Biological Perspective = Body and mind separatelyCognitive Perspective = Brain/Mental ProcessesBehavioristic Perspective = Study of behavior duhWhole-person perspective = study of personalityDevelopmental perspective = study of genetic and environmental factorsSociocultural perspective = learning and culture interaction

Critical Thinking = 1. What is the source?2. Is the statement a reasonable or an insane statement? 3. What is the evidence?4. Is the conclusion being affected by a bias?5. Are heuristics minimalized by reasoning?6. Are different points of view taken into account?

Nature and NurtureGenetic = NatureEnvironment/Upbringing etc = Nurture

Nature = What you are born withIntelligence 60-70% Personality 50% Political views 30/40% (Hardly changeable)

Nurture = What you have learnedUpbringing Social environment chances in life etc (partly) changeable

Mental Disorder = Developmental DisorderThe development of mental abilities is slowerThe development of mental abilities stops too earlyCommon causes oxygen insufficiency during birth or meningitisoe heavy asthma attacks early in life

Brain DevelopmentalBrain develops fastest of all organsVirtually all neurons are fully developed at birthExtra growth during adolescence/ Brain stops developing at 25Changes possible at all ages

PersonalityFeelings/Characteristics that shape the person's choices emotions motivations behavior etc.

Personality can also refer to = thoughts feelings behavior that happen consistently overtime which shape our expectations self-perceptions values and attitudes and predicts our reactions.

Personality is NOT JUST WHO WE ARE

Nature, Nurture and personalityGenes 45% Upbringing 45% 10% influence (adulthood)

Conclusion: Personality shapes how you react to your environment and that means it also shapes how your environment reacts to you

BIG FIVE Dimensions1. Conscientiousness = to be precise and exact 2. Emotional Stability 3. Extroversion = being a very open person to others4. Agreeableness =5. Openness to experience

Personality and Criminal Behavior

Personality Self controlLow self control = can't handle stress well and the reaction not how it’s supposed to beLow self-control = higher chance to commit crime less chance of being talked out of crime.

Low self-control: high impulsivity, negative emotions, low regulation50% = personality disorder31-90% conduct4-78% ADHD Up to 81% DRUGS

Classifying mental disorders = DSM-IV (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders)Ax1 Mental Disorders = Regular people with a disorderAx2 personality disorders = Disordered people

Different from “normal” psychopathologyBiological FactorsPsychological FactorsSocial Factors

Dsm-IV Organization of psychiatric disordersax1= Clinical major mental disorders learning disorders and drugsax2 = personality disorders and intellectual disabilities

Antisocial Personality Disorder (psychopathy/SociopathyMix of both genetic and environmental aspects3% of them is male 1% is female Aggressiveness impassivity insensitivity to social norms no empathy or regret.

Anti Social Personality disorders:1. Crime2. Lying/cheating3. Impulsiveness4.Agressiveness fights etc5.Reckless 6.Irresponsibility7. Lack of remorse

At least 18 years old behavior started before he/she was 15 not during schizophrenia or manic episode.

Learning and memory:Behaviorism (skinner 1974):Newborn is empty sheetOnly observable behaviorsBehavior is a result of trial and error.No thinking, perceptions and emotions into account.

Three Learning perspectives.

Classical conditioning: Conditioned stimulus activating unconditioned response example! Dog + food = Salivating dog – dog + food + bell = salivating > Dog + bell = salivating LOL tricked!Behavior is voluntary not a reflex

(3 types of) Operant Conditioning: The result of what you do either encourages you to do it more or to do it less.

- Reinforcement:Eg: Washing the dishes = hug from mom = positive reinforcement Eg; Being home late = curfew as punishment = negative reinforcement

- Trial and error (trying something until you succeed)- Repetition

Observant (social) learning = learning by watching (copycat behavior) - Bandura 1925- Bobo doll (children copying the aggression of adults)

2 types of Aggression? (aggression =Behavior intended to cause harm or pain. noooo ? Really?)

- Hostile aggression: Aggression out of anger eg beating someone up because you are mad at him

- Instrumental aggressionEg using aggression to achieve something

Nature: AggressionPhysical InfluenceBrain Amygdala/Neurotransmitters/TestosteroneAlcohol and aggressionGender and aggressionPain,discomfort heat hunger etc and aggression

Nurture: Aggression:Increased aggression in children with:

Physical fear of others Family difficulties Learning, or conduct/behavior disorders Psychological trauma Corporal punishment such as spanking increases aggression in children

Adults: Culture Physical fear of others Stress Personality disorders

Causes of aggression:Aggressive objects as cuesWeapons = more aggression Imitation and aggression = Children see you beat up a guy they would want to beat up a guy too

Television and aggression 1. If they can do it so can I (recklessness)2. That's how it's done (modeling)3. That's how I feel ( indentification)4. Exposure leads to normalization5. Attacking is the best defense true story xD

What to do with aggressive behavior?- Does punishment help?Only when immediate and only if inescapable!

Blowing off steam does not work

Once aggressive, always aggressive?Pretty much

Safety & security and psychology:

SSMS and psychology?Safety is both a feeling and a reality, and they’re NOT the same.

Feelings of (un) safety:What does affect the feeling of unsafety?

Social protection expenditure Distrust in police Generalized social distrust Perceived ethnic threat

Public Uniforms: Uniformed presence does not increase feelings of safety in already relatively safe situations

(thereby making patrol unnecessary) In relatively unsafe situations, all types of uniformed presence increase feelings of safety

-> Think about what this means for safety solutions!

Group Polarization:

Group polarization is the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of its members

Decisions are more extreme towards greater risk if individuals' initial tendencies are to be risky Individuals' initial attitudes strengthen and intensify after group discussion

De-individualization in Crowds:In typical crowd situations, personal self-restraints (in toom houden) are weakened by:

Anonymity (nobody knows who you are) Group unity (you blend in so you don’t stand out to others) Arousal (excitement takes over)

Leading to: Distancing from personal identity Reduced concern for social evaluation Increased individual sensitivity to the environment Lessened rational forethought Antisocial behavior

Complex Problems: Terrorism Complex: One group's terrorist is another group's freedom fighter Complex: How to psychologically research a terrorist? Complex: Universal psychological principles

o Subconscious fear of death o Desire for meaning and personal significance

Individual Characteristics:Individuals more open to terrorist recruitment and radicalization tend to:

Feel angry, alienated or disenfranchised Believe that their current political involvement does not give them the power to effect real

change Identify with perceived victims of the social injustice they are fighting Feel the need to take action rather than just talking about the problem Believe that engaging in violence against the state is not immoral Have friends or family sympathetic to the cause Believe that joining a movement offers social and psychological rewards such as adventure,

camaraderie and a heightened sense of identity.

Mechanisms of Recruitment:General psychological transformation:

o Destruction of the individual’s former conception of self (sometimes called renunciation or “stripping”)

o A transition period o Then a restructuring process (rebirth)

The same mechanisms may be found in group psychotherapy and initiating rites

Audiences and the Media: Terror is propaganda (terrorist incidents are referred to as “symbolic”) Terrorism relies on audience (no effect without) Terrorist groups usually do not have access to a large audience Hence: terrorism needs the media

o Get the message acrosso Being recognized (or even admired)o Recruitment

Interneto Social Media

Effects of the media: Some people claim that modern communication systems “have done more than anything else to

promote terrorism as an effective way of waging war” The response to terrorism can be more dangerous than the terrorists themselves

Counter-terrorism:Interventions

• Tackle discrimination and economic and social disadvantages• (Create equality of chances)• Restore civil freedom

Avoid homogenization Acknowledge social identities (norms, values, needs…) Avoid segregation and pursue integration Top Down versus Bottom Up strategies for counter-terrorism

Top Down versus Bottom up counter-terrorism- Top Down: e.g. find and kill terrorists

- Bottom Up: e.g. fight poverty and inequality

Terrorism over Time:

The decline of terrorism: Preemption, or making it impossible for terrorists to carry out their

activities (hardening targets or imprisoning or kill) Burnout, or the decline of commitment to the group and its

purposes, ideologies Hard to keep momentum in extremist actions (ideology is strength and weakness) Backlash, or declining political support Seems to be an interaction between motivation and external circumstances.

Learning and memory:3 stages of Memory: (memory decodes, saves, and recovers information- First stage = sensory memory- Second stage = working memory short term- Third stage long-term memory

7 reasons why memories sometimes fail1. Transience:Fading memories/Memories interfering with one another.2. Absent-mindedness:Lack of attention = forgetting3.BlockingCan’t access the memory4.Attribution:Remembering other people's ideas as your own wrong place time etc

Top

Bottom up

5.Suggestibility:The way questions are asked influences the way past events are memorized.6. Memory bias:Beliefs attitudes and opinions distort memories7. Persistence:Not being able to forget.

What influences an Eyewitness: - Leading questions- Time - Repeated recovery- Age- Confidence in memory

Emotions and motivation:

Emotion: Subjective Conscious experience characterized by psychophysiological expressions, biological reactions and mental statesImportant:Subjective experience = feelingsResponse = facial expressionsEvaluation (Cognitive assessment) (an examination conducted to determine someone's level of cognitive function.)

What is emotion?Emotion is connected with:

- Mood- Temperament- Personality- Disposition- Motivation

And Influenced by Hormones and neurotransmitters dopamine/noradrenaline/serotonin/testosterone43 facial muscles 3500 relevant facial expressions

Origin or emotion: Paul Ekman

- Emotions are discrete, measurable, and physiologically distinct- Recognition in preliterate cultures that could not have learned associations for facial

expressions through media

Children born blind: expressing emotions by facial expressions Display rules are culture-specific: who can show which emotions to whom and when Cultural differences and variations more important than gender differences.

Seven Primary emotions:1. Happy2. Surprised

3. Sadness4. Anger5. Fear6. Contempt7. Disgust

Lies: Long term observations needed Detected by micro facial expressions

Motivation = A psychological feature arouses to action towards desired goal.All that has to do with starting, direction, intensity and persistency of physical and psychological activities.

Two types of motivation:Intrinsic = interest or enjoyment liking to do something games etc (motivation from inside)Extrinsic = doing something to achieve an outcome (motivation from outside)

Pyramid of needs:1.Basic Needs (food, water, warmth, rest)2.Safety3. Love needs (Relationships/Friends)4.Esteem needs (feeling of accomplishment)5.Self-actualization (achieving one’s full potential)

Instinct and drive:- Instinct:

Biological processes motivate species specific behavioural patterns- Drive:

Excitatory (prikkelend) state produced by a homeostatic disturbance. Need-> Homeostasis (internal conditions remain stable and relatively constant)

Stress: Physical and Psychological reaction to a threat1. Traumatic/acute Stress (short term)

- Fight- Flight - Freeze

2. Chronic Stress (long term)

Important- Assertiveness = consciousness (zelfbewustzijn) - Optimism = being positive- Resilience = elasticity (veerkracht)

Five Stages of Traumatic Stress:1. Shock, lack of emotions, confused, incomprehension2. Automatic action

3. Cooperation, generate resources, tiredness4. Meltdown, exhaustion, emotional consequences5. Long term recovery, give meaning, resignation

Dealing with Stress1. Solution focused strategies2. Emotion focused coping strategies3. Cognitive restructuring4. Social comparison5. Positive emotions6. Finding meaning

Locust of ControlHow much someone believes they can control his or her environment:

Two typesInternal= High personal influence on resultsExternal = low personal influence on results

Cultural:Primary control = control external eventsSecondary control = control internal reaction to external events

Dealing with stress: InterventionsSocial Support / Physical activity / Food and diet / Sleep and meditation

Attitudes:

Attitude = Enduring beliefs or feelings and behavior towards socially significant objects groups events or symbols.

How you Think / feel / behave towards an attitude object

Components of attitudesAffective Components = feelings = I hate spidersBehavior components = how we act = I will avoid spiders and scream if I see one!Cognitive components = belief/knowledge = I believe spiders are dangerous!

4 factors impacts attitudes and behavior:1. Behavior (General vs specific)2. Person (Who is being asked)3. Situations (When and how are they asked)4. Attitude (how was the attitude formed)

Specific attitudes will predict specific behaviors.

Can you change attidudesShift a person's attitude in the right direction and behavior will follow for example:

- If people see the value of wearing seatbelt they are more likely to actually wear it.- If people think smoking is bad they are likely to quit.

Three bases for attitude change:1. Compliance2. Identification3. Internalization

Attitudes easiest to change: cognitive dissonance

Cognitive Dissonance- Two conflicting ideas- Feeling one way behaving another way- Inconsistency leads to cognitive dissonance

Reduing Dissonance- Change behavior- Change cognition- Add cognition (knowledge)

o External justification: use of external excuses to justify one’s actionso Internal justification: a change in the way people perceive their actions

Important:- Persuasion: trying to convince someone to do something else- Social influence: groepsdruk- Attitude change:

Heuristics = simple efficient rules that explain how people make decisions, come to judgments and solve problems.Nature/Nurture/Systematic errors/Cognitive biases

Stereotypes are heuristics

Stereotype = a categorization which helps to simplify information.Simplification / Exaggeration / Generalization

Stereotypes can help make sense of the word = energy saversStereotypes are used for explaining social events and justifying activities

Consequences of stereotypes- Prejudices- Discrimination

Prejudice = Negative stereotypes (you think you are better than them.Unjustified or incorrect attitude, usually negative towards an individual, based on the membership of a social group.

Emotionally charged stereotypesInvolves negative perceptions

Involves negative emotionsA prejudiced person may not act on their attitudes in groups is perceived as superior

DiscriminationBehavior or action usually negative towards an individual of a group of people's

- Feeling better about own group- Scapegoating

Risk perception:

People exaggerate spectacular but rare risks and downplay common risks People have trouble estimating risks for anything not exactly like their normal situation

Personified risks are perceived to be greater than anonymous risks.

People underestimate risks they willingly take and overestimate risks in situations they can't control

People overestimate risks that are being talked about and remain an object of public scrutiny (kritische blik)

Ultimate attribution error

The ultimate attribution error occurs when ingroup members:

(2) Attribute negative out-group behavior to dispositional causes (more than they would for identical in-group behavior)

(2) Attribute positive out-group behavior to one or more of the following causes:A fluke or exceptional case Luck or special advantageHigh motivation and effortSituational factors

Group dynamics:

A social group = asocial unit consisting of a number of individuals interacting with each other: Two or more people Common motives and goals An accepted division of roles Established status (social rank, dominance) relationships Accepted norms and values relevant to the group

Functions of social groups: Proximity = being close to each other Interaction = interact with each other Influence = steer each other in a certain direction

Security = have each others back Safety = making sure others don’t do anything stupid Value = feeling loved and valued Power = you’re stronger in a group Identity = you are someone when you’re a part of a group

Primary groups: small social group whose members share personal and lasting relationships Usually involves spending time together, engage in activities and feeling mutually well known i.e. Families, friends

Secondary groups: large groups involving formal and institutional relationships, Usually weak emotional ties and little personal knowledge of one another i.e. Companies, communities

Primary groups can be present in secondary settings: attending a university exemplifies membership of a secondary group, while the friendships that are made there would be considered a primary group.

Social Norms and Roles Within a Group: Social norms: the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors that the social group establishes Social roles: socially defined behavioral pattern that people in a certain situation or group

are supposed to show

Cultural effects in social norms and social roles Of course, cultural effects are huge Different cultures have different norms There are cultural effects on gender roles, though there are quite a few universals too

Group Dynamics: Facilitation and Inhibition:Social Facilitation

Improved performance in the presence of others in easy tasks Probably due to arousal

Social inhibition Decreased performance in the presence of others in difficult tasks Probably due to arousal

Group Dynamics: Social Loafing:Social loafing: exerting less effort to achieve a goal when working in a group than when working alone

Visibility individual performance Importance of the task Loafing more likely when co-workers are expected to perform well Reduced loafing when working with acquaintances and no loafing at all when working in highly

valued groups

Cultural effect Reduced effect for women and individuals originating from Eastern cultures

Group Dynamics: Groupthink:Groupthink occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

Strive towards minimal conflict and maximal harmony within group Less critical evaluations of facts Reduced quality of groups decisions

Caused by: Overconfidence Conformity Self justification Can be stopped by a good leader that listens to others and welcomes criticism Minorities can affect the group if they stick to their guns

Group Dynamics: Conformity:Conformity is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms

Factors that affect conformity: Made to feel incompetent At least three people High status group Unanimity No prior commitment Our behavior is in the open Cultural effects

Group Polarization:Group polarization is the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of its members

Decisions are more extreme towards greater risk if individuals' initial tendencies are to be risky Individuals’ initial attitudes have strengthened and intensified after group discussion

Group Dynamics: Bystander Effect:The Bystander effect is the phenomenon where people do not offer help in an emergency situation to a victim when other people are presenthttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JozmWS6xYEw

Probability of help inversely related to the number of bystanders

What is necessary: Notice the situation Interpret it as an emergency Take responsibility for helping

Example: Obedience:Milgram (1974): How far do we go in obedience to authority? Teacher and Learner

Learner was a confederate

Paired associates Wrong answer, given a ‘shock’ ‘You must continue’

Group Dynamics: Obedience: (gehoorzaamheid) Distance to the victim (he was in another room, you cant see him) Proximity (nabijheid) of authority Shared responsibility Background of authority

What did we Learn from Milgram? 63% completed! Started a big debate about ethics Most participants were happy to learn this scary thing about themselves I have a heart condition’ -> no effect! Legitimate authority was the key Affiliation Depersonalization Modeling effects

What can Group Dynamics Lead To? People go against their beliefs under the right circumstances Under the right conditions people will do awful things

- Don’t let this absolve anyone Zimbardo: ‘that line between good and evil — which privileged people

Like to think is fixed and impermeable, with them on the good side, and the others on the bad side — I knew that line was movable, and it was permeable’