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AOHS Health Careers Exploration

Lesson 2A Brief History of Medicine and

Health Care

Teacher Resources

Resource Description

Teacher Resource 2.1 Timeline: Eras in the History of Medicine

Teacher Resource 2.2 Timeline Elements: Practices and Events in Health Care History

Teacher Resource 2.3 Presentation and Notes: A Brief History of Medicine and Health Care (includes separate PowerPoint file)

Teacher Resource 2.4 Answer Key: Practices and Events in Health Care History Timeline

Teacher Resource 2.5 Assessment Criteria: Role of the Scientific Method in Medical Progress Poster

Teacher Resource 2.6 Prompts: Learning Objective Reflection (separate PowerPoint slide)

Teacher Resource 2.7 Guide: Teaching Reflection

Teacher Resource 2.8 Key Vocabulary: A Brief History of Medicine and Health Care

Teacher Resource 2.9 Bibliography: A Brief History of Medicine and Health Care

Teacher Resource 2.10

Vocabulary Support: Terms to Know for the Lesson (separate PowerPoint file)

Copyright © 2012–2016 NAF. All rights reserved.

AOHS Health Careers ExplorationLesson 2: A Brief History of Medicine and Health Care


Timeline: Eras in the History of MedicinePrint out the following sheets of paper. Each sheet contains the title for an era in history. Post the sheets on the wall in chronological order, which is the order that they appear in this resource.



Prehistoric Times: 4000 BCE–3000 BCE

Ancient Egypt: 3000 BCE–300 BCE



Ancient China: 1500 BCE–200 CE

India: 1500 BCE–circa 1100 CE



Ancient Greece: 1200 BCE–200 BCE

Ancient Rome: 750 BCE–400 CE



The Dark Ages 400–800 CE

The Middle Ages 800–1400



The Renaissance: 1350–1450

16th, 17th, and 18th Centuries: 1500–1799



19th Century: 1800–1899

20th Century: 1900–1999



21st Century: 2000–present




Timeline Elements: Practices and Events in Health Care History

Before class begins, cut the list of time elements below into strips along the cutting lines. Divide the class into pairs, and give one strip to each pair.

Timeline Elements- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

An ethical code of behavior for physicians is established.

Acupuncture is first used to relieve pain.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Vaccinations are given to the military to protect against a bioterrorist attack.

Louis Pasteur proves that germs cause disease.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

The first health records are created.

The bubonic plague kills almost 75% of the population of Asia and Europe.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

AIDS is discovered.

Ayurvedic medicine is practiced.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Anton van Leeuwenhoek invents the microscope.

Apothecaries make, prescribe, and sell medicine.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Trepanning, or boring a hole in the skull, is used to treat epilepsy and mental illness.

Sewers are first used to improve sanitation.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Animal dissection begins.

Open-heart surgery is performed for the first time.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

The functions of the muscles, kidney, and bladder are discovered.

The first medical universities are established.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Kidney transplants are performed for the first time.

Sigmund Freud establishes the basis for psychology.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -



Religious ceremonies are used to eliminate evil spirits and restore health.

The foundations for modern surgery are established.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Gabriel Fahrenheit invents the first thermometer.

The influenza pandemic kills 21 million people.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

The Human Genome Project is completed.

The stethoscope is invented.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

The first formal training program for nurses is established.

Antiseptics are used during surgery.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

The X-ray is invented.

An understanding of DNA develops.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

The major blood groups are developed.

Rhazes identifies the difference between smallpox and measles.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

The first book on human anatomy is published.

The antibiotic penicillin is discovered.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

The polio vaccine is discovered.

The study of medicine temporarily comes to a stop.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

The rabies vaccine is discovered.

Hippocrates develops methods to record the symptoms of disease.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

A vaccine to prevent cervical cancer is invented.

The first physician, who is also an architect and an engineer, treats patients.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

A human embryo is cloned.

It is discovered that there are physical explanations for disease.




Presentation Notes: A Brief History of Medicine and Health Care

Before you show this presentation, use the text accompanying each slide to develop presentation notes. Writing the notes yourself enables you to approach the subject matter in a way that is comfortable to you and engaging for your students. Make this presentation as interactive as possible by stopping frequently to ask questions and encourage class discussion.

In this presentation, we’ll take a look at some of the major medical practices and events that occurred in each period of human history and see what they can teach us about what medicine and health care might look like in the future.



During prehistoric times, little was known about the human body and the natural causes of illness and death. Early religions prohibited the dissection of the human body, so how the body worked remained a mystery for centuries.

Many early cultures believed that evil spirits or demons caused disease and death. They also believed that a person who fell ill was being punished by a supernatural power. Treatment often focused on attempting to destroy the evil spirit. This was done through religious ceremonies or crude procedures, like trepanning. Trepanning, or boring a hole in the skull, was believed to release an evil spirit that caused epilepsy and mental illness.

During prehistoric times, people also used herbs and plants as medicine. Many of these herbal remedies are still in use today.

Image retrieved from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Crane-trepanation-img_0507_crop.jpg on June 5, 2013, and reproduced here under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 France (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/fr/deed.en ). Image courtesy of Rama.


http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/fr/deed.en

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/fr/deed.en

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Crane-trepanation-img_0507_crop.jpg

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In ancient Egypt, physicians were priests. To heal the sick, ancient Egyptians, like prehistoric people, relied on religious ceremonies. Priests, like Imhotep, performed these ceremonies. Imhotep was also an architect and engineer.

Egyptians are considered to be the first people to keep health records. They kept these health records in stone.

The ancient Egyptians are also known for practicing bloodletting, or leeching. They believed that the body was a made up of a system of channels, and if the channels became clogged, sickness occurred. They used leeching to open the channels and release “bad” blood from ill patients.

Image retrieved from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Imhotep.jpg on June 5, 2013. From 4th edition of Meyers Konversationslexikon (1885‒90).


http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Imhotep.jpg


The ancient Chinese practiced holistic methods for treating the ill. They believed that to heal a patient, the person’s whole, or entire self, needed nourishment. This included the mind, body, and soul.

The ancient Chinese believed that a life energy called chi flows through an invisible system of pathways, or meridians, in the human body, and that disease and discomfort occur when a block forms along the pathways.

The ancient Chinese invented acupuncture as one way to restore and maintain a proper flow of energy along the pathways. Acupuncture is a treatment in which specific points in the skin are punctured with thin needles. Acupuncture was believed to relieve pain and promote healing by stimulating the flow of energy in the body.

The ancient Chinese also introduced the method of monitoring a person’s pulse to determine the health of his body.

Like other ancient people, they made medicine from herbs. They kept a record of the use of herbal medications.

Holistic medicine, acupuncture, and Chinese herbal medicine are all still used by people around the world today.



Ancient Indians developed Ayurveda, a type of holistic medicine. In Sanskrit, Ayurveda means “complete knowledge of long life.” Ayurvedic practices center around the idea of providing balance in the body. Encyclopedias that were created thousands of years ago form the foundation of Ayurveda. Treatments include plant-based medicines, massage, yoga, exercise, and careful attention to hygiene and diet.

In between the 10th and 12th centuries CE, India was overrun by Muslim invaders from the West who brought their own medicine, and the practice of Ayurveda subsided.

However, many people in India and parts of Asia still practice Ayurveda today.

Image retrieved from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:An_Ayurvedic_Pharmacy,_Rishikesh_%281%29.jpg on June 5, 2013, and reproduced here under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic license (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/deed.en ). Image courtesy of Ken Wieland.


http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/deed.en


http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:An_Ayurvedic_Pharmacy,_Rishikesh_(1).jpg

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:An_Ayurvedic_Pharmacy,_Rishikesh_(1).jpg


The Greek physician Hippocrates is often called “the father of medicine.” Many of his discoveries and achievements are still recognized today. Until the period of the ancient Greeks, people believed that supernatural forces caused illness and death. But Hippocrates, and other physicians of his time, developed an understanding that there were physical and natural explanations for disease and death.

We take for granted that cleanliness is an important part of maintaining good health, but this was something people had to discover. Hippocrates promoted a good diet, exercise, fresh air, and, perhaps most importantly, cleanliness to both prevent disease and help the sick heal. He also developed methods to observe the body and record signs and symptoms of disease, as doctors do today.

Of all of his accomplishments, he may be most famous for the Hippocratic Oath, a code of behavior that continues to be recognized by health care professionals. When health care professionals take this oath, they swear to practice medicine ethically. It includes ideas about respecting a patient’s privacy and treating patients with compassion.

Image of Hippocrates retrieved from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hippocrates.jpg on June 5, 2013.


http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hippocrates.jpg


The ancient Romans learned from the work of the Greeks. They believed that poor sanitation and tainted water could cause disease. Armed with this information, they established public health and sanitation systems. They developed sewers to remove waste from the cities and built aqueducts to bring clean water to the people. The Romans established laws to keep garbage out of the streets, and they used filtering systems in public baths. They also drained swamps where mosquitoes carrying malaria thrived.

The ancient Romans, like the Greeks, began experimenting with dissecting animals. This process was necessary to study the organs and how the parts of the body were connected. It was through this work that the function of the muscles, kidney, and bladder was discovered.



After the fall of the Roman Empire, progress temporarily came to a standstill. Superstition crept back into beliefs about medicine, and people were taught that diseases were punishment from God. Priests once again became the healers, and in many parts of what was once the Roman Empire, priests prohibited the study of medicine. Prayer and herbal remedies became the principle methods used to treat the sick, and priests were in charge of caring for patients. Unsanitary living conditions resumed, and with them came the spread of disease. Ultimately, for reasons not entirely clear, nonclerical physicians just ceased to exist.



During the Middle Ages, there was a renewed interest in the work of the Greeks and Romans. The first medical universities were established, and it became a requirement for Arab physicians to pass a licensing exam to practice medicine.

The Arab physician Rhazes made great strides in distinguishing the signs and symptoms of different diseases. For example, Rhazes identified the difference between smallpox and measles. He also suggested that infections may be carried in the blood, and he developed suture material made from the guts of animals.

Image of Rhazes retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Al-RaziInGerardusCremonensis1250.JPG on June 5, 2013.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Al-RaziInGerardusCremonensis1250.JPG

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In spite of the advancements during the Middle Ages, disease continued to take a toll on the human population. In the 1300s, a horrific epidemic called the bubonic plague, or black death, killed almost 75% of the population of Asia and Europe. Also, major diseases like smallpox, diphtheria, tuberculosis, typhoid, and malaria were common and claimed many lives. The average life span during this period was 20 to 35 years.



Ancient societies prohibited the dissection of the human body, but things changed during the Renaissance. Scientists began dissecting the human body, and with this advancement, came new knowledge and information.

Artists, like Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci, created accurate drawings of the body. The printing press, a new invention, allowed these drawings and information to be reproduced. The first book on human anatomy was published.

Image of Leonardo da Vinci’s Anatomy of the Neck retrieved from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Leonardo_Anatomy_of_the_Neck,_c._1515.jpg on June 5, 2015.


http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Leonardo_Anatomy_of_the_Neck,_c._1515.jpg

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Leonardo_Anatomy_of_the_Neck,_c._1515.jpg


During the Renaissance, an understanding of the anatomy of the human body was developing, and this allowed more advancements to take place.

The type of medicine people used began to change. Roger Bacon advanced the use of chemical remedies, instead of herbal remedies, to treat illness. Also, the emerging study of anatomy allowed doctors to develop a more accurate understanding of how the human body worked. Michael Servetus accurately described the circulatory system in the lungs. He also explained how digestion is a source of heat for the body.

Image of human lungs retrieved from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lungs_open.jpg on June 5, 2013. From Gray’s Anatomy, 1918.


http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lungs_open.jpg


Talking about what you’ve learned so far will prepare you to learn about the great strides that have brought us to modern medicine.



During this era, doctors and scientists still didn’t understand the basic causes of disease, but several discoveries increased their knowledge about the human body, including the discovery of the fallopian tubes and the tube between the ear and throat.

The foundations for modern surgery were also established, and the first cesarean section to deliver an infant was performed.

Benjamin Franklin invented the bifocal glasses, and Gabriel Fahrenheit developed the first thermometer. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek invented the microscope. This tool allowed scientists to see microorganisms, which are too small to be seen by the human eye. Van Leeuwenhoek called them “animalcules.”

It was discovered that limes, which contain Vitamin C, prevent scurvy. A vaccination against the deadly disease smallpox was also developed.

The first pharmacies, called apothecaries, opened for business during this era. Apothecaries made, prescribed, and sold medicine.



The Industrial Revolution began in the 19th century. The introduction of new machines and an increased access to books and information allowed for rapid growth in medicine. Inventions in this era include the stethoscope, which allows physicians to listen to internal body sounds, and the first electrical hearing aid.

During this century, the first formal training program for nurses was established. Florence Nightingale, one of its earliest graduates, was one of several figures who paved the way for women in medical care. Another influential woman in this era was Clara Barton, who founded the American Red Cross.

Methods for controlling infection were discovered, including the use of antiseptics and disinfectants during surgery. The first successful blood transfusion occurred during this era. Many medications and vaccines were discovered, including vaccines for typhoid fever, rabies, and diphtheria. In 1892, Dimitri Ivanofski discovered viruses.

Image of Clara Barton retrieved from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wcbhatcr2.jpg on June 5, 2013.


http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wcbhatcr2.jpg


Louis Pasteur lived from 1822 to 1895. The French chemist and biologist is responsible for a number of breakthroughs in the 19th century that permanently changed medicine. He proved that microorganisms cause most infectious diseases. He also discovered how to destroy harmful germs in perishable foods and developed a number of vaccines, including vaccines against rabies and anthrax. His theories about sanitation and his work on vaccines likely saved the lives of millions of people.



The most changes in medicine and health care in history occurred in the 20th century. By the beginning of the new millennium, computer technology had altered every aspect of health care.

Major inventions of the century include the X-ray, CAT scan, and MRI, which are used for diagnostic purposes.

Major discoveries included identifying the major blood groups, growing viruses in a laboratory, and understanding the structure of DNA and how it carries genetic information.

Groundbreaking treatments were discovered, including the antibiotic penicillin and the use of insulin to treat diabetes. The polio and chickenpox vaccines were also discovered.

Great strides were made in surgery. In this century, open heart surgery was performed for the first time. The first heart, kidney, liver, and lung transplants were also successfully performed. The century also witnessed the first successful larynx, or voice box, transplant.

Sigmund Freud ushered in a new era of mental health care by establishing the basis for psychology and psychiatry.

People began living longer. In the 18th century, the average life span was 40 to 50 years. By the end of the 20th century, the average life span was 60 to 80 years.



In 1952, Francis Crick and James Watson discovered the structure of DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, which carries hereditary material. Crick and Watson explained that the structure of DNA is a double helix, somewhat like a twisted ladder. They were given the Nobel Prize for their work. Their work forms the foundation for most genetic research conducted today.



In the 20th century, insurance plans that pay for the cost of health care were introduced, as were standards about the type of care people receive. There was ongoing discussion and debate about creating affordable health care insurance and the government’s role in paying for and providing health care. This debate continues into the 21st century.

Major milestones included the introduction of Medicare and Medicaid in 1965, the Americans with Disabilities Act in 1990, and the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) in 1996, which protects patient privacy and made it easier to get health insurance.

Image retrieved from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Handicapped_Accessible_sign.svg on June 5, 2013.


http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Handicapped_Accessible_sign.svg

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Handicapped_Accessible_sign.svg


In the early part of the century, an influenza pandemic took the lives of 21 million people. This pandemic was a single outbreak of the same kinds of flu we deal with every year. Near the end of the century, AIDS was discovered. AIDS is caused by the virus HIV, which attacks the body’s immune system. The AIDS pandemic has claimed the lives of over 25 million people and orphaned millions of children. A treatment, which is a combination of drugs, can slow the progress of the disease, but there is still no cure.



On March 23, 2010, President Barak Obama signed into the law the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. The law represents the most significant change to the health care system in decades. The goal of the Affordable Care Act (ACA) is to increase access and quality of affordable health care for all Americans.

The ACA introduced several major changes. One change is that young adults under the age of 26 can now receive health insurance under their parents’ plans. Another change is that insurance companies cannot refuse to offer insurance because of preexisting health conditions. This means that an insurance company cannot deny health coverage to a child because he or she has a serious—and costly—illness. The ACA also requires most insurance plans to include free preventive services, such as blood pressure and cholesterol screenings. Americans can use online Health Insurance Marketplaces to find and compare health insurance options and purchase coverage. They can also see if they qualify for lower costs through government assistance.

The ACA brought dramatic changes to the health care system. Experts think that it will take some time for these changes to be fully implemented and for Americans to see how the law may affect their lives.



There are unlimited opportunities for discovery in the 21st century. We have already witnessed the cloning of a human embryo. Even though the embryo didn’t survive, research with embryonic stem cells and cloned cells will continue.

Also, the Human Genome Project was completed. This project identified all of the approximately 20,000 to 25,000 genes in human DNA. The information from this project helps scientists who are researching gene therapy and a cure for inherited diseases.

National leaders are increasingly concerned about bioterrorist attacks, in which microorganisms or biologic agents are used as weapons. Because of this concern, in 2002, some military members were given a vaccine to protect them in the event of a bioterrorist attack.

Scientists are also concerned about new viruses causing pandemics. With people easily moving from continent to continent, there is a real and growing threat that a pandemic could spread quickly around the globe, taking millions of lives.

However, international health organizations continue to closely monitor health problems around the world, and they are using rapidly improving systems to share information and try to prevent disasters.

No one knows for certain what advances and major events in medicine will take place in the 21st century. With increasingly sophisticated technology and communications systems, anything seems possible.



There was a time when the human body was a mystery. Although we’ve come a long way, there is still exciting and critical work to be done. Health care workers today need to have a basic understanding of the history of medicine to be successful in their work and make progress.

Everything we know about how the body works had to be discovered. We had to discover how the lungs work, how to fight basic infections through sanitation, and how to identify the symptoms of different diseases. We had to discover how to safely perform surgery, prevent epidemics, and replace failing organs with new ones. No one knows for certain what discoveries will be made next and who will be responsible for them, but without an understanding of the work of scientists, researchers, doctors, and nurses in the past, the future would not be possible.

Image retrieved from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Microscope.jpg on June 5, 2013, and reproduced her under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en ). Image courtesy of Zephyris at the English Language Wikipedia.




http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Microscope.jpg



Answer Key: Practices and Events in Health Care History Timeline

Use this answer key to verify whether students have placed elements correctly on the timeline.

Prehistoric Times Religious ceremonies are used to eliminate evil spirits and restore health.

Trepanning, or boring a hole in the skull, is used to treat epilepsy and mental illness.

Ancient EgyptThe first health records are created.

The first physician, who is also an architect and an engineer, treats patients.

Ancient ChinaAcupuncture is first used to relieve pain.

Ancient IndiaAyurvedic medicine is practiced.

Ancient GreeceAn ethical code of behavior for physicians is established.

It is discovered that there are physical explanations for disease.

Hippocrates develops methods to record symptoms of disease.

Ancient Rome Sewers are first used to improve sanitation.

Animal dissection begins.

The functions of the muscles, kidney, and bladder are discovered.

The Dark Ages The study of medicine temporarily comes to a stop.

The Middle Ages The first medical universities are established.

Rhazes identifies the difference between smallpox and measles.

The bubonic plague kills almost 75% of the population of Asia and Europe.

The Renaissance The first book on human anatomy is published.



16th, 17th, and 18th CenturiesThe foundations for modern surgery are established.

Gabriel Fahrenheit invents the first thermometer.

Anton van Leeuwenhoek invents the microscope.

Apothecaries make, prescribe, and sell medicine.

19th Century The stethoscope is invented.

The first formal training program for nurses is established.

Antiseptics are used during surgery.

The rabies vaccine is discovered.

Louis Pasteur proves that germs cause disease.

20th Century The X-ray is invented.

An understanding of DNA develops.

The major blood groups are developed.

The antibiotic penicillin is discovered.

The polio vaccine is discovered.

Open-heart surgery is performed for the first time.

Kidney transplants are performed for the first time.

Sigmund Freud establishes the basis for psychology.

AIDS is discovered.

The influenza pandemic kills 21 million people.

21st CenturyThe Human Genome Project is completed.

A vaccine to prevent cervical cancer is invented.

A human embryo is cloned.

Vaccinations are given to the military to protect against a bioterrorist attack.




Assessment Criteria: Role of the Scientific Method in Medical Progress Poster

Student Names:______________________________________________________________

Date:_______________________________________________________________________

Using the following criteria, assess whether students met each one.

Met Partially Met

Didn’t Meet

The poster demonstrates an understanding of why the historical figure’s work was important to medicine and clearly captures the figure’s important achievements.

□ □ □

The information in the scientific-method chart is logical and demonstrates the use of research, reasoning, and creative thinking.

□ □ □

The poster is organized, designed, and completed in such a way that its visual appeal helps to communicate the medical information.

□ □ □

The poster is neat and uses proper spelling and grammar. □ □ □

Additional Comments:

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________




Guide: Teaching ReflectionThis guide provides ideas for improving students’ ability to reflect on their learning. It includes specific suggestions for helping students reflect on meeting the learning objectives of a lesson. Students participating in NAFTrack Certification will benefit from practicing reflective writing, since they will respond to reflection prompts as part of the NAFTrack Certification process.

All thinking requires some type of reflection in order for learning to take place. Reflection is a cluster of skills that involves observing, questioning, and putting ideas and experiences together to give a fresh meaning to them all. The reflection activities throughout this course bring students a sense of ownership of what they have learned and a better understanding of themselves and their abilities.

Build your students’ reflection skills by starting with easier reflection questions that lead to more complex ones. The list below, based on Bloom’s Taxonomy, helps students break down what they need to think about so that they gain confidence and strengthen their metacognition. Because each question takes the previous answer a step further, students can come up with answers to each question and eventually wind up with everything they need to work with to craft an answer for the highest-level reflection questions.

Learning Levels (From Lower to Higher Order) Examples of Reflection Questions

Remembering (retrieving, recognizing, recalling) What can I remember? What did I do?

Understanding (constructing meaning) What do I think it means? What conclusions did I come to? What are my takeaways? What did I get out of it?

Applying (extending learning to a new setting) How could I use this [knowledge, experience] again? In what new way could this be valuable?

Analyzing (breaking material apart, seeing how the parts fit together and what the overall purpose is)

What are the different parts of this [experiment, assignment, project, experience]? As a whole, what is the purpose/main idea?

Evaluating What has this [project, assignment, experience, experiment] taught me about myself—my strengths, my challenges? What am I proud of? What could I do better next time? What are my contributions? I used to think…but now I think….

Creating Is there another, better way to put the pieces of this [project, assignment, experience, experiment] together? What could I [create, write, plan] next?

Another source of ideas for teaching reflection: http://www.visiblethinkingpz.org/

Follow these tips to guide students in responding to reflection questions on learning objectives:


http://www.visiblethinkingpz.org/


Read the reflection question aloud to the class and have students rephrase the question using their own words.

Explain that they should use the reflection question to describe what they have learned during the lesson as it relates to the learning objective.

Review the meaning of the learning objective before students get started on their reflections.

Refer to the examples below, which represent good responses to these types of reflection questions.

ExampleBelow is an example learning objective with example student reflection prompts and responses. Although students only encounter the actual NAFTrack Certification prompts once they are on the NAFTrack Certification assessment platform, examples like these give students a sense of the type of reflection they will be asked to engage in. You can copy and paste these examples into a Word document for students to review and discuss as a class. You can add more prompts for students to answer, or customize this content to best suit your students and your goals for them.

Learning objective Identify major public health issues and explain why they are important

Prompts and responsesThink of the assignments that you completed during this lesson. Choose one to use as your work sample as you answer the questions below.

Explain how completing this work sample helped you to meet this learning objective. Describe the ideas and skills that you used.

I chose the informational profile that I wrote as my work sample. It helped me meet this learning objective because it is about a major public health issue: HIV. My profile explains that HIV affects millions of people around the world. HIV is also a big problem because it is so difficult to treat. To write my profile, I learned about many ideas that were new to me. I read about what researchers think causes HIV, how it affects the body, and what cures they are working on. The skills I used are writing and researching. I had to practice putting the articles I read into my own words so that I wouldn’t plagiarize. Being able to organize information is another skill I used.

Describe what you could improve about your work sample.

I tried really hard to make my profile organized, but now I see ways I could have laid information out to make it easier to read. I don’t think I wrote enough about how HIV is transmitted from one person to another. It would have been good to include my favorite websites so people could learn more if they want to.

Promoting Reflection in the ClassroomYou can also use the following sample questions to promote a culture of reflection in your classroom—during class and small-group oral reflections, during PowerPoint presentations, and when students are having a discussion and you want to draw them out more.

Can you discuss that more?

Why do you think that happens?

What evidence do you have to support that?

Do you see a connection between this and _________?

Does this remind you of anything else?

How else could you approach that?



How could you do that?




Key Vocabulary: A Brief History of Medicine and Health Care

Term Definition

acupuncture A treatment used in Chinese medicine in which the skin is punctured at specific points with thin needles to relieve pain and treat disease.

anatomy The study of the structure of a person or animal’s body.

antibiotic A powerful medicine that fights a bacterial infection.

apothecary A historical name for a pharmacist.

clone To artificially produce an animal or plant from the cell of another animal or plant.

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

An acid that contains the cells of living things; determines the particular structure and functions of every cell.

epidemic A disease that infects a large number of people in a community or region at the same time.

Hippocratic Oath An oath taken by doctors and health care professionals swearing to practice medicine ethically; named after Hippocrates.

holistic medicine A system of treatment that takes into consideration the whole patient, including his or her physical, emotional, social, intellectual, and spiritual state.

hypothesis A proposed explanation, proved through the scientific method.

influenza A highly contagious and often epidemic disease; the flu. Symptoms include a fever and aches and pains.

microorganism A small living plant or animal that is not visible to the naked eye.

pandemic A worldwide epidemic or an infectious disease that affects people over a wide geographic area.

pasteurization A process that kills harmful bacteria in food products; named after Louis Pasteur.



Term Definition

scurvy A disease resulting from a vitamin C deficiency.

vaccine A substance that protects a person from getting a disease.

virus A very small microorganism that may cause disease.




Bibliography: A Brief History of Medicine and Health Care

The following sources were used in the preparation of this lesson and may be useful for your reference or as classroom resources. We check and update the URLs annually to ensure that they continue to be useful.

PrintMcMutcheon, Maureen, and Mary Phillips, Mary. Exploring Health Careers, 3rd ed. Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Cengage Learning, 2006.

Simmers, Louise. Introduction to Health Science Technology, 2nd ed. Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Cengage Learning, 2009.

Wischnitzer, Saul, and Edith Wischnitzer. Top 100 Health-Care Careers. Indianapolis, IN: JIST Works, 2011.

Online“Ayurveda.” Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayurveda (accessed May 10, 2015).

“Steps of the Scientific Method.” Science Buddies, http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_scientific_method.shtml (accessed May 10, 2015).


http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_scientific_method.shtml

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayurveda

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