WEB CARTOGRAPHY & WEB-ENABLED GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS (GIS)

NEW POSSIBILITIES, NEW CHALLENGES

Black, M. A. and Cartwright, W. E.

School of Mathematical and Geospatial Sciences RMIT University, GPO Box 2476V Melbourne, Victoria 3001, Australia

Email: michael.black@rmit.edu.au and william.cartwright@rmit.edu.au

ABSTRACT

The evolving technology of Web-enabled GIS raises new possibilities and challenges for Web cartography. What are these possibilities and challenges and how can the cartographic community best respond? The increased functionality of Web-enabled GIS places renewed importance on the cartographic capability of these systems. In order to fully exploit the new capabilities of Web-enabled GIS, users require flexible ways of viewing and interacting with geographic information. This paper provides an overview of the current state of Web-enabled GIS and the relationship with Web cartography. The paper reflects on the historical challenges between form and function in cartography and highlights the similarities with current issues of technology, content and design applied to Web-enabled GIS. Finally, the potential benefits of closer integration with Web cartography and the challenges presented by such integration are identified and discussed.

1 INTRODUCTION

The use of Web-enabled GIS technology for publishing geographic information via the World Wide Web is well established. Early Web-enabled GIS applications were typically focused on the display of geographic information and contained only a limited set of tools for geographic navigation, basic attribute query and selection. Over the last few years however, there have been significant advances in the functionality of Web-enabled GIS. The development of systems integrated with powerful distributed or server GIS has seen the emergence of sophisticated Web applications that are capable of providing functionality once limited to the desktop environment such as data editing, geoprocessing, network analysis and tools for exploratory data analysis. These developments represent a shift in focus from applications that were primarily focused on publishing geographic data towards applications that provide a range of advanced functionality. The increased functionality of Web-enabled GIS places renewed importance on the cartographic capability of these systems. In order to fully exploit the new capabilities of Web-enabled GIS, users require flexible ways of viewing and interacting with geographic information. In particular, �non-GIS users� now have access to functionality such as thematic mapping, basic overlay and proximity analysis via Web-enabled GIS applications and the techniques and approaches used to display the results of such analysis clearly impacts on the users ability to draw appropriate conclusions from the information presented. Closer integration of the rich display and interactive compatibilities of Web cartography with the extensive functional capability of Web-enabled GIS offers a number of possibilities. These include improved user interaction, flexible access to information and increased user driven control over how and when geographic information is displayed. Such integration also raises a number of challenges. In addition to the inevitable technical challenges, there is a need to better understand where the current cartographic limitations of Web-enabled GIS are and what capabilities are offered by Web cartography. A further challenge for Web cartography involves developing new approaches and techniques to satisfy emerging cartographic display issues within Web-enabled GIS.

1.1 Web Cartography The term Web cartography is associated with the design, production, display and use of maps over the Web [1]. Just as the computer revolution transformed cartography replacing the traditional map with a digital spatial

database and a set of visualization tools [2], the arrival of the World Wide Web in the early to mid 1990�s has changed the way in which maps are created, published and used. Maps have been published on the World Wide Web since its earliest days [3] and today many hundreds of millions of maps (if not more) are accessed and viewed by users via the Web [4]. A number of authors [5-7] have addressed the conceptual, design, technology and application issues relating to publishing maps on the Web and the area continues to see a significant level of research and activity. Various �types� of maps are present on the Web and the classification provided by Kraak [1] provides perhaps the most commonly adopted categorization. Web maps have also been �categorized� from a map use perspective, initially by MacEachren [8] and expanded upon into four map use goals; explore, analyse, synthesize and present by MacEachren & Kraak [9].

Figure 1: Classification of Web Maps (adapted from Kraak [1]) A number of techniques are used to deploy and publish both static and dynamic maps in both a view only and interactive mode and a number of authors [10-12] have provided summaries of the common methods. Examples of these include image files embedded within HTML pages, hyperlinked images and image �maps�, images linked with JavaScript, multimedia formats such as Flash and Director, open vector formats (X3D, SVG, GML with style sheets etc), proprietary vector formats (often requiring a JAVA plug-in) and �images� linked to GIS based map server applications. Principles relating to the cartographic design of maps for the Web continue to evolve and a summary of key design principles related to the design of maps for the Web is provided by [13]. Just like their �paper ancestors�, maps �on the Web� have been used for a large number of purposes including transport and traffic [14, 15], atlas publishing and development [16, 17], travel and tourism [18] in addition to numerous other application areas.

1.2 Web-Enabled GIS Use of the World Wide Web as a medium for delivering GIS applications (maps and functionality) has been growing in popularity partially due to the cost effectiveness and widespread acceptance of Web standards for interfacing and integrating information [19]. The development and growth of Web-enabled GIS systems has been well documented, particularly by Peng & Tsou [12] and has followed on from previous developments that have seen GIS move from mainframe specialist systems, through to widely available desktop products and now onto the Internet and mobile devices. In common with many areas of new technology, GIS applications that utilize the World Wide Web and the Internet are referred to by numerous terms [12] and in some cases, these various terms or names lead to confusion about what exactly this technology represents. Terms used include Web-enabled GIS, Web-based GIS, Internet GIS, Internet Map Servers, Distributed GIS, and most recently, GIServices. Peng & Tsou [12] comment that Web-enabled GIS can perhaps be regarded as a subset of Internet GIS as the inclusion of the term Web signifies that this is the primary means of providing a user access. Web-enabled, which perhaps can be regarded as analogous to Web-based GIS, can also be used to differentiate applications which have a strong geographical visualization component (map) from those applications which are primarily focused on delivering functionality which may or may not involve visual display of geographic information. Web-enabled GIS may also be differentiated from Internet Map Servers in that the later is primarily concerned with map publishing (e.g. MultiMap, WhereIs, MapQuest etc) and generally do not provide users with �functionality� beyond geographic navigation (pan, zoom).

GIS have partly evolved from the discipline of cartography [20], in addition to many other disciplines, and GIS and �computer� cartography have shared elements of a common history over the last 20 years in terms of the emergence of desktop systems, increased functionality, data management and integration with core IT technology. The evolution of Web-enabled GIS has mirrored in many ways the evolution of Web cartography in the context of moving from �static� map display through to highly interactive Web based mapping applications.

Figure 2: Evolution of GIS on the Internet (adapted from Peng & Tsou [12])

1.3 Maps as an interface to Web-enabled GIS Map based display plays a key role as an interface to GIS in the context of visualizing data, visualizing analysis processes and presenting results [21] and this importance of the map perhaps increases within the medium of the Web. In addition to the �traditional� cartographic challenges presented by the Web in the context of colour, scale etc, the increased functionality available to users raises new challenges. While it may be technically possible to provide non-GIS users with the ability to overlay geographic layers or perform buffer analysis via a Web-enabled GIS, it may be more difficult to provide such users with �maps� that explain the analysis process or the results obtained. Jiang�s [22] example of the transition in Web-enabled GIS capability from simply �displaying� a street network to providing shortest path capabilities provides an example of the cartographic challenges of this increased functionality. While it may be reasonably easy to design maps showing the �static� street network, it may be more difficult to design maps that take into consideration all of the potential results of a shortest path analysis. What �style� of map best suits the display of a route from one end of the downtown area to another compared to a map showing a route between two major cities? Displaying interactive maps on the Web involves both an aspect of design, often referred to as form, and an aspect of delivery (involving map production and transmission) referred to as function [23]. Web-enabled GIS have typically provided a high level of function in terms of tools to dynamically create maps from various geospatial data sources, deliver maps in a short response time and provision of Web based graphical user interfaces (GUI). Less well satisfied however, are the requirements for design or form in the context of capabilities provided by Web-enabled GIS.

2 HISTORICAL CONTEXT

2.1 Form and Function Paper maps could be considered to be analogue Virtual Reality (VR) tools. They have provided the means by which armchair travellers could �go� to places from the comfort of their lounge or study. The rules that govern their design, production and consumption have evolved over centuries, and the methods of producing maps via the printing press have been established by 500 years of experiment and development [24]. Cartography and Geographic Information Science has always used / developed new formats for publishing. When Flemish cartography/publishing houses applied printing to map production they facilitated quicker, more accurate and cheaper versions of their works. The quest for more speed, lower compilation and production costs and an efficient communication system has always led cartographers to embrace new technology. But, since maps were first made more readily available through the use of �technology�, like the printing press in this example, has the actual design of products changed as well, so as to provide not only cheaper and more speedy map delivery, but better product as well. The application of the printing press (new technology at that time) changed how maps �looked� (and �worked�). Designs accommodated the need to �print� and the technology of printing, which demanded certain standard ways of producing artwork (so that the artwork could be printed), dictated the �look� and also the function of the output product.

For mapping everything went on along the printing �track� for many years, until computers were applied to maps. This changed cartography and mapping, and many new and innovative products emerged. However, the �gloss of the new� did lead to the acceptance of many inferior products. Just because these new maps were �drawn by computer� it seemed to excuse the inelegant and sometimes illegible products that these computers output. Like the printing press before it, computers demanded that, if they were to be employed in map production, certain design compromises needed to be made. Typical of these early computer-output maps were those produced using the SYMAP package [25], a pioneer computer mapping system that could generate maps and output them via a line printer. Things then moved relatively quickly (compared to the development of print) � Computer-Aided Mapping, applied computer graphics, animation, multimedia and on-line interactive mapping using the Internet have been employed to generate and disseminate maps and related products. Of maps via the Internet, Peterson [26] has said, �the impact of Internet mapping would be greater than that of the printing press�. Maps and associated geospatial products are available almost anywhere, anytime and delivered by a plethora of devices, from desktop computer to mobile telephone or Internet-enabled Personal Digital Assistant (PDA). Contemporary technology now enables us to deliver and consume geographical information when and where demanded. Quick to produce, derived from a database and available almost immediately - are current geospatial tools good communicators of spatial information? Or in fact readable at all?

2.2 Changed Focus? Have geospatial products changed due to the application of contemporary technology? And, what about the design of these products delivered by this communication system? The early products from Internet mapping sites and mobile telephone displays of map products were somewhat crude displays, and could be considered to be somewhat crude designs, and perhaps similar to the initial publishing fare of computer-derived and output maps. Are maps delivered via the World Wide Web really poor substitutes for more elegant and better-designed maps that came from the print era? Just because contemporary products are �delivered by the Web� it is no excuse for a poorly designed and executed product. Are these products just �Macdonalds Mapping�, where quality has been sacrificed for speed of delivery? And, are many Web-delivered products the results of a very naive or �under-developed� design process? Of this phenomenon, Kraak [27] has noted that: �� People are not always interested in very accurate maps. As long as the maps fit their purpose, the users will be satisfied. However, there are several comments to make here. The spatial databases from which users acquire their data have to be reliable to permit justifiable decisions. ��. The focus of what constitutes a �good� map shifted from the design/communication effectiveness of the product to the quality of the database.

2.3 Digital maps � �compromised� by the conservatism of the discipline? Computers, digital electronic communications and graphics communication theory have changed the way the mapping sciences view the tools and delivery devices of mapping. Whilst today�s technologies (and �linked� technologies) appear to be stable, history reminds us that the accepted means of production and provision may only be temporary. Technology applied to map compilation and production has developed tremendously, but has the discipline employed these tools for the greatest impact? The geospatial sciences can be considered to be conservative, compared to other graphic arts and design industries that utilize computers to assist in the design and production of their communication tools. Products produced by these other, non geospatial, professions have, in many cases, utilized computers in different ways to generate artefacts that communicate differently, including the communication about information relating to space. As these other professions do use contemporary technology to assist in the production of innovative digital product, we need to ask whether geospatial professionals are perhaps addressing the use of new technology in a very conservative manner? The use of avant-garde tools in a conservative manner may result in conservative tool production, rather than innovation. Looking at the use of technology and the geospatial sciences we need to ask the question of whether we chose to be compromised / handicapped by the �fear of the avant-garde�. We can produce different geospatial artefacts, but do we choose not to? Generally speaking, maps are still widely produced using some type of printer or plotter or, for longer print runs, some type of a printing press, regardless of the actual method of map production. It can also be said that map appearance has really changed little since the first mass-produced maps were released. Compare for instance a current topographic map from any English-heritage mapping department in the world to a first-edition topographic map from an organisation like the Ordnance Survey (OS). Comparing to a current topographic map,

apart from the use of colour and typeset lettering that replaced hand lettering, little has changed in the actual design of this communication device in over 100 years. Map design was focussed on its mass communication device, the printing press, and this cartographer�printer relationship dictated the �look� of maps for many decades. The tools of generals and geographers, even though produced more efficiently with modern-day packages, still used the same communication methods to describe geography, space and place, as their earlier counterparts that were painstakingly copied by hand or reproduced via the printing press. Have we become a conservative industry with avant-garde tools? How we use these tools needs to be reviewed and our practices reflected upon.

2.4 Technology and design Compared to paper maps as a tool for analysing geographical information, GIS has a relatively short history. Its potential for operating in digital form was first recognised in the late 1950s by Waldo Tobler, with MIMO (map in � map out) that applied computers to cartography. Roger Tomlinson (Canada) was the first to document the use of a computerized GIS, in 1963. By the late 1980s GIS had become a viable business proposition when computer processing and storage costs became reasonable. And through the 1990s GIS was implemented by public authorities, local government etc. [28]. However, it is argued, that the way in which GIS is used has not really moved far from the initial concepts associated to its development. There is a need to consider how GIS can be improved and enhanced. At the beginning of what could be called the time of expanded use of GIS, at the start of the 1990s, Jungert [29] contended that: �In the future, GIS must allow inclusion of a variety of new information types�. Included among the new types of information, he cited maps, associated media (on secondary devices like CD-ROM) and structural data. Multimedia databases would, according to Jungert, contain both conventional maps and multimedia images (and associated methods for handling the attributes of multimedia information). He drew two conclusions about future new information types to be included in GIS: 1. Other (non-map) data will be needed - remote sensing imagery, sketches and sensor signals; and 2. Novel methods for multi media (sic) interaction must be invented. Rivamonte [30] saw multimedia being used in several GIS applications: 3-D modelling, vector/raster draping, drive/walk-throughs, fly-overs, video conferencing, video logging and animation. She saw the future of multimedia being in the areas of interactive video, holographic data storage, the use of Photo CDs and multi function drives. Have these visions been realised? Those involved in the profession should be content that these packages accurately portray the phenomena that have been selected. However the traditional delivery mediums cannot be viewed as an isolated entity in the digital electronic age, an age where arrays of information resources can be output in many different ways. This will restrict the possibilities for offering a package of information-enhanced products. The technology revolution should be exploited to augment the capabilities of existing GIS. Today�s systems need to provide knowledge to users, as well as data and information. Technology now provides the means of publishing information-rich mapping products, from which knowledge might be gleaned. The provision of different methods of access and presentation may enable these computer-supported information-rich tools to aid in imparting knowledge. Different, and maybe lateral, approaches to GIS need to be tried and their success evaluated. Continuing with approaches that can be seen to be based on the use of paper maps, even though generally successful now do not guarantee continued user acceptance.

3 WEB-ENABLED GIS � CURRENT STATUS

3.1 Cartographic Content & Design Early Web-enabled GIS applications utilized common image formats such as GIF, JPG and PNG as the basis for the �map display� and as such were subject to the limitations of these formats in terms of resolution and colour in addition to the fundamental limitations of image based map representations. In addition, hardware, operating system and browser issues together with limitations within the core Web GIS software all contributed to �less than optimal� maps being produced. Today, the cartographic capabilities of Web-enabled GIS have improved compared to these early systems and descriptions of cartographic capabilities of Web-enabled GIS products can be found in [31, 32]. Ongoing developments in the use of Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) may further offer the potential for high quality Web based cartography [32] and examples of SVG maps on the Web and SVG based �front-ends� to Web-enabled GIS applications are becoming more common. An example of such an application is the Vermont Agency of Transportation (VTrans) �Web-based Route Logs System� which utilises SVG as a publication format linked to a server side GIS application [33].

Figure 3: The VTrans Web-based Route Logs System route selection screen

(http://www.esri.com/news/arcuser/0704/vtrans.html)

In addition to high quality vector rendering, Web-enabled GIS applications are also making increased use of imagery and landscape representations such as Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) and hillshades. Increased access to high quality and high resolution satellite from a range of sensors (Quickbird, IKONOS etc) together with improved image compression and delivery techniques is facilitating the use of imagery as part of Web-enabled GIS applications. Image compression and delivery technology is also facilitating the use of image based landscape representations such as DEM�s and hillshades to enhance the visualization of other layers of geographic information (drainage, vegetation, etc).

3.2 Functionality Although the specific compatibilities of commercially available Web-enabled GIS products such as ESRI�s ArcIMS® , MapInfo�s MapXtreme®, Autodesk�s MapGuide®, Integraph�s GeoMedia® WebMap and Ionic�s RedSpider vary from product to product, all offer functionality that can be described as going �beyond just displaying maps�. A small, but growing number of Web-enabled GIS applications are providing functionality once the domain of desktop GIS products, particularly in the area of shortest path (route planning), basic data entry and editing and geoprocessing. Many of these applications are found within the Intranets of various organizations which are using Web-enabled GIS as an alternative to large seat deployments of desktop GIS products with the inherent cost and maintenance overhead of such systems. An example of a Web-enabled GIS application that contains significant �GIS functionality� is the Montgomery County Route Mapper Application (figure 4) which was developed using ESRI's RouteMap IMS program. Users are able to search points of interests, find addresses (geocoding) and create travel directions (shortest path) all via a Web based interface. Another example of GIS functionality delivered via the Web is the Nottingham Online Maps and Data (NOMAD) site (figure 5) which provide users with basic data entry capability in order to report problems with infrastructure such as street lighting.

Figure 4: Montgomery County Route Mapper

Application (http://gis.co.mo.md.us/gistmpl.asp?url=/content/gi

s/rmap.asp)

Figure 5: Nottingham City Council�s NOMAD

Web Application (http://www.nottinghamcity.gov.uk/nomad/?app=

WWW_Esri)

4 INTEGRATION - WEB CARTOGRAPHY & WEB-ENABLED GIS

There is a growing recognition that Web-enabled GIS applications need to more closely integrate with geovisualization tools and multimedia capabilities. Web-enabled GIS applications are becoming more widespread and important to the public [12] and the analysis capability provided by such systems often reflects functionality which until recently was only found in desktop GIS products. Such widespread use and functional capability places renewed important on the ability of these applications to communicate effectively with users. Historically, Web-enabled GIS application have achieved this communication via a two dimensional map display which has typically resembled the display style of a desktop GIS in terms of map interaction tools (zoom, pan etc). In order for non-GIS users to take full advantage of Web-enabled GIS applications, they will need a range of visualization tools that are simple and easy to use. This is particularly important in the context of Web-enabled GIS applications focused on community participation as the ability for users to draw conclusions form information presented is affected by the visualization tools provided.

4.1 Potential Areas of Integration Web-enabled GIS are one of a number of tools that can be used to provide geovisulation functionality, especially in an on-line environment [34] and it remains a challenge to make these tools �useable� by non-traditional �GIS uses�. One potential mechanism for providing non-specialist users with easy to use cartographic interfaces involves the integration of media publishing tools such as Flash with GIS databases and Web-enabled GIS applications. Such integration can take full advantages of rich data and functionality offered by GIS and the display and interactivity capability of Web publishing tools. An example of this integration is the interactive Web based Indian Ocean Tsunami map (figure 6) published by ESRI using a flash based interface driven by a server side GIS application.

Figure 6: Interactive Indian Ocean Tsunami map

(http://www.esri.com/news/pressroom/indian_ocean_disaster.html)

The use of XML based 3D visualization techniques such as VRML/X3D with GIS databases and GIS functionality in a Web environment would also appear to be a potential area of integration and a number of authors [35-38] have reviewed the concept, potential application areas and current status of VRML/X3D for the visualization of geospatial data via the Web. The use of virtual reality tools and technology as a �front-end� to GIS data and functionality may also facilitate improved visualization capability and a number of authors [39-41] have outlined this potential. Other researches such as Cartwright et al [42] have outlined the potential to extend virtual reality to incorporate �dirty realities� and urban sounds as part of urban 3D visualization and the potential offered by linking such techniques to GIS databases has yet to be fully realized. The integration of computer game technology and techniques with Web-enabled GIS applications and GIS databases is a further potential area of research that may contribute towards improved visualization capabilities. The integration of geovisualization with computer gaming technology opens up the potential to use �gaming� techniques as front ends to GIS databases and functionality [43].

5 CONCLUSION

The increasing functionality of Web-enabled GIS is placing renewed importance on the cartographic capabilities of these systems. This is particularly important for applications which use Web-enabled GIS technology to build systems to facilitate public participation in decision making processes. A number of cartographic challenges arise as a result of these highly functional systems and these issues have much in common with the historical challenges between form and function in cartography.

It is would appear that Web-enabled GIS applications may benefit from a number of the developments occurring in Web cartography, particularly in the areas of geovisualization, integration with gaming technology and Web based 3D visualisation. The results of such integration may be systems that provide highly functional and usable tools combined with flexible and intuitive data visualization tools. Such tools may improve the ability of users of Web-enabled GIS applications to better understand the information presented, and hence improve the overall understanding of the world around us.

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WEB CARTOGRAPHY & WEB-ENABLED GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS (GIS)

NEW POSSIBILITIES, NEW CHALLENGES

Black, M. A. and Cartwright, W. E.

School of Mathematical and Geospatial Sciences RMIT University, GPO Box 2476V Melbourne Victoria 3001, Australia

Tel: + 61 3 9925 2423 Email: michael.black@rmit.edu.au and william.cartwright@rmit.edu.au

Presenter Biography

Michael Black is a lecturer in Cartography and Geographic Information Science within the School of Mathematical and Geospatial Sciences at RMIT University. His main areas of interest include the development and implementation of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Web based cartographic products and the use of GIS and spatial data for international development, public health and humanitarian applications.

Michael completed his Bachelor of Land Information (Applied Science) at RMIT University in 1992 and returned to RMIT to undertake a Master of Applied Science (Research) during 1993 and 1994. After lecturing within the Department of Geospatial Science at RMIT during 1995 and 1996, Michael commenced a successful career in private industry undertaking a number of roles with ESRI Australia. In 2001, Michael moved to Geneva to work with the Public Health Mapping group within the World Health Organisation (WHO) where he worked on a number of projects involving the application of GIS in public health and complex humanitarian emergencies. Michael has also worked on a number of projects in the United Kingdom including the development of mobile location base mapping applications and the development of spatial data and web-enabled GIS systems to support the management and monitoring of European Union (EU) agricultural subsidies. After returning to Australia in 2004, Michael was appointed as a full time academic member of staff within the School of Mathematical & Geospatial Science.