fact

Christian. Since the media has portrayed Arabs as mythical images dressed in robes and

headdresses, many have correlated their attributes to the Islamic faith, and Muslim

people. Seggie (2010) states that hegemony is maintained when members of a dominant

group can marginalize others by perpetuating stereotypes and casting the others as

foreign, exotic, or dangerous. In the American mass media, Arabs have been depicted as

terrorists and suicide bombers, which many people also equate to Muslims. Thinking

through stereotypes and fixed identities creates the delusion of “seen one of ’em, seen

’em all,” and uninformed or misinformed readers hastily associate these wild images with

what they read in the print media about the Islamic world, the Middle East, and Muslims

in general (Seggie 2010).

An Understanding of Islam and Muslims

Islam is the fastest growing religion in the world, yet at the same time it is a

religion that has been greatly misunderstood; their followers have been mistreated,

mislabeled, and abused. The followers of Islam are called Muslims. Thus, in order to

become Muslim, a person must take the shahadah or declaration of faith, often in a

small ceremony where the Imam or leader of the mosque is also present (Rehman

2003). The holy book of Islam is called The Qur’an, which holds a series of

20

revelations about the ancient prophets that are intended to serve as examples for

the present day. The Qur’an has passages that call for respect of other religions such

as Christianity, Judaism, and Buddhism. Like any other holy scripture, the Qur’an

carries a proscription of religious beliefs and moral conduct for their followers. The

Qur’an advocates peace, commitment, and equality for both men and women.

The word Islam derives from the three-consonant Arabic root SLM’, which

generates words with interrelated meanings, including “surrender”, “submission”,

“commitment” and “peace”’ (Trevino 2010). Islam is like a rainbow incorporating

many different ethnicities and races bound together by the common ground of

submitting oneself to Allah. Muslims must surrender their will to one God (Allah)

and follow the ideals of what it means to live and pursue social harmony. Islam puts

considerable importance on religious beliefs and ideals that manifest into inner and

outer peace. For Muslims, Islam is both a religion and a method of life (Seggie 2010).

In order to accurately understand Islam and Muslims, one must look at the religious

tenets practiced by Muslims and the five pillars of Islam.

In the Islamic faith, there are five pillars mandated for Muslims to practice.

The five pillars of Islam are the foundation on which the religion is based. This does

not mean that one has to neglect the other parts of the teachings of Islam which are

related to the religious, the social, the cultural, the educational, the economic, the

political, and the moral aspects of Islam. While a Muslim is fulfilling these teachings,

his/her intention is to obey the Creator (Allah).

The first pillar is called Declaration of Creed or Shaahada, and is considered to

be the creed of Islam. Accordingly, one must commit and promise to believe in only

21

one God (Allah), and that the messanger of God is Muhammad. “A Muslim is to put

his trust in God, his loyalty, and his allegiance; if and when there is a conflict of

interest between his desires and God, he will deny himself in favor of obeying Allah”

(Syed 255:2008).

The second Pillar is of Prayer or Salat. This means one must perform five

daily prayers. ‘These five obligatory prayers are to be performed at specific times:

Fajr (Dawn), Zuhr (Noon), ‘Asr (Afternoon), Maghrib (Sunset), and Isha (Late Night),

each ritual prayer is called Salat” (Syed 2008:255). Prayers may be done inside the

home, or at a local Mosque. A Mosque is a place of worship for Muslims.

The third pillar is of Fasting or Sawm. “Fasting is a total abstinence of food

and liquids from dawn to sunset during the entire month of Ramadan” (Syed

2008:256). Ramadan is the ninth month of the year. The principle of fasting is to

develop the concept of Taqwa. According to Syed (2008), Taqwa is defined as self-

control, self-obedience, self-training, and self-consciousness.

The forth pillar is Purifying Tax or Zakat. Which means a Muslim is to give a

certain proportion of their income to individuals in need. According to Syed (2008),

these individuals are: the poor, the needy, the captives, and the indebted; the

amount to be collected is 2.5%, 5% or 10% depending on the type of assets and the

method used to produce the wealth.

The fifth pillar is of Pilgrimage or Hajj. If possible, a Muslim is to travel to

Mecca in remberence of the hardships of Prophet Abraham, and Prophet Ismail.

Syed (2008) notes that Hajj is to be performed in the first ten days of the last month

22

of the lunar calendar, called Zul-Hijjah. Pilgrimage is strongly recommended for

Muslims, if the resources are available.

Religious attire is popularly worn by Muslim women who practice the Islamic

faith. The foundation of Islamic attire is mentioned in the Qur’an and in the

teachings of the Almighty God Allah (Syed 2008). The principle of wearing certain

religious clothing is to ensure modesty, and to be treated with respect. However, in

contemporary American society not all Muslim women wear Islamic clothing.

Women are required to cover their entire body, except for their hands and face.

However, even though it is necessary for Muslim women to dress modestly, they are

allowed to be uncovered in front of mahram men. Mahram men are males whom

may be a husband, brother, or son of the female.

Popular clothing for Islamic women to wear is an abaya, jilbab, and the one

most commonly worn is a hijab. A hijab is a scarf that covers the ears, hair, and neck;

which only allows for the face to be shown. An abaya is a robe or dress worn over

the females regular clothing while in a public place. A jilbab is a cloak similar to the

abaya but more fitted. Instead of being a covered dress, this is more like a covered

coat. An abaya, jilbab, and hijab represent a specific claim of religious identity and

an adherence to the Islamic faith.

Conclusion

Discrimination is one of the most destructive behaviors one can encounter. With

that in mind, the national heritage of discrimination has severely affected the credibility

of American society. As certain collective groups indulge in the freedom of America

there has been individuals that have yet to conquer the luxury of economic and social

23

capital. The working poor has fallen between the fabric of oppression and permeated

human degradation. There is a chasm between those who function within the credit

economy and those who do not. I have learned that in society there are two communities,

one severely depressed and the other extremely affluent. Such measures have convinced

me that inequality was not a rational outcome, but rather, a byproduct of public policy

decisions and programs.

Some people are so misunderstood that it becomes easy for them to be a target of

prejudice and discrimination. We lack a wealth of knowledge on the American Muslim

community. American Muslims still face challenges that mirror a lack of acceptance of

their religious identity. Understanding Islam and Muslims accurately will help improve

relationships, alleviate friction, and build stronger connections. Since the American

Constitution embraces freedom of religion as a major right, Muslims should be able to

freely practice their religion without being castigated or the target of discrimination.

Finally, It is imperative to understand that remaining ignorant and unwilling to learn

about others will augment problems in America. Ignorance is a fundamental source of

major crises in every society. Moreover, American society has found ways to stigmatize

and alienate Muslim women. Because Muslim women follow patterns that can be easily

identified through their attire, society has negatively sanctioned them, and severely

discriminating against them. The Islamic faith is more than a religion; to these women it

is a way of life.

Freud (1989:10) once said, “It is impossible to escape the impression that people

commonly use false standards of measurements, that they seek power, success and wealth

for themselves and admire them in others. And that they underestimate what is of true

24

value in life. And yet, in making any general judgment of this sort, we are in danger of

forgetting how variegated the human world is.” In essence, the ability to be oneself in a

world that is constantly trying to change individuals is one of the most powerful attributes

one can possess. Seen as subhuman and treated without respect, Muslim women in

America have yet to unveil. As a society, we have placed them inside a jar, labeled them

as deviant, and walked away.

This research will focus on the following primary research question:

A. Are Muslim women discriminated against in contemporary American society?

The question above gives rise to the following secondary research questions:

1. How do Muslim women respond to discrimination?

2. What role does the mass media play in the discrimination against Muslim

Women?

3. What are the misconceptions of Islam and Muslims?

4. Do misconceptions portrayed in the mass media play a role in

discrimination against Islam and Muslims?

Methods

This research focused on the following primary research question:

A. Are Muslim women discriminated against in contemporary American society?

The question above gives rise to the following secondary research questions:

1. How do Muslim women respond to discrimination?

25

2. What role does the mass media play in the discrimination against Muslim

Women?

3. What are the misconceptions of Islam and Muslims?

4. Do misconceptions portrayed in the mass media play a role in

discrimination against Islam and Muslims?

Participants

Twenty participants (20 females), who ranged in age from 18 to 44 (M= 25),

participated in this study. The mean occupation of the participants fell under the

unemployed category. Snowball sampling was used, which consisted of Muslims

from an Islamic mosque (Masjid) in Southern California and Muslim students from a

local university. Their ethnicity is as follows; six Malaysian American, three African

American, two Indian American, one Iraqi American, two Pakistani American, two

Lebanese American, one Syrian American, two Saudi American, and one Latino

American. Of the total participates, the majority were divided between individuals

who have some college and a Bachelors degree. (See table 1).

Table 1 Demographic Information

26

Variable N %

Ethnicity Malaysian American 6 30 African American 3 15 Indian American 2 10 Iraqi American 1 5 Pakistani American 2 10 Lebanese American 2 10 Syrian American 1 5 Saudi American 2 10 Latino American 1 5

Age in Years 18 1 5 20-30 16 80 31-40 2 10 41-45 1 5

Marital Status Single 17 15 Married 3 5

Level of Education Some College 16 80 Bachelors 2 10 Masters 1 5 Ph.D., J.D, M.D 1 5

Occupation Student 16 80 Unemployed 3 15 Physician 1 5

Region of Residence Pomona 7 35 Covina 3 15 Walnut 4 20 Claremont 2 10 La Verne 1 5 Riverside 1 5 Corona 1 5 Irvine 1 5

Instrument and Procedure

27

A dual methodology, using participant observation and interviews were used. In

terms of the participant observation I visited various social settings incognito as a Muslim

female wearing an abaya and hijab.

Participants were asked to respond to a questionnaire packet, which consisted of a

consent form, a demographic questionnaire, and interview questions (Appendix A).

Demographics. The demographic portion asked the participants to indicate their

ethnicity, age, marital status, language(s) spoken, level of education, occupation, and

region of residence verbally to the researcher during the interview.

Interview Questions. This measure presented a series of questions for participants

to verbally answer about their experiences as a Muslim female in America, and any

discrimination they have encountered.

After completing an extensive review of literature and consulting with my Senior

Thesis Advisor, Dr. Glenn A. Goodwin, an instrument was constructed. An interview

format was selected in order to offer participants the opportunity to discuss their own

perspectives and experiences about this sensitive subject. In order to obtain participants

for this sample, I contacted several Islamic Mosques in Southern California. However, I

encountered various problems pertaining to permitting me to do my interviews. One

Islamic Mosque, for example, was very apprehensive about allowing me to conduct my

research. I gave the office a copy of my consent form, demographic questionnaire, and

interview questions. I was told by one of the sisters at the Mosque, that she must speak

with the board before allowing me to interview any women. Unfortunately, she never

returned any of my calls.

28

I consulted with my advisor concerning the issues I was facing, and he wrote me a

letter asking for permission to conduct my interviews at another local Mosque (see

Appendix B). I also visited another Mosque, but the gentleman did not speak English and

was unable to help me. A few days later I made a trip to still another Mosque and was

helped by an older gentleman. I gave him a copy of my consent form, interview

questions, demographic questionnaire, and the letter from my advisor. The gentleman

asked me to come back on Friday because there were going to be plenty of females I

would be able to interview. I returned to the Mosque on Friday, but unfortunately I

encountered several other problems. Many of the women did not want to do the interview

primarily because they did not want to sign the consent form. In addition, some of the

women did not want to talk about the sensitive subject of discrimination towards Muslim

females in America. Also, some of the women did not wear the hijab full time; they

would only wear it (hijab) to the Mosque for prayer. For my research I wanted to

interview Muslim females who wear the hijab fulltime. However, I did make friends with

a young female at the mosque who gave me her number and put me in contact with some

of her friends.

Upon visiting an Islamic center I discovered no one was there and the office was

closed. Nonetheless, the young Muslim female I had made friends was very helpful and

recommended I return back to the Mosque on Sunday, and speak with one of her friends

who is a Sunday school teacher. After interviewing one of the Sunday school teachers,

she then introduced me to another Sunday school teacher who was also willing to

participate. I then spoke with several of the other Sunday school teachers, and they

allowed me to interview them. All of the women were very helpful, and gave

29

recommendations on how I could obtain more participants for my research. The Muslim

community is a tightly knit group. Therefore, most of my interviews were from word of

mouth and done in a snowball fashion.

The consent form was given to each participant prior to the interview, which

explained that I was working on a senior thesis as a requirement for a Bachelor of

Science degree. It indicated that the researcher was appreciative of their cooperation with

the project, which would ask participant’s questions pertaining to their experience as a

Muslim female in America, and their responses would be used only to generate aggregate

statistical data. Additionally, the form indicated that there were no right or wrong

answers and it was the participant’s opinion that mattered to the project.

Participants were informed that participation was completely confidential and

anonymous. They would not be asked to provide their names or any other personal

information that would personally identify them. The consent form also stated that

participation was voluntary and could be discontinued at any time by the participant

without penalty or prejudice. Lastly, the form advised participants that it would take

approximately 20 to 25 minutes of their time. All participants signed the consent form

after reading it and returned it to the researcher. Each individual was then asked a series

of questions on demographics. This was followed by the interview questions, which were

asked verbally. After the interview was finished, I thanked each individual for her

participation. Participants were not offered any compensation for their participation.

Since I still had not met my interview quota, I consulted with my friend from the

mosque and she put me in contact with another Muslim female whom she is friends’

with. I contacted her Muslim female friend, and she agreed to meet me at a local

30

university to interview her. When I met her on campus, she was sitting with another

Muslim female friend who was also willing to allow me to interview her. Both females

were very helpful, and cooperative. After completing the last interview, the female

invited me to speak at a seminar the university was holding on Tuesday evening

concerning Muslim women veiling. At the seminar I briefly mentioned that I was a

student from the University of La Verne conducting a study on the discrimination

Muslim women endure in contemporary American society for my Senior Thesis, and

gave a synopsis of my past and present research. I was received very well from the crowd

and was able to obtain full support in facilitating my interviews with the Muslim females

present.

I spent approximately 20 minutes with each female after the seminar, and the

interviews worked well. All the Muslim females were very enthusiastic about helping me

with my research. Several of the students only spoke Malay, so a student I previously

interviewed volunteered to be an interpreter. The interpreter translated my interview

questions, and the participant’s answers to the questions. There was one student at the

seminar that asked if she could be interviewed last. Her interview took about 45 minutes

due to the extensive amount of information she had to discuss. She kindly thanked me for

my research, and praised me for my ability to explore a religion that is not well accepted

in America. She invited me to attend a future Muslim Association Society meeting, and

gave me several pamphlets on Muslim females to help with my research. I accepted her

offer, and thanked the participant.

31

Results

In order to explore individual experiences as a Muslim female in America, a

qualitative research design was selected as the most appropriate. In addition to

interviewing Muslim women, the researcher conducted her own field experiment utilizing

participant observation; going incognito as a Muslim female to various public settings. A

qualitative methodology is particularly useful in this study because it takes into

consideration the perceptions and various aspects of Muslim Americans. Specifically,

four questions guided this research with the primary question being: (A) Are Muslim

women discriminated against in contemporary American society? Followed by these

secondary questions: (1) How do Muslim women respond to discrimination? (2) What

role does the mass media play in the discrimination against Muslim Women? (3) What

are the misconceptions of Islam and Muslims? (4) Do misconceptions portrayed in the

mass media play a role in discrimination against Islam and Muslims?

Due to the size of the relatively small interview sample (20), percentages are

indicated for each set of questions and key findings of the study are summarized for each

of the five research questions.

Primary Research Question

Are Muslim women discriminated against in contemporary American society?

This question was addressed as an introductory question in a controversial manner. One

hundred percent of the respondents noted that discrimination against Muslims in general

exists, and particularly toward Muslim females. One of the participants explained that

discrimination among the Muslim community also exists. If a Muslim is practicing

certain aspects of their religion, another Muslim might be critical of them and demand

32

they stop. One Muslim will say to another Muslim, “You are in America, you cannot do

that anymore.”

Only one participant reported never being discriminated against. Participant

number 5 mentioned that society, and individuals are very nice, and often smile at her.

Ninety five percent of the participants explained they have been discriminated against

because they are Muslim. Approximately 90% indicated they have experienced verbal

insults and have specifically been told to “go back to their country;” in addition, some

individuals have called them “terrorists.” Moreover, 65% of the participants reported

being verbally assaulted by individuals who accompany their harassment with the middle

finger. Furthermore, 95% of participants reported they have experienced stares, insults,

being ignored, and discrimination as a result of wearing a hijab. One respondent stated

that she has become immune to the dirty looks and stares by individuals in society.

Participant number 11 explained, “I no longer notice what goes on, and how people look

at me, it has just become a way of life.” This sentiment is also expressed by another

respondent who indicates that she has, “just gotten used to the way people look at me.”

(participant number 18)

In addition, one female mentioned she was denied service unless she took off her

hijab. Participant number 3 was shopping for a new perfume at a store in Los Angeles,

when an employee was shouting at her to leave the store. The respondent did not

understand the employee and kept looking around the store. The employee then

approached the individual and explained that she was not welcomed in the store unless

she removed her veil. When the individual told the employee no, she was then asked to

33

leave the store. Respondent number 3 peacefully left the store without questioning the

employee.

Respondent number 19 reported being discriminated against by her school, and

fellow students. As a board member of the Muslim Student Association (MSA), she

explained that she often encounters many issues at her university. The flyers that the

MSA puts up are often torn down, and thrown in the trash. Prayer mats are constantly

being stolen. In addition, the extra scarfs for women who do not wear the hijab full time

are regularly getting damaged, or stolen. Participant number 19 discussed how her

university is not willing to accommodate the MSA: “The MSA has about 100 active

students, yet my school will not allow for us to have a permanent room to hold our

meetings. I find myself always struggling to reserve a room because my university will

not permit us to use one. There was a recent building built on campus with plenty of new

rooms. When I contacted my university about reserving a room for a specific day and

time for the MSA meetings, we were denied.”

Moreover, participant number 8 also mentioned an incident of discrimination at

her university while attending class. The respondent spoke of a recent occurrence at

school where a student tried to pull off her hijab. All year the student sat quietly in class,

and never drew attention to herself. When one day the student who sat behind her tried to

pull off her hijab and shouted, “Take off that rag on your head.” She did not pay attention

to the perpetrator, but after class she discussed the incident with her teacher. The

respondent explained to her teacher that she did not want to cause any trouble, but that

she would like to change seats. The seats in class are assigned, but the teacher, without

question, was very accommodating and moved her seat.

34

Secondary Research Question No. 1

How do Muslim women respond to discrimination?

Eighty five percent of respondents explained they ignored the discrimination as

if they did not notice the incident. The participants did not want to provoke the person

because they were afraid it might heighten the situation. Respondent number 14 noted, “I

was very scared when the man was shouting at me. I was scared of what he might do, so

instead of acknowledging him, I just kept my head down and walked the other way.”

In addition, 70% said they smiled at the person as a proper way to deal with the

situation because relations with others are very important in Islam. Respondent number

18 said, “Smiling back at someone who is verbally insulting me, is letting them know I

come in peace, that I have good manners, and in essence is also an act of kindness.”

Muslims are rewarded for smiling in the face of others. Smiling when others look at you

is regarded as a form of charity for which Muslims get rewarded.

Changes in Attire

Respondents were not specifically asked about any changes they may have made

in their attire. However, 45% of the participants indicated they made several changes to

their apparel. Participant number 5 explained that after being victimized by society for

wearing the hijab, she stopped veiling. She indicated that she could no longer tolerate the

way individuals would treat her, and how uncomfortable she felt when going to various

social settings. After several years of not wearing the hijab respondent 5 began to wear

the hijab again; however, she was very apprehensive. Before she began to wear the hijab,

she spoke with several of her friends to clarify why she was going to wear a hijab, and

what wearing a hijab means to her.

35

Confronting the Perpetrators

Thirty percent of the participants reported defending themselves when verbally

attacked by an individual. Respondent number 20 encountered a confrontation when a

male started to verbally attack her. He stated, “Osama Bin Laden’s dead you don’t have

to wear that turban on your head.” Participant number 20 turned around to the

perpetrator and asked him to repeat what he had said. The male repeated himself in a

very condescending manner. The respondent then explained to the male what exactly she

was wearing, and why she wears a hijab. She explained, “Many people do not

understand why a Muslim women veils, and instead of ignoring his ignorance I would

rather educate and correct him.”

In addition, respondent number 1 also encountered an altercation with her

neighbor. One morning while getting the mail, the neighbor of the participant began to

question why she bows while praying. While making fun of the way participant number

1 dresses, her neighbor began to attack her religion. She explained, “He said that I did

not worship a real God, and because I was not Christian, I was going to go to hell.”

Respondent number 1, tried to clarify why she bows when she prays, and why she wears

specific religious clothing. However, the neighbor continued to make fun of her. The

participant felt victimized, and vulnerable. Since the incident, respondent number one

has been very reluctant to go outside, and instead sends her son to retrieve the mail.

Changes in Way of Life

Participant number one explained that she does not wear her hijab at work

because she is afraid of loosing her job. She quietly said, “They hate us.” When asked to

clarify the individual said, “America.” Respondent number 1 is very humble about her

36

religion, and does not let people at work know she is Muslim. Her coworkers are not

aware of her religious identity, and her religious attire. Participant number one noted, “I

have to hide so much from my kids. They are not aware I do not wear my hijab while at

work because I am afraid they might ask me why. I do not want to tell them how much

society hates Muslims.”

About 65% of the participants noted that they did not leave their homes until a

month after September 11, 2001. Many were afraid of what might happen to them, and a

lot of them were warned by fellow Muslim friends about the dangers of going out to

public places. Participant number 3 stated that for over a month her parents did not leave

their home and she was also not allowed to leave, not even to shop for groceries. She

continued to explain that the media caused a “huge outbreak of hate toward Muslims

making it dangerous for Muslims to be seen, especially Muslim women.”

Secondary Research Question No. 2

What role does the mass media play in the discrimination against Muslim

Women? Seventy five percent of respondents indicated that the false images shown on

television feed American society an abundant amount of misconceptions about the hijab.

In addition, 60% of the participants noted that the media has a lot of power and a settle

way of controlling people and their mind.

Respondent number 20 noted that she was recently watching a television episode

where a female was being interviewed about her life, and why she veils. The woman on

the show was explaining her living conditions and how her husband demands she cover

herself. In addition, the female expressed how she had no rights, and was unable to do

anything without her husband’s permission. The female being interviewed was wearing a

37

hijab, and is also Muslim. However, respondent number 20 explained that viewers would

listen to the interview and attribute the hijab to oppression, and having no rights. She

continued to explain, “Islam calls for equality among men and women, but people will

listen to this woman and attach her interview to the context of Islam rather than the

mistreatment of the female’s husband. The television episode was slandering my religion,

and my way of life. People watch and get the wrong idea.”

Secondary Research Question No. 3

What are the misconceptions of Islam and Muslims? This question was not

directly asked, but the misconceptions of Islam and Muslim’s arose during every

interview. Ninety five percent of participants mentioned that America insists that

Muslim women are oppressed and have no rights. Ninety percent of respondents noted

that society equates Islam to a religion that is violent. A majority of the participants

(90%) noted that Americans believe Muslims are terrorists and condone acts of terrorism.

Eighty five percent of participants reported being told to “go back to their country.”

Many individuals stated that American society see Muslims as a foreign community that

are not from America.

Moreover, A majority of respondents (95%) reported that many individuals in

America see the hijab as repressive towards Muslim women. Participant number 13

indicated “if we wear the hijab we get a reward from God. In Islam it is all about

sincerity.” Another respondent conveyed the same feelings by stating “I am honored by

God for my distinctiveness, and because my beauty is not on display.”

38

Secondary Research Question No. 4

Do misconceptions portrayed in the mass media play a role in discrimination

against Islam and Muslims? Ninety percent of respondents indicate negative media

reporting of Muslims has been the cause for stereotyping, harassment, and attacks on

Muslims, and Islam. Eighty five percent of participants noted that the misrepresentation

of the Islamic faith, and Muslims has added fuel to the everlasting hatred toward

Muslims. And 25% of the participants noted that the media has really distorted the image

of who Muslims really are. Participant number 5 stated that the media falsifies Islam and

Muslims as a strategic measure to discredit their religion.

Additionally, respondent number 11 expounds on the negative representation of

Muslims by the media. Because of the way the media portrays the Islamic religion, many

people in this nation look at Muslims and Islam in a discriminatory manner, and a

religion that condones terrorist acts and suicide bombing. She explains that the media

exposes Islam in tactical manners to make American society fear Muslims and the

Islamic religion. Sixty five percent of participants stated they have been called terrorists

while out in public.

Moreover, respondent number 8 mentioned while she was in high school many of

the students in her classes made fun of her. In one particular class she had a student that

tormented her daily on a basis. The student would make rude remarks such as “do not

bomb us” and make fun of her by calling her a terrorist.

A majority of the participants (95%) explained that the media takes everything about the

Islamic religion out of context. Respondent number 16 noted “many people do not know

much about Islam or Muslims, so what they see on the television is what they believe,

39

which then makes them hate us.” Fifteen percent of respondents mentioned that

“Islamphobia“ has spread like wildfire causing more hatred toward Muslims. Respondent

number 7 noted, “there is extremists in every religion, a very small percentage of peoples

actions should not be attributed to a whole community of people.”

Due to media portrayal, 75% of the respondents believe they are the target of

discrimination because of their religious affiliation to Islam. Participant number 3

explained, “I have been approached on several occasions by different people to take off

my hijab because my husband can no longer force me to veil since I live in America.” In

addition, respondent number 5 noted that she has been called an “Arab bitch” even

though she is not an Arab or of Middle Eastern descent.

Participant Observation

The aftermath of September 11, 2001 has brought a great deal of attention

on the Islamic faith and particularly on Muslim women. Women are typically identified

as Muslim by their religious garments. Many misconceptions about this religion and its

followers still persists in the United States due to media portrayals, and a lack of

understanding of true Islamic beliefs. This participation observation seeks to understand,

through experience, the various dimensions of a Muslim woman in America.

In order to better understand the discrimination Muslim women endure in

contemporary American society the researcher conducted a field experiment in the form

of participant observation. The researcher operated incognito as a Muslim woman in

various social settings in Southern California. The researcher wore an abaya and a hijab

in a variety of public settings including malls, grocery stores, restaurants, fast food

places, gas stations, banks, clothing stores, and shoe stores. An abaya is a cloak or dress

40

worn over my regular clothing. The abaya only allows for my hands and feet to be

shown. A hijab is a scarf that covers my ears, hair, and neck; which only allows for my

face to be shown. When out in public, I was accompanied by another person who

independently observed and recorded data.

Verbal attack/harassment.

While visiting a local bank near my house, I encountered a gentleman who was

not very friendly, and blatantly rude. As I walked through the doors, exiting the bank the

man began to yell very loud, “go back to your country.” Afraid to provoke the gentleman,

I paid no attention to what he was saying and continued to walk to my car. However, the

man become very irate, and continued to verbally attack me, and my character. He called

me a “stupid terrorist” who “wears a towel on her head.” Subsequently, I continued to

ignore the man, while I got inside my vehicle and drove away from the scene.

Another incident occurred while putting gas into my vehicle while picking up my

friend from her residence. As I was paying for my gas I heard a couple discretely making

comments regarding what I was wearing on my head. The gentleman described the hijab

as a “rag” that was not necessary to wear since I live in America. Nonetheless, the

gentleman overtly began to discriminate against me once I was a distance from him.

While pumping gas into my car, I could hear him yelling in a very angry tone. He began

to yell things like “osama bin laden” and “dumb bitch.” Thankfully, the man got in his

vehicle and drove off. However, while driving away the gentleman threw his water bottle

out of his car window at me, luckily the water bottle did not fly far enough to hit me.

41

Physical attack/harassment

While experiencing threats and harassment to the point of near physical violence,

in one incident I was physically assaulted by an older gentleman while shopping at a

store in a local mall. My friend who accompanied me to the mall left me alone to shop

while she returned an item she had previously bought. As I was passing through an aisle

an older man roughly hit me with his shopping bags. Not thinking much of what had just

occurred I looked back at the man. He gave me a look I have never experienced in my

life. By the expression on his face, I understood that hitting me with his bags was no

accident, like I previously thought. His harassment was physical and purposely done,

particularly because I was wearing a hijab and an abaya. The physical attack was an

implication that my presence was not welcomed.

On one rare incident I encountered a lady who was very interested in me. While

standing in the line at the bank, I felt something touching me. At first I pretended I did

not notice or feel anything. However, I continued to feel something, and the feeling made

me very uncomfortable. I asked my friend to nonchalantly look behind me to see what it

was that I felt. Coincidently, the lady behind me kept touching me. She was moving my

hijab, as if she was looking to see if I had hair under my veil. I turned around so the lady

would stop touching me. I did not say a word to her, but instead I gave her a smile. My

smile was not accepted very well, and the lady returned a very mean smug.

Looks/Stares

In every public outing I received a lot of starring, and unpleasant looks. Some

starring appeared to be because the individual was curious, and other starring was done to

follow and observe my actions. In one particular incident I was shopping at a store where

42

the employee did not stop watching me. Every move I made, ever aisle I went down, the

employee followed behind me and observed everything I did. However, not all situations

were as blatant.

In one incident I was shopping at the grocery store when I noticed a lady in the

distance starring at me. I tried to remain calm as if I did not notice her starring, but after a

while I looked up to make eye contact with her. The lady rapidly turned her head and

pretended she did not notice me. Again while continuing my shopping at the same

grocery store I noticed a lot of males giving me dirty looks. The looks I was receiving

made me feel isolated, and emotionally chastised.

Conclusively, in nearly every public outing I encountered stares and dirty looks.

The friend, who accompanied me, reported that on every incident she too encountered

looks and stares from strangers. As a Muslim female I felt isolated, vulnerable, and

outcasted. Individuals were not welcoming, but rather hostile and distant.

Ignored

As often as I received stares and dirty looks, I was also regularly ignored. At

times when people would usually hold the door open for me, instead the door was shut in

my face. About 90% of the time while out in various public settings, individuals did not

hold the door open for me, nor did they move when I politely said “excuse me.”

In addition, when I would walk into clothing stores, about 85% of the time I was

not approached by any employees or asked if I needed any assistance. This is uncommon

and does not usually happen to me. In one particular incident, I tried to get an employees

attention so I could try on a pair of pants, but subsequently she could not hear me. After

noticing the employee stare me down, I ended up leaving the store.

43

One particular incident happened at a popular department store. I was looking

through the young lady section, with an arm full of clothes. When other girls were

approached and asked if they wanted a bag or a dressing room started for them, I was not

approached at all. However, I remained very friendly, and consistently smiled, so I could

seem very approachable. Nevertheless, I was never approached or offered help. Instead, I

thought if I asked for help that maybe the employees would be more willing to

accommodate me. The employees seemed very distracted and were apprehensive about

helping me. Needless to say, no dressing room was ever started for me, and I never got a

chance to try on any of the clothing.

Moreover, when entering a small shoe store in the mall, the employee

immediately walked in the back behind the store. I stayed looking around for 20 more

minutes. I figured the employee was busy working stock; however, I was wrong. I

noticed the employee peeking behind the door watching me look around the store.

Pretending I did not notice the female hiding, I left the store. As soon as I walked out of

the door I turned back around to see if the employee came out from the back of the store,

and sure enough, she did.

Denied Service

During one instance I was not only denied service, but also ignored. After

shopping at a grocery store, I took my items and waited in line to pay. The store no

longer gave grocery bags, which I was unaware of. And because the store no longer

offers grocery bags, individuals are given stickers to put on their items after they

purchase them. After paying for my groceries, the cashier never gave me any stickers for

the items I had just bought. I mentioned very politely that she forgot my stickers,

44

however the cashier acted as if she did not hear me. I spoke a little louder, but the cashier

just continued to ring up the person behind me. Needless to say I was never given any

stickers for any of my purchased items.

In another occurrence during lunchtime my friend and I decided to visit a

restaurant that we have been going to for years. However, this visit was very abnormal,

and not like my usual visits. My friend and I waited a very long time to be seated, and

after we were seated the waiter took a very long time to ask what we wanted to drink. My

friend and I both ordered water, however the restaurant claimed to be “out” of water for

the day. Coincidently, there was another couple seated near by who were drinking water.

I did not want to draw attention to myself, or start any trouble so I did not make a big

deal out of the issue.

Furthermore, on another occasion my friend and I went to a local sushi bar that

has really good deals on their plates and happy hour. We have been coming to this sushi

place since it first opened about 5 years ago. Every time I order my sushi, I always ask

for a side of lemon for my soy sauce. However, the waiter told me they “do not carry any

lemons.” I know this to be untrue for two reasons. One, while eating here as my regular

self, the restaurant has always served me a side of lemons when asked. And two, there

was small lemon slices in our water.

I really wanted to know if this sushi bar was overtly discriminating against me as

a Muslim woman, so I went back there a month later. Again, I asked for a side of lemon

for my soy sauce and this time the waiter brought me out 2 very thin slices. The slices

were so thin I could not even squeeze juice out of them. I asked for another side and

lemon, and the waiter explained that they are only allowed to give a limited amount of

45

lemon to their customers. I politely smiled, and thanked the waiter for his help. While

beginning to eating our food, the waiter brought our bill. Which is unusual because the

waiter usually brings out the bill after the customers are finished eating. I did notice a

two-dollar extra charge on my bill. When I questioned the waiter about the extra charge,

he was very rude and snappy. He later explained that there was an extra charge for “all

the lemons I ordered.” I did not want to argue or prolong the conversation with the

waiter. I quickly thanked him, finished my food, paid my bill and left.

Discussion

We tend to forget that our world is complex and is also vulnerable in view of

unforeseen occurrences. The attacks on September 11, 2001 brutally demonstrated to

what extent extreme and violent groups could succeed in challenging the values of the

civilized world. The dramatic impact of this event had negative consequences, relating to

the emergence of a climate of fear, suspicion and unrest, leading to manifestations of

discrimination and racism. The attack on our nation on September 11, 2001 was a

devastating event, which focused attention on the Islamic world and ultimately on

Muslims. It was not only an attack on the core of the United States power, but on its

people. People of all religious and ethnic groups including Muslims had fallen victim to

the attack on 9/11. However, metaphorically the last attack was targeted toward

individuals of Middle Eastern descent, particularly Muslims. These individuals were

stripped of their identity as Americans by a national public consensus led by the media.

46

In fear of espionage and more terrorist attacks Muslims were stripped of their civil

liberties.

A number of studies were conducted in other countries regarding the

discrimination women endure. In Canada, many women encounter discrimination due to

religious attire such as the hijab (Orhun 2007). However, this research helped by

interviewing Muslims in the United States (in various Southern California cities) about

their experience as a Muslim woman in America. The Following primary and secondary

questions were asked and in doing so, explored their meaning:

Primary Research Question:

Are Muslim women discriminated against in contemporary American society?

Have you experienced any form of discrimination? If so, can you please explain? These

questions were asked to participants as an introductory prelude to the research topic in a

conversational manner: 95% of respondents reported that they have been discriminated

against. Of that 95% a mere 15% have been denied service. The majority of participants

(95%) have encountered repugnant looks, and staring. Approximately, 85% have

encountered verbal attacks, and 10% have experienced physical abuse, all of which can

be attributed to encounters of discrimination.

Lastly, in a report documented by Frizzel (2010) the Employment Opportunity

Commission sued on behalf of Samantha Elauf, who was denied a job at an Abercrombie

and Fitch store in Tulsa’s Woodland Hills Mall because she wore a hijab, which is part of

her religious beliefs. These findings, overall, are consistent with past research, which has

found that the resurgence, especially after September 11, 2001, of racist tendencies

47

challenge the exercise of fundamental human rights and freedoms of Muslims (Orhun

2009) in the United States today.

Secondary Research Question No. 1

How do Muslim women respond to discrimination? After discussing the events of

discrimination the respondents have endured, this research question was addressed with

the following interview question: can you please explain how you responded to the

discrimination?

I found that an overwhelming majority (95%) of participants have reported being

discriminated because they are Muslim. In addition, of that 95% a mere 10% indicated

they stood up for themselves, by defending their religion and dismantling any

misunderstandings about Muslims. However, it was very common (90%) for Muslim

females to ignore the discrimination they faced, due to the belief their complaint will not

be taken seriously.

A review of literature by Orhun (2007) corroborates the fact that stating, hate

crime victims (Muslim females) often fail to report their cases, as they fear reprisal,

distrust the police, or believe that their complaint will not be taken seriously; therefore

many crimes never reach the authorities. Additionally, research indicates that hate crimes

against Muslim females and incidents motivated by anti-Muslim bias tend to be

particularly under-recorded and under-reported (Orhun 2007).

Moreover, research suggests that Muslims are least likely to report any form of

discrimination, or racists encounters (Sander 2006). As indicated previously in a research

study by Orhun (2007) Muslim females are more likely to ignore and tolerate verbal

48

attacks than any other religious group due to their moral beliefs about God (Sander

2006). The responses by my participants support the literature.

Secondary Research Question No. 2 and Secondary Research Question No. 4:

What role does the mass media play in the discrimination against Muslim

Women? Do misconceptions portrayed in the mass media play a role in discrimination

against Islam and Muslims?

My research questions for 2 and 4 dealt with the misconceptions, along with the role

the mass media plays in the discrimination against Muslim females. Because of their

similarity they are going to be handled together. In order to address this question, the

following interview questions were asked:

(4) Tell me a little about your views on the way the mass media portrays Muslims,

and Islam since September 11, 2001.

(4A) Do you think mass media contributes to the discrimination against Muslim

women?

(5) Do the views of Muslims displayed by the mass media contribute to the

discrimination?

All respondents believed that the views of Muslims and Islam expressed by the media

were negative and untrue. Seventy five percent of the participants indicated that Muslims

are misrepresented in the Media. Respondent number 13 noted, “the media is supposed to

broadcast to a large audience but the terms and images used to describe Muslims and

Islam are untrue.” According to the literature, Kassissieh (2008) the term

“Islamophobia,” which was created by the media, needs, but lacks a commonly agreed

definition; it has often been defined as “fear or suspicion of Islam, Muslims and matters

49

pertaining to them”. However it has been correlated to the “intolerance and

discrimination against Muslims and Islam.” As a hate crime, Islamophobia is also an

assault on identity and human dignity.

Additionally, Respondent number 7 stated, “The hate towards Muslims especially

Muslim females I see on television has discouraged me to trust our country and have left

me feeling vulnerable.” Attesting to such statements, research done by Matthews (2009)

indicates the net result of discrimination against Muslim women is a sense of

stigmatization, feelings of being rejected and marginalization, leading to lack of

confidence in the State.

Lastly, A large number of participants (95%) believed that the media has correlated

the terrorist acts done on September 11, 2001 to all Muslims, and therefore all Muslims

are terrorists and support acts of terrorism. With this is in mind, a study done by Sanders

(2006) reported that the so-called “Islamic terrorism or Islamic extremism” is portrayed

as the source of all evil, adding fuel to the already existing prejudice and intolerance

against Muslims.

Secondary Research Question No. 3

What are the misconceptions of Islam and Muslims? Ninety five percent of

respondents indicated that Americans believe that Muslims are oppressed and belittled by

men. Respondent number 15 noted, “Television, or any media I have watched or listened

to, always discusses how Muslim women are oppressed, but that is not true. When we

veil, it is our choice, no one forces us.” However, to Muslim women who practice hijab,

it represents an act of obedience to God. It also represents a step towards freedom,

freedom from being judged by their looks rather than their intellect (Matthews 2009).

50

In addition, all the participants interviewed indicated that the term Jihad is

misunderstood and misrepresented. In accordance with the study done by Sanders (2006)

the word Jihad comes from the root word jahada, which means to struggle. At the

individual level, jihad primarily refers to the inner struggle of being a person of virtue

and submission to God in all aspects of life. However, the word Jihad is mistranslated as

“Holy War.” Respondent number 2 discussed what Jihad really means, and a personal

jihad she is currently trying to over come. She explained, “Jihad is an inner struggle one

has to deal with. My husband’s parents are moving in with us because they are sick, it is a

personal Jihad for me to take care of my children and my husbands parents, everyday it is

a struggle I must try to overcome.”

Limitations

Some limitations of this study should be addressed. Snowball sampling permitted

me to locate and collect the data needed from the sample population. However, the

disadvantage of this technique was limiting because it was based on individual referrals

and all members from the target population did not have an equal opportunity to

participate. Also, this sample population was small and generalizations of Muslims

females in America may only be a snapshot of a minority and not necessarily be typical

or representative of the Muslim population. Furthermore, the interview situation was not

the most ideal: Due to the complications regarding getting individuals who were willing

to participate in the interview, there was never one set room to conduct the interviews.

Instead the interviews were scattered at different places, and various interviews took

longer than the other; some were two hours while others were 30 minutes.

51

Lastly, further research should be conducted to interview Muslims from a mosque in an

urban city.

Conclusions and Recommendations

It is clear that even ten years after September 11, 2001 an overwhelming 95% of

the females in my sample indicate they have been discriminated against in America. A

majority attributed the cause to the negative portrayal of Muslims and their religion in

American society. Ninety five percent have experienced victimization, the majority of

which have been verbal and situational harassment, being yelled at and threatened.

Currently, a majority (85%) note feelings of vulnerability as a potential victim. While

70% of Muslims have altered their religious practices and have become more devoted to

their faith, a substantial percentage (85%) have made changes, at least publicly.

Additionally, an overpowering majority (90%) has not made any specific changes in

attire and 70% have not altered their way of life. Lastly, a Majority ( 80%) of participants

indicated that the media encourages discriminatory practices toward Muslims due to the

misrepresentation of Islam.

Seeping through the elements of time are scars that cannot heal. Many people

wear constants wounds, most of which are not visible. Discrimination is one of the most

dangerous weapons one can encounter. Some people are so misunderstood it is easy for

them to be a target of prejudice and discrimination. Society lacks a wealth of knowledge

on the American Muslim community. Unfortunately, Muslims may face challenges that

mirror a lack of acceptance of their religious identity. It is evident that race relations are

a factor in the continuing and lingering stereotyping and discrimination of Muslim

women. A concerted effort immediately post September 11, 2001 prompted Muslim

52

women to focus on establishing lines of communication outside the Muslim community

to counteract negative social mirroring. These networks need to remain viable and

constructive.

In many Muslim countries, people do not have the liberties that Americans

have (and that we take for granted). While interviewing participant number 7 she

indicated, “I have more religious freedom in America than I do in my old country, and so

I am thankful. It is hard to complain about the discrimination I encounter because at least

I am able to practice certain aspects of my religion I would not normally be able to.”

Muslims are often imprisoned and killed for expressing opinions about their government

and consequently seem to be hesitant to report anything when they experience

occurrences of discrimination or victimization in this country. There are many issues

concerning the existence of preserving civil liberties. As a society we should recommend

that Muslims should disclose issues of discrimination in corporate organizations with

management instead of just turning their cheek–which gives motive to the culprit to

continue this manner of unacceptable behavior and not be held liable for their actions.

American media can contribute a positive position in encouraging inter-cultural

and inter-religious discourse and harmony. Such actions are anticipated from dependable

broadcasting. However, American media can similarly compose a very negative and

contentious part in propelling dishonest and incorrect positions and arguments. Therefore,

with recognition to our freedom of expression, authorities may promote or encourage

formation of self-regulatory broadcasting organizations to deal with individuals who

display discrimination. Additionally, because mass media has had an incredibly large

destructive influence on the representation of Muslims and Islam it is suggested that

53

Muslims create a coordinated group and connect with various media outlets in unity

initiating a discussion on the damaging portrayal of Muslims in American media and

work collectively in forming a more positive image.

Moreover, ‘safe zones’ at college campuses, at all levels of government

employment, and non-governmental workplaces should be deliberated and established in

order to safeguard cultural and ethnic sensitivity to Muslim women. Again, in an effort to

ease tensions, the Muslim community should work to establish ties with representatives

from colleges and governmental agencies to facilitate implementations; such as policies

concerning the hijab, and allowing Muslim females the right to veil without public

scrutiny and overt discrimination. We should instead liberate Muslim women from

behind or beyond their veils. Rather, it suggests the action of chipping away at a distorted

image of Middle Eastern women as somehow uniquely in need of liberation. Although

the stigma of the hijab may be generalized to specific aspects of oppression, and

inequality, the actual experience signifies empowerment for women.

Also, it would be beneficial to establish and provide orientation educational

training classes for Muslims focusing on “knowing your rights. “Such programs would

involve various law enforcement officials, the Better Business Bureau, the ACLU, and

Consumer Rights who would provide information and answer questions on the various

rights that Muslim Woman are entitled to as legal residents, citizens, and consumers in

this country. Additionally, it is highly suggested that the Muslim community reach out to

the NAACP and similar organizations in a collaborative effort to take the appropriate

action in addressing and combating issues of stereotyping and discrimination.

54

It is also essential that we establish an intellectual and ethical approach to escape

administrative exploitation regarding disputes connected to such discrimination and

intolerance. Discrimination and intolerance toward Muslims is more than a mistreatment

against a specific religious group, such acts also severely distress international relations

in addition to the internal solidity of Western societies. Therefore, it is a versatile issue

and should be attended to through a holistic approach. Muslims must not be treated as

second-class citizens, and should not be villainized, estranged, marginalized, terrorized or

hated. America should not turn the “war on terror” into a “war on Muslims.” We must

acknowledge that Muslims have equivalent basic necessities and aspirations as the rest of

society, which consist of physical well-being, cultural appreciation and religious freedom

exclusive of governmental or public intimidation. In such element, society must not

stigmatize or try to assimilate Muslims, but instead try to accommodate– accommodation

is one of the strongest approaches for integration.

As a collectivity we must denounce individuals who discriminate in word or in

action. It must be implemented and practiced what we as a society are constantly

preaching. However, we should not simply share the exact fundamental values, we need

to also perform in route with this belief. Through this respect, I underline that together as

a society we need a positive perception on the necessity of new associations with all of

our citizens to acquire unity through an understanding of cultural diversity within

humanity. As accountable members of America it is our duty to attain the understanding,

knowledge and also the valor to coexist with one another in harmony. By doing so,

American society is closer to eliminating any difficulties among civilization, ethnicities,

or religions.

55

Lastly, harassment or physical attacks that occur simply because an individual is

perceived to be Muslim or is Muslim is a foundation for significant concern. Policies

must be implemented to explain hate crimes and tackle the lack of communication within

society. We must gather and investigate material connected to hate crimes.

Governmental agencies must enforce suitable and effective legislation. While working

concurrently with national legislation, the United States government should enact

international commitments and agreed norms. The measures for unveiling any occurring

hate crimes needs to be recognized and encouraged. The policies need to build the

aptitude of Muslim communities and the civil society organizations. There needs to be an

adherence in trying to enable the policies to work at both the local and national level. In

this respect, community outreach programs will be of great use in confidence building

and in creating community cohesion and a sense of living together. Another point that

deserves utmost importance is education. Especially younger generations should be

provided with educational programs that would foster tolerance, understanding and

respect of “the other.” Related to education is of course training of law enforcement

officials.

The actual danger to acceptance and to multi-cultural societies derives from

extremes of both groups, and the political and the social must continue to stay attentive.

For peaceful co-existence to become a reality it is our society’s duty to reach groups who

do not wish to engage in discourse and to educate individuals who have been hesitant to

learn or accept the diversity that exemplifies our societies. Understanding Islam and

Muslims accurately will help improve relationships, condense friction, and build healthier

bridges. Since the American Constitution embraces freedom of religion as a major right,

56

Muslims should be able to freely practice their religion without being castigated or the

target of discrimination.

.

57

References

Abdula, Aslam. 2005. “Muslims and the Media Post 9/11.” Journal of Palestin Studies 32(1):pp.12-18

Barrett, Pamela. 2007. “American Islam: The Struggle For the Soul of a Religion.” American Journal of Political Science 42(5):pp.172-94

Bruffee, Gail and Edith P. Lewis. 2002. "The Rights of Muslims." The American Journal of Nursing 102(3):p. 13

Charles, C.Z. 2003. “The Dynamics of Racial Residential Segregation.” Journal of Black Studies 29(6):167-207

Connolly, Michelle. 2004. “Human Capital and Growth in the Postbellum South” A Separate but Unequal Story.” The Journal of Economic History

64(2):pp.363-399

Donovan, G. 2002. Ohio Mosque Damaged by Vandals. National Catholic Reporter. 38(10).6. Retrieved from EBSCOhost

Drago, Robert W. 2007 “Striking a Balance: Work, Family, Life” Journal of American Statistical Association 43(7) p.83-102

Egendorf, Louis 2005. “Islam in America.” The Journal of Religion 14(6) pp.89-94

Freud, Sigmund 1989. “Civilization and its Discontents.” New York, N.Y: Norton and Company.

Gamble, Barbara S. 1997. “Putting Civil Rights to a Popular Vote.” American Journal of Political Science 41(1) pp. 245-269

Greenfield, Gary A. and Don B. Kates Jr. 1975. “Mexican Americans, Racial Discrimination, and the Civil Rights Act of 1866.” California Law Review 63(3):662

58

Greges, F.A. 2003. “Islam and Muslims in the Mind of America: Influences on the Making of U.S Policy.” Journal of Palestine Studies 26:68-80

Jackson, L. 2007. “A Veil of Ignorance: Public Perception of Islam in the United States and Their Educational Implications.” The International Journal of the Humanities 5(4):p 157-164

Kay, D. 1982 “Statistical Evidence of Discrimination” Journal of the American Statistical Association 77(4):773-782

Marshal, Joseph M. 2007. “The Day the Owrld Ended at Little Bighorn” Journey Through Lakota Hisory p.4-229

Massy, Carlos K., Denton Camielle 2003. “The Dynamics of Racial Segregation” Annual Review of Sociology 26(12) p. 167-207

McCammon, Holly J., Karen E. Campbell, Ellem M. Granberg and Christine Mowery, 2001. “How Movements Win: Genered Opportunity Structures and U.S Womens Sufferage Movements 1866 to 1919.” American Sociological Review 66(1):pp. 49-70

McCloud A. 2005. “American Muslim Women and U.S Society.” Journal of Law and Religion 12(1):52-59

Menchaca, Martha 1990. “Anglo-Saxon Ideologies in the 1920s-1930s: Their Impact on the Segregation of Mexican Students in California.” Anthropology and Education Quarterly 21(3) p.222-249

Mogull R. 1972. “Discrimination in the Labor Market.” Journal of Black Studies 3:237-249

Naff, Katherine C. 1994. “Through the Glass Ceiling” Prospects of the Advancement of Women in the Federal Civil Service.” Public Administration Review 54(6):pp.507-514

59

Namou, Weam 2010. “Muslim Women Empowered by Their Religion.” Multicultural Review, 19(1):pp 30-33

Omur, Orhun 2009. “Intolerance and Discrimination Against Muslims.” Security and Human Rights 20(4) pp.192-200

Phelps, Stephen. 2010. “Critical Literacy: Using Nonficting to Learn About Islam.” Journal of Adolescents and Adult Literacy 54(3) pp.190-198

Rehman, Tabas. 2003. “Women Who Choose Islam.” International Journal of Mental Health 32(3) pp.31-49

Seggie, Fatma. 2010. “Perception of Female Muslim Students Who Veil: CampusReligious Climate.” Ethnicity and Education Journal 13(1) p.59-82

Smith, T. 2002. The Muslim Population of the United Stats: The Methodology of Estimates. The Public Opinion Quarterly 66:404-407

Stromquist, Nelly P. 1993. “Sex-Equity Legislation in Education: The State as Promoter of Women’s Rights.” Review of Educational Research 63(4): pp.379-407

Syed, Muhammad K. 2008. “Understanding Islam and Muslims.” Multicultural Review. 41(3):P253:267

Todd, Sharon. 1998. “Veiling and Other, Unveiling Our Selves:Reading Media Images of the Hijab to Move Beyond Tolerance.” Journal of Education. 23(4):p.438-451

Treene, Eric. 2003. “Critique.” 19(1 Journal of Law and religion): pp.89-93.

Trevino, Melina. 2010. “Islam Through Editorial Lenses: How American EliteNewspapers Portrayed Muslims Before and After September 11. 2001Journal of Arab & Muslim Media Research. 3(1) p.3-17

Wise, Tim 2010. “Between Barack and a Hard Place” Racial and White Denial in the

60

Age of Obama p.25-149

61

Appendix A: Instrument and Consent Form

62

Consent FormDear Participant:

My name is Angela Chavez and I am a Sociology major at the University of La Verne. I am working on my senior thesis as a requirement for my Bachelor of Science degree and would appreciate your cooperation with this project.

The research will investigate your experience as a Muslim in America. The interview will inquire about your demographics, such as age, marital status, ethnicity, education, and occupation. There are no right or wrong answers and it is your opinion that matters most to this project. Your responses will be used to generate aggregate statistical data. If a certain question makes you feel uncomfortable, you do not have to answer it. This is a confidential survey and this interview should take approximately 20 to 25 minutes of your time. Please sign the consent form below. After signing the form, return it to me prior to the interview. The other copy is for your records.

If you have any questions about this project, please contact my advisor, Dr. Glenn A. Goodwin at (909) 593-3511 X4364.Thank you.

SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT

I understand the procedures described above. My questions have been answered to my satisfaction and I agree to participate in this study. I have been given a copy of this form.

Printed Name of Participant

Signature of Participant Date

SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR

In my judgment, the participant is voluntarily and knowingly giving informed consent and possesses the legal capacity to give informed consent to participate in the research study.

Signature of Investigator Date

63

Interview questions

1. Do you think Discrimination against Muslim women exists?

2. Have you experienced any form of discrimination? If so, can you please explain?

a. Tell me your views on Muslim women veiling, and how long you have been wearing a hijab? (probe)

3. How do you respond to discrimination?

4. Tell me a little about your views on the way the mass media portrays Muslims, and Islam since September 11, 2001.

a. Do you think mass media contributes to the discrimination against Muslim women?

5. Do the views of Muslims displayed by the mass media contribute to discrimination?

64

Demographic Information

The following will be asked of participants verbally during interview:

A1. May I ask, what is your Ethnicity? (How do you identify nationally)

Specify:____________________

A2. Your age (in years)_____

A3. Marital Status:

_____single

_____Married _____Divorced

_____Widowed

A4. Language(s) Spoken_________

A5. May I ask what your level of education is?

1. = Elementary/Grammar and/or Middle School 5. = Some College 2. = Some High School 6. = Bachelors Degree 3. = High School Graduate 7. = Masters/Graduate Degree 4. = Technical/Vocational Degree 8. Ph.D., J.D., M.D., or equivalent

A.6 May I ask, what is your occupation?

Specify:______________

A.7 May I ask, where is your region of residence?

Specify:_____________

65

Appendix B: Permission Letter

66

67